Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir

competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Unit 1 - Cell
Introduction
Every organism in this universe are made of tiny basic structural units called cells.
Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
Cells are the building blocks of an element that cannot be seen with naked eyes
but can be seen under a microscope.
Every living-element is made up of numerous tiny cells.
There are some single celled organisms as well that live on their own.
Organisms can be classified into unicellular and multicellular organisms depending
upon the number of cells present in their body.

Unicellular organisms
Unicellular organisms are composed of single cell.
The single cell constitutes the structure and entire function of the organism.
For example, Amoeba found in marine areas or areas of decaying water is a
microorganism composed of single cell that determines the shape of the amoeba.

Chlamydomonas is another example of unicellular organism found in marine

regions.
Paramecium is also unicellular organism.

Multicellular organisms
Multicellular organisms are composed of many cells.
The labour of performing different functions is divided between the various cells in these organisms.
Some multicellular organisms have different cells. For example, Human beings have different cells of
different shapes and sizes in their body to perform different functions.

1
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Fig. Different cells in Human beings

Structure of cell
Cells are made up of components called cell organelles.
A cell is capable to live and perform all their respective functions due to the presence of cell organelles.
All cells have the same organelles irrespective of their function and organism they are found in i.e. let it
be a bone cell or a nerve cell or any other cell, all will have components.

The parts of cell are as follows:

 Cell wall
 Plasma membrane or cell membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Mitochondria
2
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Plastids
 Vacuole
 Plasma membrane
 Plasma membrane is the outermost layer in cells.
 It separates the content of cell from their external environment.


 It allows the materials from surrounding to enter and exit the cell. It also allows the materials
from cell to exit outside.
 It controls the entry and exit of materials in nd out of cell and hence it is called selectively
permeable membrane.
 Gases like carbon-dioxide or oxygen can also move in or out from high concentration to low
concentration in a cell through the cell membrane by the process of diffusion.
 It also allows the movement of water in and out of the cell depending upon the concentration
outside the cell by the process of osmosis.
 Cell wall
 Cell Wall is found in plant cells outside the plasma membrane.


 It is a rigid covering made up of cellulose which a complex substance is providing structural
support to the plants.
 The contents of the cell wall contracts during loss of water in plant cells by the process of
osmosis.
 Due to the presence of cell wall plant cells can withstand greater changes in the surrounding
media due to the exertion of equal pressure to the cell when it swells up by taking up water
through osmosis in a hypnotic media.
 Cytoplasm
 A thick solution composed of water, salts, and proteins that fills the cell is called cytoplasm.
 It is surrounded by cell membrane.

3
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477


 The nucleus of the cell is surrounded by the cytoplasm
Nucleus
 The nucleus is small, round and membrane bound structure found in cell.
 The fluid inside the nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane is called nucleoplasm.
 It controls the cell’s growth and reproduction because it contains cell's hereditary information.
 It is covered by dual layer called nuclear membrane.
 The nuclear membrane contains pores due to which materials can travel both inside the nucleus
from its outer surrounding i.e. cytoplasm.


 Fig. Nucleus of a Cell
 The nucleus contains some thread like structures called chromatin. It exists during the resting
stage of cell.
 The chromatin contains DNA (Deoxy-ribo nucleic acid), RNA (Ribo Nucleic acid) and proteins.
 The nucleus contains some rod shaped structures in a cell that contains the hereditary
information. They are called chromosome.
 They are formed when the chromatin condenses together when the cell is about to divide.
 Chromosomes contain DNA and nuclear proteins.
 They contain the hereditary information for inheritance of features from the parents to the
offspring as DNA.
 The DNA molecules contain the information for construction and organization of cells. Genes
are the functional segments of DNA.
 Human body has 23 pairs of sex chromosomes. A boy has one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome whereas a girl has two X chromosomes.
 The nucleus of cell divides itself to give rise to new offsprings.
 Genes present in the chromosomes decide the hereditary characters.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The large network of membranous sheets and tubes is called endoplasmic reticulum.
They are filled with fluids and carries materials throughout the cell due to which it is also called
transport system of the cell.
It transports materials between the regions of cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and nucleus.

4
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

It also provides a surface for some biochemical activities of cell.

It can be classified into two types:
 RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum)
 SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Fig. Endoplasmic reticulum

The RER appears rough under a microscope as it is lined with ribosomes.
The ribosomes manufactures the proteins which are then transported throughout the cell by the
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
The SER appears smooth uner microscope due to absence of ribosomes. It also manufactures fat
molecules or lipids that are important for proper functioning of cell and detoxyfies the poisons present
in liver cells of vertebrates.

Golgi apparatus
The stacks of flattened membranous vesicles are called Golgi apparatus.
It basically stores, packs and modifies the products in vesicles.
It temporarily stores protein that moves out of the cell through the vesicles of the Golgi apparatus.
It packs and transports the materials synthesised in Endoplasmic Reticulum to different targets inside
and outside the cell.

5
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Fig. Golgi Apparatus in Plant cell

Lysosomes
The sac-like structures in a cell surrounded by membrane are called lysosomes.
They keep the cells clean by digesting and breaking the outside materials like bacteria, food entering the
cell or worn-out cell organelles into small pieces.
They can digest these organic materials due to the presence of strong digestive enzymes that can brreak
down organic compounds. Therefore, lysosome is also known as a suicide sac.
Many scientists believe that lysosomes are not present in plant cells and their function of lysosomes in
plants is performed by vacuole.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are round "tube-like" organelles that provide energy to a cell in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) for performing different chemical activities for the sustainance of life.

Fig. Structure of mitochondria

The mitochondria is also called powerhouse of the cell.
It is surrounded by two membranes.
The outer membrane is porous wherea the inner membrane has deep folds that provides a large surface
to perform the chemical reactions required for the generation of ATP.
The inner membrane is compartmentalized into various cristae.
The ground substance or space enclosed by inner membrane is called matrix.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes and are hence capable to produce some of their
required proteins all by themselves.
Plastids
Plastids refer to the double membrane bound organelles found in plant cells.
They are found in the cytoplasm.
Plants make and store food in plastids.
They have their own DNA and Ribosomes.
They can be classified into two types:
 Chloroplast
 Leucoplast

6
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Chloroplasts are the plastids containing the green pigment called chlorophyll. They are necessary to
carry the process of photosynthesis.

Fig. Chloroplast
Chloroplasts also contain orange and yellow pigments.
Leucoplast stores starch, oils and protein granules.
Plastids have many membranous layers embedded in surface called stroma.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Nuclear Membrane is absent. Nuclear Membrane is present.

Membrane-bound cell organelles are absent. Membrane-bound cell organelles are present.

Mitochondria are absent. Mitochondria are present.

Golgi apparatus is absent. Golgi apparatus is absent.

Region bounded by nuclear membrane Undefined region with nucleic acid is called
contains DNA and Proteins. nucleoid.

DNA is found in nucleus, plastids, and

The concentration of DNA is low.
mitochondria.

Sexual reproduction is absent. Sexual reproduction is generally present.

7
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Vacuoles in Plant vs. Animal cell

Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles surrounded by a membrane.
Animal cells have small sized vacuoles whereas plant cells have large vacuoles.
It provides turbidity and rigidity to the plant cell.
It acts as storage sacs of cell and stores food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products of the cell.

8
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Unit 2 Tissue
Introduction
 Till now we studied that all the organisms are made of cells.
 On the basis of cell they are divided into unicellular (single-celled) and/or multicellular (two or
more celled).
 Example-Amoeba (unicellular), in case of amoeba all the functions are carried out by the single
cell, whether it is digestion, excretion, respiration, but in case of human beings or plants
(multicellular), all these functions are assigned to different cells rather different tissues or organs
or organ systems.

 Now the question here arises “How the cells form multicellular organisms? How they are
connected to each others? What are the tissues? How they are formed? etc.
 So, the answer is that the cells of multicellular organisms grow and divide and form small groups
of cells, these groups of cell combine and specialize each other for specific function of the body.
These groups or clusters of cells are called tissues.
 Similarly, tissues form groups and combine to form organs and organs then form organ

9
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

TISSUE
 The name tissue was coined by Grew.
 The group of cells with similar in origin, structure and function are called tissues.
 Histology- the study of tissues.
 It is one of the building blocks of an organism (animal or plant).
 An organism is comprised of tissues, which are made up of individual cells.
 These cells share a similar structure (how they're built) and function (what they do).
 Why tissues are important? It’s simple… Tissues are what makes up our bodies; everything from
our bones to organs like our heart and brain! Even blood is considered to be a tissue.
Types of tissues
The tissues are divided into plant tissues and animal tissues.
1. PLANT TISSUES
2. ANIMAL TISSUES

PLANT TISSUES
 Plants are stationary and are fixed to their place; they don’t move and have limited growth.
 Plants have special supportive tissues which provide them structural strength.
 Most of the plant tissues are dead.
 The dead cells provide mechanical strength to the plants.

MERISMATIC TISSUES
 The cells of meristematic tissue have the power of division, which mean these are the dividing
tissues of the plant.
 In meristematic tissues, the cells are highly active, have dense cytoplasm, large nucleus,
 thin cytoplasm and vacuole smaller in size or may be absent.
 The new cells produced by meristematic cells are initially like meristem but later on maturation
they differentiate into other tissues.

10
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 On the basis of position they are divided into 3 parts:-

APICAL
 Present at the tip (growing region) of the plant’s stem and root.
 It helps the plant to grow in length.
INTERCALARY
 Present at the base of the leaves or internodes on twigs
LATERAL
 It helps to increase the girth (thickness) of stem and root in the plants.

PERMANENT TISSUES
 The meristem after attaining maturition loses their ability to divide and take up a specific role
and form permanent tissues.

11
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 The process in which the meristematic tissues take a permanent shape, size and function is
known as differentiation. This implies the cells of meristematic tissues differentiate to form
different types of permanent tissues.

SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES

 The simple permanent tissues are made of similar cells performing similar functions.
 These are the basic packaging tissues in the plants.

PARENCHYMA

 Consist of live unspecialized cells having thin cell wall.

 They are loosely packed and have large intercellular space (space between the cells).
 Provides support to the plant and present in all parts like roots, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds.
 Storage of food (eg. Fruits) and water (in stems eg. cactus) is the main function.
 Sometimes, these tissues also contain chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis, and known
as chlorenchyma.
 In case of aquatic plants, parenchyma is modified into aerenchyma.
 Aerenchyma is the tissues having large air cavities which provides buoyancy to the plants and
help them to float.
COLLENCHYMA

 The cells of the tissue are living, elongated, and have irregularly thickened corners.
 The term was coined by Schleiden.
12
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 It provides flexibility and mechanical support to the plants.

 They have a little intercellular space.
 It allows easy bending of plants (leaf and stem) without breaking.
SCLERENCHYMA
 The tissues are dead which makes the plant hard and stiff (eg. Husk of coconut).
 Structurally they are long and narrow.
 The walls of the cell are thick due to the presence of lignin.
 They lack intercellular space.
 These tissues are present in stem, covering of seeds, nuts, around the veins of the leaves, around
vascular bundles.

COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES

 These are the tissues made of different types of cells; all the cells combine to perform a common
function.
 They constitute of vascular bundles.
 Complex permanent tissues are of two types:-

XYLEM
 These are dead and thick walled cells.
 Xylem is the water conducting element (transportation of water) which also provides mechanical
strength to the plant.

13
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 They are further divided into four components

TRACHEIDS

 It is a tubular structure.
 The cells are elongated with sharp ends
 Help in the transportation of water and minerals vertically.
 Their main function is conduction of water.

VESSELS

 It is a tubular structure.
 The cells are elongated and aligned end to end.
 Help in the transportation of water and minerals vertically.
 Their main function is conduction of water.
XYLEM PARENCHYMA

14
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Help in storage of food.

 It conducts water in sideways.
XYLEM FIBRES
 They are supportive in function.
 The cells are both elongated and pointed at the end..
PHLOEM
 Phloem is the food conducting element (transportation of food).
 The material (food) can move in both the directions (i.e. toward the root and shoot) because
phloem transports food from leave to other parts of the plant.

 Phloem is divided into four components:-

15
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

SIEVE TUBES
 These are the tubular cells having perforated walls (small pores in the wall).
COMPANIAN CELLS
 They are living parenchymatous cells.
 The cell wall is thin.
 The sieve tube and companion cells are originated from the same mother cells.
PHLOEM FIBRES
 They are the dead cells made of sclerenchymatous tissues.
 Examples: jute, flex, hemp.
PHLOEM PARENCHYMA
 They are the living parenchymatous
 They help in storage of food.
 They have nucleus and cellulosic cell wall.
 They are absent in monocots.
ANIMAL TISSUES

16
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Animals move around in search of food and shelter.

 Animals consume more energy as compared to plants.
 Most of the animal tissues are living.
 The structural organization of organ and organ system is more complex in animals.
 Animal tissues are divided into four types:-

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

 It consists of cells which form membranes.

17
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 This membrane covers the body surface and the glands.

 The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues.
 Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.
 It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
 The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are
all made of epithelial tissue.
 The cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.
 They have only a small amount of cementing material between them and almost no intercellular
spaces.
 These are divided into four types:-

SIMPLE

 The cells are extremely thin and flat and form a delicate lining.
 The lining of oesophagus and the mouth are covered with squamous epithelium.
STRATIFIED

 The cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear.
 Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called stratified squamous
 The skin, which protects the body, is made of squamous epithelium.
COLUMNAR

 The columnar (meaning ‘pillar-like’) epithelium facilitates movement across the epithelial
barrier.
18
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 It is present where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the intestine, tall
epithelial cells are present.
 In the respiratory tract, the columnar epithelial tissue also has cilia, which are hair-like
projections on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells.
 These cilia can move, and their movement pushes the mucus forward to clear it. This type of
epithelium is thus ciliated columnar epithelium.
CUBOIDAL

 Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts of
salivary glands, where it provides mechanical support.
 Epithelial cells often acquire additional specialisation as gland cells, which can secrete
substances at the epithelial surface.
 Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward and a multicellular gland is formed.
 This is glandular epithelium.
CONNECTIVE TISSUES

 It protects and supports the body.

 The cells are loosely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
 The matrix may be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid.
 The nature of matrix differs in concordance with the function of the particular connective tissue.

AREOLAR

19
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 It fills the space inside the organs, and supports internal organs.
 It helps in repair of tissues.
 It is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone
marrow.
ADIPOSE

 They are the Fat storing tissues, which are filled with fat globules
 These tissues are found below the skin and between internal organs.
 Due to the storage of fats, it acts as an insulator.
COMPACT BONE

20
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 It forms the framework which also anchors the muscles and supports the main organs of the
body.
 It is a strong and nonflexible tissue.
 Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and phosphorus
compounds.
 Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue called the
ligament.
 This tissue is very elastic and has considerable strength.
 Ligaments contain very little matrix.
 Another type of connective tissue is tendons
 Tendons are fibrous tissue which connects bones to muscles.
 They are with great strength but limited flexibility.
HYALINE CARTILAGE

 They are widely spaced cells.

 The solid matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.
 Cartilage smoothen bone surfaces at joints.
 It is present in the nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
BLOOD CELLS

21
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood cells (RBCs), white blood
cells (WBCs) and platelets are suspended.
 The plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones.
 Blood flows and transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste materials to different parts
of the body.
MUSCULAR TISSUES

 It consists of elongated cells, which are also known as muscle fibres.

 It helps in movement of body structure.
 They contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause
movement in the body.

STRIATED

22
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 The cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
 These muscles are called voluntary muscles, because they show movement when we want.
 These muscles are also called skeletal muscles.
 They are mostly attached to bones and help in body movement.
 These muscles show alternate light and dark bands or striations when observed under the
microscope, due to this reason they are also called striated muscles.
SMOOTH/UNSTRIATED

 The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and uninucleate (having a single nucleus).
 They are also called unstriated muscles.
 They are under the control of involuntary muscles.
 The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction and relaxation of blood vessels
are involuntary movements.
 They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the lungs.
CARDIAC

 The muscles of the heart are involuntary in nature and called cardiac muscles.
 The cells are cylindrical in shape, branched and uninucleate.
 The heart muscles show rhythmic contraction and relaxation throughout life.
NERVOUS TISSUE

23
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

The cells of nervous tissue are highly specialized and the cells of this tissue are called nerve cells
or neurons.
 Nervous tissue stimulates and transmits the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another
within the body.
 The brain, spinal cord and nerves are composed of the nervous tissue.
 A neuron consists of a cell body which comprises of nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long
thin hair-like parts arise.
 The neuron has a single long part, called the axon, which transmit the nerve impulse to body
parts.
 The neuron has short, branched parts called dendrites.
 Many nerve fibers combine together by connective tissue and form a nerve.
 Nerve impulse enables animals to move rapidly in response to stimuli.

24
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Unit 3 – Improvement of food resources

Introduction
Any edible substance of plant or animal origin that provides nutritional benefits such as carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals to an organism when consumed is called Food.
A meal that includes adequate amount of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals is called
Balanced diet. A balanced diet should contain pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk, iron-rich food, and other
nutrient rich food in requisite proportions.

The reasons for need of improvement of food production:

 Meet the needs of growing population: The food items are grown in fields by the farmers. The
demand of food is increasing with increasing population. Therefore it is necessary that the yield
of crop also increases.
 Less scope of increasing the area of land under cultivation : Not all the lands around us are
available for agricultural purposes. Many of them are used for residential purposes, building
schools, colleges, hospitals, shopping malls and many uses other than agriculture. Therefore we
need to increase the crop production using modern technologies and techniques. But at the same
time we should take care that there should not be any harm to the environment.
 People are suffering from malnutrition: Producing more and more crops will not solve the
problem of malnutrition. The produced crops should be accessible to all. Therefore, along with
increased crop production there should be good economic conditions to ensure affordability.
Improvement in Crop Yields
Different climatic conditions including temperature and photoperiods favour the growth of different
crops.

This condition also ensures the completion of their life cycle.

25
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

Crops can be broadly categorized into three types:

 The type of crops grown from the month of March to June is called Zayed crops.
 The types of crops grown in rainy season from the month of June to October are called Kharif
crops. For example, Paddy, soyabean, pigeon pea, maize, cotton, green gram and black gram.
 The types of crops grown in winter season from the month of November to April are called Rabi
crops.
For example, wheat, gram, peas, mustard, linseed.
In order to meet the growing demand of food with increasing population the improvement in crop yield
is necessary. The practices involved in farming can be divided into three distinct stages.
 Choice of seeds for planting.
 Nurturing of the crop plants.
 Protection of the growing andharvested crops from loss.
Activities involved in improvement of crop yield are as follows:
 Crop variety improvement
 Crop production improvement
 Crop protection management.
Crop variety improvement
Crop variety can be improved by utilizing following methods:
 Finding a good yield crop
 Hybridization: The process of interbreeding between geneticallydivergent plants.

 Introducing a gene to genetically modify the crops by providing desired characteristics to the
crops.
 Good quality seeds must be provided to the farmers.
 Taking care to prevent the biotic factors(diseases, insects and nematodes) andabiotic factors
(drought, salinity, waterlogging, heat, cold and frost) that can affect the crop growth.
 Shorter maturity of the crops results in more economical variety.
 Attempts must be taken to ensure higher yield.
Manure & Fertilizers
Manure is prepared bythe decomposition of animal and plant
It helps to enrich the soil with essential nutrients and hence makes the soil fertile and rich in organic
matter.
It helps to increase the water holdingcapacity in sandy soils and avoids water logging in clayey soils.

 Compost: The material obtained after the decomposition of unused material like livestock
excreta, vegetable peels, animal excreta, domestic waste, sewage waste, leftover food, etc. in pits

26
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

is called compost which is rich in organic matter and nutrients. And the process of making
compost is called composting.

 Vermicompost: When compost is prepared by using earthworms in order to fasten the process of
decomposing the plant and animal waste is called vermicompost. Again the process is called
vermicomposting.
 Green manure: Some plants like guar are first grown on the cultivating fields and then mulched
by ploughing them into the soil before sowing the crop seeds in order to replenish the soil with
essential like nitrogen and phosphorus. This manure is called green manure.
The advantages of using manure are that they are non-toxic and eco-friendly.
Fertilizers refer to the products produced commercially to replenish the soil with essential nutrients. The
fertilizers enrich the soil with nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium and ensure proper vegetative growth
of healthy But continuous use of fertilizers can destroy the fertility of soil as it harms the beneficial
micro-organisms in the soil.
Organic Farming
Organic farming is a method of farming using less or no amount of fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides etc.

This method uses only organic matters like organic manures, farm-wastes.
It uses blue green algae in preparation of bio fertilizers.
Neem leaves, turmeric are used as bio-pesticides to store grain.
Irrigation
The process of watering plants to ensure that crops get enough quantity of water atproper phase during
their growing season to increase the expected yields of any crop is called irrigation.
Wells: In adug well, water is collected from waterbearing strata. Tube wells can tapwater from the
deeper strata. Water is then lifted up using pumps fromthese well to water the plants.

Canals: They receive water from oneor more reservoirs or from rivers. Themain canal is divided into
branchcanals having further distributaries toirrigate fields.

27
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

River Lift Systems: This system is more useful in areas having insufficient or irregular canal flow as a
result of inadequate reservoir release.

Tanks: These are small storagereservoirs intercepting and storingthe run-off of smaller catchment

Cropping pattern
There are two different categories of cropping pattern:
1. Mixed cropping: This approach of growing crops involves growing two or more crops concurrently
on the same land. It involves giving away some insurance against failure of one of the crops. For
example, wheat and gram, wheat and mustard, sunflower and ground nut, etc.
2. Inter-cropping: This approach of growing crops involves growing two or more crops concurrently
on the same land in a certain pattern. The crops are grown depending upon their varied nutritional
requirements such that each row contain definite crops and different from the adjacent rows to ensure
maximum utilization of the nutrients present in the soil. This approach also prevents the attack of pests
and spread of diseases. For example, maize and soyabean, bajra and lobea, etc.
Weeds
The unwanted plants that grow by their own in the cultivating fields and compete with required crops
for food, light, space and essential nutrients present in the soil are called weeds.
For example, Parthenium (gajar ghas), Cyperinus rotundus (motha).

As they compete with all necessary requirements for growth of a plant they end up affecting the growth
of the required crop plants.
To ensure good harvest they must be removed from the fields to be used for cultivation, before sowing
the required crops.
Weeds, insects and pests that affect the growth of crop plants can be controlled by using herbicides,
insecticides and fungicides by spraying them on the crops.
Weeds can also be removed by cutting them down.
Some other methods to prevent growth of weeds are:
 Proper seed bed preparation.
 Timely sowing of crops.
 Inter cropping and croprotation.
28
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Use of resistant varieties.

 Summer ploughing in which fields are ploughed deep in summers to ensure removal of weeds
and pests
Storage of grains
The process of storing the crops after they are harvested for later use is called storing of grains.
Storage of grains sometimes leads to greater loses due to factors like insects, rodents, fungi,
mites,bacteria, unsuitablehumidity and temperatures in the place of

Fig. A woman storing grains in a drum.

These factors must be taken care of to ensure proper storage of the good yield of crops.
Some of the preventive and control measures that can be used to store crops properly are as follows:
 Strict cleaning of the crops before storing them.
 Proper drying of the crops to make them free from moisture and inhibit the growth of microbes.
 Using Neem leaves for storing crops at a small scale.
 Using pest controlling chemicals to kill the pests hovering near the stored crops
 Animal Husbandry
 The branch of agriculture that focuses upon the proper feeding, shelter, health and breeding of
the domestic animals is called animal husbandry.


 To meet the growing the demand for food (milk, egg, meat, fish) with the growing population
animal husbandry is necessary.

29
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477


Cattle husbandry
The act of raising cattle like cow, buffaloes and bullocks, goat, etc. to meet the requirement of adequate
milk production is called cattle husbandry.

Cattle husbandry is performed to meet two purposes—

 Dairy: to get milk.
 Draught: The animals used to perform agricultural tasks like tilling, irrigation and carting.
Cattle husbandry focuses on following agendas:
 Increasing the duration of lactation period of the cattle to ensure increased milk production.
 Ensures proper hygiene and cleanliness for the cattle.

 Ensure proper ventilated shelter of the cattle to ensure healthy living and protect them rain, heat
and cold.
 They also need to take care of the health of the cattle to ensure production of clean milk.
 It also breeding between the different cattle to get desired characteristics to ensure improvement
in production.

30
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

The food given to the diary animals are as follows:

 Roughage containing high fibre. For example, green fodder, silage, hay and legumes.
 Concentrates having low fibre buthigh levels of proteins and other nutrients. For example,
oilseeds, oats, barley, gram.
Poultry farming
The act of raising domestic fowls to ensure the production of adequate number of egg, chicken and
meat is called poultry farming.

The cross-breeding programmes are performed between Indian and foreign breeds to develop new
varieties having some required desirable characteristics.
Poultry farming takes care of following agendas:
 To ensure well-illuminated and well-ventilated shelter for the fowls.

31
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Ensure that the domestic fowls are kept under proper temperature andhygiene.
 They get nutritious food.
 Prevent the chances of poultry fowl suffering from a number ofdiseases caused by virus,
bacteria, fungi,parasites and nutritionaldeficiencies.

The desirable characteristics are as follows:

 Increased number of chicks.
 Good quality chicken who are capable to tolerate high temperature.
 To develop breeds with Low maintenance requirements.
 Reduced size of the egg-layingbird with the ability to utilize morefibrous cheaper diets made out
of agricultural by-products.
 Broiler chickens are given vitamin-rich (vitamins A and K) food to ensure proper growth rate
andbetter feed efficiency.
Fish production
Fish is cheap source of high protein and iodine content.

32
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

1. Marine fisheries:
The marine fishery resources include 7500kms of coast line and deep seas.
Some of the marine fish varieties are as follows:
 Pomphret
 Mackerel
 Tuna
 Sardines
 Bombay Duck
 Eel
 Salmon
 Hilsa.

They are caught by using either traditional method or modern method.

33
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

2. Inland fisheries
Inland fisheries deal with canals, ponds, reservoirs and rivers.
It also includes freshwater bodies like in rivers, canals, reservoirs and lagoons as well as brackish water
fisheries.
Some of the inland fish varieties are as follows:
 Rohu
 Catla
 Mrigal
 Silver carp

A combination of five orsix fish species selected according to their different fooding habits are used in a
single fishpond so that they donot compete for food among them resulting in the consumption of all the
available food resources in the pond.
Inland fishery is of two types- capture fishery and culture fishery.
Bee keeping
The act of rearing, raising and caring of honey bee on a large scale to obtain honey and wax from them
is called apiculture.

It is preferred among agriculturists as it requires low investment and gives rise to supplementary
income.

Varieties of bees used for profitable honey production are as follows:

 Apis dorsata (Rock bee)
34
Easy & concise notes for Pinaki Vigyan Mandir
competitive exam for class 9th Shastri Nagar Sultanpur 9455857477

 Apis florea (Little bee)

 Apis indica (Indian bee)
 Apis mellifica (European bee)
The quality depends upon the following factors:
 Pasturage or the kind of flowers availableto the bees to collect the nectar and pollen grains.
 Kind of flowers available determines the taste.

35