THE AGE OF CONFLICT

1901-1945

Queen Victoria’s death in 1901 ended a long period of stability. The first half of the 20th century brought
political, social, and economic upheaval, including two world wars, Irish tensions, the rise of trade unions
and the suffragette movement. The British Empire began to dissolve, leading to a redefinition of Britain’s
global role and increased immigration that changed its society.

BRITAIN AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY

ACCESSION OF EDWARD VII (1901–1910)
Edward VII became king at 59, having lived a public, leisurely life as Prince of
Wales. His reign modernised the army and navy and marked a shift toward a more
personable monarchy. He fostered strong diplomatic relations in Europe, except
with Germany. The Edwardian Age also saw the rise of socialism and social
changes.

THE THIRD GREAT ERA OF REFORM

The Liberal Party’s landslide victory in 1906 led to major social reforms. Although
Labour was still small, its influence helped push through key laws such as old-age
pensions and National Insurance, improving conditions for the working class.

GEORGE V (1910–1936)
George V became king in 1910 after the death of his father, Edward VII. Initially
not expected to ascend the throne, he reigned through major events including
WWI and social changes.

THE SUFFRAGETTES
In 1906, the Liberals won the general election, but voting was still restricted to
men. Women, led by Emmeline Pankhurst and the WSPU, campaigned for voting
rights through increasingly militant methods. They paused their campaign during
WWI. In 1918, women over 30 who owned property were granted the vote. In
1928, full equality with men in voting rights was achieved.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR

THE ROAD TO CATASTROPHE
World War I stemmed from complex rivalries:
• Austria vs Russia for the influence in the Balkans
• Britain vs Germany for naval and trade supremacy,
• France vs Germany over the Franco-German War of 1870
France and Germany sought to strengthen themselves with allies,:
• Germany forming the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy
• France making an alliance with Russia (Entente Cordiale)
Britain preferred “Splendid Isolation,” but Germany’s naval buildup pushed Britain to form the Triple Entente
with France and Russia in 1907.

THE SUDDEN END OF AN AGE OF OPTIMISM

Before WWI, Britain enjoyed a prosperous “Belle Époque.” However, the outbreak of war in 1914 shattered
this illusion. Over 20 million people died, and a generation of young men was lost, ending the golden era.
THE GREAT WAR BREAKS OUT (1914–1918)
The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-
Hungary in Sarajevo in June 1914 by a Bosnian Serb nationalist. This triggered a chain of diplomatic crises
and military alliances.
Germany invaded neutral Belgium, prompting Britain to declare war. Although Italy had initially been part of
the Triple Alliance, it joined the opposing side — the Triple Entente — in May 1915.
The war quickly became one of the deadliest in history, involving over 70 million soldiers and causing
around 16 million deaths, both military and civilian. It was marked by trench warfare and the use of
devastating new weapons like tanks, machine guns, and poison gas.
The United States entered the conflict in 1917, giving the Allies a decisive advantage. Germany surrendered
in November 1918. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, officially ended the war but imposed harsh
terms on Germany. The aftermath led to the collapse of empires and created political and economic
instability, paving the way for future dictatorships.

THE IRISH QUESTION (1916)

Though Ireland had been promised Home Rule, WWI delayed it. In 1916, the Easter Rising, led by Sinn Féin
and Eamon de Valera, aimed to declare Irish independence. The British suppressed the rebellion, but it
sparked years of conflict. In 1922, the Irish Free State was established. In 1937 it became Ireland, and a full
republic in 1948. The six Protestant-majority counties of Ulster remained part of the UK, leading to the
partition of the island.

BETWEEN THE WARS

INDUSTRIAL DECLINE AND THE GENERAL STRIKE OF 1926
After WWI, Britain faced economic decline, especially in mining. In 1926, mine owners cut wages and
increased hours. In response, the Trades Union Congress organized a general strike. Over 1.5 million
workers joined, disrupting transport and supply lines. The government reacted quickly, using police, army,
and volunteers to restore order. After a week, the strike ended. The miners continued until November but
were forced to accept worse conditions. The 1927 Trade Disputes Act then banned general strikes.

THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND CRISIS IN THE 1930S

The 1929 Wall Street Crash triggered a global depression. By 1931, about 3 million Britons were
unemployed, mainly in northern industrial regions. Meanwhile, the south-east experienced relative
prosperity, with growth in housing and consumer goods.

THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS (1931)

Post-WWI, Dominions like Canada and Australia pursued independence. The 1931 Statute of Westminster
granted them full self-governance under the Crown. India was excluded, worsening relations. Gandhi led
non-violent resistance, which ultimately led to Indian independence in 1947. The 1948 British Nationality Act
allowed Commonwealth citizens to live and work in the UK, encouraging immigration.

THE RISE OF TOTALITARIANISM

After WWI, political instability and economic crisis led to the rise of dictatorships: Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in
Germany, and Franco in Spain. These regimes opposed democracy and communism. In Spain, Franco’s
civil war (1936–39), supported by Germany and Italy, ended in a fascist dictatorship.

THE WINDSORS: EDWARD VIII (1936) AND GEORGE VI (1936–1952)

In 1917, King George V changed the royal family name to Windsor due to anti-
German sentiment. In 1936, Edward VIII abdicated to marry Wallis Simpson, a
divorced American. His brother George VI became king.
 THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND AFTER
THE WORLD AT WAR AGAIN (1939–1945)
Britain’s PM Chamberlain initially tried to avoid war, tolerating fascist expansions. But Germany’s invasion of
Poland in September 1939 forced Britain to declare war. In 1940, Churchill replaced Chamberlain. Britain
stood alone after France fell. The RAF resisted the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. In 1941, Japan
bombed Pearl Harbor, drawing the U.S. into the war. The war ended in Europe on 8 May 1945 and in Japan
after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August.

WARS OF UNPARALLELED DESTRUCTION

WWI and WWII affected civilians heavily through aerial bombings and modern weapons. Over 60,000 British
civilians died in the Blitz. The Holocaust (Shoah) saw the Nazis murder six million Jews and other
persecuted groups in death camps. After the war, Nazi leaders were tried at Nuremberg for crimes against
humanity.

THE POST-WAR PERIOD AND SOCIAL WELFARE

During WWII, economist William Beveridge proposed reforms to tackle major social issues. His 1942 report
led to key welfare reforms:
• 1944: education reform
• 1945: Family Allowances Act
• 1946: National Insurance Act
• 1948: creation of the National Health Service (free healthcare for all)
Several industries were nationalised to support reconstruction and public welfare.
 THE USA: A LEADING NATION EMERGES
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND REFORM
At the start of the 20th century, the U.S. became the world’s leading industrial power, thanks to immigration,
rail expansion, and urban growth. Innovations in aviation, cinema, and industry flourished, though often at
the cost of worker exploitation. President Theodore Roosevelt introduced reforms against monopolies,
protected the environment, and improved infrastructure. He also enabled the U.S. to build the Panama
Canal. Key reforms included the 16th and 17th Amendments (1913) — national income tax and direct
election of Senators — and the 19th Amendment (1920), which granted women the right to vote.

THE YEARS OF OPTIMISM AND PROSPERITY

After WWI, the U.S. entered a period of economic boom known as the “Roaring Twenties” or the Jazz Age,
marked by consumerism, entertainment, and industrial growth (e.g. Henry Ford’s mass production).
Optimism was high when Herbert Hoover became president in 1929, just before the economic collapse.

THE BLACK POPULATION

Despite the 15th Amendment (1870) granting voting rights to Black men, discrimination in the South made
this difficult. The issue was not fully addressed until 1965, when President Lyndon Johnson passed the
Voting Rights Act, enforcing African Americans’ democratic rights.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR

1914-1918

President Woodrow Wilson, elected in 1912, initially kept the U.S. neutral. But in 1917, after German attacks
on U.S. ships, he declared war. U.S. involvement helped defeat Germany. Wilson promoted peace and
proposed the League of Nations, but the U.S. Senate refused to join. He later received the Nobel Peace
Prize.

THE GREAT DEPRESSION

THE WALL STREET CRASH (1929)
In 1929, the U.S. stock market collapsed, triggering a global depression. Causes included overproduction,
debt, speculation, and bank failures. About 11,000 banks and 300,000 companies collapsed.
Unemployment and homelessness spread, and dust storms forced many farmers to migrate.

THE NEW DEAL (1932)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt, elected in 1932, introduced the New Deal: state intervention to regulate
banks, create jobs, aid farmers, and support the poor. It also repealed Prohibition (1920). Public works and
reforms helped revive the economy.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND AFTER

1939-1945

WORLD WAR II (1939–1945)

The U.S. entered WWII after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor (1941). Generals Eisenhower and MacArthur led
forces in Europe and the Pacific. Major turning points included the invasion of Sicily (1943) and D-Day (6
June 1944). To force Japan’s surrender, President Truman ordered the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki (August 1945). WWII ended shortly after.
Paradoxically, the war boosted the U.S. economy due to increased industrial and scientific production —
including the development of the atomic bomb.
THE MARSHALL PLAN (1948)
After WWII, Europe faced ruin. The Marshall Plan, launched by President Truman, provided economic aid to
rebuild Western Europe and prevent the spread of communism. Officially named the European Recovery
Program, it aimed to stabilise the continent and promote democracy.

THE POST-WAR WORLD

Post-war tensions with the Soviet Union escalated, especially after the communist takeover of
Czechoslovakia in 1948. In response, the U.S. and 11 Western countries formed NATO in 1949. The USSR
responded with the Warsaw Pact (1955). This division led to the Cold War (1945–1991) — a prolonged
period of ideological and political rivalry without direct military conflict between the U.S. and the USSR.