1.

Concept of Quality

What is the definition of quality according to ISO and other standards?

Quality is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements.
According to ISO 9000, quality is not just limited to the product, but also involves processes and
systems that consistently meet customer and regulatory requirements and enhance customer
satisfaction. It emphasizes continuous improvement and consistency.

How do different authors define quality (Deming, Juran, Crosby)?

• Deming defined quality as a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low cost
and suited to the market.

• Juran described quality as “fitness for use,” focusing on meeting customer expectations and
achieving performance.

• Crosby introduced the concept of "conformance to requirements," stressing that quality

means doing it right the first time, and that zero defects should be the goal.

Explain the evolution of the concept of quality.

The concept of quality evolved through several phases:

• Craftsmanship Era: Focused on individual skill and inspection.

• Mass Production Era: Introduced the need for standardized processes and sampling
inspections.

• Statistical Quality Control Era: Emphasized the use of statistical methods (like control
charts).

• Quality Assurance Era: Focused on systems, planning, and proactive prevention.

• Total Quality Management and Modern Era: Embraces organization-wide quality

responsibility, continuous improvement, and customer satisfaction.

2. Need for Quality

Why is quality important in manufacturing and service industries?

Quality ensures the product or service meets the intended function, reduces waste and rework,
enhances efficiency, and maintains safety standards. In manufacturing, poor quality leads to defects,
recalls, and high production costs. In service industries, quality directly influences customer
experience, retention, and brand reputation.

How does quality affect customer satisfaction and organizational success?

High-quality products/services lead to satisfied customers who are more likely to become repeat
buyers, recommend the product to others, and remain loyal. This, in turn, helps in improving market
share, profitability, and sustainable growth of the organization. Poor quality leads to complaints, loss
of goodwill, and increased costs due to returns and repairs.

What role does quality play in global competition?

In the global market, organizations compete not just on price, but on reliability, safety, and customer
experience. Quality becomes a differentiator that helps build brand image and meet international
standards. It helps firms in gaining access to new markets, complying with international
certifications, and staying ahead of competitors.

3. Factors Influencing Quality

What are the internal and external factors affecting product quality?

• Internal factors include materials used, equipment and technology, process control,
management commitment, training of employees, and design parameters.

• External factors include supplier quality, customer expectations, regulatory standards,

competition, and market trends.

How does human resource management influence quality?

Human resource management impacts quality through training, motivation, job satisfaction, and
involvement of workers in decision-making. Properly trained employees can detect and prevent
errors. When employees feel valued, they contribute more actively to maintaining and improving
quality.

Discuss the role of design and production processes in determining quality.

Design defines the functional and aesthetic characteristics of the product. A robust design minimizes
variability and ensures performance. The production process must maintain this design through
proper control of operations, tools, machines, and environment. Lack of coordination between
design and production often results in defects and inconsistency.

4. Types of Quality

Differentiate between product quality and service quality.

Product quality refers to the physical characteristics of a tangible good that meet specified standards
and fulfill customer requirements. Key attributes include durability, reliability, precision,
performance, and aesthetics. In contrast, service quality deals with intangible offerings and is
evaluated through factors like responsiveness, empathy, assurance, and reliability in service delivery.
While product quality can be objectively measured, service quality often depends on customer
perception and experience.

What is the difference between designed quality, conformance quality, and perceived quality?

• Designed Quality is the level of quality built into a product during its design phase. It
represents the specifications and performance standards the product is intended to meet.

• Conformance Quality is the degree to which the manufactured product or delivered service
matches the original design specifications. Even a well-designed product may fail if it is
poorly manufactured.

• Perceived Quality is the customer's judgment or opinion about a product’s or service’s

quality, which may or may not align with the actual design or conformance levels. It is
influenced by brand image, user experience, and marketing.
Explain fitness for use vs. conformance to specifications.
Fitness for use means that the product or service meets the customer's actual needs and performs
reliably under expected operating conditions. It focuses on practical usability and satisfaction.
Conformance to specifications, however, focuses on how closely a product adheres to defined
engineering and manufacturing specifications, regardless of whether these specifications address all
customer needs. A product may conform to all technical specs but still fail in the market if it does not
satisfy user expectations.

5. Quality Control

Define quality control and its objectives.

Quality control (QC) is a system of maintaining standards in manufactured products or services by
testing a sample of the output against the specification. The primary objective is to ensure that the
final product meets required quality standards and customer expectations. Additional objectives
include detecting defects early, preventing recurrence, reducing waste, and improving overall process
efficiency.

Describe the steps involved in quality control.

1. Setting quality standards: Establish specifications and performance benchmarks.

2. Measuring actual performance: Inspect and test the output using appropriate tools and
techniques.

3. Comparing with standards: Evaluate whether the results conform to established

specifications.

4. Analyzing deviations: Identify the causes of variation or defects.

5. Taking corrective action: Implement measures to address root causes and prevent
recurrence.

6. Continuous monitoring: Regular checks and audits to ensure sustained control and
improvement.

Explain how statistical tools are used in quality control.

Statistical tools are essential in QC for monitoring, analyzing, and improving processes. Common
tools include:

• Control charts to detect process variation over time.

• Histogram for visual distribution of data.

• Pareto analysis to identify the most significant sources of defects.

• Cause-and-effect diagrams for root cause analysis.

• Scatter diagrams to identify relationships between variables.

These tools help maintain process stability and make data-driven decisions for improvement.

6. Cost of Quality Control

What are the components of the cost of quality?
The cost of quality is typically divided into four categories:

1. Prevention Costs – Costs incurred to prevent defects (e.g., training, quality planning).

2. Appraisal Costs – Costs of measuring and monitoring quality (e.g., inspections, testing).

3. Internal Failure Costs – Costs from defects found before delivery (e.g., rework, scrap).

4. External Failure Costs – Costs from defects found after delivery (e.g., warranty claims, loss of
reputation).

Explain the relationship between prevention, appraisal, and failure costs.

There is a trade-off between prevention/appraisal costs and failure costs. Investing more in
prevention and appraisal can significantly reduce the internal and external failure costs. For example,
effective quality training (prevention) and regular inspection (appraisal) can detect and correct issues
early, reducing expensive rework or customer complaints. The goal is to strike a balance that
minimizes total cost while maximizing quality.

How can cost of quality be minimized in an organization?

• Emphasizing prevention through proper training, design review, and supplier quality
management.

• Implementing automated and efficient inspection systems to reduce appraisal costs.

• Root cause analysis of failures to avoid repeat issues.

• Promoting a culture of quality, where employees are proactive in maintaining standards.

• Adopting continuous improvement methodologies like Six Sigma or TQM to reduce variation
and eliminate waste.

7. Quality Assurance

What is the difference between quality assurance and quality control?

Quality assurance (QA) is a proactive and process-oriented function that focuses on preventing
defects by ensuring that processes are properly defined and followed. It is concerned with how a
product is made or a service is performed. On the other hand, quality control (QC) is reactive and
product-oriented, focusing on identifying defects in finished products or services through inspection
and testing. While QA is about building quality into the process, QC is about verifying the quality of
output.

What are the key elements of a quality assurance system?

A comprehensive quality assurance system includes:

• Clear quality objectives and policies aligned with organizational goals.

• Standard operating procedures (SOPs) for each stage of the process.

• Training programs to ensure workforce competency.

• Process audits and evaluations to verify compliance.

• Preventive and corrective actions to address potential and actual non-conformities.

 • Management review to ensure the system’s effectiveness and continual improvement.

• Supplier quality management to ensure purchased materials meet standards.

Explain the role of documentation and audits in quality assurance.

Documentation provides evidence of compliance with quality standards and offers a basis for
continuous improvement. It includes quality manuals, SOPs, inspection reports, calibration records,
and training logs. Audits, both internal and external, are systematic examinations of the QA system to
ensure it meets established standards. They identify weaknesses, verify process integrity, and foster
accountability. Audits are essential tools for continuous improvement and maintaining certification
compliance (e.g., ISO 9001).

8. Benefits of Quality and Quality Control

What are the tangible and intangible benefits of quality control?

Tangible benefits include:

• Reduced rework and scrap

• Lower production costs

• Increased productivity

• Higher customer satisfaction

• Better compliance with regulations

Intangible benefits include:

• Improved company reputation

• Higher employee morale and motivation

• Better customer trust and loyalty

• Stronger brand value

• Enhanced internal communication and teamwork

These benefits collectively enhance long-term profitability and market competitiveness.

How does effective quality control improve productivity and reduce costs?
Effective quality control ensures early detection and correction of defects, minimizing waste and
reducing the need for rework. It stabilizes processes, leading to consistent output and fewer
interruptions in production. Well-controlled quality processes prevent costly recalls and warranty
claims. By maintaining uniform standards, the organization saves time and resources, enhances
operational efficiency, and increases throughput, all of which contribute to lower overall costs and
improved productivity.

9. Modern Concept of Quality

How has the concept of quality evolved in the modern industrial era?
Initially, quality was viewed merely as inspection at the end of production. Over time, it evolved into
a process-oriented and customer-focused approach. In the modern era, quality integrates the entire
lifecycle — from design and development to production and service. There is greater emphasis on
customer satisfaction, continuous improvement, employee involvement, and systemic thinking. Tools
like process capability studies, statistical control charts, and quality management systems (QMS)
have become integral. Modern quality also incorporates risk management, environmental concerns,
and social responsibility.

Explain Total Quality Management (TQM) as a modern quality approach.

TQM is a comprehensive and organization-wide approach aimed at long-term success through
customer satisfaction. It emphasizes continuous improvement, process management, and the active
participation of all employees. Core principles of TQM include:

• Customer focus

• Total employee involvement

• Process-centered thinking

• Integrated system

• Strategic and systematic approach

• Continuous improvement

• Fact-based decision-making

• Effective communication

TQM uses tools like the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle, benchmarking, root cause analysis, and
employee training to achieve sustained quality improvement.

What is Six Sigma and how does it relate to modern quality?

Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology aimed at reducing process variation and improving product
or service quality to achieve near perfection (no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities). It
uses statistical tools and techniques within a structured DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve,
Control) framework to identify and eliminate root causes of defects. Six Sigma complements modern
quality approaches by ensuring process control, customer satisfaction, and cost reduction. It
promotes a culture of excellence, continuous improvement, and performance measurement across
the organization.

10. Inspection and Quality Control

Differentiate between inspection and quality control.

Inspection is the process of examining products, materials, or components to determine whether
they conform to specified standards or requirements. It typically takes place after production and
aims to detect defects. Quality control, on the other hand, is a broader approach that involves
planning, controlling, and improving quality throughout the production process. While inspection is
reactive (detecting defects), quality control is proactive (preventing defects).

Aspect Inspection Quality Control

Focus Detection of defects Prevention of defects

Aspect Inspection Quality Control

Throughout production
Timing After production
process

Responsibility Usually done by inspectors Shared by all departments

Includes statistical and process

Method Visual or measuring tools
control

Limitation Cannot improve process Helps improve the process

What are the types and methods of inspection used in industries?

Inspections can be broadly classified into three types:

1. Incoming Inspection – Carried out on raw materials or components before entering the
production process.

2. In-process Inspection – Conducted during various stages of the manufacturing process to

ensure conformity.

3. Final Inspection – Performed on finished goods before delivery or dispatch to customers.

Methods of inspection include:

• Visual Inspection – Using eyesight or magnifying tools to detect surface defects.

• Dimensional Inspection – Using tools like vernier calipers, micrometers, and gauges to
measure dimensions.

• Functional Inspection – Testing the product for its intended function.

• Non-destructive Testing (NDT) – Techniques like ultrasonic, radiographic, or magnetic

particle testing to detect internal flaws without damaging the product.

• Automated Inspection – Use of sensors, vision systems, or robots for high-speed, repetitive
inspections.

What are the limitations of relying solely on inspection?

• Cannot Ensure Total Quality: Inspection only checks the end product but does not prevent
defects during production.

• Costly: Frequent inspections increase labor and equipment costs.

• Sampling Errors: Not all items can be inspected; reliance on samples may result in
undetected defects.

• Delayed Feedback: Defects are identified too late in the process, making corrective action
difficult.
 • Employee Dependence: Over-reliance on inspectors may lead to negligence in process
control by operators.

• Destructive Testing: In some cases, testing may damage the product, making it unusable.

11. Quality Characteristics

What are the different types of quality characteristics (physical, sensory, etc.)?
Quality characteristics are attributes that define and measure the quality of a product or service.
They can be classified as:

1. Physical Characteristics – Tangible attributes like length, weight, hardness, viscosity, tensile
strength.

2. Sensory Characteristics – Attributes perceived by the senses such as taste, smell,

appearance, and sound.

3. Chemical Characteristics – Chemical properties like composition, pH value, moisture content.

4. Time-Oriented Characteristics – Characteristics that relate to reliability, durability,

maintainability, and serviceability.

5. Psychological Characteristics – Attributes related to perception such as brand image,

aesthetics, and user satisfaction.

How are measurable and non-measurable quality characteristics defined?

• Measurable Characteristics: Also called variable characteristics, they can be quantified using
standard measurement tools (e.g., length, temperature, pressure).

• Non-measurable Characteristics: Also called attribute characteristics, they are evaluated

based on criteria like good/bad, yes/no, acceptable/rejectable (e.g., appearance, taste,
defects).

Why is classification of quality characteristics important?

Classifying quality characteristics helps in:

• Selecting appropriate measurement techniques for quality evaluation.

• Determining control methods, such as using statistical process control for measurable traits
and inspection checklists for attributes.

• Facilitating communication among departments by clearly identifying critical product

features.

• Prioritizing improvements by focusing on critical-to-quality (CTQ) characteristics.

• Designing sampling plans and setting quality standards based on the nature of
characteristics.
12. Quality Circles

What is a quality circle and how does it function?

A quality circle is a small group of employees from the same work area who voluntarily meet at
regular intervals to identify, analyze, and solve work-related problems. The group is typically led by a
facilitator or leader and operates under the principles of participation and continuous improvement.
The team applies problem-solving techniques like cause-and-effect diagrams, Pareto analysis, and
brainstorming. After proposing solutions, they often present their findings to management for
approval and implementation.

Discuss the objectives and structure of quality circles.

Objectives:

• Promote team spirit and employee involvement.

• Encourage creative thinking and problem-solving.

• Improve quality, productivity, and working conditions.

• Enhance communication between workers and management.

• Foster a culture of continuous improvement.

Structure:

• Members: 5–10 employees from the same functional area.

• Leader: Usually an elected or appointed member who leads discussions.

• Facilitator: A coordinator who supports and guides multiple quality circles.

• Steering Committee: Senior management body that monitors and supports circle activities.

The meetings are generally informal and follow a structured approach to problem identification,
analysis, solution generation, and presentation.

What are the advantages of implementing quality circles in an organization?

• Improved Quality and Productivity: Employees closest to the process suggest practical
improvements.

• Enhanced Morale: Participation leads to job satisfaction and recognition.

• Skill Development: Members learn teamwork, communication, and analytical skills.

• Better Work Environment: Promotes a cooperative culture and reduces friction between
employees and supervisors.

• Cost Reduction: Solutions often lead to savings in materials, rework, and wastage.

• Empowerment: Encourages employees to take ownership and accountability for their work.