Chapter One

1 INTRODUCTION

The first electric passenger vehicle was invented around 200 years ago, predating the combustion engine, with
mass produced electric cars manufactured in the late-1800s, however it was quickly superseded by petrol power
by the 1930s. Today more and more vehicle manufacturers are launching new electric models in line with
targets to end the sales of new petrol and diesel vehicles, with more than 130 electric vehicles available in the
UK. An electric vehicle (EV) is powered by electricity, via an electrically charged battery pack that powers the
motor to turn the wheels, unlike petrol or dieselpowered vehicles, which run off a traditional internal
combustion engine (ICE). Electric vehicles are recharged using a dedicated charging unit, where the car’s
charge port is connected to a source of electricity and the vehicle receives and stores that electrical energy in the
battery.

A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) runs purely on electric power, stored in an on-board battery that is charged
from mains electricity (typically at a dedicated chargepoint). Battery electric vehicles do not have tailpipes
(exhausts), and therefore produce no tailpipe emissions. They are more environmentally friendly than ICE
powered vehicles and are often chosen by eco-conscious drivers. While the vehicle may be zero emission when
driving, it is important to note that there are emissions involved along the whole life of a vehicle: from the
extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, vehicle use, to recycling and disposal of the vehicle. While EVs are
cheaper to run than a petrol or diesel vehicle, their up-front cost is approximately 25% higher than the
equivalent ICE vehicle, but they are expected to achieve cost parity with ICE vehicles by 2025.

There are several benefits to owning and operating an electric vehicle, from reduced environmental pollution to
reduced fuel costs. The main benefits have been outlined below:

1.1 Environmental

Research shows that Evs are better for the environment, emitting fewer greenhouse gases and air pollutants over
their life than a petrol or diesel car. This is true even after we consider the production of the vehicle (including
battery pack) and the generation of the electricity to fuel them.

1
1.2 Cost

Evs are also cheaper to run when compared to petrol or diesel. Typically, an electric car costs less than 96.97
L.E to drive 100 miles, while the average petrol equivalent, to drive the same miles, would cost around 323.23
L.E .

1.3 Maintenance

With fewer moving parts, Evs need less maintenance and servicing is much simpler. This means that you could
save on the cost of service and maintenance.

1.4 Driving experience

Instant torque from the electric motor gives high and responsive acceleration and regenerative braking feeds
energy back into the battery adding to the overall vehicle efficiency. Also, the weight and distribution of the
batteries and low centre of gravity benefits handling, comfort, and safety. When driving an electric car, you are
less likely to be seriously injured.

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 Chapter Two

2 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 The latest findings of the leading companies in the electric car industry
2.1.1. Tesla – the American company since 2003, the producer of electric vehicles and (through the SolarCity
branch) decisions for storage of electric energy. Unlike most car makers, Tesla does not sell cars through
independent dealers. As a rule, Tesla salons represent only show flats, purchase is carried out directly via the
website of Tesla.

2.1.2. BAIC Group– the Chinese state holding company since 1958 uniting several automobile building and
machine-building enterprises. The headquarters is located in Beijing. The main subsidiaries BAIC Group are
BAIC Motor (cars), BAW (military and SUV cars), Foton Motor (trucks, buses, agricultural machinery),
Changhe (minibuses and SUVs). Cooperation management enterprises of Beijing Hyundai and Beijing Benz
release for the Chinese market cars of brands Hyundai and Mercedes respectively. The first mass NIO electric
vehicle – the seven-seater ES8 crossover with the price from $53 thousand that is twice cheaper than the cost of
Tesla.

2.1.3. BYD – the producer of cars located in Shenzhen (China). BYD Auto is subsidiary of BYD Company Ltd
which for the first time announced itself in 1995. The company promotes development model “Independent
design, own brand, independent development”, considering the purpose “Production of world-class qualitative
cars”, and the industry purpose “Creation of the national automobile brand of world class” (Electric cars: world
market, 2019).

2.2 What's New With Electric Vehicles for 2022?

2.2.1 Electric Cars With the Longest Range

Driving range is one of the biggest concerns for car shoppers considering an electric vehicle. That’s because
range anxiety, the concern that your EV won’t have the battery charge needed to complete a journey, is one
very strong motivating factor. Like running out of gasoline in a conventional car, driving an EV that’s suddenly
out of charge is no one’s idea of fun.

2022 Lucid Air Dream Edition R all-wheel drive: 520 miles

2022 Tesla Model S Dual-Motor AWD: 405 miles

2022 Tesla Model 3 Long Range Dual-Motor AWD: 358 miles

2022 Tesla Model X Dual-Motor AWD: 351 miles

2022 Mercedes-Benz EQS 450: 350 Miles

2022 Tesla Model Y Long Range Dual-Motor AWD: 330 miles

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2022 BMW iX xDrive50: 324 miles

2022 Ford F-150 Lightning: 320 miles

2022 Rivian R1S: 316 miles

2022 Ford Mustang Mach-E RWD California Route 1: 314 miles

2022 Rivian R1T: 314 miles

2022 Kia EV6 Long Range rear-wheel drive: 310 miles

2022 Hyundai Ioniq 5 Long Range RWD: 303 miles

2022 BMW i4 eDrive40 Gran Coupe: 301 miles

2.2.2 Here Are the New Electric Vehicles Planned by 2025

If you’re pondering your automotive future, it appears you can count on a few things through the rest of this
decade. One is that EVs will become more convenient to own as public charging expands and the electric grid is
upgraded to handle a huge increase in home demand. Another is that EVs will get a lot better: The EV you buy
or lease today could be like an iPhone 5 in 2025 or 2030. Also possible is that a slowdown in the steady
improvement of gas-only vehicles will accompany the EV progress as the current flurry of announcements on
new electric platforms, models and battery-production facilities reflect a tectonic shift of research and
development efforts toward EVs.

Figure 2-1

4
2.3 History of the Electric Vehicle

Figure 2-2

Electric vehicles are not really “new” and have been in the market for almost 200 years. The innovation just
continues, making possible solutions for the shortcomings electric vehicles have. In fact, almost all countries
invest money in order to have these improved, exceeding the conventional vehicles’ performance.

The invention of the first electric vehicle is quite uncertain as several inventors are being mentioned and
credited. In 1832 to 1839, Robert Anderson, an inventor from Scotland, has created the first crude electric-
powered carriage. In 1835, another small-scale electric vehicle was designed by Professor Stratingh which was
built by his assistant, Christopher Becker. Also in 1835, Thomas Davenport created another small-scale electric
vehicle. He also created the very first American-built direct current electric motor. In 1870, Sir David Salomon
created a car with a light electric motor; however, very heavy batteries were used.

The passion to uplift the quality of electric vehicles continued years after. Great Britain and France were the
countries that focused on the improvement of the vehicles. Thomas
Davenport and Robert Anderson created more advancement in 1842.
In fact, they were the ones who used the first non-rechargeable
electric cells. Batteries were the main concern because it is the main
source of electricity; therefore, experiments on improving batteries
were rampant. In 1865 to 1881, Frenchmen Gaston Plante and
Camille Faure consecutively made several progressions with the
existing battery type. In 1980 to 1910, H. Tudor developed the
modern lead-acid battery while
Figure 2-3
Edison and Junger worked on the nickel-iron battery.

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 Figure 2-4
In his hand he holds one of the batteries that was used to power the electric vehicle.

Figure 2-6
Figure 2-5
Pictured are friends American inventor and physicist
Thomas Edison (1847 - 1931) with his first electric
car brand Edison Baker.

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2.4 Comparison Between EV & ICE
Point ELECTRIC VEHICLE INTERNAL
Of comparison COMBUSTION
ENGINE

Electric vehicle was manufactured In 1886 is considered as the birth year of

Year of Invention : 1832 by Robert Anderson. modern gasoline car when karl Benz
patended benz-patent motor wagen.

Fuel : Electric energy stored in a battery. Gasoline cars use fossil fuel as the
source of energy.

Weight : Electric vehicles are around 20-30% Even though gasoline vehicle has more
heavier than the corresponding petrol components than an electric vehicle , It
cars that provide the same power weighs less.
output.
Variety : There are only few electric car models There are many options for the selection
available in the automotive. of a gasoline car.

Price : Electric cars are about than gasoline The gasoline cars with matured
cars technology are cheaper than that of
20-40% . electric cars.

Vehicle The distance traveled by a fully Gasoline vehicles have a range of

Range : charged electric car battery would be around
in the range from 200-400 km. 300-500km before a refill

Maintenance : The overall maintenance cost of an The total number of mechanical parts in
electric car is far less than that of a gasoline vehicle is more than that of
gasoline car. an electric vehicle.

Pollution : The chemical energy stored in the An internal combustion engine burns the
battery of an electric vehicle is fuel and results from smoke that pollutes
converted to the mechanical energy to the environment.
propel the vehicle.
Noise : Since there is no combustion in an Internal combustion engine vehicles
electric vehicle, the noise from EV is produces noise when the combustion
much lesser than that from gasoline happens for energy conversion.
cars.
Battery -The life of an electric car battery isa -There is no high voltage battery in a
Replacement : around 8 years. gasoline vehicle.
-The cost to replace battery ranges -Hence battery replacement is also not
between 1000$-6000$. required.

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2.5 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Electric Vehicles : An electric vehicle (EV) , referred to as an electric drive vehicle , is a vehicle which uses
one or more electric motors for propulsions.

Hybrid electric vehicle :

A hybrid-Electric Vehicle (HEV) relies on at least two energy sources, usually an internal combustion engine
and an electric battery together with a motor/generator.

Figure 2-7

2.5.1 There are different hybrid topologies :

➢ parallel-Hybrid Electric Vehicle
➢ Series-Hybrid Electric Vehicle
➢ Parallel-Hybrid Electric Vehicle

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1. Parallel-Hybrid vehicle:
there are two parallel paths to power the wheels of the vehicle: an
engine path and an electrical path. The transmission couples the
motor/generator and the engine, allowing either one, or both, to
power the wheels.

Figure 2-8

2. Series-Hybrid Electric Vehicle:

In a Series-Hybrid vehicle, there is a single path to power the wheels
of the vehicle, but two energy sources. As shown in figure, the fuel
tank feeds an engine which is coupled to a generator to charge the
battery, which provides electrical energy to a motor/generator to
power the wheels through a transmission although a direct coupling
can also be used. The motor/generator is also used to recharge the
battery during deceleration and braking.
Figure 2-9

3. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also called a plug-in hybrid
vehicle (PHV) and a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle that uses
rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be
recharged by plugging it in to an external source of electric power, usually
a normal wall socket.

A PHEV shares the characteristics both of a conventional hybrid

electric vehicle, having an electric motor and an internal combustion
engine (ICE), and of an all-electric vehicle, having a plug to connect to the
electrical grid. Most PHEVs are passenger cars; There are also PHEV
versions of commercial vehicles and vans, trucks, and military vehicles. Figure 2-10

9
 Figure 2-11

TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

2.5.2 Battery electric vehicle

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) runs entirely on a battery and electric drive train, without a conventional
internal combustion engine. These vehicles must be plugged into an external source of electricity to recharge
their batteries. Like all electric vehicles, BEVs can also recharge their batteries through regenerative braking. In
this process, the vehicle’s electric motor assists in slowing the vehicle and recovers some of the energy
normally converted to heat by the brake.

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 Chapter Three

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Main components Of Electric Car

1 Motor
2 Batteries
3 Controller
4 Transmission
5 Braking
6 Steering

Figure 3-1

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3.1.1MOTORS
What is Electric Motor?
Electric motors are very important in today’s life. In everyday life, we are using motors somewhere knowingly
or unknowingly. There are many types of motors available in the market. But we choose the motor based on its
application and voltage. Each motor has two important parts. One is the stator (field winding) and the other is
the rotor (armature winding).

The main function of the stator winding is to create a fixed magnetic field in it while the rotor is placed inside it.
Due to the magnetic field, the armature winding uses energy to generate enough torque to bend the motor shaft.

Classifications of Electric Motors:

The electric motor is divided into three main sections as follows:

Sr.No Types of Electric Motors

1. AC Motor

2. DC Motor

3. Special-Purpose Motors

Difference between AC and DC motors :

• AC motors are powered from alternating current while
DC motors are powered from direct current, such as
batteries, DC power supplies or an AC to DC power
converter.
• The speed of DC motor is controlled by varying the
armature winding’s current while the speed of an AC
motor is controlled by varying the frequency drive
control.
Figure 3-2

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 DC Motor

• Advantages:
1. Speed control over a wide range both above and below the rated speed.
2. High starting torque.
3. Quick starting, stopping, reversing and acceleration.
4. Free from harmonics.

• Disadvantages :
1. High initial cost.
2. Increased operation and maintenance cost.
3. Cannot operate in explosive and hazard conditions due to sparking occur at brush.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

AC Motor

Advantages :
1. Produces less heat, friction and are lighter and more efficient.
2. The simple design of the AC motor results in extremely reliable, low maintenance operation.
3. Low cost due to the simple design of the motor.

Disadvantages :
1. Inability to operate at low speeds.
2. Produce eddy currents due to the production of a back emf.

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1. AC Motors
1.1 Induction Motor:

• What is an Induction Motor?

An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor)
is a commonly used AC electric motor. In an induction motor,
the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is
obtained via electromagnetic induction from the rotating
magnetic field of the stator winding. The rotor of an induction
motor can be a squirrel cage rotor or wound type rotor.

Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’

because they operate at a speed less than their synchronous
speed. So the first thing to understand is – what is
synchronous speed?

Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ Figure 3-3

because they operate at a speed less than their synchronous
speed. So the first thing to understand is – what is
synchronous speed?

Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field in a rotary machine, and it depends upon the
frequency and number poles of the machine. The induction motor always runs at speed less than its synchronous
speed.

The rotating magnetic field produced in the stator will create flux in the rotor, hence causing the rotor to rotate.
Due to the lag between the flux current in the rotor and the flux current in the stator, the rotor will never reach
its rotating magnetic field speed (i.e. the synchronous speed).

There are basically two types of induction motor. The types of induction motor depend upon the input supply.
There are single phase induction motors and three phase induction motors. Single phase induction motors arenot
a self-starting motor, and three phase induction motor are a self-starting motor.

• Working Principle of Induction Motor

We need to give double excitation to make a DC motor to rotate. In the DC motor, we give one supply to the
stator and another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in induction motor, we give only one supply, so
it is interesting to know how an induction motor works.

It is simple, from the name itself we can understand that here, the induction process is involved. When we give
the supply to the stator winding, a magnetic flux gets produced in the stator due to the flow of current in the
coil. The rotor winding is so arranged that each coil becomes short-circuited.

14
Special Purpose Motors includes the following motors:

• Brushless DC Motors.

1.2. Brushless DC Motors (Project motor)

• What is a Brushless Motor?

A brushless DC motor (also known as a BLDC motor or BL motor) is an electronically commuted DC motor
which does not have brushes. The controller provides pulses of current to the motor windings which control the
speed and torque of the synchronous motor.

These types of motors are highly efficient in producing a large amount of torque over a vast speed range. In
brushless motors, permanent magnets rotate around a fixed armature and overcome the problem of connecting
current to the armature. Commutation with electronics has a large scope of capabilities and flexibility. They are
known for smooth operation and holding torque when stationary.

Figure 3-4

• How Does a Brushless Motor Work

Before explaining the working of a brushless DC motor, it is better to understand the function of a brushed
motor. In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning armature which contains
electromagnet is inside. These electromagnets create a magnetic field in the armature when the power is
switched on and help to rotate the armature.

The brushes change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation on of the armature. The basic working principle
for the brushed DC motor and for brushless DC motor are same i.e. internal shaft position feedback.

Brushless DC motor has only two basic parts: rotor and the stator. The rotor is the rotating part and has rotor
magnets whereas stator is the stationary part and contains stator windings. In BLDC permanent magnets are
attached in the rotor and move the electromagnets to the stator. The high power transistors are used to activate
electromagnets for the shaft turns. The controller performs power distribution by using a solid-state circuit.

15
3.1.2Battery

Introduction
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its active materials directly into electric
energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. This type of reaction involves the
transfer of electrons from one material to another via an electric circuit.

Whether you are an engineer or not, you must have seen at least two different types of batteries that is small
batteries and larger batteries. Smaller batteries are used in devices such as watches, alarms, or smoke detectors,
while applications such as cars, trucks, or motorcycles, use relatively large rechargeable batteries.

Batteries have become a significant source of energy over the past decade. Moreover, batteries are available in
different types and sizes as per their applications. So we will discuss different types of batteries and their uses,
so let’s get started.

While the term battery is often used the cell is the actual electrochemical unit used to generate or store electric
energy.

In understanding the differences between a cell and a battery, one should think of a battery as one or more of
these cells connected in series, or parallel, or both, depending on the desired output voltage and capacity.

• Components of Cells and Batteries

Cells are comprised of 3 essential components.

• The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons to the external circuit and

oxidizes during and electrochemical reaction.

• The Cathode is the positive or oxidizing electrode that acquires electrons from the external circuit and is

reduced during the electrochemical reaction.

• The Electrolyte is the medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between the cathode and

anode of a cell. Electrolytes are often thought of as liquids, such as water or other solvents, with

dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis that are required for ionic conduction. It should however be noted that

many batteries including the conventional (AA/AAA/D) batteries contain solid electrolytes that

act as ionic conductors at room temperature.

16
 Figure 3-5

Considerations in selection of Cathode, Anode and Electrolyte

Desirable properties for anode, cathode, and electrolyte materials are noted below.

Anode material should exhibit the following properties

• Efficient reducing agent

• Good conductivity

Cathode material should exhibit the following properties

• Efficient oxidizing agent.

• Stable when in contact with electrolyte
• Useful working voltage
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Classification of Cells or Batteries

A primary cell or battery is one that cannot easily be recharged after one use, and are discarded following
discharge. Most primary cells utilize electrolytes that are contained within absorbent material or a separator (i.e.
no free or liquid electrolyte), and are thus termed dry cells.

Generally, primary batteries are relatively inexpensive, lightweight, and convenient to use, with little or no
maintenance. Primary batteries exist in many sizes and forms, ranging from coin cells to AA batteries. These
are commonly seen in applications like pacemakers, animal trackers, wristwatches, remote controls, children’s
toys, etc.

A secondary cell or battery is one that can be electrically recharged after use to their original pre-discharge
condition, by passing current through the circuit in the opposite direction to the current during discharge. The
following graphic evidences the recharging process.

Secondary batteries can be further classified into several other types based on their chemistry. This is very
important because the chemistry determines some of the attributes of the battery including its specific energy,
cycle life, shelf life, and price to mention a few.

The following are the different types of rechargeable batteries that are commonly used.

1. Lead-Acid
2. Nickel Cadmium(Ni-Cd)
3. Lithium-ion(Li-ion)

18
 Figure 3-6

1. Lead Acid types

Lead Acid batteries are part of the rechargeable batteries family.

Flooded batteries also known as Wet Batteries are the most common ones, available in the whole world. Lead
batteries are widely used for Home UPS batteries and Car Batteries. And they can also be classified on the basis
of their application. For Example, Home UPS batteries are deep cycle and Car batteries are dual-purpose .

1.1 What is a Flooded (Wet) Battery?

The flooded lead-acid (FLA) battery, invented in 1859, was the
first rechargeable battery. After decades of refinement, it remains
the primary choice for many applications. The battery plates are
immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid, and removable
caps in the lid allow the replacement of lost water.
FLA batteries are cost-effective, rugged, and provide reliable
performance when properly maintained. Because FLA batteries are
not sealed, they must be kept in the proper orientation (upright) to
avoid the spilling of electrolytes.

Due to the risk of spills, they cannot be shipped by air. During the
charging process, FLA batteries consume water and release Figure 3-7
hydrogen gas, which must be properly vented to avoid potential fire hazards.

19
1.2 What is a GEL Battery?

Gel batteries are another VRLA battery very much like an AGM, but they use a thick paste that allows the
magic to happen rather than the fiberglass mat.

The main difference between gel and AGM batteries is the charge rates. AGM batteries can handle higher
charge and discharge rates than gel batteries.

Gel batteries are the most costly of the VRLA batteries, but excellent candidates for projects that need a very
slow deep discharge. They also last a bit longer in hotter temperatures, so you might pick them if you are
concerned about high ambient temperatures in the space where the batteries are enclosed.

It is very common for people to mistake a Gel for an AGM, and this can affect the lifespan of the battery. Gel
batteries are the most sensitive of the VRLA batteries, and It is critical that the correct charging parameters are
used when you have a Gel battery in your application.

Figure 3-8

2. What Are Lithium Batteries?

Lithium-ion batteries are used in most aspects of our everyday lives. Most devices like smartphones and laptops
cannot operate without these batteries. Lithium-ion batteries have also become very important in the field of
electromobility as it is now the battery of choice in most electric vehicles. Its high specific energy gives it an
advantage over other batteries.

There are different types of lithium-ion batteries and the main difference between them lies in their cathode
materials. Different kinds of lithium-ion batteries offer different features, with trade-offs between specific
power, specific energy, safety, lifespan, cost, and performance.

The six lithium-ion battery types that we will be comparing are Lithium Cobalt Oxide, Lithium Manganese
Oxide, Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide, Lithium Iron Phosphate, Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum
Oxide, and Lithium Titanate. Firstly, understanding the key terms below will allow for a simpler and easier
comparison.

20
Battery Terms

Specific energy: This defines the battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg). The capacity relates to the runtime.
Products requiring long runtimes at moderate load are optimized for high specific energy.

Specific power: It's the ability to deliver a high current and indicates loading capability. Batteries for power
tools are made for high specific power and come with a reduced specific energy.

A high specific power usually comes with reduced specific energy and vice versa. The pouring of bottled water
into a glass is a perfect analogy of the relationship between specific power and specific energy. The water in the
bottle can be thought of as specific energy. Pouring the water at a slow rate doesn’t provide enough force (low
specific power), but the water lasts longer in the bottle (high specific energy). On the other hand, if we pour the
water out at a faster rate, it provides a greater impact (high specific power). However, the water wouldn’t last
very long in the bottle ( low specific energy).

Figure 3-9

Performance: This measures how well the battery works over a wide range of temperatures. Most batteries
are sensitive to heat and cold and require climate control. Heat reduces life, and cold lowers performance
temporarily.

Lifespan: This reflects cycle life and longevity and is related to factors such as temperature, depth of
discharge, and load. Hot climates accelerate capacity loss. Cobalt blended lithium-ion batteries also usually
have a graphite anode that limits the cycle life.

21
Safety: This relates to factors such as the thermal stability of the materials used in the batteries. The materials
should have the ability to sustain high temperatures before becoming unstable. Instability can lead to thermal
runaway in which flaming gases are vented. Fully charging the battery and keeping it beyond the designated age
reduces safety.

Cost: Demand for electric vehicles has generally been lower than anticipated, mainly due to the cost of
lithium-ion batteries. Hence cost is a huge factor when selecting the type of lithium-ion battery.

Types of Lithium Batteries

Now that we understand the major battery characteristics, we will use them as the basis for comparing our six
types of lithium-ion batteries. The characteristics are rated as either high, moderate, or low. The table below
provides a simple comparison of the six lithium-ion battery types.

It is important to note that the six types of lithium-ion batteries are compared relative to one
another.

Table 3.1

• SP stands for specific power

• SE stands for specific energy
• SF stands for safety
• LS stands for lifespan
• CS stands for cost
• PF stands for performance
• L stands for low
• M stands for moderate
• H stands for high

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2.1 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) — LFP (Project Battery) only has one major disadvantage when
compared to other types of lithium-ion batteries, and that is its low specific energy. Other than that, it has
moderate to high ratings in all the other characteristics. It has high specific power, offers a high level of safety,
has a high lifespan, and comes at a low cost. The performance of this battery is also moderate. It is often
employed in electric

2.2 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) — NMC has two major advantages as compared to the
other batteries. The first one is its high specific energy, which makes it desirable in electric powertrains, electric vehicles,
and electric bikes. The other is its low cost. It is moderate in terms of specific power, safety, lifespan, and performance
when compared to the other lithium-ion batteries. It can be optimized to either have high specific power or high specific
energy.

23
Future Batteries

• Solid-state Li-ion: High specific energy but poor loading and safety.

• Lithium-sulfur: High specific energy but poor cycle life and poor loading

• Lithium-air: High specific energy but poor loading, needs clean air to breath and has short life.

compares the specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based systems. While Li-aluminum (NCA) is the
clear winner by storing more capacity than other systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of
specific power and thermal stability, Li-manganese (LMO) and Li-phosphate (LFP) are superior. Li-titanate
(LTO) may have low capacity but this chemistry outlives most other batteries in terms of life span and also has
the best cold temperature performance. Moving towards the electric powertrain, safety and cycle life will gain
dominance over capacity. (LCO stands for Li-cobalt, the original Li-ion.)

Figure 3-10

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3.1.3Controller
Power electronics controller determines the working of an
electric car. It performs the regulation of electrical energy from
the batteries to the electric motors. The pedal set by the driver
determines the speed of the car and frequency of variation of
voltage that is input to the motor. It also controls the torque
produced.

It has Regenerative braking option.

Figure 3-11
What is regeneration?
It’s a way of using a motor controller to convert the kinetic energy of a moving vehicle into electricity. The
electric motor becomes a generator and the current thus [re]generated is fed back into the battery.

Figure 3-12

How Does Regenerative Braking Work?

Regenerative braking turns kinetic energy into electricity by reversing the process that drives the car forward. In
electric cars, the drivetrain is powered by a battery pack that powers a motor (or motors), creating torque–
rotational force–on the wheels. In other words, electrical energy from the battery becomes mechanical energy
that spins the wheels.

With regenerative braking, the energy from your spinning wheels is used to reverse the direction of electricity -
from the electric motor(s) to the battery. All you have to do is remove your foot from the accelerator or, in some
cases, press the brake pedal to activate regenerative braking. The electric motor not only acts as an electric
generator, but it also helps slow your car down because energy is consumed by the wheels as they rotate the
shaft in the electric motor.
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How Efficient Is Regenerative Braking?
You can't pinpoint a certain number when it comes to the system's efficiency. The amount of saved energy
through regenerative braking is proportional to the level of braking force. So, the system works better at higher
speeds and for heavier vehicles.

For electric vehicles, regenerative braking can save up to 75 percent of the energy that would be wasted through
conventional braking. For hybrid or classic cars, it can lower fuel consumption by 10 to 20 percent. While it
doesn't make a huge difference, it might help you get over your EV range anxiety.

Regenerative braking is less efficient at low speeds, especially during traffic congestion. When driving in slow-
moving traffic, you stop the car using a small amount of braking force, so not a lot of energy is available to
recharge the car's batteries. It might be worth taking some time and using a travel planning app to avoid heavy
traffic, especially if you're low on battery!

Does Regenerative Braking Feel Different?

When driving a car equipped with regenerative braking for the first time, you might feel the brake pedal is
unresponsive or difficult to control for effective and safe braking.

Identifying the transition point between the regenerative and conventional braking system takes some time. So
compared to older cars, you'd have to step harder on the pedal if you need to stop your vehicle fast.

However, in modern vehicles, you can select how regenerative braking feels, so you'll feel confident while
driving. In addition, you can select the maximum level if you want to recharge your batteries as much as
possible, or you can disable it completely if you're not familiar with the car slowing down by itself.

Depending on the car manufacturer, if you lift your foot completely off the accelerator pedal, the car will firmly
brake.

This is known as "one-pedal driving" since you only need to control the accelerator pedal instead of constantly
switching between the brake and accelerator pedals. The one-pedal driving system, also known as E-pedal, is
already available on several electric vehicles such as the Nissan Leaf, Jaguar I-Pace, and Tesla Model S
Performance.

Can Regenerative Braking Save You Money?

Regenerative braking charges the car's batteries and extends the vehicle's range before recharging. So you can
drive more for less money. Additionally, because the electric motor does much of the braking, it reduces brake
pad and rotor wear.

However, you can't tell for sure how much money regenerative braking is saving. Many factors influence its
efficiency, including factors the manufacturer can't anticipate, such as your driving abilities or traffic
conditions.

26
 Chapter Four

4 EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS

4.1 Volkswagen Beetle Specifications

Figure 4-1

• Weight with Engine 1808 Ibs = 820.095 Kg

• Weight without Engine = 800Kg
• Electric motor = 20 Kg
• Batteries =26 Kg
• We assume the weight of the person = 100 Kg
• 4 person = 400 Kg

Total weight = 1246 Kg

27
 4.2 Loads On Beetle Car

Figure 4-2

Loads Power (W) Current (A) at

12v

Number plate lights 10 1.0

Headlights main beam 100 8.0

Dashboard lights 25 2.0

Radio/Cassettes/CD 15 1.5

Brake lights 40 3.5

Front wipers 80 6.5

Electric windows 75 6.0

Horns 40 3.5

Rear lights 40 3.5

Reversing lights 40 3.5

Auxiliary fog/spot lamps 100 8.0

Total 565 47.0

28
4.3 How to select a motor for E-Vehicle ?
We need to calculate some thing for this .

FT = Frolling +Fgradient +Faerodynamic drag

Frolling =Cr . M . a

Cr -coefficient of rolling resistance

M -mass of vehicle in Kg =1246 full capacity

a -acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Cr -rolling resistance coefficient asphalt : around 0.012

Cr = 0.012 , M = 1246 Kg , a = 9.81 m/s2

Frolling = (0.012).( 1246).( 9.81) = 146.7 N

Power required to overcome this rolling resistance = Frolling .(velocity of vehicle in m/s)
1000
= 146.7× 80 ×[ 3600 ] = 3260 watt

Fgradient = M . a . sin(Ө)

Consider Ө = 0° when the vehicle travels at flat surface

Fgradient = 0 N

Faerodynamic drag
Figure 4-3
Faerodynamic drag = 0.5 ρ . v2 . Cd . AF

ρ -density of air =1.23kg/m3

V – velocity of vehicle in m/s

V = 80 Km/hr = 22.22 m/s

Cd - coefficient of Air resistance / drag coefficient = 0.41. for Beetle 1975

AF – frontal Area of vehicle (in m2)

AF = Height × widht ×Adjusting value

Adjusting value For cars = 85%

Bikes =70%

Truks = 100% Figure 4-4

AF = 1.55 × 1.54 × 0.85 = 2.02 m2

29
Faerodynamic drag = 0.5 × 1.23 × 22.222 × 0.41 × 2.02 = 251.5 N

Power required to overcome this air resistance = 251.5 × 22.22 =5587.8 watt

So Total Power requird to overcome these resistance forces will be equal to Total power required to move the
vehicle .

Power needed for motor = 3260 + 0 + 5587.8 = 8847.82 watt

Peak / maximum power = 8847.82 watt

To convert Beetle car with full capacity mass =1246 kg , to run maximum speed of 80 km/hr , we need Peak
power 8847 watt motor .

What is radius 185/65R15 ?

Table 4.1

Raduis of wheel = r = 310.5mm = 0.3105 m Figure 4-5

Torque
Linear distance travelled = 2 π r =2 × 3.14 × 0.3105 = 1.95 m
Velocity 80 km/hr
80000
Speed = = 22.22 m/s
3600
Rpm for wheel
80000
Rpm = 1.95 ×60 = 683.8 rpm
Rpm for motor = 683.8 × 4.23 = 2892.4 rpm

Efficiency = 85%
Pout = E × Pin

τ × w = 0.85 × 8847.82

2π×Rpm 2×3.14×683.8
w= = = 71.57
60 60

0.85 × 8847.82
τ= 71.57
= 105.1 N.m

30
 4.4 Center Of Gravity
There are two ways to calculate the car's center of gravity
• First :
Traditional way that is Carry the car until the sides balance
• Second :
By computational operation
In this case, the weight of the vehicle must be known, by measuring the load on the front and rear axle, and the
body weight is the sum of the weight on the front and rear axle.
- Weight on the front axle Rf (total weight on the two front wheels)
- Weight on the rear axle Rr (total weight on the two rear wheels)

Figure 4-6
- Vehicle weight W (total weight on both axles)
-The distance between the two axes is wheel base L
1) One of the conditions for the car's equilibrium (the sum of the moments about any point is zero)
⅀MB = 0

2) the sum of the moments about point B is zero

𝑅𝑓 × 𝐿 – 𝑊 × 𝑏 = 0
Rf × L
b= W
where :
Rf = ground reaction force on the front axle = weight on the front axle (from axle balance)
L = distance between the two axes wheel base
b = the horizontal (longitudinal) distance of the center of gravity from the rear axle
W = vehicle weight
Rf
( ) = the ratio of the weight on the front axle to the weight of the vehicle
W

31
( It is noted that the distance between the center of gravity from the rear axle represents part of the distance
between the two axles (the ratio of the front weight to the weight of the car x the distance between the two
.axles), and the distance increases with the increase in the weight ratio on the front axle )
-And in terms of shape
a+b=L
a=L-b
Rf Rf
a=L–L( ) = L (1 – )
W W
W−Rf
= L ×( )
W
Rr ×L
a= ( )
W
Rr = rear axle (from rear axle balance)
a = the horizontal (longitudinal) distance of the center of gravity about the axis
(Rr/W) = the ratio of the weight on the rear axle to the weight of the vehicle

Figure 4-7

32
 Figure 4-8
Rf = 426 Kg
Rr = 420 Kg
L = 2.4 m

W = R f + Rr
W = 426 + 420 = 846 Kg
Rf × L = W × b
426 × 2.4 = 846 × b
426
b=( ) × 2.4
846
b = 1.208 m

Rr × L
a=( )
W
420 × 2.4
=( )
846
a = 1.19 m

L=a+b
L = 1.19 + 1.2 = 2.4 m

Calculating the position of the car's center of gravity in relation to the vertical
axis (the z-axis)

Required measurements:

-Weight at rear axle RR (total weight at two wheels at the rear axle
-Front wheel clearance, or vehicle elevation angle
33
-vehicle weight W (total weight on both axles)

- The distance between the two axes: wheel base

-The position of the center of gravity relative to the longitudinal dimension (from calculating the position of the
center of gravity by method a), a or b

Calculation method:

This method does not require an inclined plane to make the measurement, but the load is measured on one of
the axes while raising the other axle off the ground for a short distance h1 as in the figure.
Loads are measured by axes scales or by the approximate method.
The angle of inclination is measured by a protractor or a protractor hydrometer. Or the angle can be calculated
by trigonometry .

* It is preferred: in the case of using the axle balance, the weight can be measured on the rear axle, and we
obtain the weight on the front axle as follows (car weight - rear axle weight). If the approximate method is used,
we find the weight on the front wheels and we get the weight on the front axle by adding the weight on the front
wheel.

Figure 4-9

By raising the front of the car a distance h1 (in the range of 30-50 cm), the weight is measured on the rear axle
Rr.
The weight on the front axle, Rf, is calculated by subtracting the weight on the rear axle from the weight of the
vehicle.
Rf1 = µ×W - Rr1

34
By taking the moments about point A

Rf1(b1+a1) = W × b1

It is fig

b1 + a1 = L × cos(q)

And

b1= AB – CD = b × cos(q) - (h-r) × sin (q)

And on it

Rf1 (L × cos (q)) = W× b1= W × (b × cos (q) - (h-r) × sin (q))

= W × b × cos (q) - W × (h-r) × sin q
and be
(W × b × cos (q) − Rf1 × L × cos (q))
(h-r) = W × sin (q)

(W × b × cos (q) − Rf1 × L × cos (q))

h= +r
W × sin (q)

where:
h = height of the vehicle's center of gravity from the ground Height of CG
r = tire radius

q = angle of inclination of the car from the

horizontal = sin-1 (h1/L)

35
h1 = the height of the front axle above the horizontal

Rf1 = vertical reaction to front axle weight

Rr1 = vertical reaction of rear axle weight

W = vehicle weight

Rf 1 = 426 Kg
L = 2.4 m
b = 1.208 m
r = 0.3105 m
h1 = .35 m

q = sin-1 h1/L = sin-1 (0.35/2.44) = 8.247 o

cos q = 0.9896 , sin q = 0.1434

h-r = (m b cos q - Rf 1 L cos q) / (m sin q)

(846 × 1.208 × .09896 − 420 × 2.4 × 0.9896)

h-r = 846 ×0.1434

h-r = 0.1088 m

h = 0.1088 + 0.3105 = 0.4193 m

36
 4.5 Battery Peck

Specification

Model : IFR32650e

Capacity : 6000mAh

Voltage : 3.7V

Continuous the table 1

Figure 4-10

No. Item General Parameter

1 Fast discharge Constant Current 1C5A end Voltage 2.0V

2 Maximum Continuous Charge Current 1C5A

3 Maximum Continuous Discharge Current 3C5A

Table 4.2

Table 4.3
Typical 6000mAh

1 Rated Capacity Minimum 5900mAh

2 Nominal Voltage 3.2V

3 Voltage at end of Dischargr 2.0V

4 Charging at end of Voltage 3.7V

37
Total Battery cell
N = Nv × NA
We need 72 v and 80 Ah for motor.
3.7 v for 1 cell
6Ah for 1 cell
72
Nv = = 20 cell series
3.7
80
NA= 6 = 13 parallel
N = 20 × 13 = 260 cell
we will divide 260 for 6 boxes.
260
every box include = = 43 cell
6
Figure 4-11

Calculate charging / discharging Ratio for own battery ?

Cratio for charge = 1 C
Cratio for discharge = 3 C
For Discharge Time
Battery 80 Ah for 3 Cratio
Total current = 80 × 3 = 240 A
60
Time = = 20 min
3

And rated Current for motor = 90 A

240
Amp ratio = =2.667
90

Time to discharge = 2.667 × 20 = 53.33 min

With all loads on = 47 A Figure 4-12
Total load = 47 + 90 = 137 A
240
Amp ratio = = 1.75
137

Time to discharge for total Loads = 1.75 × 20 = 35 min

For Charge Time
80 Ah for 1 Cratio
Total current = 80 × 1 = 80 A
Charger 30 A
60
Time = = 60 min = 1 h
1
80
Amp ratio = = 2.667
30

Time to charge = 2.667 × 60 = 160 min

38
 4.6 The Main Components of Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles consists of an electric motor that is powered by a battery pack. The main advantage of electric
vehicles is that they emit zero emissions and are eco-friendly. They also do not consume any fossil fuels, hence
use a sustainable form of energy for powering the car. The main components of electric vehicles are :

1. Battery pack
2. DC-DC Converter
3. Electric motor
4. Controller
5. Thermal system (cooling)
6. Transmission
7. Speedometer
8. Throttle Accelerator

Figure 4-13

39
1. Battery pack

Traction battery pack is also known as Electric vehicle battery (EVB)

. It powers the electric motors of an electric vehicle. The battery acts
as an electrical storage system. It stores energy in the form DC
current. The range will be higher with increasing kW of the battery.
The life and operation of the battery depends on its design. (instead
of a fuel tank)

Figure 4-14
2. DC-DC Converter

The traction battery pack delivers a constant voltage. But different

components of the vehicle has different requirements. The DC-DC
convertor distributes the output power that is coming from the battery to
a required level. It also provides the voltage required to charge the
auxiliary battery.

Figure 4-15
3. Electric motor

Electric traction motor is the main components of electric vehicle. The motor converts the electrical energy into
kinetic energy. This energy rotates the wheels. Electric motor is the main component that differentiates an
electric car from conventional cars. An important feature of an electric motor is the regenerative braking
mechanism. This mechanism slows down the vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into another form, and
storing it for future use. (instead of a IC engine )

We choise dc motor 72v .

Figure 4-16 Figure 4-17

40
2 Controller

Power electronics controller determines the working of an

electric car. It performs the regulation of electrical energy
from the batteries to the electric motors. The pedal set by
the driver determines the speed of the car and frequency of
variation of voltage that is input to the motor. It also
controls the torque produced.

Figure 4-18

Figure 4-19

41
 3 Thermal system (cooling)

The thermal management system is responsible for maintaining an operating temperature for the main
components of an electric vehicle such as, electric motor, controller etc. It functions during charging as well to
obtain maximum performance. It uses a combination of forced air cooling and heat sink .

4 Transmission

It is used to transfer the mechanical power from the electric motor to the
wheels, through a gearbox. The advantage of electric cars is that they do
not require multi-speed transmissions. The transmission efficiency should
be high to avoid power loss.

5 Speedometer Figure 4-20

Display Speed and remaining charge in the battery .

Figure 4-21
6 Throttle Accelerator

The acceleration pedal is the pedal on the right that would typically be
known as the gas. Since the EV doesn’t take gas, it is no longer referred
to as the gas pedal.

Figure 4-22

42
 4.7 Solidwork Simulation

Figure 4-23 Volkswagen Beetle 1975

Figure 4-24 EV Motor

43
 Figure 4-25 Transmission

Figure 4-26 Flange Adapter

44
Figure 4-27 EV Motor Connected With The Transmission

45
Figure 4-28 The Thermal Cooling

Figure 4-29 Lithium-Ion Cells

46
Figure 4-30 Rim

Figure 4-31 Tire

Figure 4-32 wheel

47
4.8 Matlab simulation

Figure 4-33

48
 4.9 Steps of Project
4.9.1 We will take off the petrol engine .

Figure 4-34

4.9.2 We will install electric motor after making the Flange for the gearbox .

Figure 4-35 Figure 4-36

49
4.9.3 Then we will connect 6 battery pack parallel by connect negative together and
positive together and put them in black box for safety and ventilation .

Figure 4-37 Figure 4-38

4.9.4Connect 3-phase motor with controller and connect controller with a contactor for
safe motor and controller (such as fuse) .

Figure 4-40
Figure 4-39 50
4.9.5 And connect dc-dc converter with controller for convert for 72v to 12v to play on
accessories of the car (lights, Cassettes , Electric windows, Horns and digital screen).

Figure 4-41

4.9.6 Braided electric wire Connect controller with throttle Accelerator , digital screen.

Figure 4-42 Figure 4-43

51
4.9.7 We will install the charger behind battery box and connect battery with charger and
controller by contactor .

Figure 4-45
Figure 4-44

4.9.8 Connected and Install throttle Accelerator and digital screen .

Figure 4-46 Figure 4-47

52
4.9.9 Finally after it became an electric car.

Figure 4-48 Figure 4-49

4.9.10 The beetle with all components.

Figure 4-50

53
 Chapter Five

5 CONCLUSION / DISCUSSION
5.1 What are the advantages of electric cars?
Electric vehicles have many benefits, including:
• Cleaner environment
• No congestion charge
• Lower running costs
• Renewable electricity tariffs
• Better driving experience
• Government funding
• Free parking
• Reduced noise pollution
• Increased resale value

1. Better for our planet

One of the biggest advantages of driving EVs is the impact on our environment.

Pure EVs have no tailpipe, so they don’t emit any exhaust gases, which reduces local
air pollution particularly in congested cities.

Figure 5-1

2. No congestion charge
Some areas are introducing Clean Air Zones with fees designed to discourage polluting
vehicles from entering certain areas.

A key benefit of an electric car is being exempt from these charges.

Figure 5-2

3. Lower running costs

On average, an electric car costs less than £1.30 to drive 100 miles (based on our
GoElectric 35 tariff during off-peak hours) vs. £11.05(1) for a petrol car.

There's also cheaper service and maintenance plus low or no vehicle tax.

Figure 5-3

54
4. Renewable EV tariffs
Our EV electricity tariffs are all renewable.

Power your electric car and home with our choice of GoElectric tariffs.

Figure 5-4

5. Better driving
EVs have more responsive acceleration and regenerative braking when easing off the
accelerator.

They tend to have a low centre of gravity, which improves handling, comfort and
safety.

Figure 5-5
6. Free parking

You can often find free, priority or dedicated parking bays for electric cars,

positioned with convenient access in mind.

For example, in Milton Keynes, there are more than 15,000 city centre bays where
Figure 5-6
electric car drivers can park for free.

7. Less noise

EVs are much quieter than petrol and diesel vehicles.

In fact, electric cars are so quiet, they are now required by law to have an Acoustic

Vehicle Alert System (AVAS) to emit a sound when reversing or travelling below
Figure 5-7
12mph (19km/h).

55
5.2 What are the Disadvantages of electric cars?

Disadvantages of owning an Electric Vehicle :

1. Recharge Points

Electric fuelling stations are still in the development stages. Not a lot of places you go to on a daily basis will

have electric fuelling stations for your vehicle, meaning that if you’re on a long trip or decide to visit family in a

rural or suburban area and run out of charge, it may be harder to find a

charging station. You may be stuck where you are.

However, until charging stations are more widespread, be sure to have a

charging station maps where you live and where you frequently go so that

you’ll be able to charge your new EV when you need to.

Figure 5-8

2. The Initial Invetment is Steep

AD
As EVs are very new, you may be surprised when you take a look at the
sticker price for EVs. Even the more affordable brands can be around $30,000
to $40,000.

If you’re looking for a luxury option, you may be paying $80,000 or even
more. Though technology is advancing and the price to produce electric cars
continues to drop, you still have to pay $10,000 to $50,000 more for an EV
than for a gas-powered car.
Figure 5-9

3. Short Driving Range and Speed

Electric cars are limited by range and speed. Most of these cars have a range of
about 50-100 miles and need to be recharged again. You just can’t use them for
long journeys as of now, although it is expected to improve in the future.

Figure 5-10

56
4. Longer Recharge Time

While it takes a couple of minutes to fuel your gasoline-powered car, an electric car
takes about 4-6 hours and sometimes even a day to get fully charged.
Therefore, you need dedicated power stations as the time taken to recharge them is
quite long. Thus, the time investment and necessary planning do put some people
off.
There are some kits that can cut the charging time down. But again, that is going to
be an additional investment. So consider that, too. Figure 5-11

5. Silence as a Disadvantage

Silence can be a bit disadvantage as people like to hear the noise if they are
coming from behind them. An electric car is, however, silent and can lead to
accidents in some cases.

Figure 5-12
6. Battery Replacement

Depending on the type and usage of battery, batteries of almost all electric
cars are required to be changed every 3-10 years.

Figure 5-13
7. Not Suitable for Cities, Facing Shortage of Power

As electric cars need the power to charge up, the cities that already facing
acute power shortages are not suitable for electric cars. The consumption of
more power would hamper their daily power needs.

Figure 5-14

57
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