Republic of the Philippines

WESTERN MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Teacher Education
Normal Rd., Baliawasan Zamboanga City

Course Subject: EDG 206 Career Guidance

Submitted by: Xyris P. Dequin
Course Intsructor: Melva Villarta, RGC

THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Career development theory is the study of career paths, success and behavior. It aims to
explain why a person might be a good fit for a certain career and provide advice on how to
attain a promising trajectory. It also focuses on identifying common career stages when
education, guidance and other interventions are necessary.

Career development theories come from four main areas of study:

 Differential psychology
 Personality
 Sociology
 Developmental psychology

Frank Parsons pioneered career development theory with the release of his trait and factor
theory in the early 1900s. Since then, the study of career development has produced various
theories and captured much public interest.

I - TRAITS AND TYPE THEORY

A. TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY

Frank Parson ( November 24, 1854 – September 26, 1908)
 Father of Vocational Guidance Movement
 Attended Cornell University and studied to become a civil engineer.
 He succeeded in finding employment with a railroad industry
 But in the economic depression of 1873, his employer was forced into
bankruptcy and Parsons found himself out of a job. After a period of working as a
manual laborer, he was able to find several successive positions teaching art and
literature in the public schools. Ultimately he “read” for the law and became a
member of the Massachusetts Bar in 1881.
 In the 1890s, Parsons was very active in Populist and Progressive causes while
teaching classes at Boston’s YMCA as well as at Boston University Law School and
Kansas State University. He was recruited to teach the class The World’s Best
Books at Civic Service House, one of the new settlement houses that offered
support to Boston’s Italian, Jewish, and other immigrants. He became director of
their program called the Breadwinner’s Institute, a kind of evening high school,
and he soon conceived the Vocation Bureau to help Boston’s citizens find careers
for which they were best fitted.
 American Professor, reformer and public intellectual
 Developed the idea of matching careers to talents, skills and personality.
 Developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and
Factor Theory of Occupational Choice.
Basic Assumption

i. Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of their interests, values, abilities
and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to
represent an individual’s potential
ii. Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that
occupation. These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an
occupational profile
iii. It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a
straight forward problem-solving/decision making process.
iv. The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood
for successful job performance and satisfaction (Parsons, 1909)

-Trait and Factor Theory entails three actions:

 First, examine the personality traits of the person whose career is being planned.
 Second, inventory the character traits of the job.
 Third, measure the personality traits of the individual against the traits of the job.

Trait-factor counseling approaches assume that career choice may be facilitated and
career outcomes optimized through a fairly straightforward process of matching an
individual’s most relevant work-relevant characteristics (abilities, interests, values, etc.)
with information regarding job activities, demands, rewards, and availability. The
counseling process for this approach typically starts with a client interview, then
proceeds to extensive psychometric assessment of the client’s work-relevant
characteristics, and is finalized with an interpretation of assessment results with
connections being drawn between these results and one or more occupational
classification systems. Trait-factor counseling assumes that having been provided with
accurate information about self and jobs, most individuals will be able to make a
rational choice of career.
http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/counseling-psychology/counseling-process/trait-
factor-counseling/

Parsons maintains that personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, he
notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients:

1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to
include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.
2. Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the
counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work
should be recorded.
3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the first two stages. The
counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the client,
with the counsellor acting as guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if it is in line with
the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with industrial
knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to
locations of training and apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear reasoning
are critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness: the counsellor helps the client to fit into the chosen work, and to
reflect on the decision.
Strengths

 Based on job-related ability

 High Validity
 Applicable to large population
 Laid the foundation for Career Counseling

Weaknesses

 Could be narrow-viewed
 Does not test for motivation or over-qualification
 Can be time consuming
 Was the 1st of its kind

B. WORK – ADJUSTMENT THEORY

Rene V. Dawis
 Major contributor to counseling psychology and to the psychology of individual
differences.
 Born in the Philippines in 1928 into the family of a professor of agronomy, Dawis
received his B.A. (cum laude) from the University of the Philippines in 1951.
 Spent 2 years as an instructor in psychology at that same university.
 He then entered the graduate program in psychology at the University of
Minnesota, where he completed his master’s degree in 1955 and his Ph.D. in
1956.
 Dawis returned to the University of the Philippines for a year as an assistant
professor,
 Became the research director for a new research project at the University of
Minnesota under then Associate Professor Lloyd H. Lofquist and his colleague
George W. England.

Lloyd Henry Lofquist

 He devoted the greater part of his life to the university and to the field of
counseling psychology.
 Born in Minneapolis in 1917 into a tradesman’s family.
 1942-1946 when he was abroad in the military where he earned the rank of
captain and a bronze star. For 2 of those years, 1943-1945, Lofquist was a
psychologist in the Personnel Branch of the U.S. Army’s Adjutant General’s Office
and applied the counseling and personnel skills he had learned
 Completed his master’s degree in 1941 at the University of Minnesota, one year
after completing his B.A., also at Minnesota.
 After World War II, he took a position as Counseling Psychologist at the
Minneapolis Veterans Administration hospital, became its chief while at the
same time completing his Ph.D. at Minnesota in 1955.
 Secured a 2-year research grant from the then U.S. Office of Vocational
Rehabilitation for a follow-up study of rehabilitation counselees, which then
resulted in funding the Work Adjustment Project from 1959 through 1972
 Lofquist’s research productivity, all focused on vocational psychology and work
adjustment. (http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/)
  Sometimes referred to as the Person–Environment Correspondence Theory
 The more closely a person’s abilities (skills, knowledge, experience, attitude, behaviors, etc.)
correspond with the requirements of the role or the organization, the more likely it is that they
will perform the job well and be perceived as satisfactory by the employer.
 Similarly, the more closely the reinforcers (rewards) of the role or organisation correspond to
the values that a person seeks to satisfy through their work, the more likely it is that the person
will perceive the job as satisfying. They list six key values that individuals seek to satisfy:
1. Achievement — conditions that encourage accomplishment and progress
2. Comfort — conditions that encourage lack of stress
3. Status — conditions that provide recognition and prestige
4. Altruism — conditions that foster harmony and service to others
5. Safety — conditions that establish predictability and stability
6. Autonomy — conditions that increase personal control and initiative
https://careersintheory.files.wordpress.com

 The degrees of satisfaction and satisfactoriness are seen as predictors

 Work is conceptualized as an interaction between an individual and a work
environment.
 The work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and the individual
brings skills to perform the tasks.
 In exchange, the individual requires compensation for work performance and certain
preferred conditions, such as a safe and comfortable place to work.
 The environment and the individual must continue to meet each other's requirements
for the interaction to be maintained. The degree to which the requirements of both are
met may be called correspondence.
 Work adjustment is the process of achieving and maintaining correspondence. Work
adjustment is indicated by the satisfaction of the individual with the work environment,
and by the satisfaction of the work environment with the individual--by the individual's
satisfactoriness.
 Satisfaction and satisfactoriness result in tenure, the principal indicator of work
adjustment. Tenure can be predicted from the correspondence of an individual's work
personality with the work environment.
 Work personalities and work environments can be described in terms of structure and
style variables that are measured on the same dimensions.
https://vpr.psych.umn.edu

Interventions & Techniques

When seeking work - discuss the "fit" of values, personality, and aptitude on how this affects
career choices.

 Sorting Values
 List the values (achievement, comfort, status, altruism, safety and autonomy) - on
flashcards.
 Discussing how the client is important to career satisfaction.
 Discuss how a new environment/workplace might correspond with their values.

When Adjusting to Work - discuss where the discrepancy exists between the person and the
environment.

 Making it Better: present a job description for a mundane or uninspiring job and have
the client describe how they could adjust to the job or make it more interesting,
challenging or worthwhile.
 Use this same technique with the client's current job in order to generate strategies to
adjust or become more flexible.

Strengths:

 The foundations to TWA are empirically based.

 TWA attempts to incorporate a more holistic approach to understanding the
interactions between values, skills, environment and satisfaction.
 Uses a variety of assessment tools.
 Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ)
 General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
 Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire (MJDQ)
 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

Weaknesses:

 TWA has failed to generate sufficient research activity

 Few empirical tests of TWA have been published to support the theory

C. PERSONALITY TYPES
John L. Holland
 American Psychologist and Professor Emeritus of Sociology at John Hopkins
University
 Creator of the career development model: Holland Occupational Themes,
commonly known as the Hollan Codes
 Born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska
 Graduated from Central High, Omaha, Nebraska in 1938 and from the University
of Nebraska at Omaha in 1942
 Entered a doctoral program in psychology at the University of Minesota, receving
a master’s degree in 1947 and a Ph.D in 1952
 Initial work after completing his Ph.D. at the Western Reserve University and the
Veteran’s Administration Psychiatric Hospital – 1953-1956
 Work at the National Merit Corporation – 1957-1963
 American College Program – 1963-1969
  Joined the John Hopkins University Sociology Department in the year 1969
where he published his most important research on personality and career
choice. Retired in 1980 but continued his research until his death in 2008

BELIEF
 Careers are determined by an interaction between our personality and the environment
 John Holland's Theory of Career Choice (RIASEC) maintains that in choosing a career,
people prefer jobs where they can be around others who are like them. They search for
environments that will let them use their skills and abilities, and express their attitudes
and values, while taking on enjoyable problems and roles. Behavior is determined by an
interaction between personality and environment.
 Holland asserts that people of the same personality type working together in a job
create an environment that fits and rewards their type.

HOLLAND’S SIX PERSONALITY TYPES

Realistic (R)

Also called “Doers,” people in this type solve problems by taking action rather than discussing
it. Realistic types are interested in work that requires skill and strength. Carpenters, chefs and
personal trainers all fit into the realistic personality type.

Investigative (I)

Also called “Thinkers,” people in this type like to work with information. Investigative types
enjoy working by themselves rather than with a group. Actuaries, lawyers and doctors all fit
into the investigative personality type.

Artistic (A)

Also called “Creators,” people in this type are creative, inventive and typically more emotionally
aware than other Holland Types. Artistic types are independent but enjoy working with other
people. Graphic Designers, writers and musicians all fit in the investigative personality type.
Social (S)

Also called “Helpers,” people in this type enjoy teaching or helping others. Social types value
working with others and creating relationships. Teachers, counselors and human resource
professionals all fit in the social personality type.

Enterprising (E)

Also called “Persuaders,” people in this type enjoy working with people and information.
Enterprising types of value status and security. Entrepreneurs, stockbrokers and salespeople all
fit in the enterprising personality type.

Conventional (C)

Also called “Organizers,” people in this type enjoy rules and regulations. Like enterprising types,
they put a value on status and money. However, they have a dislike for unclear or unstructured
work. COOs, personal financial planners and economists fit in the conventional personality
type.

Let’s compare all 6 Holland’s Typology of Personality;

Seven assumptions underlie the typology:

1. Most people possess one of six modal personality types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I),
Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), or Conventional (C). Table 1 summarizes each of
the six “RIASEC” types and gives examples of occupations associated with them.
2. Six modal occupational environments correspond to the six modal personality types:
Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional
(C). Each environment is dominated by a given type of personality and is typified by
physical settings posing special circumstances.
 3. People search for environments that allow them to exercise their skills and abilities,
express their attitudes and values, and assume agreeable circumstances and roles.
4. A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his or her personality and
the characteristics of the environment. Based on an individual’s personality pattern and
the pattern of the environment, some outcomes of such a pairing can, in principle, be
forecast using knowledge of personality types and environmental models. Such
outcomes include choice of vocation, job changes, vocational achievement, personal
competence, and educational and social behavior.
5. The degree of congruence (or agreement) between a person and an occupation
(environment) can be estimated by a hexagonal model (see Figure 1). The shorter the
distance between the personality type and the occupational type, the closer the
relationship.
6. The degree of consistency within a person or an environment is also defined using the
hexagonal model. Adjacent types on the hexagon are most consistent, or have
compatible interests, personal dispositions, or job duties. Opposite types on the
hexagon are most inconsistent, or combine personal characteristics or job functions that
are usually unrelated.
7. The degree of differentiation of a person or an environment modifies predictions made
from a person’s typology, from an occupational code, or from the interaction of both.
Some persons or environments are more closely defined than others; for instance, a
person may closely resemble a single type and show little resemblance to other types,
or an environment may be dominated largely by a single type. In contrast, a person who
resembles many types or an environment characterized by about equal numbers of
workers in each of the six types would be labeled undifferentiated or poorly defined.

Materials for Personality Types Theory

I) Classifying Individuals – RIASEC Typology
• Self Directed Search (SDS)
• Vocational Performance Inventory
• Strong Interest Inventory
• Career Strategies Inventory
• Skills Confidence Inventory

STRENGTHS
 Ease in administration, easy scoring, easy calculation of the Holland personal code, and
quick identification of occupations with a code similar to the personal one.
 Provides helpful ways of understanding varied work environments

WEAKNESSES
 Recent challenges to the theory’s applicability include assertions that research has failed
to find a strong link between congruence and outcomes, such as satisfaction and
performance.
 Other reviews of Holland’s theory have cited limitations that include problems inherent
in trait factor theories, including the possibility that people can change themselves and
their environments.
II – LIFE-SPAN THEORIES

A. DEVELOPMENTAL THORIES
Donald E. Super (July 10, 1910 - June 21, 1994)
 Most recognized for his contributions to the vocational guidance movement, and
later to counseling psychology, which included career counseling and life
planning.
 Began his career working as a YMCA employment counselor throughout the
1930s and 1940s. During his career, Super was also founder and director of the
Cleveland (Ohio) Guidance Services as well as director of Clark University's
Student Personnel Bureau.
 Super's strong interest in compiling information led to integration of existing
knowledge about vocational guidance. During his affiliation with the YMCA,
Super collected information about occupations in Cleveland, resulting in his
Compilation Project. Super published his first book about vocational guidance,
Dynamics of Vocational Adjustment in 1942, which presented evidence of
occupational choice as a process rather than an event in a person's life.
 By the time Super's third publication in 1975, Appraising Vocational Fitness by
Means of Psychological Fitness, he had been promoted to the rank of Professor
at Columbia Teacher's College where he had worked for 30 years.
 Career highlights include serving as president of APA's Division of Counseling
Psychology. In 1983, he received the American Psychological Association's Award
for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Applications of Psychology. He is also
the recipient of a Doctor of Science degree from Oxford University

BASIC ASSUMPTION
 Donald Super’s career model is based on the belief that self-concept changes over time and
develops as a result of experience.

 One of Donald Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis on
the importance of the development of self-concept. According to Super, self-concept changes
over time and develops as a result of experience. As such, career development is lifelong.
Developmental tasks at the different stages

Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an individual’s life
situations all change with time and experience. Super developed the concept of vocational
maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each of
these stages when they go through career transitions.

Implications of Super’s Theory for Career Counseling

 Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of the tasks unique to
each stage.
 Help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances self-knowledge will
increase vocational maturity. Then help them relate their self-knowledge to
occupational information.
 Expose students to a wider range of careers because occupational options narrow over
time. Consider lifestyle implications and consider the vocational and a vocational
relevance of subjects studied in school.
 Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of work.

B. DEVLOPMENTAL TASK THEORY

 Robert J. Havighurst (1900–1991)
 Best known for his conceptualization of human development as mastery of a
series of age-related cultural tasks.
 Avid researcher, a prolific writer, and a civil rights activist.
 Attended public schools in college towns in Wisconsin and Illinois. Following high
school he attended Ohio Wesleyan University, receiving his B.A. degree in 1921.
 Following receipt of his Ph.D., he went to Harvard University as a postdoctoral
fellow, studying the structure of the atom and publishing papers in journals of
physics and chemistry. He then spent a year on the faculty of chemistry at Miami
University.
 In 1928, he accepted a position as assistant professor of physics at the University
of Wisconsin. He also served as an adviser in the Experimental College there.
Largely as a result of his experience with the Experimental College, his interest in
the problems of adolescents grew, eventually surpassing his interest in teaching
the natural sciences.
 In 1941 Havighurst was appointed professor of education and executive
secretary of the Committee of Human Development at the University of Chicago.
For the next forty years, Havighurst conducted research and wrote on a variety
of topics and issues.
 From 1948 to 1953 he developed his highly influential theory of human
development. The centerpiece of this theory was the developmental task.
 In the late 1960s and 1970s, Havighurst focused his attention on the problems of
urban education.
 Havighurst continued to engage in research and writing well into his eighties,
publishing six journal articles between 1980 and 1986.

Assumption:
The main assertion of the Havighurst developmental tasks theory is that development is
continuous throughout a person’s entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A person moves from one
stage to the next by means of successful resolution of problems or performance of certain
developmental tasks. These tasks are typically encountered by most people in the culture
where that person belongs.

 According to the Havighurst developmental tasks theory, when people successfully

accomplish the developmental tasks at a stage, they feel pride and satisfaction. They
also earn the approval of their community or society. This success provides a sound
foundation that allows these people to accomplish the tasks that they will encounter at
later Havighurst developmental stages.
 Conversely, when people fail to accomplish the developmental tasks at a stage, they’re
often unhappy and are not accorded the desired approval by society. This results in the
subsequent experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks at
later Havighurst developmental stages.

Characteristics of Developmental task

 Developmental tasks are based on the aspiration and the need of the society.
 Every culture or society has certain norms.
 Every society expects its member to follow these norms. These norms are in terms of
essential skills. Mastery over these skills leads to happiness and failure leads to
unhappiness.
 Some tasks are same for everyone regardless of where he lives as they are about human
biology.
 Some tasks are different in different societies.
 Some tasks in different age levels depend up on the person and the society he lives in.
The Bio-Psychosocial Model of Development

According to Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory, the developmental tasks at each

stage are influenced by a person’s biology (physiological maturation and genetic
makeup), his/her psychology (personal values and goals), as well as his/her sociology
(specific culture to which the individual belongs).

 Biological Influences
 Some Havighurst developmental tasks are evolved out of the biological
characteristics of humans and are faced similarly by people of any culture.
 Psychological Influences
 Psychological factors that emerge from a person’s maturing personality and
psyche are embodied in his/her personal values and goals. These values and
goals are another source of some developmental tasks such as establishing one’s
self-concept, developing relationships with peers of both sexes and adjusting to
retirement or to the loss of a spouse.

 Social Influences
 There are other developmental tasks that arise from the unique cultural
standards of a given society. These tasks may be observed in different forms in
varying societies or, alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in
others.

The Havighurst Developmental Stages

The weakness of this theory is the application on women. Havighurst studied and
reflected on his own life when developing this theory (Merriam et. al, 2008), making the
importance of some tasks geared more to the stereotypical male expectations, such as the
significance of finding a career
C. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY OF GINZBERG, GINZBERG, AXCELRAND AND HERMA
Eli Ginzberg
 Born on April 30, 1911 in New York City, where he grew up ust a few blocks from
the university
 He is the son of a prominent Rabbi Louis Ginzberg and the former Adele
Katzenstaein.
 Earned the AB, AM, and PhD from Columbia University in 1931, 1932, and 1935
respectively.
 Ginzberg published atleast 179 books and hundreds of article, which may be
categorized into six major themes: (1) History of Economic thought, (2) labor
economics, (3) industrial organization, (4) race and economics, (5) autobiography
and biography, and (6) health economics.

 Ginzberg’s model initially only referred to children to young adults. He later on came to
the conclusion that career planning is a lifelong process. His later views included change
because of any crises adults may have and changes because of life span development.

His theory is based on the following basis:

 Occupational choice is a process

 The process is irreversible
 Compromise is an essential aspect of every choice

Ginzberg described the process of career development in choice as 3 stages

1. Fantasy stage (age 0 – 10) – children largely engage in play, simulating different jobs
and careers. Ginsberg believed that children first engage in play (dressing up linked to
jobs) to later on during the fantasy stage play out different actual jobs.
2. Tentative stage (age 11 – 17) – older children and adolescents recognise more of the
intricacies of the different job roles. This stage is divided up in four different periods:

o the interest stage – children learn likes and dislikes

o the capacity stage – children learn how their capacities line up with the
requirements of different jobs and careers
o the values stage – adolescents start to recognise how different jobs can fulfil
their personal values
o the transition stage – adolescents start taking responsibility for their own
actions. They become more independent and exercise more freedom of choice
o Realistic stage (age 17 – early 20s) – the young person plans for and establishes
alternative career paths or backups. Development of personal values and
gradually focus on their ideal career choice or option.
o Exploration stage – individual chooses their career path but remains open to
other possibilities
o Crystallisation – more focus on one particular career path; there is more
commitment
o Specification – commitment to a specific area of their career choice

 As mentioned above, Ginzberg later recognised that career development

doesn’t limit itself to childhood and adolescence but that it is a life-long
process. Ginzberg rescinded his claims that:
  Career development comes to a close during the person’s early 20s when they
start work – he recognised that adults can change career throughout life and
even start a new career after retirement.
 Career development is irreversible – starting on one career track doesn’t mean
you are ‘stuck with it’ for the rest of your life. The education system especially
allows more flexibililty.
 The resolution of the choice always results in ‘compromise’ – he changed the
word compromise to optimisation, which better reflects the dynamic nature of
the world of work and career planning.

D. CIRUMPSCRIPTION, COMPROMISE AND SELF-CREATION

Linda Gottfredson
 (Born 24 June 1947) is a professor of educational psychology at the University of
Delaware and co-director of the Delaware-Johns Hopkins Project for the Study of
Intelligence and Society.
 Born in San Francisco, she and her first husband Gary Don Gottfredson received
bachelor’s degrees in psychology in 1969 from University of California, Berkeley,
then worked in the Peace Corps in Malaysia until 1972. She also taught in
disadvantaged schools for a time when she was young.
 Went to graduate school at Johns Hopkins University, where she received a Ph.D.
in sociology in 1977.
 Took a position at Hopkins’ Center for Social Organization of Schools and
investigated issues of occupational segregation and typology based on skill sets
and intellectual capacity.
 In 1985, Gottfredson participated in a conference called "The g Factor in
Employment Testing." The papers presented were later published in the
December 1986 issue of the Journal of Vocational Behavior, edited by
Gottfredson. In 1986, Gottfredson was appointed Associate Professor of
Educational Studies at the University of Delaware, Newark. That year, she
presented a series of papers on general intelligence factor and employment.
 In 1988 Gottfredson received the first of many grants from the Pioneer Fund for
work on educational differences and occupational policy. In 1989, University of
Delaware's promotion and tenure committee denied Gottfredson promotion to
full professor, citing "flawed" and "unscholarly" research. She was promoted to
full professor the next year.
 Gottfredson's work has been influential in shaping U.S. public and private policies
regarding affirmative action, hiring quotas, and “race-norming” on aptitude
tests.
 She currently sits on the boards of the International Society for the Study of
Individual Differences (ISSID), the International Society for Intelligence
Research (ISIR), and the editorial boards of the scientific
journals Intelligence, Learning and Individual Differences, and Society.

Philosophical assumption
1. Begin in childhood
2. Attempts to implement one’s self-concept
3. Depend on the degree to which the career is congruent with self-perceptions.
4. Are guided by occupational stereo-types

Vocational choice is a search for a life career that fits one’s concept of self, both socially
and psychologically. According to circumscription and compromise theory, four
 developmental processes guide this person-job matching process during the first two
decades of life:
1. Cognitive growth, age-related growth in cognitive ability;
2. Self-creation, increasingly self-directed development;
3. Circumscription, progressive elimination of one’s least favored vocational
alternatives;
4. Compromise, accommodation to constraints on implementing one’s most
favored alternatives.

 The Proposed Stages Of Circumscription Are:

 Orientation to size and power (age 3–5). Children become aware that adults
have roles in the world. They realise that they will eventually become adults
and take on roles for themselves.
 Orientation to sex roles (age 6–8). Children begin to categorise the world
around them with simple concrete distinctions. They become aware of the
more recognisable job roles and begin to assign them to particular sexes.
They will start to see jobs which do not match their gender identity as
unacceptable.
 Orientation to social values (age 9–13). By now children have encountered a
wider range of job roles and are capable of more abstract distinctions. They
begin to classify jobs in terms of social status (income, education level,
lifestyle, etc.) as well as sex-type. Based on the social environment in which
they develop they will begin to designate some jobs as unacceptable because
they fall below a minimum status level (tolerable level boundary) and some
higher status jobs as unacceptable because they represent too much effort
or risk of failure (tolerable effort boundary).
 Orientation to internal, unique self (age 14+). Until this point
circumscription has been mainly an unconscious process. As entry into the
adult world approaches young people engage in a conscious search of the
roles still remaining in their social space. In this process they use increasingly
complex concepts such as interests, abilities values, work-life balance and
personality to exclude options which do not fit with their self-image and
identify an appropriate field of work. [Here more sophisticated matching
theories such as Holland-RIASEC become relevant.]

Principle of circumscription
1. Increasing capacity of abstraction
With age, children become increasingly able to apprehend
and organize abstract information about themselves and
their world. They progress from magical and intuitive
thinking to recognizing highly abstract (gender differences
in clothing, occupations with uniforms, gross motor
activity) and then to perceiving the highly abstract
(personality traits, values). Childfren progress through this
stage because they differ in mental ability.

2. Interactive Development of Self and Aspiration

Self-concept and vocational preferences develop closely in
tandem, each influencing the other
3. Overlapping Differentiation and Incorporation.
Children apprehend and integrate information about self
and occupation in order of complexity.
4. Progressive, Irreversible and Elimination
 As youngsters incorporate more abstract elements into
their images of self, their self-concepts become more
complex and more clearly delineated.
5. Taken For Granted And Lost To Sight
The process of simultaneously delineating self and
circumscribing vocational choices is so fundamental,
gradual and taken for granted that people typically cannot
spontaneously “see” or report on it despite its having a
continuing and profound effect on their beliefs and
behaviors.

 Compromise

 Not all suitable choices are accessible, so individuals must often compromise.
Theory predicts that individuals will opt for work in a different field within their
social space rather than compromise either prestige or sex type of work. If no
such work is accessible, they will opt for lower-level work before seeking jobs
that conflict with their gender self-concept, because the latter is more central to
one’s self-concept.

Principle of Compromise

1. Conditional priorities
The relative importance of sextype, prestige and interests depends upon
The severity of the compromise required.
2. Opting for “good enough”
Individual settle for a good choice not the best possible.
3. Staving off the “Not Good Enough”
If the individual is not satisfied with the available choices within the social
Space he or she will if possible avoid becoming committed to any.
4. Accommodating to Compromise
Individuals accommodate psychologically to even major compromises in
the field of work, less to compromise in prestige than threaten social
standing, and least if all to shifts in sextype that undermine
implementation of an acceptable gender identity.
Strength

Use Gottfredson’s theory to help people of all ages

 Encourage young people to explore a variety of careers by providing resources and information
free of gender bias.
 Help young people use self-assessment tools to better understand their interests and skills.
 Show young people successful role models in careers they're interested in and have them share
these with their family.
 Help people recognise how stereotypes, rather than their interests, may have led them to reject
certain jobs. Can they consider them as options now?
 Teach people job search skills, including how to network and do informational interviews.

Implications
 For career counseling would point to the importance of targeting career awareness at
an early age. Research has shown that occupations eliminated at an early age cease to
draw attention which means less knowledge accumulates, hence those occupations are
 no longer considered. Also, in all four stages (i.e., age periods), males are less likely than
females to cross over gender boundaries (Holt, 1989; Leung & Harmon, 1990;
Henderson, Hesketh, & Tuffm, 1988)), therefore, sex-type is an important factor in the
career exploration process.
 Career education in the elementary schools should incorporate the use of atypical role models
(Miller, 1986): Kindergarten through third grade should be role models atypical to sex-type; and
grades 4-6 should be role models atypical to social class (i.e., prestige). Interventions at the
secondary school level should promote proactive shaping of choices by challenging students'
negative attitudes about careers for which they have the abilities to be successful. Counselors
need to emphasize prestige and sex-type considerations as important aspects in helping persons
with career concerns.
 Counselors dealing with clients when jobs are limited (e.g., times of high unemployment) should
be aware that compromises need to be made, because totally acceptable and accessible
occupations are not always found. Once a client has sacrificed his/her interest and prestige, the
only further compromise available is sex-role stereotype. It is during these times that individuals
may, under the stress of compromise, actually consider the widest range of career alternatives
(Pryor, 1985a, 1985b).

E. LIFE CAREER THEORY

Anna Miller-Tiedeman
 Married David Tiedeman
 Finished Bachelor of Arts, Business Administration, Masters: Sociology, Ph.D.:
Major Guidance and Counseling, Group Psychotherapy, Distinguished Alumni
Ohio University and Marshall University, Outstanding Research Award, American
Counseling Association.
 A multifaceted woman: On-Site Contractor for The New Careering Institute at
the Domes, Web Master, Teacher, New Careering Counselor, Mediator, Title IX
Coordinator, President, Research, Writer of different books like Learning,
Practicing, and Living the New Careering, How NOT to Make IT...and Succeed and
many others
 have over 30 years’ experience with middle, high school, college students, and
adults. A recent addition to her work is a Family Career Developing approach
using the New Careering.
 Founder and President of The New Careering Institute, Inc., at the Domes and, I
do special presentations around the country and recently in Norway.
David tiedeman
 Received his B.A. in psychology at Union College in 1941. T
 iedeman would receive a master’s from the University of Rochester in 1943 and
go on to Harvard to complete degrees in educational measurement both his
Ed.M. in 1948 and an Ed.D. in 1949.
 While at Harvard, Tiedeman was mentored by the renowned statistician Philip
Justin Rulon. Upon graduation, Tiedeman stayed on as a faculty member at
Harvard where he remained for over 20 years. Tiedeman’s theory was
introduced with the publication of Career Development: Choice and Adjustment
by Tiedeman and O’Hara in 1963.
 Tiedeman broke new ground in emphasizing the significance of ego development
on career development, particularly career decision making.
Assumption
One is responsible for one's own behavior because one has the capacity for choice and
lives in a world which is not deterministic.

 Lifecareer is the dynamic, lived-in-the-moment process defined by each person in

individual moments" (Sharf, 2010)
 A Descriptive Theory in which the individual makes their career choice
  Individuals are theory makers
 A Spiritual Approach- not necessarily religious based
 Life is your career
 Trusts intuition
 Views inner wisdom that comes from your intellectual ability and life experiences

Tiedeman's Changing Persepective

David Tiedeman began his early career using a Statistical approach

 He studied the different assessments of aptitude, personality , and interest tests that
were greatly used by career counselors
 Realized many outside forces persuade our decisions
 School
 Family
 Corporations/Businesses
 Armed Forces
 All of these outside influences seek empowering their own interests and maintaining
stability in their fields
 Outside forces use career ladders and promotions to keep employees interested and to
stay in the career

Put differently, Miller-Tiedeman (1998) argues that, in addition to life-as-career:

 Anticipating and going with ‘approaching forces’ or ‘things that are around the corner’
will make life easier and increase motivation
 Change, which is unavoidable, offers perpetual uncertainty but also surprise and
newness
 Less is more
 Listening to our inner guide and intuition will help us decide what to do next, even if
that’s nothing
 Life itself is self-organising
 Life goes in all directions and each direction provides equally important information
 Each person creates reality created each moment
 The present is rarely problematic

7 Themes of Spirituality
"When individuals experience the wholeness of living, they expereince spirituality. Thus,
spirituality is not brought into one's life; rather it develops" (Sharf, 2010).
1. Change - when change occurs by chance, it is called synchronicity; can be internal or
external; many feelings and emotions
2. Balance - seek balance; it is natural to maintain balance between work, play, and
other activities
3. Energy - needed in order to about change and balance in one’s life; many sources of
energy (from others, from self, from outside resources, etc.)
4. Community - 3 types: (1) communities of companionship – immediate and extended
family, close friends, (2) communities of culture – neighbors, classmates,
coworkers, (3) cosmic community – those which concern large ideas, such as
environment, poor, etc.
5. Calling - finding one’s ideal work
6. Harmony - finding the work that will bring about a true sense of appreciation and
understanding
7. Unity - to believe in unity is to trust the universe
 These seven concepts provide a spiritual way of viewing how individuals can achieve job
satisfaction and satisfaction in their lives.

Spiritual Career Counseling

 Focuses on viewing life as a career
 Present-oriented; do not dwell on past or speculate on future
 Values intelligence and experience of the individual

Individuals should:
 accept themselves
 accept their feelings
 accept their beliefs
 reduce stress
 increase motivation
 appreciate newness and surprise
(Sharf, 2010)
 Realities
Reality concerns the awareness of one's career decision making" (Miller-Tiedeman &
Tiedeman, 1990).

 Personal Reality- an individual's sense of what is right

 Common Reality- what others say the individual should do
 How much do you allow common reality to influence your decisions?

 Advantageous
 circular theory, not linear because it is not defined
 not discriminatory to race, age, gender, or culture
 focuses on client's with a sense of spirituality, whether religious or not
 Works for clients that do not enjoy inventory assessments

 Unfavorable
 Linear clients may not enjoy this theory because it is not black and white
 There is no definite proof
 Individuals that do not value spirituality
 Theory is vague and may seem unclear

 Utilizing Life Career Theory

 Counselors must be aware of the differing spiritual values and be sensitive to each
client's beliefs
 Counselor does not advise or direct
 Counselor helps the individual listen and appreciate themselves
 Emphasize personal reality
 Help clients learn from their experiences
F. ADULT CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Nancy K. Schlossberg
 Received her Ed.D in 1961 from Teachers College at Columbia University.
 Her interests include adult development, adult transitions, career development,
and adults as learners. She consults one day a week at the American Counsel of
Education and lectures often nationally". Nancy Schlossberg, has recently
authored several books including Going to Plan B and Overwhelmed: Coping with
Life's Ups and Downs.
 An expert in the areas of adult transitions, retirement, career development,
adults as learners, and intergenerational relationships.
  Past President of the National Career Development Association, Co-President of
a consulting group Transition Works, she is a Professor Emerita, Department of
Counseling and Personnel Services, College of Education at the University of
Maryland. She previously served on the faculties of Wayne State University,
Howard University, and Pratt Institute.
 She was the first woman executive at the American Council of Education (ACE)
where she established the Office of Women in Higher Education (1973). She
later served as a Senior Fellow at ACE’s Center on Adult Learning.

ASSUMPTION
 Believe that there is no single predictable, universal adult experience- there are many,
and they frequently involve transitions...crisis, transition and change occur all through
life.

 Fully focused on the transitions of adults, it can be applied to young adults and
adolescents as well. It is based on the following premises (Anderson, Goodman,
Schlossberg, 2012, p. 59):
 [Adults] continuously go through transitions (Approaching Transition)
 Reactions to transition depends on the type of transition – Events and non-
events – perception and context and also impact on their lives (Transition
Process)
 A transition is a process over time and has no end point and includes phases of
assimilation and continuous appraisal as people move in, through and out.
(Factors that Influence Transition)

o Transition –is any event, or non-event that results in changed relationships, routines,
assumptions, and roles.

1. The first stage to transition can be perceived to be either:

o Moving in: moving into a new situation or circumstances – eg.: moving away
from home and starting university
o Moving out: moving out of a situation or circumstances – eg.: losing a job, which
can include a grieving process.
2. When people have learnt how a new situation works, the go into the ‘moving
through’ stage of transition. People try and balance and integrate the implications and
demands of the new situation with the rest of their life.
3. What follows is the moving out stage where people end a series of transitions and
look forward to the next thing. The transition becomes integrated within other aspects
of their life and a there is a period of stability.

The model below attempts to offer professionals a

systematic framework to support clients through the
transition process (Anderson, Goodman,
Schlossberg, 2012, p. 38). They posit that every tory is
unique and individual but the framwork remains the same:
 Following on from the 3 areas in the illustration above, supporting clients can happen in 3
stages (Anderson, Goodman, Schlossberg, 2012, p. 38):

1. Approaching transitions: identification of the kind of transition and the transition

Process
o Anticipated, not anticipated, non-event (an event that is expected to
occur but does not (Anderson, Goodman, Schlossberg, 2012, p. 42))?
o Type: understanding the nature of the transition and the best way or
perspective of supporting the client with it. This is different for every
individual even if the situation looks similar.
o Context: what are the circumstances in which the transition is
taking/took place – recent or not?
o Impact: taking stock of reactions
2. Taking stock of coping resources – the 4 S system
o The 4 S system is a way to identify the potential resources a client has to
cope with the transition. Wherever a client is in their transition, the kind
and level of resources will have an impact on how clients cope with the
transition.
3. Taking charge – strengthening resources
o Involves using new resources to strengthen client responses to
transitions, which includes using existing resources in different and new
ways.

Implications of
Schlossberg's Adult Career Development Transition Model for the Practice of Career
Counseling:
 1. Because more people change occupations in later stages of career development, be open to
clients who want to change and empathize with the frustration, pain, and joy in the transition
process.
2. Clients going through transitions are often experiencing anxiety and emotional upheaval so
provide a safe environment focusing on listening and responding skills, as well as attending and
focusing skills.
3. Clients in transitions often have trouble reframing and refocusing their situations, so provide
new perspectives to them through interpretation, theme identification, and presenting internal
and external information.
4. Clients in transition usually need help moving on, so help them discover problem-solving,
decision-making, and coping skills.
5. Social support is key to successful coping with transition, so provide clients with skills that
help them develop social support systems.

III. CONSTRUCTIVIST AND NARRATIVE APPROACHES

A. NARRATIVE APPROACHES

Larry Cochran
 Professor Emeritus, Department of Counselling Psychology, the University of British
Columbia, Canada. His scholarly interests include narrative pattern in life histories,
decision-making, career development and career counselling. He has published seven
academic books and numerous articles in scholarly journals.

Goal of narrative counseling

 Is to help clients deconstruct their more oppressive stories, thereafter constructing or
co-constructing with the counselor, new stories that are more empowering.

 In Narrative counseling, clients tell about their past and present career development
and construct their future career.
 Counselors should attend to how clients depict the work role in describing their lives so
that we can learn about how the clients interact with the world.
 Like stories, acting and time are important elements of careers- the client interacts in
his/her environment in a time frame.

Literary concepts – viewing career as a story (Jepsen, 1992)

o Agent: Narrator (client)

o Setting: family, friends, colleagues at work
o Action: goal that will satisfy client’s needs
o Instrument: client uses abilities, friends, family, employers to reach goal
 According to Jepsen problems arise when instruments, action, or
agent do not match.

Storytelling
o Client’s narration has a beginning (difficult or troubling situation), middle
(obstacles and instruments that may be used in working toward reaching a
personal goal), and end (counselor and client work together to develop solutions
that will provide satisfaction and to reach a goal that will satisfy client).

 Counselor’s role - is to help clarify the narrative and help client make career decisions
Counselors should listen for 3 important elements in a story.
  Coherence (should make sense chronologically or in terms of sequence of
events)
 Continuity (story should be able to be seen in terms of action that is
directed toward a goal)
 Causality (being able to explain events)

4 Phases in attending to Narrative Construction

1. Construction: small stories that help the counselor see how client organizes, view of
self, identity, career.
2. Deconstruction: counselor listens to parts of story that have self-criticism and self-
limitation as well as cultural barrier
3. Reconstruction: the counselor and client collaborate in making a story with positive
outcomes with the clients values and strength
4. Co-construction: the counselor and client depict a picture of the client’s life with a
present and future theme of the future career

 As a result, client has new perspective on career forecast and is ready to face future
Challenges

Career Indecision
 Can be seen as a positive sign that the client is in the process making change
 Clients are losing sense of where they are in their story and do not have the clear idea of
goals and where they are going
 Examining the indecision before choosing an occupation allows client to have a fuller
sense of their career pattern
 According to Cochran (1991), when clients waver black and forth, they moving toward
finding meaning which is an opportunity for counselors to clarify client’s need, values
and aspirations
 Determining the future direction could mean a change in the setting

Goals of Assessment
 Identify a pattern in client’s life
 Client and counselor should form a sense of the client’s identity
 Learn about the client’s goal about the future

7 “Episodes” Using A Narrative Point Of View In Career Counseling

o First three episodes - emphasize making a meaning out of the career narrative
o Episodes 4-6 - focus on enactment or being active
o Episode 7 - refers to crystallization of a decision

1. Elaborating a Career Problem

 Clarify the client’s concern¼fill in gap of what is actually happening to client
and his ideal
 Ordinary conversation is primary way of elaborating
 Also vocational card sort, construct laddering, interest and values
inventories, ability tests
 Drawing
 Anecdotes - short stories that clients tell that help counselor understand
aspects of clients’ lives
2. Composing a Life History
 Two basic intentions
 (1) to gather information about client’s interests, values, abilities, and
motives;
(2) to attend to the way clients select and organize their life stories
 Ask clients to describe important events in their lives and discuss their
meaning
 Dramatization - counselor becomes the narrator and may refer to the client
in third person
 Other techniques - success experiences, lifelines, career-o-gram, and life
chapters

3. Eliciting a Future Narrative

 Clients consider their strengths, interests, and values as they may appear in the
future
 Focus is on evaluation of one’s strengths, interests, and values
 Use same techniques from previous stage, with an emphasis on future
 Guided fantasy - descriptive and/or evaluative, often represents an end point
(something to help client reflect on accomplishments that he would like to have)
 Written and narrative outline - Five sections: mission, strengths, work needs,
vulnerabilities, and possibilities

4. Reality Construction
 Taking action in the world of work; three purposes to active exploration:
(1) Immerses client in the real world
(2) Clients get information from a variety of sources and are able to evaluate
the information as they talk to many sources
(3) Can imagine themselves in an occupation

5. Changing a Life Structure

 Change in situation, oneself, or both
 Clients often expect to make a change in the way they work or who they
work with
 New opportunities arise (e.g. salary increase, training, etc.); also negative
aspects (e.g. fear of failing, anxiety about doing a poor job)

6. Enacting a Role
 Trying things out to make one’s desired goals possible
 Some start with a small role which may lead to larger ones

7. Crystallizing a Decision
 Occurs when a gap between a client’s career problem and the ideal or possible
solutions diminishes. Sometimes takes place when clients experience the
previous six episodes.

 Can be facilitated in three ways:

 Identifying and eliminating obstructions
 Actualizing opportunities
 Reflecting on career decisions
 Internal obstructions (lack of confidence in being able to obtain a job) to
crystallizing vs. external obstructions (pressures from parents to enter a
certain occupation)
B. CAREER CONSTRUCTION
Mark Savickas
 Earned his Ph.D. in Guidance and Counseling from Kent State University. He
holds licenses in Ohio as a Professional Clinical Counselor with Supervisory
Designation and as a Psychologist.
 As an Adjunct Professor of Counselor Education and Supervision at Kent State
University, he has been privileged to teach the Career Counseling Course to
more than 5,000 students and direct 32 dissertations.
 He has authored 100 articles, 56 book chapters, and 3 books. In addition, he has
presented 175 papers at national and international conferences and made more
than 500 presentations to professional associations.
 His book entitled Career Counseling been translated into Italian, Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean and his Career Adapt-Ability Scale has been translated into
20 languages.
 He established the Career Construction Theory of Vocational Behavior and
founded the Society for Vocational Psychology.
 He has been President of the Counseling Psychology Division in the International
Association of Applied Psychology and a board member for the International
Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance.
 For 7 years he edited the Career Development Quarterly and for 18 years the
Journal of Vocational Behavior. In addition to editing two journals, he has served
on the editorial board for 15 journals and co-edited 7 books.
 He has held appointments as a visiting professor at Universidad da Lisboa
(Portugal), Vrije Universiteit Brussels (Belgium), University of Pretoria (South
Africa), University of Warwick England), Loughborough University (England), and
University of Lausanne (Switzerland).

ASSUMPTION
 Career construction theory asserts that vocational personality types and occupational
interests are simply resemblances to socially-constructed clusters of attitudes and skills.

 Career theory is viewed from a social constructionist point of view

 Savicka’s believe that careers are constructed by the individual
 An individual construct their career based on their vocational behaviors and experiences
within their occupations
A meta-theory, which means it is derived from certain aspects of existing theories
 Vocational Personality – Holland’s Theory
o Savicka’s find Holland’s theory to be useful in understanding a client
o Savicka uses the three letter code but he uses the types to better understand the
client’s narratives about how they have constructed themselves and built their
careers
o It is important to note that Savicka uses Holland’s theory in a different way. He
uses it as as a way to better understands a client and their narrative and does
not use it as a predictor of their future

 Developmental Tasks of Career Adaptability

o Career adaptability focuses on how individuals construct and manage their
career
o Some factors of career adaptability are how individuals adapt to changes as they
grow older and their journey from school to jobs to retirement
o Savicka adapted Super’s life stages as a way to organize developmental task
 Growth (before 15)
 - Individual’s stories revolve around the school system, friends, and
families
- Stories shows changes in interests, capacities, and values
- Stories also reflect the growth in their relationship with parents,
siblings, teachers, and peers
 Exploration (15-25)
- Explore career possibilities
- Stories consist of deciding what they want to do, how they learn about
jobs, how they did in part time positions and the possibility of more
education
 Establishment (25-45)
-Stories are about advancing in work and focus on their sense of stability,
knowledge of job’s basic requirement
- Are considering this job as long term
 Management (45-65)
-Individuals are keeping up with technological advances, making changes
and showing others their ability to improve their performance
 Disengagement (65, Earlier or Later)
-Individuals think about losing their job, slow down on the amount of
time they work and consider retirement

*Not all people will encounter this at the same age nor will they encounter all tasks

Dimensions of Career Adaptability

 Concern
o Comes from the indifference or no action taken concerning a career choice or
work adjustment
o Individual begins planning for their future and recognize the preparation needed
for such concerns
o Counselors can assist individuals in cresting plan for their future
 Control
o Individuals feel that they no control and haven’t recognized the need to make
decisions
o Counselor can help through teaching assertiveness skills, creating a method for
decision-making and teaching time management skills
 Curiosity
o Individuals nay begin to question their future and their choices
o They may decide and choose to different opportunities and also consider new
careers
o Counselor can help reinforce their questions by defining client’s values , taking
interest inventories and discussing possibilities of changes
 Confidence
o Individuals may lack confidence and may not fully explore their own options
o Counselors can help build their confidence through support, encouragement and
anxiety-reduction training
o It is important for the counselor to build a supportive relationship in order for
clients to build self-efficacy, self-acceptance and self-regard
Savicka uses the following to explain why individuals make career choices they do:
 Life style (4-6)
o Adler’s idea that the way a person live life as an adult affects the way they live in
childhood
 Early Recollections
o Memories that a client can recall from childhood
o Adlerians believe that memories from the ages 4 or 5 are the most insightful
because that is when the lifestyle was being created
o This showcased part of the story of an individual’s life

5 Major Life Tasks

o Self-development
o spiritual development
o occupation
o society
o love
 All of this tasks are interrelated and affect one another
 Savicka focused on the task of occupation but also considered how
the other task this

Using Career Construction Theory

 A structured assessment interview called the Career Life Style Interview is used to
identify the life style of an individual
 Savicka uses 7 steps to help the counselor and client establish a framework for their
career
1. Reviewing counseling goals
2. Attending to verbs
3. Examining headlines or recollections
4. Moving from preoccupation to occupation
5. Role Models as a suggestion for a plan
6. Profiling adaptability
7. Appraising vocational adaptability

Role of Assessment Instrument

 Standard interest inventories, values inventories, ability and achievement test have a
minor role, if any
 Constructivist counselors are more interested in hearing the client’s narrative from their
own perspective
 The vocational card sort , drawing and anecdotes can be modified to amore
constructivist approach
 Savicka uses the Self-Directed Search or the Strong Interest Inventory, but typically if the
client wishes to use it. His form of assessment comes from his Career Style Interview

IV. RELATIONAL APPROCHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT

A. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Anne Roe
 American Clinical Psychologist
 First researcher to develop theory of career development that focuses on the
importance of parent’s influence on childhood development
 Tried to predict on parent child-raising styles on individuals occupational choices
  Received considerable attention for many years, but has received little attention
since 1980s

PHILISOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS
 Occupational selection is based on the individual differences which are biological,
sociological, and psychological

Summary and Goals

 Roe proposed that occupational selection was heavily influenced by the psychological
needs that develop between the interactions between parents and children. Her goal
was to show the following:
o People in the same occupations were raised similarly
o Early childhood experiences are related to career choices
 Roe was more interested in the attitudes of the parent’s towards their children than in
specific ways in which parents behave towards their children

Stages and Models

 Roe developed a two-dimensional classification system that related parent-child
relationship to occupational groupings. The classification system is comprised of 8
groups and 6 levels
 Early parent-child relationships were classified into 3 types each with 2 sub
classifications. They are:
o Concentration on the child
 Overprotective: Parents encourages the child to be dependent by
restricting the child’s curiosity and exploration
 Over demanding: Parents expects perfection from the child, setting high
standards
o Avoidance of the Child
 Rejection: Parent criticizes or punishes the child, showing no lo9ove or
affection
 Neglects: Parent ignores the child
o Acceptance of the Child
 Casual: Parent is permissive of the child’s behavior but offers minimal
love
 Loving: Parent encourages autonomy while providing love and support

ASSESSMENT
 Parent-Child Relationship Questionnaire (PCR 1)
o Use to explore basic orientations of people based on their early childhood
experiences
 Other practitioner developed many instrument based on Roe’s theory
 Examples of instruments based on Roe’s theory include:
 Career Occupational Preference System (COPS)
 Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS)

ROLE OF CAREER COUNSELOR

 Explore parental influence and early child-parent relationship

STRENGTH
 Provides interesting perspectives on parental influence on the career choice of children

WEAKNESES
 Little research support for this theory
  Lack of support has led to lack of interest on doing further research or applying it to
counseling.

B. DEVELOPMENTAL-RELATIONAL MODEL
Susan D. Phillips
 Currently a staff at SUNY Albany, discovered this developmental relational model
in helping us better understand the transition between choosing a career while
being a student.

PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTION
 Refocusing the parent’s effect and influence on their children’s career choice,
along with children’s environment.

Summary and Goals

 To “looks at the relationship that includes friends, siblings, teachers, peers, and
others.”
 Ensuring individuals to involve themselves in career decision-making of others
 To have individuals participate in finding other people to help in career decision-
making process

STAGES AND MODELS

 ACTION OF OTHERS : 7 Ways that others may include themselves in aiding other’s in
decision making process

1. Nonactive Support - not involved with decision-maker in making choice process

2. Unconditional Support - person thinks decision-maker is making a good decision.
3. Information Provided - person provides information to the decision-maker
4. Alternatives Provided - provide career related opportunities
5. Push-Nudge - attempt to guide an individual in a career direction
6. Forced Guidance - offering suggestions without considering the desires of the decision-
maker
7. Criticism - tells a person what to do and criticizes them.

 Self-Directedness - an increasing effectiveness of making good use of other people in

career decision-making (eight categories)
1. Confident Independence (false confidence) - individuals appear to be confident but have
not planned for the future
2. Unsuccessful Recruitment - individuals know they need help, but haven’t been able to get
good assistance
3. Insecure Use of Others - seek out advice of others but unsure about ability to make
decisions
4. Cautious - very careful not to make mistakes in decision-making
5. Seeking Information about the Self - unsure about interests, abilities, or values, and seek
out others for their perspective
6. Weighing Options - ask others to help in one or more parts of the decision-making
process
7. Sounding Board - talking out one’s point of view with others
8. Systematic - individuals consider the input of others but take responsibility for their own
career decision-making
 ASSESSMENT
 Career Development Assessment and Counseling (CDAC) by Super & Others (1990)
 Salience Inventory
 Strong Interest Inventory
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
 The Values Scale (Super and Neil, 1985)

ROLE OF THE COUNSELOR

 In family therapy setting, it is to gain understanding of the parent’s expectation and
children’s interest to be at the same level
 In school setting, it is to assist students in discovering their interest and provide
information with opportunities in exploring the job itslef