Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p.

625-637, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-530X0403_15

Relevant factors for competitiveness in information

technology consulting businesses

Fatores relevantes de competitividade no negócio de consultoria de

tecnologia da informação

Antonio Carlos Calicchio1

Reynaldo Cavalheiro Marcondes1

Abstract: This article identifies how information technology (IT) consulting firms use their resources and capabilities
in the quest for a competitive advantage pursuant to the approach of the resource-based view (RBV). The research
was exploratory and descriptive in nature, and adopted the qualitative method with in-depth interviews using a
script-driven standard with open-ended questions. Seven executives from the senior management of IT consulting
companies ranked among the Top 10 in this segment in Brazil were interviewed. For the analysis and interpretation
of data, content analysis was applied with the support of a spreadsheet to generate the categories of analysis.
Results showed that the participating companies use their knowledge on human resources and their relationship
with customers as crucial components of their business strategies. These resources and capabilities are strategically
used, taking advantage of the links established with clients in search for new business opportunities so as to create
barriers to new incoming threats.
Keywords: IT consulting; Strategy; Resource-based View; Competitive advantage.

Resumo: Este artigo identifica como as empresas de consultoria de tecnologia da informação (TI) utilizam seus
recursos e capacidades na busca pela vantagem competitiva, sob a abordagem da Visão Baseada em Recursos
(VBR). A pesquisa foi do tipo exploratório e de natureza descritiva, tendo-se adotado o método qualitativo, com
entrevistas em profundidade orientadas por um roteiro padrão com perguntas abertas. Foram entrevistados sete
executivos da alta gestão de empresas de consultoria de TI classificadas entre as Top 10 deste segmento. Para a
análise e interpretação dos dados, foi aplicada a Análise de Conteúdo, com o apoio de uma planilha para gerar as
categorias da análise. Como resultado, foi identificado que as empresas que participaram da pesquisa utilizam-se
do conhecimento dos seus recursos humanos e do relacionamento com os clientes, como componentes cruciais
de suas estratégias de negócios. Esses recursos e capacidades são estrategicamente utilizados, aproveitando o
vínculo estabelecido com o cliente na busca de novas oportunidades de negócios, de maneira a criar uma barreira
às ameaças de novos entrantes.
Palavras-chave: Consultoria em TI; Estratégia; Visão Baseada em Recursos; Vantagem competitiva.

1 Introduction
The advent of globalization has forced information increasingly difficult to devise strategic differentiators
technology consulting firms (ITCF) to seek increased that will generate sustainable competitive advantages.
efficiency and the conquest of new markets, which However, some scholars (Prahalad & Hamel, 1995;
is characterized by an intense competition for new Hitt et al., 2008) argue that a company can develop
customers (SUCESU-RS, 2008). strategic capabilities or core competencies that have
The fact that it is a business based on advanced the power to add higher value goods and services
technologies implies that there are numerous to customers and to generate greater gains for the
demands for resources and expertise on the part of company that the competition is not to imitate or
these companies that will allow the achievement exceed.
of a competitive edge with returns that outperform For a comprehensive and quick overview of this
those of competitors (Collis & Montgomery, 2008). business, the survey of information technology
Demands for ITCF services, however, are varied services in Brazil (IBGE, 2009) analyzed 1799 IT
and comprehensive; paradoxically, it has become companies with 20 or more employees listed in

1
Programa de Pós-graduação em Administração de Empresas, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Rua da Consolação, 930,
CEP 01302-907, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, e-mail: accalicchio@hotmail.com; reynaldo.marcondes@mackenzie.br
Received Jan. 12, 2015 - Accepted June 6, 2016
Financial support: None.
626 Calicchio, A. C. et al. Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p. 625-637, 2016

IBGE’s register of companies, as well as the products In the following sections, we present the theoretical
and services offered by them. It was evident that the fundaments that deal with the most relevant concepts
ITCFs encompass a great diversity of products and for the purposes of the article, and then, we explain
services that are constantly in competition, thereby the methodological choice of a descriptive exploratory
constituting a modern and dynamic segment of study adopting a qualitative approach based on the
the economy. According to the aforementioned opinions of the companies’ managers. Next, we discuss
research, the gross service revenues and grants of the analyses and interpretations of these testimonials
those companies amounted to 11.4 billion US$ in before concluding with our final considerations,
the year 2009; the top three products and services, which present the knowledge that we have gained
the development and use of customizable software about the theme of the study.
licensing developed in the country, the consulting for
the systems and processes involved it, and the full or 2 Theoretical framework
partial design and development of custom software
were responsible for R$ 4.9 billion (43.0% of the The theoretical framework was structured based on
total). As a basic resource, this type of business is items that establish its connection with the objectives
focused in enterprises that are large and multinational of the article, in order to ensure consistency in its
in nature and that constitute the Top 10 group, namely, development.
Accenture, IBM, Promon Logicalis, Capgemini,
Oracle Corporation, PricewaterhouseCoopers, HP, 2.1 Resource-based view
Indra, Medidata and Spread, although they are joined
As one of the most significant current approaches
by a large and diverse number of medium and small
to strategic management, the RBV focuses on how
businesses.
competitive advantage arises from the unique resources
In view of the interest of this article in focusing on
and capabilities of a company, which are directly
the internal factors that differentiate ITCF, we adopted
competition-sensitive (Barney & Clark, 2007).
the approach of the resource-based view (RBV), one
According to Barney (1991), the RBV posits that
of the most important approaches within strategic
management: It considers the competitive advantage the combination of a set of resources that are specific
of a company as a result of the adoption of strategies to the company can create value for customers and
based on the management of its set of resources and shareholders. Similarly, Barney & Hesterly (2011)
specific capabilities (Barney & Clark, 2007). assert that a company that has a unique set of resources
In this sense, the determining factors of the and capabilities, which are difficult and expensive to
competitiveness of the companies in this segment, i.e. imitate, can gain a competitive advantage. Moreover,
their sources of competitive advantage, correspond according to Wernerfelt (1984), those resources can
to the strategic resources and capabilities that are be freely bought and sold on the market.
heterogeneous and difficult to imitate or transfer Foss & Knudsen (2003), following the foregoing
between competitors (Wernerfelt, 1984; Barney, 1986, approach, point out that the RBV is based on two
1991). The RBV does not include the attractiveness of empirical generalizations; the first concerns the
the sector as one of the determinants of competitive heterogeneity of resources that results from the
advantage (Porter, 1980), but includes competition differences between companies. This means that
between the companies in the search for the generation a company’s competitive advantage is based on
of greater economic value, which is one of the key resources that it has that lead to the creation of greater
elements in the process of obtaining a competitive economic value than that created by its competitors
advantage (Peteraf & Barney, 2003). The generation (Barney, 2001). The second generalization concerns
of economic value, in turn, implies the discovery the stability of the heterogeneity or its immobility.
and exploitation of new market opportunities and This means that the heterogeneity of resources must
the reduction of threats (Barney & Hesterly, 2011). be durable in order for such a competitive advantage
Under the circumstances surrounding the ITCFs, to be sustainable over time (Foss & Knudsen, 2003).
the issue that has guided the study objective of this The predominance this approach, i.e. the
article is the question of how consulting firms use heterogeneity of internal resources as a source of
their resources and capabilities in the quest for a competitive advantage, gained momentum in the
competitive advantage. 90s, both in world and national literature, following
To answer that question, the objectives were a long period in which the dominant perspective
defined as follows: a) characterize the most relevant was based on the view that potential profits were
resources and capabilities used in their quest for a decided by the interaction of market forces, which
competitive advantage and b) identify the opportunities was grounded on the assumption of a steady market
and threats that are the subjects of the strategies of in this industry (Aragão & Oliveira, 2007; Walter &
such enterprises. Silva, 2008; Walter et al., 2008; Serra et al., 2008).
Relevant factors for competitiveness in information technology... 627

2.2 Strategic resources 2.3 Organizational capabilities

Wernerfelt (1984) defines resources as anything According to Prahalad & Hamel (1990, 1995),
that can be thought of as a strength or weakness of core competencies are identified as the roots of
a company. Barney (1986, 1991) argues that the competitive strategy. When they are properly developed,
resources of a company are the assets, capabilities, they become difficult to imitate, add to consumers’
organizational processes, knowledge, information perceived value, ensure competitiveness and provide
and attributes controlled by the company, which can a company with access to a wide variety of markets.
be combined to implement strategies that improve In addition, these authors assert that there are three
its efficiency and effectiveness. criteria that must be met in order to be called an
According to Amit & Schoemaker (1993), an essential capability, namely, the perception of value
enterprise’s resources are defined as the inventory by the customer, differentiation between competitors
of available factors owned and controlled by the and scalability.
Hitt et al. (2008) state that such powers emerge
company. These resources impact the final products
over time through an organizational process that
or services through the use of other company assets,
is aimed at accumulating and providing different
such as technology, management information systems,
resources and capabilities.
incentive systems, trust between management and
Prahalad & Hamel (1998) claim that, in highly
labor, and others. Teece et al. (1997) define them as competitive markets, the core competencies are
resources, such as the specific assets of a company, those that differentiate competitive organizations
that are difficult, if not impossible, to imitate. by providing opportunities to realize and support a
Resources are distributed unevenly among sustainable competitive advantage over time.
firms (Barney, 1991). However, as a result of this The concept of a core competencies, despite
heterogeneity, different companies differentiate their having influenced the design of a capability, is
skills in an effort to make use of the potential of their not synonymous with it. According to Prahalad &
strategic resources (Andersén, 2011). Hamel (1990), competencies refer to the company
Barney (1991) and Hitt et al. (2008) believe that as a whole (corporation), while for the authors of the
there are two distinct types of resources: tangible and RBV, capabilities are connected with products and
intangible. The tangible resources are assets that can services (business).
be seen and quantified, for example, the available According to Grant (1991), a capability is the
capital, the location of a factory, the production ability to use a resource group to perform a certain
equipment and the access to raw materials. Intangible task or activity, which then translates into the main
resources are assets that are deeply rooted in the source of a competitive advantage of a company.
history of the company and that have accumulated Barney (1991) states that capabilities are a subset
over time, for example, knowledge, mutual trust of resources, defined as tangible and intangible,
between managers and employees or associates, that allow a company to make the most of the other
ideas, innovation, managerial capabilities, routines, resources it controls.
scientific capabilities, the reputation of the company Amit & Schoemaker (1993) define capabilities
in relation to its goods and services, and the ways as resource types that are embedded, specific and
in which it interacts with its employees, customers not transferable from the company, whose purpose
is to improve the productivity of other resources.
and suppliers.
According to them, skills refer to the ability of the
Moreover, according to Kristandl & Bontis (2007),
company using the resources, usually combined with
intangible resources are strategic resources that
organizational processes, to affect a desired end.
enable a company to create sustainable value, but
They can be a routine or a number of routines that
are only available to a small number of companies. interact with each other (Grant, 1991).
They provide potential future benefits that may not Teece et al. (1997) define a capability as the set
be appropriate for other firms and are not imitated by of differentiated technological skills, complementary
competitors or replaced by other resources. assets, organizational capabilities and routines that
Dierickx & Cool (1989) highlight that the essential provide the basis for the competitiveness of a business
resources for a competitive advantage are not in particular. According to them, the capability of an
necessarily bought in imperfect markets for the factors organization is its demonstrated ability to address
of production (Barney, 1986), but can be accumulated situations involving competition.
over time by a company, based on its choices. Such Helfat & Peteraf (2003) consider a capability to
resources are idiosyncratic, non-transferable and not be the ability to perform a coordinated set of tasks,
imitable, as they are not negotiable between companies using the resources, with the purpose of achieving
(Bandeira-de-Mello & Cunha, 2001, p. 8). a final result.
628 Calicchio, A. C. et al. Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p. 625-637, 2016

According to Hitt et al. (2008), capabilities are critical and inimitability of their resources. However, to take
factors in the pursuit of strategic competitiveness and advantage of this potential, a company needs to be
are based on the development, transfer and exchange organized to exploit its resources and its abilities
of information and knowledge through the human efficiently and effectively. According to Barney
capital of the company. & Clark (2007), the policies and procedures of a
company should be aligned with the primary purpose
2.4 VRIO analysis model of ensuring that its strategic resources and capabilities
are exploited, so that they will become sources of a
The VRIO model – value, rarity, inimitability and sustainable competitive advantage.
organization (Barney, 1991, 2011; Barney & Clark,
2007; Barney & Hesterly, 2011) – is designed to assess
the potential of strategic resources and capabilities to 2.5 Competitive advantage and economic
generate a sustainable competitive advantage for an value
organization. This is relevant because not all of them Barney & Hesterly (2011) consider that a company
can be used strategically as the source of a competitive has a competitive advantage when it generates a
advantage: only those that have the attributes of being greater economic value than its competitors through
valuable, rare, difficult to imitate and a emphasized the use of its resources and strategic capabilities in its
in the organization. Below, the concepts related to products and services. Economic value is considered
each of these attributes are explained in more detail
“[...] the difference between the perceived benefits
(Helfat & Peteraf, 2003; Teece et al., 1997) as used
obtained by a client who buys products or services
in this article:
of a company and the total economic cost of these
a) Valuable (V): A resource is valuable when it
products or services” (Barney & Hesterly, 2011, p. 9).
enables a company to implement strategies aimed
According to Besanko et al. (2006), economic
at improving its efficiency and effectiveness, and
value is created by means of production and exchange
at exploring opportunities and neutralizing threats
(Barney & Hesterly, 2011). As stated by Barney & in the market. The perceived benefit of a product
Clark (2007), value is an attribute of a resource that represents the value that consumers attach to it;
incorporates the products and services offered to the cost represents the value of the inputs used for
customers, differentiating them from those offered the preparation of the finished product. Thus, the
by competitors. Valuable resources are not negotiable value created is the difference between the benefit
on the market, but are built and accumulated inside realized by the consumer and the cost of the finished
of the company (Vasconcelos & Cyrino, 2000). product. Priem (2007) considers the perceived value
b) Rare (R): According to Barney (1991), a rare as being the subjective evaluation of the benefits
resource is controlled by a small number of competitors used by consumers as a criterion in making their
and tends to become a source of competitive advantage. buying decisions.
However, if a resource is rare, but does not create Economic value is created for the customer in
value, it will not be considered a strategic resource relation to the product or service and captured by
(Barney, 1991). Johnson et al. (2007) provide examples the company as economic profit as a result of the
of rare resources, such as the brand or the privileged transaction, which is related to the price of the product
location of the installation of a retail store, and rare (Barney & Hesterly, 2011).
capabilities, such as brand management and customer
relations, among others. 2.6 Opportunities and threats
c) Inimitable (I): Barney & Hesterly (2011) assert
that valuable and rare resources are considered to be According to Johnson et al. (2007), companies
sources of a sustainable competitive advantage when use their resources and capabilities to take advantage
the companies that do not have them face a competitive of opportunities in the market and to reduce threats
disadvantage in getting them or developing them. from competitors, in their pursuit of a competitive
Barney & Clark (2007) identify three mechanisms advantage. They further state that the opportunities
that prevent or hinder them: historical conditions are gaps in the market for a product or service that
(why they do not reproduce), causal ambiguity (imitator have not been exploited by the competition.
companies do not understand the resources and Barney & Hesterly (2011) understand that
capabilities that generate the competitive advantage) opportunities can be identified by the observation
and social complexity (the interpersonal dynamics of generic industry structures, which have been
between the different areas in the company). divided into sectors: emerging, fragmented, mature
d) Organization (O): Barney & Hesterly (2011) and declining. The performance in each one of them
state that the potential for a company to obtain a requires a combination of resources and capabilities.
competitive advantage depends on the value, rarity The unmet needs for products and services available
Relevant factors for competitiveness in information technology... 629

on the market are sources of value creation for the product or service, compared to those offered by its
customer. competitors (Johnson et al., 2007).
Barney & Hesterly (2011) utilized the SCP The strategy of product differentiation is a means
(structure-conduct-performance) model of the by which companies seek to gain competitiveness
economics of industrial organization to conceptualize by increasing the perceived value of their products
an environmental threat as any individual, group or or services in relation to the perceived value of the
organization outside of the company that may reduce products or services of other companies (Barney &
its competitiveness by increasing costs or decreasing Hesterly, 2011).
revenue. The threats represent part of the rivalry Product differentiation strategies add value
between companies that offer similar products and by enabling companies to establish higher prices
services or their conquest for the same important for their products and services than those of their
or potential customers. Moreover, they are forces competitors. Companies that implement this strategy
that tend to increase the competitiveness of a sector can successfully reduce several environmental threats
and maintain the performance of a company at a and explore various market opportunities (Barney &
competitive-parity level. Hesterly, 2011).
Barney & Hesterly (2011) identify five threats:
a) the imminent entry of new competitors); b) increased 3 Methodological procedures
rivalry with direct competitors; c) a rival’s substitute This section introduces the methodological
products and services that meet the same needs of procedures adopted in this research, including an
existing customers; d) price increases or reductions in explanation of its rationale and a discussion of the
the quality of supplies from suppliers; and) changes collection and processing of the data.
in the habits and income of buyers.
3.1 Type and search method
2.7 Strategies of businesses We adopted a descriptive exploratory study (Collis
Grant (1991) defines a strategy as being the integration & Hussey, 2005) because there is little knowledge
of a company’s internal resources in order to seize about the phenomena that are present in the theme
opportunities and reduce threats in the market in an explored in this study (Godoy, 1995), i.e. resources,
effort to obtain a competitive advantage. Mahoney capabilities and competitive advantage in the ITCF
& Pandian (1992) consider that a company selects environment in Brazil.
a strategy in order to generate income, based on its The method used was the qualitative method,
resources and capabilities. which according to Merriam (2002), seeks to describe
To implement its strategies, a company relies on its and understand the phenomena researched in the
resources, including all of its assets, skills, organizational real contexts in which they occur. Although various
processes, information and knowledge, in an effort approaches are presented by Merriam, we adopted the
to improve its efficiency and effectiveness (Barney, basic qualitative study, which aims to understand the
1991). A strategy is the establishment of criteria processes and visions of the individuals involved, based
on interviews, which are described and interpreted
for the combination, integration and processing of
based on the literature that addresses the subject.
resources and capabilities in order to achieve results
that are superior to those of competitors.
Barney & Hesterly (2011) basically consider 3.2 Subjects of research and study
two business-level strategies: cost leadership and environment
differentiation of products. This can be distinguished The subjects of the research were seven managers
from Porter (1992), who, in addition to these strategies, of large ITCF businesses who have experience and
presents a generic approach, i.e. that a strategy could effective involvement with various aspects of the
be a combination of both. subject under study in the city of São Paulo. For the
A company that chooses a cost leadership strategy interviews, invitations were made via phone directly to
focuses on gaining advantages by reducing its costs five of the respondents, and the others were contacted
to levels that are below those of its competitors. at the suggestion of the five initially contacted.
In this way, the company becomes the lowest-cost The same number of participants were involved in
producer in its sector, with economies of scale and Godoi & Mattos (2006) study, who stated that the
patents or privileged access to raw materials as its definition of the participants must provide greater
main sources of competitive advantage (Porter, analytical understanding and greater consistency to the
1979). The low price strategy seeks to offer a lower subject of investigation, which occurred in this study.
price than those of the company’s competitors, The respondents were informed at the time of the
while maintaining similar perceived benefits for the invitation that the confidentiality of their statements
630 Calicchio, A. C. et al. Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p. 625-637, 2016

would be maintained in conformity with research The interviews were taped with the consent of all
ethics; they were also informed that their companies of the interviewees, and they had an average duration
act in the same market segment and are competitors of 60 minutes. The responses were transcribed,
among themselves. The condition of secrecy made reviewed and subsequently handled using content
it easier for the respondents to answer the questions analysis techniques pursuant to Bardin (2002). The first
clearly and objectively. interview was of an experimental nature designed to
Companies whose managers participated in the study check the clarity of the questions and the completeness
are positioned among the Top 10 most representative of the data obtained by the questions, and it resulted
in terms of revenues in the ITCF business. With a in adjustments to the final script. Basic theoretical
broad scope of expertise, they offer all of the services concepts having an immediate relationship with the
listed as the main information technology services in basics of the study were presented in the questions
their portfolios: management consulting, technology in a brief manner to facilitate the understanding of
services, outsourcing, infrastructure services, hosting, their meaning by the interviewees. This procedure
large computers to nanotechnology, systems integration, allowed them to provide objective responses and to
operations, support and maintenance of networks have a clear understanding.
and project management, and software systems for
projects and training. 3.4 Data processing
The data were processed through categorical
3.3 Data collection
content analysis, which is a set of techniques that uses
The data were collected through personal face-to-face systematic procedures, with the goal of obtaining short
interviews supported by a script with 12 open-ended descriptions of the content of the messages (Bardin,
questions (see Chart 1) that were drawn up on the basis 2002). It involves the following steps: a) pre-analysis:
of the theoretical framework and were formulated This step consisted of the ipsis litteris transcription
identically for all respondents (Patton, 2002). of the responses of the interviewee managers;

Chart 1. Objectives, questions and categories.

Goals Questions from the interview script Categories of analysis
1- What services are marketed more by your company’s
portfolio?
2- Of these services, which generate more economic value C1-broad Scope of services
to customers? slightly differentiated by
3- What benefits are perceived by customers as (the most) benefits and rates.
differentiated compared to your competitors through the use
of these services?
4- Based on these benefits, what has been the practice in
relation to price competition?
1 - Describe the most 5- What resources, whether tangible or intangible, assets and
relevant resources and capabilities are strategic for your customers for them to have C2- Strategic human
capabilities involved the perception that they are obtaining higher economic value resources
in the quest for a in connection with the services of your company?
competitive advantage. 6- What resources and capabilities are essential for the
customers’ perception that they are obtaining greater
economic value in the provision of services?
7- Are they rare compared to those used by competitors?
8-Do you have high costs for competition because of means
that are not reproducible, difficulties in identifying what C3- Skills in customer
resources and capabilities are strategic or poor clarity in relations
interpersonal dynamics?
9-Do you have the structural and process support to explore
the competitive potential of these resources and capabilities?
10-What opportunities have been obtained by marketing C4- Opportunities for the
2 - Identify the provision of services
more services?
opportunities and
11-What kinds of external threats have your business faced? C5- Threats to human
threats that are the
12-In view of the resources and capabilities previously resources
objectives of the
appointed, what strategies are adopted to take advantage C6- Customer retention:
strategies of the
of opportunities and to reduce threats in the business of IT relationship and investment
enterprises.
consulting? in human resources
Relevant factors for competitiveness in information technology... 631

b) exploration of the material: On the transcripts of completion of the interviews. Their companies are
the interviews, the semantic units, i.e. keywords, identified as A, B, C, D, F and G.
expressions and phrases related to established codes
that were the basis for categorization, were highlighted; Category 1: Broad scope of services slightly
c) processing of data and interpretation: This step differentiated by benefits and rates
resulted in a categorization that corresponded with
the semantic classification through the convergence The respondents specified a wide range of
of semantic units; according to Bardin (2002), the services provided by ITCF that are considered the
first objective of this process is to provide, through most outstanding in their portfolios and that would
condensation, a representation of the raw data. In this be potential generators of a competitive advantage
way, different categories of analysis were built that for their businesses, although a large part of them
enabled the constituent parts of statements to be are common to the researched enterprises. Chart 2
classified. The categories accounted for the reduced presents the most frequently marketed services that
synthesis of meanings obtained from the testimonies, are common among the companies.
without which it would be impractical to carry out The fact that the types of services are only
the analysis. slightly differentiated means that they are an object
In the categorization of the data, sheets were used of competition between these companies, leading to
to facilitate the visualization of the semantic units; its practices aimed at differentiated prices and greater
reduction for the elaboration of the themes and the economic value relative to customers. Because of this
synthesis of the analysis categories listed in Chart 1 fact, differences were not observed in the management
and development of the resources and capabilities
are discussed in the next section.
among the companies, which were addressed in the
following categories.
3.5 Reliability, quality and credibility of This condition did not allow an understanding,
the study with the necessary clarity, of the strategies adopted
by the companies according to the perspective of
To ensure the reliability of the results obtained in
the generic strategies of Barney & Hesterly (2011)
the analysis of the data, the validation technique of
and Porter (1979), as will be seen in category 6.
using experts in the field was employed, because,
Apparently, the issues of cost and differentiation in
according to Merriam (2002), in qualitative research, the the implementation of services do not easily fall into
understanding of reality is based on the interpretations this conceptual generalization.
and understanding of the researcher regarding the
phenomena in question. Merriam asserts that the Category 2: strategic human resources
validation strategy is best suited for use among
colleagues who are familiar with the design theme, In the identification of tangible strategic resources,
and who read and comment on the data processed “dynamic” human resources and intangibles, and
from the interviews. “technical knowledge” were singled out by six of the
The objectives of the study and the script of seven respondents (Grant, 1991; Barney, 1991; Hall,
the interviews were submitted to two experts for 1992; Andersén, 2011; Kristandl & Bontis, 2007)
consideration and validation regarding its relevance for the provision of their services and as potential
and consistency, and they were considered consistent generators of a competitive advantage (Grant, 1991;
and appropriate. These experts have operated in the Peteraf, 1993).
area of ITCF for over 20 years and have engaged
Dynamic human resources
in work of relevance to customers in the financial,
food, automobile assemblers, energy and defense In their consideration of human resources as
(Navy, Army and Air Force) sectors, among others. strategic assets, the managers have a convergent
attitude as to its relevance to the ITCF business, as
4 Analysis and interpretation of the illustrated in the testimonials below:
data
Chart 2. Services among companies.
This section provides the analysis and interpretation
Most outstanding services Common services
of the material that was obtained in the interviews
among the companies
from the summaries that resulted in the categories of
Outsourcing E1, E2
analysis, but are not connected to the specific goals,
as presented in Chart 1. Systems implementation E1, E2, E5
With a view to the authorization for the disclosure Managing E1, E3, E6
of the names of the companies, the managers are Systems integration E1, E4, E7
identified as E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6 and E7, and they Solution design E4, E5, E6
are listed according to the chronological order of the Critical Systems E7
632 Calicchio, A. C. et al. Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p. 625-637, 2016

[...] our heritage stems from the people who have they are rooted in the company’s history and are
know-how, technical knowledge and experience, and accumulated through past experiences (Grant, 1991;
who ensure the achievement of successful services. Barney, 1991; Hitt et al., 2008), especially those
[...] (E3 Manager). aimed at complex solutions. Accordingly, some of
[...] It is essential to have, develop and maintain a the managers’ statements illustrate the prominent
body of highly qualified human resources who have reasons for this:
great experience [...], people who have been with
the company for a long time, who have experience [...] customers know that the company’s staff has
and knowledge of its culture. We’ve been trying to a background, a knowledge and a value that they
bring in new people to form human capital as our often can’t find in other competitors. (E1 Manager).
strategic resource. (Manager E6). [...] the development of the templates of the basic
procedures of its architectures that work, the past
In the statements, the reference to dynamic human experiences, the organization and the facts that
resources shows that the existence of people, by replicate its knowledge in each area are what has
itself, does not generate value for the customer or been done by the company [...]. (Manager E5).
for the company (Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000;
Besanko et al., 2006). The view of this, this resource can be considered
However, although such human resources are as valuable (Barney & Clark, 2007) by directly
valuable resources, they are not considered by the relating its value to a competitive advantage, and
managers to be rare; thus, a question arises as to why this is perceived through meeting the needs and
they would not, over the long term, be controlled by a expectations of customers (Prahalad & Hamel, 1995;
company or a small number of competitors (Barney, Peteraf & Barney, 2003).
1991), given the possibility of migration between In addition, knowledge regarding the design of
them (Dierickx & Cool, 1989). If that happens, a complex solutions is considered to be rare, because
company’s technical knowledge, know-how and it can be controlled by one or a small number of
experiences would be suddenly at an end, only to competitors (Barney, 1991), as indicated in the
be offered by a competitor. Addressing this, one of following statement:
the managers sought to highlight one resource that
would be effective strategically: [...] our company has knowledge that the others don’t.
The other work, such as technological support, can
I think that there are no rare resources. As human be achieved by all large enterprises. (E1 Manager).
resources are generics, I think you have to have
qualified human resources, [...] with the ability to With regard to being imitated, many doubts were
understand the business and to be an entrepreneur expressed by the managers that this type of knowledge
[...], but it is very difficult to find these skills in could be imitated only through the migration of people
a single person, because that’s a rare resource. between competitors (Bandeira-de-Mello & Cunha,
(E4 Manager). 2001). According to the managers of companies
B and F, there are some assumptions, such as the
With regard to the possibility of these resources learning curve and the temporary maintenance of this
being imitated or reproduced by other companies, knowledge, which can be sources of a competitive
there was a consensus that human resources can be advantage (Barney & Clark, 2007). Some managers
trained to absorb the technologies of the services were emphatic in saying that imitation of this knowledge
rendered, and that these resources can be imitated, is not possible, because it has been acquired over time
with time being the crucial issue (Barney, 1986, 1991): (Barney, 1986, 1991; Grant, 1991; Peteraf, 1993):
[...] Yes, there is a long learning curve to be considered Decidedly, the knowledge has been developed over
as a specialist. (Manager E2). time. You cannot replicate it, and thus, it is a key
resource [...]. (Manager E5).
It is important to note that imitation or replication,
through training and development, refers to the more [...] it has a learning curve [...]. (E2 Manager).
technical level of human resources and not to the level [...] thinking in this business follows the concept
of the managers who comprise the top management. that it is tailor made [...] in order to replicate the
solutions and components that we’ve developed,
Technical knowledge to be used in other projects the company [...].
(E3 Manager).
One of the elements identified in the human
resources of ITCF, i.e. knowledge about the design As in the case of the previous resource, the
of complex solutions, which involves work methods knowledge described by the interviewees referred
and technologies, and the domain of know-how and to those involved in the operational level of human
experience, was emphasized by the managers, as resources, not the senior management level.
Relevant factors for competitiveness in information technology... 633

Category 3: Capabilities in the relationship with between the customers and the technical human
customers resources. These managers thus represent the bond
of trust between the company and the client.
Among the strategic capabilities considered by
the respondents (Teece et al., 1997; Prahalad & Category 4: opportunities for the provision of
Hamel, 1990; Johnson et al., 2007; Hitt et al., 2008; services
Mahoney & Pandian, 1992), the one that stood out
was that of the relationship developed with customers According to the respondents, ITCF business
(Johnson et al., 2007). This relationship is built opportunities occur mainly on occasions involving
over time by means of the provision of services as the provision of services to a particular customer,
experienced in various situations and provides a which takes advantage of the relationship that has
reliable link that is difficult for the competition to been established.
break. Such a capability, in addition to being regarded In a competitive environment, the search for
as valuable, is considered to be rare, as shown in the new opportunities to provide services is part of the
following statement: dynamics of the day-to-day work; this follows the
observations of the professionals who work with
[...] If you have ever had the opportunity to perform the client and have knowledge of the business.
some work with a particular client, it acquires a The managers interviewed unanimously held this
natural confidence in your work [...]. (E1 Manager). view, as illustrated by the following testimony:
The imitation of this capability is difficult for the [...] I think that many opportunities are identified
competition to carry out, because it is founded in the when you are developing work for a particular
bonds developed between the firm and its client, which client. (E2 Manager).
have been built over time (Barney, 1991; Prahalad [...] Since he was hired in the company of the client,
& Hamel, 1998, Barney & Clark, 2007). This is a you end up developing a relationship and can develop
reflection of the positive results obtained and the other things for which you don’t see competition,
effective fulfillment of the contracts: and then, you can create value through the services
offered. (E2 Manager).
[...] the customer already has an established
relationship and knows that the company will [...] another input for us to identify opportunities is
deliver the final product. If you have a problem also to participate heavily in conferences, seminars,
with delivery, (the company) will run back to meet international fairs, etc. The relationship, whether
the deadline. (E1 Manager). internal or external, with our clients reveals these
opportunities. (E2 Manager).
[...] one of the things that ensures the continuity
and longevity of the relationship is the work done Although the question that generated this category
previously that has demonstrated expertise [...] the referred to the opportunities that were obtained, the
delivery of what was agreed. This reinforces the unanimous interpretation was in relation to how they
company in front of both the customers we have, were detected. This possibly has to do with the broad
as well as many of the new ones. (E3 Manager).
scope of services that are only slightly differentiated by
The respondents made it clear that learning is the benefits and rates, which was mentioned in Category 1.
element that helps them to explore the competitive
Category 5: threats to human resources
potential of their relationships with customers
(Mahoney & Pandian, 1992; Prahalad & Hamel, 1995, With respect to the various external threats that
1998; Teece et al., 1997). Learning is transmitted by directly affect the business of the companies that
means of working methodologies, training in the were the subject of this research, the following have
implementation of technical standards, governance been identified as the most significant: low values
processes, and solution-based global data repositories, for services charged by smaller competitors, new
as illustrated in the following opinion: competitors of various sizes and origins, and the
turnover of human resources at the operational level
[...] what the company regards as best market
practices, in fact, are conducted through a global
(Barney, 1986, 2001; Porter, 1979, 1980; Barney &
data repository [...] for the practices adopted by Hesterly, 2011).
different customers in different countries [...]. Among these threats, the greatest is the turnover
(E2 Manager). of human resources at a time when there is a growing
demand for ITCF services. This increases the need
In this category, we observed the involvement of to employ qualified and experienced professionals
senior management managers as the leaders of the to replace those taken by competitors through wages
contracts; they used their skills to create the links and benefits above those paid by the companies in
634 Calicchio, A. C. et al. Gest. Prod., São Carlos, v. 23, n. 3, p. 625-637, 2016

the study. This is usually threatening and can even the years in their areas of expertise in providing
lead to contractual renegotiations with respect to services and on the retention of this knowledge,
the supply of services, highlighting the difficulty of which is applied in new demands for services.
implementing quick replacements of human resources As customers are other businesses and not consumers,
technicians. The following statement illustrates this the respondents indicated that it would make little
concern: sense for a generic strategy to be the most frequently
used (Barney & Hesterly, 2011, Porter, 1979). In the
Among the threats that exist, it’s actually the worst ITCF business, each service contract is the subject of
threat, because they take the technical knowledge
along with them [...]. (E2 Manager).
a specific negotiation, with a view to the creation of
economic value for the customer and an economic
The entry of new competitors in the industry, as has return for the company (Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000;
been the case with international companies that have Besanko et al., 2006).
been established and with others that have changed
their positions to act in the field of ITCF services 5 Final considerations
(Porter, 2003), has forced companies to reinvent To answer the original question of this article
themselves, as demonstrated by the following report: about how consulting firms use their resources and
capabilities in the pursuit of a competitive advantage,
[...] There are large potential competitors on the
it can be affirmed that those who participated in the
market, which are companies also interested in
entering in the business of consulting; this constitutes study use their knowledge of technical and human
a threat. (Manager E7). resources in their relationships with customers as
crucial components of their business strategies.
As the companies in the study are among the Top These resources and capabilities are strategically
10, it is possible that the market positioning of this type used by taking advantage of the links that they have
of service can be seen and regarded as consolidated, established with clients to identify new business
creating the understanding that the greatest threat is opportunities, so as to create barriers to new incoming
the loss of human resources. threats, in their quest for a competitive advantage
over competitors.
Category 6: customer retention and investment in The human resources represented by the technical
human resources staff who have knowledge regarding the design of
tailor-made solutions and complex project experience,
The predominant focus of business strategies and who provide personalized attention and inspire
(Porter, 1979; Grant, 1991; Mahoney & Pandian, confidence in customers, add value to the provision of
1992) has been customer retention. This has created services, which constitutes a factor of competitiveness
an awareness and appreciation of the relationship among the competitors. There was concern among
with customers and the investment in human resource the managers interviewed because these people are
technicians, as shown in the following statements: sources of knowledge transfer to other persons in
their own company, thereby creating a cycle that
What we do is to strengthen the relationship with preserves the essence of the business. The knowledge
the client [...] As there is turnover even at the level
acquired by such people is a decisive factor in
of the managers, we focus on a constructive and
providing complex services that is absorbed in the
positive relationship. (E1 Manager).
cost experience of the tenders.
[...] investing in training, in development for which The client relationship was characterized by the
a person will choose to remain in the organization. managers as strategic and as consolidated by effective
The differential of company B has been its human service that has been provided previously, as well
resources [...]. (E2 Manager). as by the learning that has been provided to these
[...] providing better conditions for the maintenance customers. Based on this observation, we can affirm
of this resource is important, as is the climate of that this ability is a barrier to new entrants.
work or the environment, and the wages, as far In considering whether human resources technicians
as possible [...], as well as promoting the gradual are strategic, although they are able to create value
transfer of knowledge of this resource to others in for customers, and are well placed and emphasized
order to form followers [...]. (Manager E5). in the structure of the companies in this study, they
[...] holding the people who helped to develop the do not have the attributes of rarity and inimitability.
solutions that are differentiated, [...] to maintain the The rarity of these resources, as well as their
close relationship with the client [...]. (Manager E7). imitation by competitors is difficult for one or a
small number of companies to maintain, given the
The strategies formulated by these companies possibility, and the existing practice, of turnover in
are based on the experience they have gained over the technical staff among the companies engaged in
Relevant factors for competitiveness in information technology... 635

this type of business. As a result, human resources, support at the same level as that offered by the
in terms of the knowledge and experience of the companies in the study.
people involved, by itself, cannot be considered as The rationale of RBV was of great value in its
a strategic pursuit of a competitive advantage, as it characterization of the way that the resources and
only partially meets four of the conceptual attributes capabilities are connected to opportunities and threats,
in the VRIO analysis model. and in its characterization of business strategies, as
With regard to the relationships with customers, it facilitated communication with the managers who
the analysis identified that the four essential attributes, were interviewed because of the objectivity of its
i.e. valuable, rare, hard to imitate and highlighted in concepts. In addition, it was helpful in the design of
the organization, were met. This occurs through the the study and the analysis, which is expected to be
establishment of reliable links, through the achievement the academic contribution of this article.
of effective results and the knowledge transfers With respect to the contribution of the companies
that happen over time in the service provider‑client that participated in the study, it became apparent that
relationship. It is appropriate to observe that the the management of their resources and capabilities, as
relationship with customers is always led by a well as their business strategies, have been focused on
senior manager, whose turnover rate is very low in the same points, which makes it more costly for them
comparison to that of the technical staff. to obtain a competitive advantage. This became clear
This ability is valued as a rare asset because in the interviews of the managers, who are part of the
there are many competitors that have difficultly senior management of the various companies, given
imitating what has been developed in the course of the high degree of convergence in their conceptions,
the provision of services that have been successfully reasoning and visions about the ITCF business.
delivered and work methodologies, via technological The continuation of this research is recommended
support and intelligence, that have been built into the to expand the knowledge about certain aspects that
client’s business. To win new customers, a company were not considered in the scope of this article, for
can utilize the image and reputation acquired and example, the use of the brand and the reputation of
maintained with its existing customers. the company and the loyalty of clients as competitive
As a result, it is possible to affirm that relationships strategies.
with customers have the capability to be or become It would also be relevant research to consider
a source of a sustainable competitive advantage for the opinions of the companies’ customers, to assess
the companies in the study. how the resources and capabilities identified in this
The above considerations show that the ITCF article are perceived as benefits that create value in
business is supported mainly by qualified human the services provided.
resources and capabilities, and the effectiveness of Among the limitations of the study was the limited
the results provided to clients by means of different time made available by the managers for the interviews
relationships. Thus, the people who help to maintain as a result of their work schedules. Because of this,
and gain new clients are those whom the companies the script for the interviews had to be followed to
seek to retain. the letter, leaving few opportunities to explore other
As can be seen, human resources alone do not aspects that could have made a broader contribution
guarantee that a competitive advantage will be to the results of this article.
achieved, because the business strategies adopted
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