Introduction to International Relations (IR) - Detailed Notes

1. International Relations (IR) as an Academic Discipline

Definition and Scope

International Relations (IR) is a branch of political science that studies the interactions
among various actors on the global stage, primarily sovereign states, but also including
international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational
corporations (MNCs), and influential individuals. The core concern of IR is how these
actors cooperate, compete, and conflict in an increasingly interconnected world.

Scope of IR includes:

 Diplomacy and foreign policy formulation and implementation.

 Conflict and war studies, including causes of war, peace processes, and conflict
resolution.
 International political economy: trade, finance, globalization, development.
 International law and institutions like the United Nations (UN), World Trade
Organization (WTO), International Court of Justice (ICJ), etc.
 Global issues such as environmental degradation, climate change, human rights,
migration, terrorism, pandemics, and cyber security.
 Theories of IR that help analyze and predict state behavior and global trends.

Relevance of IR

 Understanding Global Events: Helps decode the causes and consequences of

international conflicts, cooperation, treaties, and diplomatic moves.
 Policy-Making Tool: Assists states in designing effective foreign policies based
on strategic interests and global trends.
 Global Governance: Facilitates understanding of how global institutions work to
manage world affairs.
 Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding: Offers strategies to mediate disputes
and promote sustainable peace.
 Legal and Ethical Frameworks: Supports the development of international legal
norms and ethical conduct among states.
 Academic and Professional Opportunities: A foundation for careers in
diplomacy, international law, global governance, journalism, and academia.
Evolution of IR as a Discipline

1. Pre-World War I (Classical Foundations)

 IR existed as a sub-topic within philosophy, history, and political theory.

 Key thinkers:
o Thucydides (Realist view of power and war in The Peloponnesian War)
o Niccolò Machiavelli (Power politics and statecraft)
o Thomas Hobbes (Anarchical nature of international relations in
Leviathan)
 No formal academic structure; statecraft was learned through historical analysis
and philosophy.

2. Post-World War I (Birth of IR as a Discipline)

 WWI’s devastation sparked a desire to understand and prevent war.

 Establishment of the first IR chair at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth
(1919).
 Dominated by Idealism/Liberalism:
o Emphasis on cooperation, international law, and institutions like the
League of Nations.
o Belief in human rationality and progress.
 Key focus: Peace through international cooperation.

3. Post-World War II (Rise of Realism)

 The outbreak of WWII exposed the failure of idealism to prevent conflict.

 Emergence of Realism:
o States are rational, self-interested actors in an anarchic international
system.
o National interest and security are paramount.
o Power, especially military power, is the main currency of IR.
 Key thinkers: Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz.
 Realism became the dominant paradigm during the Cold War.

4. Cold War Era (1947–1991)

 Characterized by a bipolar world: USA (Capitalist West) vs USSR (Communist

East).
 Key themes:
o Nuclear deterrence (Mutual Assured Destruction - MAD)
o Alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact)
o Proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan)
 Neo-Realism and Neo-Liberalism debates shaped theoretical development.
 Rise of security studies and strategic studies.
5. Post-Cold War Era (1991–2001)

 Collapse of the Soviet Union → Unipolarity with U.S. dominance.

 Focus shifted to:
o Globalization and economic interdependence.
o Human security and development.
o Role of non-state actors: NGOs, MNCs, IGOs.
o Democratization and humanitarian interventions (e.g., Balkans,
Rwanda).

6. Contemporary IR (2001–Present)

 Increasing multipolarity (rise of China, India, EU, BRICS).

 New challenges:
o Terrorism (Post-9/11 era)
o Climate change (Paris Agreement, IPCC)
o Global health (COVID-19 pandemic)
o Cyber security and digital diplomacy
o Migration crises and identity politics
 Greater focus on:
o Constructivism (role of ideas, norms, and identities)
o Post-colonial and feminist perspectives in IR.
o Global governance and multilateral diplomacy.

2. The Westphalian Nation-State System

Peace of Westphalia and Its Implications (1648)

The Peace of Westphalia refers to a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the
Thirty Years’ War in the Holy Roman Empire (1618–1648) and the Eighty Years’
War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. These treaties were signed in the cities of
Münster and Osnabrück (in present-day Germany).

Key Historical Context:

 The Thirty Years' War was one of the most destructive conflicts in European
history, primarily fought over religious and political control within the Holy
Roman Empire.
 It involved many European powers (including Austria, France, Sweden, and
Spain) and devastated large parts of Central Europe.
Major Outcomes of the Peace of Westphalia:

 Ended Religious Wars in Europe: Recognized the right of rulers to determine

the religion of their own state (cuius regio, eius religio).
 Recognized Sovereignty: Over 300 political entities within the Holy Roman
Empire were granted sovereignty, allowing them to conduct their own foreign
policies.
 Established Diplomatic Norms: Laid the groundwork for modern diplomacy,
including the use of permanent embassies and resident ambassadors.
 Non-Intervention Principle: Introduced the idea that external powers should
not interfere in the domestic affairs of other sovereign states.

Implications of the Westphalian System

The Peace of Westphalia is often regarded as the birth of the modern international
system. Its principles form the backbone of contemporary international relations and
statecraft.

1. Birth of the Modern State System:

 States became the main units of political authority.

 The idea of a centralized authority governing a population within a fixed territory
became normalized.

2. Legitimization of Sovereign Nation-States:

 Political legitimacy began to derive from internal authority rather than religious
or supranational sources (e.g., the Pope or Emperor).
 Secular authority became dominant in international politics.

3. Foundation for International Law and Diplomacy:

 Established norms of legal equality, non-intervention, and territorial integrity

—the foundational elements of international law.
 Inspired later legal instruments, such as the UN Charter (1945) and the Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961).

Foundational Elements of the Modern Nation-State System

The Westphalian model is characterized by four core principles that continue to shape
global politics today:
1. Sovereignty

 Definition: The exclusive right and ultimate authority of a state to govern itself
without external interference.
 Types:
o Internal Sovereignty: Control over domestic affairs (laws, policy, order).
o External Sovereignty: Independence in conducting foreign relations.
 Importance in IR:
o Ensures that states are the primary actors in the international system.
o Empowers states to enter treaties, engage in diplomacy, and make
war/peace decisions.

2. Legal Equality of States

 Concept: All states, regardless of size, power, or wealth, have equal legal
standing under international law.
 Institutional Expression:
o Every UN member has one vote in the General Assembly.
o Small nations have equal rights in forming treaties and alliances.
 Real-World Limitation:
o Though legal equality exists, power disparities (e.g., between the USA
and a small island state) affect actual influence in global affairs.

3. Territorial Integrity

 Definition: The principle that a state’s geographical boundaries are inviolable

and should not be altered by external force.
 Importance:
o Prevents aggressive expansion or annexation.
o Forms the basis for defensive wars and sovereign claims.
 Example:
o The UN Charter prohibits the use of force against the territorial
integrity of another state (Article 2(4)).

4. Non-Intervention

 Definition: No external actor (state or non-state) should interfere in the internal

matters of a sovereign state.
 Roots: Strongly emphasized in the Westphalian peace settlement.
 Modern Significance:
o A central tenet of the UN Charter and international law.
o Often debated in cases of humanitarian intervention, regime change, or
responsibility to protect (R2P).
 Tensions:
 o Balancing non-intervention with human rights concerns or mass
atrocities remains a contentious issue in global politics.

Conclusion

The Westphalian Nation-State System marked a transformative shift in how political

authority and international order were conceived. While the global system has evolved
significantly with the rise of globalization, non-state actors, and transnational challenges,
the Westphalian principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, legal equality, and
non-intervention remain foundational to modern international relations and law.

Absolutely! Here's a detailed and organized expansion of topics 3 to 6 from your

International Relations syllabus-style notes. I've preserved clarity while adding depth,
examples, and theoretical insight where useful.

3. National Power
Definition:

National power refers to the capacity of a nation to influence other actors in the
international system to achieve its foreign policy goals and protect its interests. It
encompasses a range of tools, both hard power (military and economic force) and soft
power (cultural influence, diplomacy).

Elements of National Power:

Tangible Elements (Hard Power):

1. Military Capabilities
o Size, training, and technological advancement of armed forces.
o Possession of nuclear weapons, strategic deterrence, cyber capabilities.
2. Economic Strength
o GDP, industrial output, trade volume, foreign reserves.
o Economic independence and access to global markets.
3. Geography and Natural Resources
o Strategic location (e.g., maritime access, proximity to rivals/allies).
o Access to vital resources like oil, minerals, fresh water.
4. Demography
o Population size, growth rate, and structure.
o A large, educated, and healthy population enhances labor and military
potential.
Intangible Elements (Soft Power):

1. Political Leadership and Governance

o Effective, visionary leadership can boost national unity and international
reputation.
o Political stability enhances global influence.
2. Ideology and Culture
o Exporting national values (e.g., democracy, socialism) can shape global
norms.
o Cultural influence through media, language, education (e.g., American
pop culture).
3. Diplomacy
o Ability to build alliances, negotiate treaties, mediate conflicts.
o Participation in international organizations and multilateralism.
4. National Morale and Unity
o Citizen support for national goals, identity, and resilience in times of
crisis.

Limitations of National Power:

 Internal Instability: Civil wars, economic collapse, or social unrest can weaken
national influence.
 Dependence on Allies: Over-reliance on more powerful nations may limit
autonomy in decision-making.
 International Sanctions: Economic or military sanctions can cripple a nation's
power projection.
 Public Opinion and Domestic Politics: Democratic states may face public
resistance to foreign interventions or policies.

4. Polarity in International Relations

Definition:

Polarity describes the structure of power in the international system based on the
number and distribution of major power centers or “poles.”

Types of Polarity:

1. Bipolarity (1949–1991):

 Characterized by two dominant superpowers: USA and USSR.

  Cold War Era: Ideological, economic, and military rivalry between capitalism
and communism.
 Military Alliances:
o NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
o Warsaw Pact (led by USSR)
 Features:
o Global balance of power ensured relative stability.
o Proxy wars (e.g., Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan).
o Arms race and nuclear deterrence (Mutual Assured Destruction - MAD).

2. Unipolarity (1991–2001):

 After the USSR's collapse, the USA emerged as the sole superpower.
 American Hegemony:
o Promotion of liberal democracy and free-market capitalism.
o Dominance in military, technological, cultural, and economic domains.
 Criticisms:
o Accusations of unilateralism (e.g., Iraq War).
o Perceived imposition of Western values globally.

3. Multipolarity (2001–Present):

 Emergence of multiple power centers:

o China, European Union, India, Brazil, Russia.
 More complex international system with diverse alliances and rivalries.
 Features:
o No single state dominates.
o Increased competition and cooperation.
o Rise of regional powers and non-state actors.

5. Challenges to State Sovereignty

1. Globalization

 Increased economic, technological, and cultural interdependence across

borders.
 Impacts:
o Reduces state control over economies due to global markets and MNCs.
o Challenges to cultural identity from global media and migration.
o Environmental policies and pandemics require global coordination,
limiting state autonomy.

2. Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

  Doctrine adopted by the UN in 2005, following humanitarian failures in
Rwanda and Bosnia.
 Core Principles:
1. States have a responsibility to protect their populations from genocide,
war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.
2. The international community has a duty to assist states in fulfilling this
responsibility.
3. If a state fails, the international community may intervene (diplomatic,
humanitarian, or as a last resort, military).
 Tension:

o Between sovereignty and humanitarian intervention.

o Often viewed skeptically by developing nations fearing misuse for regime
change (e.g., Libya 2011).

6. World Government: Myth or Reality?

Concept:

A world government is a theoretical global political authority with the power to make
and enforce laws across the entire globe, effectively acting as a single sovereign entity.

Arguments in Favor:

1. Global Peace and Security: Prevents war between nations; creates unified global
law enforcement.
2. Standardized International Laws: Uniform legal systems could ensure justice
across borders.
3. Effective Collective Action: Solves transnational issues like climate change,
pandemics, terrorism more efficiently.

Arguments Against:

1. Cultural and Political Diversity: Difficult to create a system acceptable to all

civilizations and ideologies.
2. Risk of Authoritarianism: A centralized global authority could lead to tyranny
or domination by powerful states.
3. Sovereignty Concerns: Nations may resist surrendering control over internal
affairs.
4. Lack of Democratic Legitimacy: Questions around who governs and how global
representatives are chosen.
Methods of Potential Creation:

 Strengthening Global Institutions:

o Empowering the UN with enforcement powers and democratic structures.
 Regional Integration:
o Federations like the EU could serve as blueprints for broader global
unions.
 Voluntary Global Treaties:
o Agreements on environment, health, and trade could evolve into
governance frameworks.

Challenges:

 Nationalism and Protectionism: Many countries prioritize national identity and

interests.
 Power Politics: States act in self-interest, often undermining global cooperation.
 Lack of Global Consensus: Differing views on human rights, governance,
religion, etc.
 No Enforcement Mechanism: No existing global police or military to implement
decisions.
 Module 2

2.1 Sovereign Nation-State as the Primary Actor in IR

Definition:

According to the Montevideo Convention (1933), a sovereign nation-state is an entity

that possesses:

 A permanent population
 A defined territory
 A government
 The capacity to enter into relations with other states

Such states are the primary and original actors in the international system.

2.1.1 Inter-State Relations

1. Treaty Signing

 States demonstrate sovereignty by entering, ratifying, and enforcing treaties.

 Binding legal instruments under international law (e.g., Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties, 1969).
Examples:
o Treaty of Versailles (1919): Ended World War I, imposed sanctions on
Germany.
o Paris Agreement (2015): A multilateral treaty to combat climate change.

2. Declaration of War and Conclusion of Peace

 Only sovereign states can declare war or conclude peace agreements.

 Reflects independent military and diplomatic authority.
Examples:
o U.S. declaration of war on Japan (1941) post-Pearl Harbor.
o Treaty of Westphalia (1648): Ended Thirty Years’ War, establishing
norms of state sovereignty and non-interference.
2.1.2 Diplomacy

1. Traditional Diplomacy

 Conducted through embassies, diplomats, and state representatives.

 Aimed at managing relations, negotiating treaties, and conflict resolution.

2. Public Diplomacy

 Targets foreign populations instead of foreign governments.

 Promotes a state's image, values, and soft power.
Example: U.S. cultural diplomacy, Voice of America, student exchange
programs.

3. Track II Diplomacy

 Involves non-official actors such as scholars, NGOs, or retired diplomats.

 Useful in informal negotiations and confidence-building.
Example: Oslo Accords (1993) between Israel and PLO.

4. Para-Diplomacy

 Sub-national governments conduct external relations to promote local interests.

Examples:
o Quebec (Canada) and Catalonia (Spain) maintain international ties.

2.2 Shift in the State-Centric System – Emergence of

Non-State Actors (NSAs)

2.2.1 Classification

1. Non-Violent NSAs

 INGOs, MNCs, religious groups, advocacy networks.

2. Violent NSAs (VNSAs)

 Terrorist groups, insurgents, warlords, cartels.

 Often operate beyond borders, challenge state authority, and destabilize regions.
2.2.2 Features and Role of NSAs

 Influence global governance and policy-making.

 Lack formal sovereignty but may have legitimacy, resources, or global support.
 Example: Greta Thunberg's climate activism influenced global climate
discussions.

2.2.3 Multinational Companies (MNCs)

1. Home and Host State Relations

 MNCs function across borders, creating economic interdependence.

Example: Apple manufactures in China, managed by U.S. law and Chinese
regulations.

2. Environmental Concerns

 Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria caused significant oil pollution in the Niger Delta,
leading to lawsuits and environmental damage.

3. Carbon Lobbying

 Some MNCs lobby governments to dilute environmental regulations that hurt

profits.

4. Labour Violations

 Nike: Criticized for sweatshop labor in Southeast Asia.

 United Fruit Company: Manipulated politics in Central America—origin of the
term "Banana Republic."

2.2.4 International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs)

1. Amnesty International

 Monitors human rights abuses.

 Issues detailed reports to hold states accountable.

2. Transparency International

 Tracks and exposes global corruption.

 Publishes the Corruption Perceptions Index annually.
3. International Red Cross

 Offers neutral humanitarian assistance in conflict zones.

 Operates under the Geneva Conventions.

2.2.5 Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs)

Features

 Formed through interstate treaties.

 Possess legal personality in international law.

Roles

 Facilitate cooperation, manage disputes, support development.

Examples:
o UN: Peacekeeping, human rights, development.
o WTO: Regulates international trade.
o World Bank: Provides financial aid to developing nations.
o EU: Political and economic union with deep integration.

2.2.6 National Liberation Movements (NLMs)

 Aim for independence or self-rule from colonial or oppressive regimes.

 Often supported by international law during the decolonization era.
Examples:
o Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) – Struggle for Palestinian
statehood.
o African National Congress (ANC) – Led anti-apartheid movement in
South Africa.
o National Liberation Front (FLN) – Key player in Algeria’s fight against
French colonial rule.

2.2.7 Violent Non-State Actors (VNSAs)

1. Terrorist Groups

 Al-Qaeda, ISIS: Conduct transnational terrorism, erode state authority, and

spread radical ideologies.
2. Drug Cartels

 Medellín (Colombia), Sinaloa (Mexico): Influence politics, economy, and public

safety.

3. Human Trafficking Networks

 Exploit weak governance in conflict zones to traffic humans for labor, sex, and
slavery.

4. Warlords

 Control territories in failed states, often engage in armed conflict.

Example: Warlords in Somalia undermine central government control.

2.3 INGOs and UN ECOSOC

1. United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

 One of the six principal organs of the UN.

 Coordinates economic, social, and environmental policies.
 Works with UN agencies and non-state actors on sustainable development.

2. Consultative Status of INGOs

 Over 4,000 NGOs hold consultative status with ECOSOC.

 NGOs can:
o Attend meetings
o Submit written/oral statements
o Collaborate on UN programs Examples: Amnesty International,
Human Rights Watch.

3. Role in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

 INGOs:
o Assist implementation through grassroots programs.
o Monitor progress via reports and assessments.
 o Raise awareness and mobilize public support.

Dispute Redressal Mechanisms in

International Relations
3.1. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes

3.1.1 Chapter VI of the UN Charter

Objective: Chapter VI of the UN Charter emphasizes the obligation of member states to
resolve disputes peacefully without endangering international peace and security.

Article 33: It lists several means for dispute settlement:

1. 1. Negotiation: Direct dialogue between conflicting parties aimed at reaching a mutual
agreement. For example, India and Pakistan have repeatedly engaged in negotiations
over the Kashmir dispute and Indus Waters Treaty.
2. 2. Mediation: Involves a neutral third party who facilitates dialogue and suggests
solutions, without binding authority. Example: Norway's mediation in Sri Lanka
between the government and LTTE.

3. Conciliation: A commission investigates and proposes solutions, but the

result is non-binding. It combines elements of both mediation and
inquiry.
4. Arbitration: Involves a tribunal whose decision is binding on the parties. Example: The
India-Bangladesh maritime boundary dispute, resolved by the Permanent Court of
Arbitration.

5. Judicial Settlement: Legal disputes are submitted to judicial bodies such as the
International Court of Justice (ICJ), whose decisions are binding.

3.1.2 Functions and Role of ICJ

ICJ Overview: Established in 1945, headquartered at The Hague, it is the principal judicial
organ of the UN.

Jurisdiction: Settles legal disputes submitted by states and gives advisory opinions to
authorized UN bodies and agencies.

Functions:
 - Dispute resolution based on international law.
 - Interpretation of treaties and international conventions.
 - Application of principles of international law.

Case Laws:
3. 1. Nicaragua v. United States (1986): The ICJ found that the U.S. had violated
international law by supporting the Contras in Nicaragua and mining Nicaraguan
harbors.
4. 2. India v. Pakistan (Kulbhushan Jadhav Case, 2019): ICJ ruled that Pakistan violated the
Vienna Convention by denying consular access to Jadhav, and ordered effective review
and reconsideration of the conviction.

3. Qatar v. Bahrain (2001): The ICJ resolved a long-standing dispute over

territory and maritime boundaries.

3.2 UN Peacekeeping Operations

Principles of UN Peacekeeping:
5. 1. Consent of the Parties: Peacekeepers must operate with the consent of the host
country and conflicting parties.
6. 2. Impartiality: Missions must remain neutral and not take sides.

3. Non-use of Force: Except in self-defense and defense of the mandate.

Case Studies:
UNMISS (South Sudan):
 - Established in 2011 following South Sudan's independence.
 - Mandate: Protection of civilians, support for peace implementation, human rights
monitoring.
 - Challenges: Ethnic violence, obstruction by government forces.
 - Achievements: Shelter and aid for displaced people, support for national dialogue.

MINURSO (Western Sahara):

 - Established in 1991 to monitor ceasefire and conduct a referendum for self-
determination of the Sahrawi people.
 - Status: Political impasse due to disagreement over voter eligibility and lack of
progress.
 - Criticism: Absence of a human rights monitoring mechanism.

MINUSTAH (Haiti):
 - Deployed in 2004 to stabilize Haiti after a coup.
 - Focus: Disarmament, police reform, electoral support.
 - Achievements: Helped restore order and supported political processes.
 - Criticism: Accusations of sexual misconduct and a cholera outbreak traced to
peacekeepers.

Critical Appraisal:
 - UN peacekeeping missions have saved lives and prevented escalations.
 - Issues include limited resources, dependency on troop-contributing countries, and lack
of enforcement powers.
 - Increasing demand for reforms to improve accountability and operational
effectiveness.

3.3 Chapter VII of the UN Charter: Coercive Methods of Settlement

3.3.1 UNSC as a Global Enforcement Agency

Articles 39–51: Enable the UN Security Council to take action when there is a threat to
peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression.

Powers include:
 - Economic sanctions.
 - Arms embargoes.
 - Authorization of military action.
 - Creation of international tribunals (e.g., ICTY for Yugoslavia).

Examples:
 - Sanctions on North Korea for nuclear testing.
 - NATO intervention in Libya (2011) under UNSC Resolution 1973.

3.3.2 Veto Power and P-5

P-5 Members: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Veto Power: Any one of the P-5 can block any substantive resolution.

Consequences:
 - Paralysis of UNSC in crises (e.g., repeated vetoes on Syria conflict resolutions).
 - Perceived bias and legitimacy crisis.

3.3.3 Uniting for Peace Resolution (UNGA RES/377 A)

Background: Adopted in 1950 due to the UNSC's failure to act during the Korean War.
Provision: When the UNSC fails to act due to veto, the General Assembly can recommend
collective measures.

Usage:
 - 1950: Korean War.
 - 1980s: Middle East conflicts.
 - 2022: Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

UNSC Reform:
Need for Reform: To address lack of representation and accountability.

Proposals:
 - Expansion of permanent and non-permanent members.
 - Limiting or abolishing veto power.
 - More equitable geographic representation.

India’s Position: Strongly advocates for permanent membership along with Brazil, Germany,
and Japan (G4).
International Organizations and Issues: Detailed Notes for BA LLB

4.1 United Nations Organisation (UNO)

4.1.1 Formation, Objectives, Purposes, and Principles

Formation

 The United Nations was established on 24 October 1945, following the devastation
of World War II. It replaced the League of Nations, which had been unable to
prevent the outbreak of war.
 The primary goal of its formation was to prevent future conflicts, promote
international peace, and foster cooperation among nations.
 The UN Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 in San Francisco by 50 countries,
and it came into force once ratified by the five permanent members of the
Security Council (USA, UK, USSR, China, France) and the majority of other
signatories.

Objectives

1. Maintain international peace and security by preventing conflicts and

intervening diplomatically in global disputes.
2. Promote friendly relations among nations based on equality and mutual respect.
3. Facilitate international cooperation in resolving economic, social, cultural, and
humanitarian issues.
4. Provide a platform for global dialogue to harmonize the actions of nations
towards common goals.

Purposes and Principles

 Respect for Sovereign Equality: Each member state, regardless of its size or
power, has an equal say in international deliberations.
 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: The UN promotes negotiation and arbitration to
resolve international conflicts.
 Prohibition of the Use of Force: Member states must refrain from aggression or
threats in international relations.
 Non-Intervention Policy: The UN respects the internal sovereignty of nations,
avoiding undue interference in domestic affairs.
 Good Faith Compliance: Countries must fulfill their international obligations
sincerely, contributing to global stability.
4.1.2 Principal Organs of the UN: Composition, Functions, and Evaluation

1. General Assembly (UNGA)

 Composition: All 193 member states have equal representation and one vote
each.
 Functions:
o Discusses global issues, adopts resolutions, and sets policies.
o Approves the UN budget and oversees funding allocation.
o Elects non-permanent members of the Security Council.
o Serves as a forum for international dialogue.
 Evaluation: The UNGA is a representative body, but its resolutions are non-
binding, limiting its direct impact on international governance.

2. Security Council (UNSC)

 Composition: 15 members (5 permanent with veto power—USA, UK, France,

Russia, China; 10 elected for 2-year terms).
 Functions:
o Ensures international peace and security.
o Has the authority to impose sanctions, deploy peacekeeping forces, and
authorize military action.
o Can refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC).
 Evaluation: Effective but criticized for unequal power distribution, particularly
due to the veto system controlled by the permanent members.

3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

 Composition: 54 members elected by the General Assembly for 3-year terms.

 Functions:
o Coordinates global economic and social policies.
o Works with specialized agencies such as the WHO, IMF, and UNESCO.
o Focuses on sustainable development and poverty eradication.
 Evaluation: Crucial for global development, but often overshadowed by the more
politically influential Security Council.

4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

 Composition: 15 judges elected for 9-year terms by the UNGA and UNSC.
 Functions:
o Settles international legal disputes between states.
o Issues advisory opinions on legal matters for the UN.
 Evaluation: Decisions are legally binding, but enforcement relies on state
cooperation, limiting its effectiveness.
5. Secretariat

 Headed by: The UN Secretary-General, currently António Guterres.

 Functions:
o Oversees administrative operations and implements UN programs.
o Conducts diplomatic mediation during crises.
 Evaluation: Essential for UN continuity, but limited by budget constraints and
political pressures.

6. Trusteeship Council

 Inactive since 1994, following the independence of Palau, the last trust territory.
 Originally supervised territories seeking self-governance.
 Evaluation: Successfully accomplished its mission by facilitating global
decolonization.

Certainly! Below is an expanded version of Section 4.2: Specialized Agencies, with

additional insights on their history, objectives, structure, and impact.

4.2 Specialized Agencies: Functions and Roles

Specialized agencies of the United Nations (UN) are autonomous organizations working
in various fields, from global trade and economic stability to health and labor rights.
These agencies coordinate international efforts to address challenges and promote
sustainable development.

1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

Established: 1995, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

Membership: 164 countries.

Objectives:

 Facilitate smooth international trade by ensuring predictable and transparent

trade policies.
 Settle trade disputes among nations.
 Promote free trade agreements while protecting fair competition.
Functions:

 Administers WTO agreements, setting global trade rules.

 Monitors trade policies of member nations.
 Provides a dispute resolution mechanism for trade conflicts.

Impact:

 Strengthens global trade regulations, reducing unfair practices.

 Criticized for favoring developed economies in disputes.

2. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Established: 1944, as part of the Bretton Woods Agreement.

Headquarters: Washington, D.C., USA.

Membership: 190 countries.

Objectives:

 Maintain global financial stability.

 Offer financial assistance to struggling economies.
 Monitor exchange rates and economic policies.

Functions:

 Provides financial aid to countries facing economic crises.

 Conducts economic surveillance to prevent financial instability.
 Offers technical assistance in policymaking.

Impact:

 Plays a vital role in economic recovery but criticized for strict loan conditions.
3. World Bank

Established: 1944, alongside the IMF.

Headquarters: Washington, D.C., USA.

Membership: 189 countries.

Objectives:

 Provide long-term development funding.

 Combat poverty and economic inequality.
 Fund education, healthcare, and infrastructure projects.

Functions:

 Grants loans for development projects.

 Publishes reports on global economic trends.
 Partners with governments for sustainable initiatives.

Impact:

 Effective in poverty reduction, but criticized for excessive debt burdens on low-
income nations.

4. International Labour Organization (ILO)

Established: 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles.

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

Membership: 187 countries.

Objectives:

 Promote worker rights and fair employment standards.

 Ensure safe working conditions globally.

Functions:

 Sets global labor standards.

 Monitors child labor and forced labor violations.
 Facilitates negotiation between governments, employers, and workers.
Impact:

 Strengthened workplace rights, but enforcement varies by country.

5. World Health Organization (WHO)

Established: 1948.

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

Membership: 194 countries.

Objectives:

 Ensure global health security.

 Coordinate responses to health emergencies.

Functions:

 Sets health guidelines for disease prevention.

 Researches global health concerns, including pandemics.
 Supports vaccination campaigns and healthcare development.

Impact:

 Critical in pandemic response (COVID-19).

 Limited authority due to dependence on member nations.

6. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

Established: 1945.

Headquarters: Paris, France.

Membership: 193 countries.

Objectives:

 Promote education, science, and culture.

 Protect world heritage sites.

Functions:

 Develops global education programs.

  Preserves historical landmarks.

Impact:

 Supports scientific progress, but funding limitations affect projects.

7. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)

Established: 1946.

Headquarters: New York, USA.

Membership: Operates in 190 countries.

Objectives:

 Improve child welfare, health, and education.

 Provide emergency relief.

Functions:

 Vaccination campaigns for children.

 Protects children’s rights under international law.

Impact:

 Major humanitarian contributions, but challenges in war zones.

8. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Established: 1945.

Headquarters: Rome, Italy.

Membership: 195 countries.

Objectives:

 Combat hunger and malnutrition.

 Ensure food security worldwide.
Functions:

 Provides agricultural aid to developing countries.

 Monitors global food production.

Impact:

 Major contributions to food security, but faces climate-related agricultural

challenges.

This expanded version includes history, objectives, and key impacts of each specialized
agency. Would you like any further refinements? 😊

4.3 Regional Organizations and Groupings

1. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

 Established: 1960 in Baghdad, Iraq by founding members Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,

Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.
 Current Membership: 13 oil-exporting nations + OPEC+ (includes Russia and
others).
 Objectives:
o Coordinate and regulate petroleum production to stabilize global oil
markets.
o Ensure fair pricing for both producers and consumers.
o Promote sustainable energy policies.
 Impact:
o OPEC plays a critical role in influencing global oil prices.
o Faced challenges due to geopolitical tensions, shale oil competition, and
calls for alternative energy sources.

2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

 Established: 1967 through the Bangkok Declaration.

 Members: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei,
Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia.
 Objectives:
o Enhance economic, political, and security cooperation.
o Maintain regional stability through diplomatic dialogue.
 o Promote free trade agreements (ASEAN Economic Community -
AEC).
 Impact:
o One of the fastest-growing economic zones in the world.
o Maintains neutral diplomatic relations, balancing US-China influence.

3. European Union (EU)

 Established: 1993 via the Maastricht Treaty (evolved from the 1957 European
Economic Community).
 Members: 27 European nations.
 Objectives:
o Political and economic integration to ensure stability.
o Operates a single market, allowing free movement of goods, services,
people, and capital.
o Introduced the Euro (€) as a common currency (used by 20 nations).
 Impact:
o Strengthens Europe’s global influence.
o Faces challenges like Brexit (UK’s exit in 2020) and debates over further
expansion.

4. Arab League

 Established: 1945 in Cairo, Egypt.

 Members: 22 Arab nations (North Africa & Middle East).
 Objectives:
o Strengthen political cooperation among Arab states.
o Resolve regional conflicts diplomatically.
o Enhance economic integration.
 Impact:
o Played a role in Palestinian diplomacy and Arab-Israeli conflicts.
o Struggles with internal disagreements, limiting effectiveness.

5. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

 Established: 1985 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

 Members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Afghanistan,
Maldives.
 Objectives:
o Foster economic, social, and cultural cooperation.
 o Address poverty reduction, trade agreements, and disaster
management.
 Impact:
o Lacks influence due to India-Pakistan tensions, causing stalled progress.
o SAARC’s free trade area remains underutilized.

6. Group of Seven (G7)

 Established: 1975.
 Members: USA, Canada, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Japan.
 Objectives:
o Promote economic policy coordination.
o Discuss trade, security, and global challenges.
o Provide financial aid and respond to crises (e.g., climate change,
pandemics).
 Impact:
o Criticized for being exclusive and favoring Western economies.

7. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS)

 Established: 2009 (South Africa joined in 2010).

 Objectives:
o Strengthen economic and political partnerships.
o Counter Western influence by promoting a multipolar world order.
o Establish alternatives like the BRICS Bank (New Development Bank -
NDB).
 Impact:
o Represents over 40% of the global population and major emerging
economies.
o Struggles due to economic disparities between members.

8. Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

 Established: 2007 (revived in 2017).

 Members: India, USA, Japan, Australia.
 Objectives:
o Ensure a free and open Indo-Pacific.
o Strengthen maritime security and counterbalance China’s regional
influence.
o Promote economic and technological cooperation.
  Impact:
o Expanding influence through joint military exercises.
o Criticized by China as a "military containment strategy."

9. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

 Established: 1949.
 Members: 32 countries (including the US, UK, Canada, Germany, France).
 Objectives:
o Collective military defense (Article 5 states "an attack on one is an attack
on all").
o Strengthen Western security alliances.
o Intervene in conflicts via peacekeeping missions.
 Impact:
o Central in Cold War defense, Afghanistan war, and Ukraine crisis.
o Expanding membership despite Russia’s opposition.

10. Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC)

 Established: 1997.
 Members: India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan.
 Objectives:
o Connect South Asia with Southeast Asia for trade and development.
o Focus on infrastructure projects and technology partnerships.
 Impact:
o Gaining momentum as an alternative to SAARC, which is slowed by
political conflicts.

Comparison of Key Regional Organizations

Organizatio Focus Key Strength Key Weakness

n
OPEC Oil & energy Controls global oil Vulnerable to
prices geopolitical shifts
ASEAN Economic & Strong regional Lacks unified political
diplomatic cooperation stance
EU Political & economic Single market & Internal divisions
Euro currency (Brexit)
 Arab League Political unity Common Arab Limited conflict
agenda resolution power
SAARC Development & trade South Asian India-Pakistan tensions
cooperation stall progress
G7 Economic policy Influential in global Exclusive, Western-
decisions focused
BRICS Emerging economies Growing global Economic disparities
power among members
QUAD Security & Indo- Strong defense Seen as anti-China
Pacific stability cooperation alliance
NATO Military defense Strong security Russia-NATO tensions
umbrella limit expansion
BIMSTEC Regional trade & Bridges South & Still developing
development Southeast Asia capacity

4.4 Issues of Concern in International Relations

4.4.1 Global North-South Divide

 Wealth disparity between developed and developing nations.

 Technological access is concentrated in the North.
 Unequal global influence in policymaking.

4.4.2 Wealth & Vaccine Inequality; Climate Justice

 NIEO: Calls for economic justice for developing nations.

 Vaccine inequality: Wealthy nations hoarded supplies.
 Climate justice: Industrialized nations bear historical carbon responsibility.

4.4.3 Human Security: Asylum Seekers, Migrants, and Refugees

 Asylum seekers seek protection but await legal status determination.

 Migrants move voluntarily for economic opportunities.
 Refugees flee war or persecution and receive international protection.

This is an expanded version of your notes with additional details. Would you like me to
elaborate further on any particular section? 😊
Certainly! Here’s a more detailed expansion of Section 4.3: Regional Organizations
and Groupings with additional insights into their history, objectives, structure, and
significance.

This expanded version includes historical background, key functions, evaluations, and
comparisons of major regional organizations. Would you like me to further refine or add
more details on any specific organization? 😊