Social Science

Project

CHAPTERS: Page No.

1. Forest Society and Colonialism 1

2. Natural wildlife and vegetation 10

By: ANGAD SANODIYA

 History
Forest Society and Colonialism
Introduction:
The relationship between humans and forests has been one of mutual dependence
and coexistence for centuries. In pre-colonial India, forests were not just vast
stretches of trees; they were lifelines for numerous communities, especially
tribals and rural people, who relied on them for their daily survival. Forests
provided a variety of resources, including timber, firewood, fruits, medicinal
plants, and fodder for cattle. The tribal communities living in or near the forests
developed a deep connection with nature, managing the resources sustainably
and maintaining ecological balance. Their lives were intricately tied to the
forests, which were integral to their economy, culture, and survival.

However, the onset of British colonial rule in India in the 18th century drastically
altered this relationship. With the establishment of British control, forests, which
had previously been managed by local communities, came under the control of
the colonial state. The British, driven by the need to exploit India’s natural
resources for their own economic benefit, introduced a series of forest policies
that aimed to regulate and control the use of forest resources. These policies
marked a shift from a sustainable, community-based approach to forest
management to a commercialized, extractive system that prioritized economic
profit over the well-being of local populations.

The colonial forest laws, such as the Forest Act of 1865 and 1878, restricted the
rights of local communities to freely access forest resources. These laws not only
limited the availability of resources for the people who had relied on them but
also criminalized their traditional practices. The British viewed forests as a
commodity to be exploited for timber, resin, and other valuable products,
disregarding the livelihood and cultural practices of the indigenous people. As a
result, local communities found themselves alienated from the forests they had
once depended on.

This chapter, "Forest Society and Colonialism," explores the ways in which
colonial policies disrupted the lives of forest-dependent communities and altered
the management of forests in India. It highlights the significance of forests in pre-
colonial India, the impact of British forest policies, and the resistance movements
that arose in response to the exploitation of forest resources. Through this
examination, we can better understand the profound changes that occurred in
India’s rural and forested regions during colonial rule and the long-lasting
consequences of these policies on both the environment and the people. The
colonial legacy in forest management continues to influence the dynamics
between forest conservation, local rights, and development in modern India.
Pre-colonial Forest Societies:
Before the arrival of British colonial rule, the forests of India were vital to the
lives of many communities, particularly tribal groups and rural peasants. These
forest societies, including tribes like the Gonds, Santals, Bhils, and others, lived
in harmony with nature, depending on forests for their daily needs. The forests
provided a wide range of resources—fruits, roots, herbs, honey, timber, and
fodder for livestock—essential for survival. The relationship between people and
forests was deeply rooted in a system of mutual respect and sustainable use.

1. Diverse Practices for Livelihood:

o Hunting and Gathering: Forests were rich in resources that people
gathered for food, medicine, and materials. Hunting wild animals
and collecting forest products such as fruits and herbs were
common activities.
o Shifting Cultivation: Many tribal communities practiced shifting
agriculture, where small patches of forest were cleared for
cultivation, and once the land lost fertility, it was left fallow,
allowing the forest to regenerate. This ensured the sustainability of
the environment.
o Pastoralism: Forests also served as grazing grounds for cattle, with
communities managing their herds in these areas.
2. Customary Laws and Governance:
The forest communities were governed by customary laws and traditions,
not formal legal structures. Local village councils or tribal leaders played
an important role in regulating forest use. These systems helped maintain
a balance between human activities and the preservation of the forest.
3. Sacred Forests and Spiritual Connections:
Many forest societies had a deep spiritual connection with nature. Forests
were often considered sacred, and certain areas were designated as sacred
groves, protected from exploitation. These places were associated with
deities and religious rituals, showing the reverence with which people
treated the forest.

The management of forest resources was based on a collective understanding of

the need for sustainability, ensuring that forest products could regenerate over
time. This system of ecological balance, maintained for centuries, allowed forest
societies to thrive without depleting the forests.

However, this relationship was significantly disrupted with the advent of British
colonialism, which viewed forests purely as a resource to be exploited for
economic gain. The British introduced policies that ignored traditional rights and
imposed new regulations, thereby affecting the forest-dependent communities'
access to resources and their way of life. The impact of these colonial policies
would alter the landscape of India’s forests and its societies forever.
Types of Forests under Colonial Rule:
Under British rule, forests in India were classified into three types to regulate
their use and ensure maximum economic benefit for the colonial government.
This classification disrupted the traditional relationship between local
communities and forests.

1. Reserved Forests

These were the most strictly controlled forests. Reserved forests were deemed
valuable for timber production, especially for railways and shipbuilding. Local
people were completely banned from activities like grazing, hunting, or collecting
firewood in these areas. This strict restriction caused significant hardships for
tribal communities who depended on the forests for their livelihood.

2. Protected Forests

Protected forests were less restrictive compared to reserved forests. Locals were
allowed limited access to collect resources such as firewood, leaves, and small
timber. However, these activities were regulated, and many traditional practices
like shifting cultivation were banned. While locals were not entirely excluded,
their lives and customs were still heavily impacted.

3. Village Forests

Village forests were the least controlled and were meant for community use.
Villagers could collect firewood, fruits, and other minor forest produce for their
daily needs. However, even these areas were under government supervision, and
access was often regulated. This system aimed to balance local needs with
colonial control but often failed to satisfy the affected communities.

This classification served British economic interests while severely restricting the
rights of forest-dependent people, leading to widespread resentment and protests.
Effects of Colonial Policies on Communities:
The colonial forest policies introduced by the British had far-reaching impacts on
the lives of tribal and rural communities who depended on forests for their
livelihood. These policies restricted their traditional rights, causing widespread
hardships.

1. Displacement of Tribals

The British government declared large areas of forests as reserved forests,

forcing tribal communities to vacate their lands. Many tribals lost access to their
ancestral homes and were displaced, leaving them homeless and without means
to survive.

2. Restriction on Traditional Practices

Colonial laws banned or restricted traditional practices that were central to the
livelihood of forest-dependent communities. Shifting Cultivation, also known as
jhum cultivation, was banned in many areas as it was considered harmful to
forests. This left tribals without their primary method of farming. Hunting and
Gathering were also prohibited, leading to food scarcity and depriving
communities of essential forest produce.

3. Impact on Pastoralists

The reduction of grazing land severely affected nomadic and pastoralist

communities. They could no longer freely graze their cattle in forests, leading to
economic hardships and forcing many to abandon their traditional way of life.

4. Forced Labor on Plantations

Large forest areas were cleared for plantations of tea, coffee, and rubber. Local
people were often forced to work as laborers under exploitative conditions, with
low wages and harsh working environments.

5. Loss of Cultural Practices

Forests were an integral part of the culture and traditions of tribal communities.
The restrictions on access to sacred groves and hunting disrupted their cultural
practices and rituals, leading to the erosion of their way of life.
Plantation Economy:
The colonial period saw the development of plantation economies where forests
were cleared to establish large-scale plantations for crops like tea, coffee, and
rubber. These plantations served the economic interests of the British, but they
severely affected the local environment and communities.

1. Clearing Forests for Plantations

Large areas of natural forests were destroyed to make way for commercial
plantations. The British prioritized cash crops like tea, coffee, and rubber as they
were in high demand in European markets. This led to the loss of biodiversity
and disrupted the ecological balance of the region.

2. Role of the British Government

The government supported plantation agriculture by enacting strict forest laws.

Forests were declared state property, and the rights of local people to use forest
resources were curtailed. This ensured that plantations could expand without
interference.

3. Exploitation of Labor

Plantations required a large workforce, and local communities were often forced
to work as laborers. These workers were subjected to poor working conditions,
long hours, and meager wages. Many were bonded laborers who had little to no
freedom.

4. Impact on Local Communities

The plantation economy displaced tribal communities and forest dwellers. They
lost access to their traditional livelihoods, such as shifting cultivation and
hunting, and were forced to work under exploitative conditions on the
plantations.

5. Environmental Degradation

The monoculture practices in plantations, where a single crop was grown over
large areas, led to soil degradation and reduced forest cover. This caused long-
term environmental damage, such as the loss of wildlife habitats and changes in
local climate patterns.
Rise of Forest Movements:
The colonial forest policies introduced by the British severely restricted the
rights of forest-dependent communities, leading to widespread discontent and
resistance. These policies disrupted traditional livelihoods and access to forest
resources, prompting several forest movements across India.

1. Reasons for Forest Movements

 Loss of Livelihoods: Tribals and villagers who depended on forests for food,
fuel, and farming were deprived of access due to strict forest laws.
 Displacement: Many were forced to leave their homes as forests were
cleared for timber and plantations.
 Cultural Disruption: Sacred groves and hunting practices, important to tribal
cultures, were prohibited.
 Forced Labor: Communities were exploited as cheap labor on plantations
and for timber extraction.

2. Key Forest Movements

 Bastar Rebellion (1910): This rebellion took place in central India when the
tribal people of Bastar opposed colonial forest policies, particularly the
restrictions on shifting cultivation and grazing.
 Santhal Revolt (1855-1856): Although primarily an agrarian revolt, the
Santhals also protested forest restrictions that impacted their livelihoods.
 Chipko Movement (1970s): Though post-colonial, this movement in
Uttarakhand was inspired by earlier protests and involved villagers hugging
trees to prevent deforestation.

3. Methods of Resistance

 Direct Action: Tribals used methods like cutting down trees in restricted
areas, defying forest laws, and refusing to pay taxes.
 Rebellions: Large-scale revolts, like the Bastar Rebellion, involved entire
communities standing against the colonial authorities.
 Non-Cooperation: In some regions, locals refused to work on plantations or
assist British officials.
Scientific Forestry:
During the colonial period, the British introduced the concept of Scientific
Forestry to manage and exploit forests efficiently. This system aimed to increase
timber production while ignoring the traditional practices of forest-dependent
communities, leading to significant ecological and social impacts.

1. What is Scientific Forestry?

Scientific forestry was a system where natural forests were replaced with
monoculture plantations of commercially valuable trees like teak and sal. Forests
were treated as "timber-producing factories," focusing solely on economic gain.

Key features included:

 Selection of trees for timber production.

 Planting trees in neat rows for easier harvesting.
 Periodic felling and replanting in cycles (known as rotation).

2. Role of the British Government

The British implemented strict forest laws to support scientific forestry. Local
people were prohibited from activities like grazing, collecting firewood, and
shifting cultivation, as these were seen as harmful to forest management. Forests
became state property, and their use was tightly regulated.

3. Impact on Local Communities

 Loss of Livelihoods: Tribals and villagers, who depended on forests for food,
firewood, and farming, lost access to these resources.
 Disruption of Traditional Practices: Indigenous methods like shifting
cultivation and controlled burning, which had been practiced for centuries,
were banned.
 Exploitation of Labor: Locals were forced to work as laborers in the planting,
maintenance, and harvesting of timber under poor conditions.

4. Environmental Impact

 Monoculture Plantations: Scientific forestry reduced biodiversity as natural

forests with diverse species were replaced with single-species plantations.
 Soil Degradation: Planting the same type of tree over large areas harmed soil
fertility and disrupted the natural ecosystem.
 Loss of Wildlife Habitats: Clearing natural forests destroyed the habitats of
many animals, leading to a decline in wildlife populations.
Conclusion:
The colonial policies on forests had a profound and lasting impact on India’s
environment and society. These policies were driven by the British desire to
exploit natural resources for economic and industrial purposes. The introduction
of forest laws, scientific forestry, and the plantation economy prioritized profits
over the well-being of local communities and the ecological balance.

Forest-dependent communities, such as tribals, nomads, and pastoralists,

suffered the most under colonial rule. They were displaced from their ancestral
lands, lost access to essential resources, and faced restrictions on traditional
practices like shifting cultivation and hunting. The exploitation of labor on
plantations and in timber production further deepened their hardships.
Moreover, their cultural practices, closely tied to forests, were disrupted, leading
to a loss of identity and heritage.

Environmentally, the colonial approach caused significant damage. The focus on

monoculture plantations under scientific forestry reduced biodiversity, degraded
soil, and destroyed wildlife habitats. Forests were no longer seen as ecosystems
but as sources of timber and revenue. This exploitation disrupted the natural
balance and created long-term ecological challenges.

Despite the hardships, colonial forest policies also gave rise to resistance
movements, where forest-dependent communities fought for their rights. Protests
like the Bastar Rebellion and the Chipko Movement highlighted the importance
of forests for the survival and dignity of these communities. These movements
laid the foundation for future struggles for environmental conservation and
social justice.

Today, the legacy of colonial forest policies serves as a reminder of the need to
balance conservation with community rights. Forests are vital not only for their
resources but also for maintaining biodiversity, climate stability, and the
livelihoods of millions. Sustainable management and respecting the rights of
forest-dependent communities remain key to ensuring that forests continue to
thrive for future generations.
 Geography
Natural wildlife and vegetation
Introduction:
Natural vegetation refers to the plant life that grows naturally in an area without
human intervention, while wildlife includes all the animals, birds, and insects
that live in their natural habitats. Both natural vegetation and wildlife are
essential components of ecosystems, providing ecological, economic, and cultural
benefits. They are influenced by several factors, such as climate, soil, relief, and
human activities.

India, with its diverse geography and varied climate, is home to a wide range of
natural vegetation types and a rich variety of wildlife. From the tropical
rainforests of the Western Ghats to the arid deserts of Rajasthan, the country
boasts an array of ecosystems, each supporting distinct plant and animal species.
These ecosystems are vital for maintaining ecological balance, regulating the
climate, and supporting human livelihoods.

Natural vegetation plays a crucial role in stabilizing the environment. Forests

help in absorbing carbon dioxide, producing oxygen, preventing soil erosion, and
supporting the water cycle. Wildlife, on the other hand, helps in pollination, seed
dispersal, and maintaining the food chain, ensuring biodiversity. Together,
vegetation and wildlife maintain the intricate balance of nature.

However, despite their importance, natural vegetation and wildlife face

numerous threats due to human activities. Deforestation, poaching, climate
change, and habitat destruction have led to a decline in many species and
ecosystems. As a result, conservation efforts are essential to protect these natural
resources and ensure that future generations can enjoy the benefits they provide.

In this chapter, we will explore the types of natural vegetation and wildlife found
in India, the factors influencing them, their importance, and the measures needed
to conserve them. By understanding these aspects, we can better appreciate the
need for sustainable environmental practices to preserve our rich natural
heritage.
Factors Affecting Natural Vegetation:
Natural vegetation is influenced by several factors, which determine the type,
density, and growth of plants in a particular area. These factors include climate,
soil, relief (landforms), and human activity. Each of these factors plays a vital
role in shaping the vegetation found in different regions.

1. Climate

Climate is the most significant factor affecting the type of vegetation in an area.
It includes temperature, rainfall, and humidity, which collectively influence plant
growth.

 Temperature: The temperature of a region determines which plants can

survive there. Tropical plants thrive in hot climates, while temperate plants
grow in cooler regions.
 Rainfall: The amount of rainfall is crucial for vegetation. Areas with high
rainfall (above 200 cm annually) support dense forests, while regions with
little rainfall (less than 50 cm) are usually desert areas with sparse
vegetation.
 Humidity: Humid conditions are ideal for the growth of dense, evergreen
forests, while dry conditions lead to the growth of shrubs and thorny plants.

2. Soil

Soil types greatly affect the kinds of plants that grow in an area. Different soil
qualities support different kinds of vegetation.

 Fertile Soils: Rich, loamy soils, such as those found in the Indo-Gangetic
plains, support dense vegetation like grasslands and deciduous forests.
 Arid Soils: In dry regions with sandy or saline soil, plants like cacti and thorny
bushes thrive, adapted to conserve water.
 Alkaline and Acidic Soils: Plants also adapt to soils with specific pH levels.
For example, coniferous trees grow well in acidic soils, while tropical trees
flourish in neutral or slightly alkaline soils.

3. Relief (Landforms)

Relief, or the physical features of the land, significantly affects the distribution of
vegetation.

 Altitude: At higher altitudes, the temperature decreases, and the vegetation

shifts from tropical forests to alpine meadows. For instance, in mountainous
regions, we find coniferous forests at higher altitudes and grasslands at
lower elevations.
  Slope: Steep slopes have thinner soil cover, making it difficult for large
plants to grow. Hence, forests on steep slopes may be smaller and sparser.
 Drainage: Regions with better drainage, such as river valleys, support lush
vegetation, while areas prone to waterlogging, like marshes, support
different types of plants adapted to wet conditions.

4. Human Activity

Human activities also impact natural vegetation. Deforestation for agriculture,

urbanization, and industrial development can result in the destruction of forests
and wildlife habitats.

 Deforestation: Cutting down forests for timber, fuel, and urban development
reduces the area available for natural vegetation.
 Agriculture: Large-scale farming, especially monoculture crops, replaces
natural vegetation with cultivated plants.
 Urbanization and Industrialization: As cities grow, natural vegetation is often
cleared to make space for buildings, roads, and factories, leading to a loss of
biodiversity.

5. Biotic Interactions

The interaction between different species of plants and animals also affects
vegetation growth. For example, herbivores can damage or consume plant life,
while other species may help in seed dispersal, thus promoting vegetation growth.

In conclusion, climate, soil, relief, and human activity are the key factors that
determine the type and distribution of natural vegetation in an area. Each of
these factors interacts to create the specific plant life found in different
ecosystems, and understanding these factors is essential for managing and
conserving our natural resources.
Types of Natural Vegetation in India:
India’s diverse climate, soil, and topography give rise to a wide variety of natural
vegetation. The types of vegetation found in India are classified into several
categories based on factors like temperature, rainfall, and altitude. The major
types of natural vegetation in India include Tropical Evergreen Forests, Tropical
Deciduous Forests, Thorn Forests and Scrubs, Montane Forests, and Mangrove
Forests.

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

 Characteristics: These forests are dense and always green, as they do not
shed leaves in any season. They receive heavy rainfall (more than 200 cm
annually) and have a hot, humid climate throughout the year.
 Location: Found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and
parts of northeastern India.
 Common Trees: Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Rubber.
 Wildlife: Elephants, Tigers, Monkeys, Snakes.

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests

 Characteristics: These forests shed their leaves during the dry season to
conserve water. They are more common in regions with moderate rainfall
(70-200 cm annually).
 Location: Found in regions like the central and northern parts of India, the
foothills of the Himalayas, and parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
 Common Trees: Teak, Sal, Neem, Peepal.
 Wildlife: Tigers, Lions, Deer, Wolves, Birds.

3. Thorn Forests and Scrubs

 Characteristics: These forests are found in areas with low rainfall (less than
70 cm). The vegetation is sparse, with thorny bushes, cacti, and xerophytes
that are adapted to survive in dry conditions.
 Location: Found in the desert regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and
parts of the Deccan Plateau.
 Common Plants: Cactus, Acacia, Date Palm.
 Wildlife: Camels, Foxes, Snakes, Desert Rats.

4. Montane Forests

 Characteristics: Montane forests vary with altitude. At lower altitudes, they

consist of tropical and temperate trees, while higher altitudes have
 coniferous forests. The vegetation changes with the altitude and
temperature.
 Location: Found in the Himalayan region, the Nilgiri Hills, and other
mountainous regions.
 Common Trees: Oak, Deodar, Pine, Fir.
 Wildlife: Snow Leopards, Yaks, Monkeys, Pheasants.

5. Mangrove Forests

 Characteristics: Mangrove forests grow in coastal and tidal areas, where

saltwater is prevalent. These forests have trees with stilt roots, which help
them survive in the saline environment.
 Location: Found along the coastal regions of West Bengal (Sundarbans),
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Common Plants: Sundari, Rhizophora, Coconut.
 Wildlife: Bengal Tigers, Crocodiles, Snakes, Marine Species.

India’s natural vegetation is crucial for maintaining the ecological balance. These
forests provide timber, fuel, and medicinal plants, regulate the water cycle, and
support biodiversity. Each type of vegetation plays a unique role in sustaining the
environment and the livelihoods of the people living in those regions.

Importance of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:

Natural vegetation and wildlife are integral components of Earth's ecosystems,
contributing significantly to the environment, economy, and society. They
support life on Earth and provide essential services that maintain ecological
balance, help in sustainable development, and promote cultural heritage.

Environmental Benefits

Natural vegetation and wildlife play a crucial role in maintaining

ecological balance. Forests help in oxygen production, carbon
sequestration, soil conservation, and regulating the water cycle. Wildlife
contributes to biodiversity by supporting the food chain and maintaining
healthy ecosystems.

Economic Significance

Forests provide essential resources like timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants,

and fruits, which support livelihoods. Wildlife and natural forests also
 boost tourism and eco-tourism, contributing to the economy through
income and employment.

Cultural and Spiritual Importance

Many communities consider certain plants and animals sacred, leading to

their conservation. Traditional knowledge about the uses of plants for
medicinal purposes and the cultural connection to wildlife are integral to
preserving both nature and cultural heritage.

Threats to Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:

Natural vegetation and wildlife face several threats, primarily due to human
activities and environmental changes. These threats lead to the destruction of
ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and extinction of species. The major factors
contributing to these threats are deforestation, climate change, and poaching.

1. Deforestation

Deforestation, caused by clearing forests for agriculture, urbanization, and

industry, destroys habitats, disrupts carbon balance, and leads to soil erosion.
This not only impacts plant life but also endangers wildlife.

2. Climate Change

Climate change leads to altered rainfall patterns and rising temperatures,

affecting ecosystems and forcing species to adapt or face extinction. It disrupts
natural habitats and influences the migration and survival of animals.

3. Poaching and Habitat Destruction

Poaching for animal parts and the destruction of habitats for urban or
agricultural development threaten wildlife. Many species are driven to extinction
due to hunting and the loss of their natural homes.

These threats need urgent attention through conservation efforts and stricter
regulations to protect natural vegetation and wildlife for the future.
Role of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife in
Ecosystems:
Natural vegetation and wildlife play essential roles in maintaining the balance
and health of ecosystems. They are interconnected components of the
environment that contribute to the stability, productivity, and sustainability of
ecosystems. Each element, from plants to animals, performs specific functions
that support life and enhance the functioning of the ecosystem.

1. Oxygen Production and Carbon Sequestration

Natural vegetation, particularly forests, plays a crucial role in regulating the

atmosphere. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen, helping to maintain air quality. This oxygen
production supports all living organisms, while the carbon absorbed by plants
helps mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere.

2. Soil Formation and Protection

Vegetation is vital for soil conservation. The roots of plants help bind the soil
together, preventing erosion caused by wind and water. This is especially
important in mountainous and hilly areas, where soil erosion can lead to
landslides and loss of fertile land. Additionally, dead plant matter decomposes to
form humus, enriching the soil and maintaining its fertility, which benefits plant
growth.

3. Biodiversity and Food Chain Stability

Wildlife plays an important role in maintaining biodiversity by supporting food

chains and food webs. Herbivores feed on plants, while carnivores regulate
herbivore populations. This natural balance prevents any one species from
overwhelming the ecosystem. Insects, birds, and mammals also help with
pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control, ensuring the survival of plant species
and the regeneration of ecosystems.

Together, natural vegetation and wildlife are foundational to the functioning of

ecosystems. They regulate climate, contribute to nutrient cycling, maintain
biodiversity, and provide essential services like food, water, and oxygen. Their
preservation is crucial for the health of the planet and the survival of all life
forms.
Conclusion:
Natural vegetation and wildlife are integral to the health and functioning of
ecosystems, and they provide numerous environmental, economic, and cultural
benefits. They regulate the climate, conserve soil, maintain biodiversity, and
contribute to the sustainability of the planet. Forests, grasslands, wetlands, and
wildlife contribute to the delicate balance of nature, supporting food chains,
promoting pollination, and ensuring the survival of various species.

However, human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change

are threatening these vital resources. The loss of natural habitats, the extinction
of species, and the degradation of ecosystems are accelerating at an alarming
rate. If these trends continue, it could lead to irreversible damage to the
environment, affecting not only wildlife but also human societies that rely on
natural resources for their survival.

To address these challenges, it is essential to implement strong conservation

measures, promote sustainable development practices, and raise awareness about
the importance of preserving biodiversity. Governments, communities, and
individuals all have a role to play in safeguarding the planet’s natural heritage
for future generations. Through collective action, we can ensure that natural
vegetation and wildlife continue to thrive, maintaining the balance of ecosystems
and supporting life on Earth.
 Mind Maps
Forest Society and Colonialism
Natural wildlife and vegetation