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2 THINKING LIKE AN
ECONOMIST

W HA T ’S N E W IN T HE S IX T H E DIT I O N ?
A new, rather detailed discussion on “Why economists’ advice is not always followed” is introduced; the
In the News box “Superbowl Economics,” as well as the case study “Mr. Mankiw Goes to Washington”
have been removed; Table 2.2, “Propositions about which most economists agree” has been re-written;
end-of-chapter problems 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, and 13 have been replaced with the new problem 7.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students should understand:
16  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  16

 how economists apply the methods of science.

 how assumptions and models can shed light on the world.

 two simple models—the circular flow and the production possibilities frontier.

 the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics.

 the difference between positive and normative statements.

 the role of economists in making policy.

 why economists sometimes disagree with one another.

WHY IS THIS CHAPTER IMPORTANT TO STUDENTS?

Chapter 2 is the second chapter in a three-chapter section that serves as the introduction of the text.
Chapter 1 introduced ten principles of economics that will be revisited throughout the text. Chapter 2
develops how economists approach problems while Chapter 3 will explain how individuals and countries
gain from trade.
The purpose of Chapter 2 is to familiarize students with how economists approach economic
problems. With practice, students will learn how to approach similar problems in this dispassionate
systematic way. They will see how economists employ the scientific method, the role of assumptions in
model building, and the application of two specific economic models. Students will also learn the
important distinction between two roles economists can play: as scientists when we try to explain the
economic world and as policymakers when we try to improve it.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited 15

IF N O T HIN G E LS E , M Y S T UD E N T S S HO ULD LE A RN …
1. Economists try to address their subject with a scientist’s objectivity. Like all scientists, they make
appropriate assumptions and build simplified models in order to understand the world around them.
Two simple economic models are the circular-flow diagram and the production possibilities frontier.

2. The field of economics is divided into two subfields: microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Microeconomists study decision making by households and firms and the interaction among
households and firms in the marketplace. Macroeconomists study the forces and trends that affect
the economy as a whole.

3. A positive statement is an assertion about how the world is. A normative statement is an assertion
about how the world ought to be. When economists make normative statements, they are acting
more as policy advisers than scientists.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
17  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  17

4. Economists who advise policymakers offer conflicting advice either because of differences in scientific
judgments or because of differences in values. At other times, economists are united in the advice
they offer, but policymakers may choose to ignore it.

WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS?

I. The Economist as Scientist

A. The Scientific Method: Observation, Theory, and More Observation

1. Observations help us to develop theory.

2. Data can be collected and analyzed to evaluate theories.

3. Using data to evaluate theories is more difficult in economics than in physical

science because economists are unable to generate their own data and must
make do with whatever data are available.

4. Thus, economists pay close attention to the natural experiments offered by

history.

B. The Role of Assumptions

1. Assumptions can simplify the complex world and make it easier to understand.

2. Example: to understand international trade, it may be helpful to start out

assuming that there are only two countries in the world producing only two
goods. Once we understand how trade would work between these two
countries, we can extend our analysis to a greater number of countries and
goods.

3. One important role of a scientist is to understand which assumptions one should

make.
4. Economists use different assumptions to answer different questions.

C. Economic Models

1. Economists use economic models to explain the world around us.

To illustrate to the class how simple but unrealistic models can be useful, bring a
road map to class. Point out how unrealistic it is. For example, it does not show
where all of the stop signs, gas stations, or restaurants are located. It assumes
that the earth is flat and two-dimensional. But, despite these simplifications, a map
usually helps travellers get from one place to another. Thus, it is a good model.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
18  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  18

2. Most economic models are composed of diagrams and equations.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
19  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  19

3. The goal of a model is to simplify reality in order to increase our understanding.

This is where the use of assumptions is helpful.

Activity 1—Realism and Models: An Analogy

Type: In-class demonstration

Topics: Models
Materials needed: Airplane kit, sheet of paper, whirl-a-gig wing toy (Note: the whirl-a
gig wing toy is a helicopter wing on a stick; it is often sold in museum
gift shops as well as toy stores.)
Time: 5 minutes
Class limitations: Works in any class size

Ask the class if a realistic model is better than an unrealistic model.

Show them the airplane model kit. Describe some of the details included in model (rivets,
canopy, struts, etc.). Shake the box to rattle the large number of parts. This is a fairly realistic
model, although obviously not a real airplane. Its complexity adds realism, but at a cost;
assembling the model is very time consuming. Drop the box on the floor. Tell the class,
“This model, even when completed, cannot fly.”

Take a sheet of paper and fold it into a paper airplane. Show the class this new model. Its
virtues include simplicity and ease of assembly, but it is less realistic than the airplane model
kit. Throw the airplane and explain, “While less detailed, this model can glide through the air.”
Show the students the whirl-a-gig wing toy. This model looks nothing like an airplane – just a
T-shaped piece of wood. Yet, this model does something that the other two models cannot do:
it actually generates lift. This toy demonstrates the same aerodynamic principles as a real
airplane wing. Twirl the stick between your palms and the whirl-a-gig wing toy will fly over
your head.

Economic models are like the whirl-a-gig wing toy. They are much less complex than the real
world, but they can show how markets actually work.

D. Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram

Figure 2.1

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
20  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  20

1. Definition of circular-flow diagram: a visual model of the economy that

shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms.

2. This diagram is a very simple model of the economy. Note that it ignores the
roles of government and international trade.

a. There are two decision makers in the model: households and firms.

b. There are two markets: goods market and factor market.

c. Firms are sellers in the goods market and buyers in the factor market.

d. Households are buyers in the goods market and sellers in the factor
market.

e. The inner loop represents the flows of inputs and outputs between
households and firms.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
21  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  21

f. The outer loop represents the flows of dollars between households and
firms.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
22  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  22

E. Our Second Model: The Production Possibilities Frontier

1. Definition of production possibilities frontier: a graph that shows the

combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the
available factors of production and the available production technology.

Spend more time with this model than you think is necessary. Be aware that the
math skills of most of your students will be limited. It is important for the students
to feel confident with this first graphical and mathematical model. Be deliberate
with every point. If you lose them with this model, they may be gone for the rest
of the course.

2. Example: a country that produces two goods, cars and computers.

a. If all resources are devoted to producing cars, the economy can produce
1000 cars and zero computers.

b. If all resources are devoted to producing computers, the economy can

produce 3000 computers and zero cars.

c. If resources are divided between the two industries, the feasible

combinations of output are shown on the curve.

Figure 2.2

You may want to include time dimensions for variables to make it clear that the

production data are measured in terms of annual flows. This will help students to
realize that a new production possibilities frontier occurs for each year. Thus, the
axes show the level of output per year.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
23  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  23

It is useful to point out that the production possibilities curve depends on two
things:
the availability of resources and the level of technology.

ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:

A small country produces two goods: corn (measured in bushels) and trucks. Points on a
production possibilities frontier can be shown in a table or a graph:

A B C D E

Trucks 0 10 20 30 40
Corn 70 60 45 25 0

The production possibilities frontier should be drawn from the numbers above.

Students should be asked to calculate the opportunity cost of increasing the number of trucks
produced by ten:
• between 0 and 10
• between 10 and 20 • between 20 and 30
• between 30 and 40

3. Production is efficient at points on the curve. This implies that the economy is
getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available.

4. Production at a point inside the curve is inefficient.

5. Production at a point outside of the curve is not possible given the economy’s
current level of resources and technology.

6. The production possibilities frontier reveals Principle #1: People face tradeoffs.

Suppose the economy is currently producing 600 cars and 2200

computers. To increase the production of cars to 700, the production of
computers must fall to 2000.

7. Principle #2 is also shown on the production possibilities frontier: The cost of

something is what you give up to get it (opportunity cost).

The opportunity cost of increasing the production of cars from 600 to

700 is 200 computers.

Be aware that students often have trouble understanding why opportunity costs rise
as the production of a good increases. You may want to use several specific
examples of resources that are more suited to producing cars than computers (e.g.,

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
24  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  24

an experienced mechanic) as well as examples of resources that are more suited to

producing computers than cars (e.g., an experienced computer programmer).

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
25  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  25

8. The shape of the production possibilities frontier indicates that the opportunity
cost of cars in terms of computers increases as the country produces more cars
and fewer computers. This occurs because some resources are better suited to
the production of cars than computers (and vice versa).

9. The production possibilities frontier can shift if resource availability or technology

changes.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited
23  Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2/Thinking Like an Economist  23

Activity 2—Screwdrivers and Bloody Marys

Type: In-class discussion

Topics: Graphing, opportunity cost, tradeoffs Materials needed: None
Time: 10 minutes
Class limitations: Works in any class size

Instructions
Draw a graph with Bloody Marys on the horizontal axis and Screwdrivers on the vertical axis.

A Bloody Mary contains tomato juice and one shot of vodka. A screwdriver contains orange
juice and one shot of vodka. Assume that we have plenty of orange juice and tomato juice,
but only one small bottle of vodka containing 6 shots.

How many Bloody Marys can we make, if we only make Bloody Marys?

How many Screwdrivers can we make if we only make Screwdrivers?

Could we make 6 of both drinks? Why not?

On your graph, show all of the possible combinations of Bloody Marys and Screwdrivers that
can be made, given a small bottle of vodka.

Points for Discussion

The combinations will make a linear production possibilities curve that is continuous since we
could make half drinks, quarter drinks, or any fraction of either drink.

Several basic graphing techniques can be demonstrated: inverse relation, negative slope, etc.

The economic points are more interesting: We can produce any combination on or inside the
line. If we produce inside the line, we are not fully using our resources. This is inefficient.

If we do use all of our scarce resources, increasing the production of one drink requires
sacrificing production of the other. This lost production is opportunity cost.

You may also want to teach students about budget constraints at this time (call them
“consumption possibilities frontiers”). This reinforces the idea of opportunity cost,
and allows them to see how opportunity cost can be measured by the slope.
Also, it will introduce students to the use of a straight-line production possibilities
frontier (which is used in Chapter 3). However, be careful if you choose to do this as
students find the difference between straight-line and concave production possibilities
curves challenging.

ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:

Ivan receives an allowance from his parents of $10 each week. He spends his entire allowance on
two goods: ice cream cones (which cost $1 each) and tickets to the movies (which cost $5 each).

Students should be asked to calculate the opportunity cost of one movie and the opportunity cost of
one ice cream cone.

Ivan’s consumption possibilities frontier (budget constraint) can be drawn. It should be noted that
the slope is equal to the opportunity cost and is constant because the opportunity cost is constant.

Copyright © 2014 Nelson Education Limited

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Wittemberg, nor were his changes of the educational system
applicable only to the higher schools and universities. Stump says:
“Amid all the distractions and anxieties of this period, Melancthon
steadily directed his efforts to the advancement of education and the
building up of good Christian schools. During a period covering many
years, he found time, in spite of his numerous other engagements,
to give elementary instruction to a number of young men who lived
with him in his own house. He did this on account of the lamentable
lack of suitable preparatory schools. He lost no opportunity, however,
to provide for this lack, whenever he found it possible to do so.
“In the spring of 1525, with Luther’s help, he reorganized the
schools of Eisleben and Magdeburg. He went to Nuremberg, and
assisted in the establishment of a gymnasium [high school] in that
city; and in the following spring he returned to Nuremberg, and
formally opened the school. He delivered an address in Latin, in
which he dwelt upon the importance of education, and the credit
which the movers in this enterprise deserved. He declared that ...
‘the cause of true education is the cause of God.’”[126]
Both church schools and higher schools, those offering instruction
for students preparing for the universities, were organized by
Melancthon.
This work was not allowed to proceed without Changes were
some bitter attacks from the schoolmen and bitterly
representatives of papal education. For illustration opposed
of this fact, we have the words of D’Aubigné: “The schools, which for
five centuries past had domineered over Christendom, far from
giving way at the first blow of the Reformer [Luther], rose up
haughtily to crush the man who dared pour out upon them the flood
of his contempt.” “Doctor Eck, the celebrated professor of Ingolstadt,
... was a doctor of the schools and not of the Bible; well versed in
the scholastic writings, but not in the Word of God.... Eck
represented the schoolmen.” “Eck was a far more formidable
adversary than Tetzel [the vender of indulgences], Prierio, or
Hochstraten; the more his work surpassed theirs in learning and in
subtlety, the more dangerous it was.”[127] Thus Luther’s most bitter
enemies were those who had once been his warm friends, and those
who offered the strongest opposition to his work were the teachers
in the universities of Germany. Luther was sometimes almost
overcome in spirit by the ingratitude shown, and of Doctor Eck he
once wrote: “If I did not know Satan’s thoughts, I should be
astonished at the fury which has led this man to break off so sweet
and so new a friendship, and that, too, without warning me, without
writing to me, without saying a single word.”
It was in order to meet the opposition offered by The Saxony
the schoolmen, and to put the Reformation on a school plan
firm basis, that Luther and Melancthon formulated
the Saxony school plan, and reorganized the German schools.
Stump says: “In the year 1527, Melancthon took part with Luther
in the visitation of the schools and churches of Saxony. It was high
time for such a step. Affairs were in a wretched condition. In many
places no religious instruction was given at all, because there were
either no pastors and teachers stationed there, or those who were
stationed there were grossly ignorant themselves. The greatest
disorder imaginable reigned nearly everywhere.... The financial
condition of many of the churches was equally bad.... It was the
object of the visitation to bring order out of this chaos. Melancthon
was charged with making a beginning in Thuringia. The spiritual
distress which he discovered rent his heart, and he often went aside,
and wept over what he saw.” “In 1528 Melancthon drew up the
‘Saxony school plan,’ which served as the basis of organization for
many schools throughout Germany.”
According to this plan, teachers were to avoid Reforms
“burdening the children with a multiplicity of advocated by
studies that were not only unfruitful, but even this plan
hurtful.” Again, “The teacher should not burden the children with too
many books,” and “it is necessary that the children be divided into
classes.” “Three classes, or grades, are recommended,” and the
subjects taught should be adapted to the age and condition of the
pupil. Thus, avoid too many studies for children and youth; do not
put too many books into their hands; group them according to their
ability. This “plan” seems to resist the cramming system so
universally followed to-day almost as vigorously as it opposed the
papal schools of the sixteenth century.
A great work was set on foot,—a revolution Results, if
which was to affect the ages which followed. In the Luther’s plans
brief space of one man’s life, plans were laid, fulfilled
especially in the educational work, which, if carried out by his
successors, would have placed Germany in a position to rule the
world. Instead of returning to the pit from which she had been dug,
her schools and universities might have been models worthy of
imitation throughout Europe and in America. Luther died, and
Melancthon, his co-laborer, was unable to carry forward the work.
Theologians, pastors, ministers, into whose hands the work of the
Reformation rightfully fell, instead of multiplying Christian schools,
and carrying to perfection the methods of instruction introduced by
Luther and Melancthon, passed by the greatest work of the age, and
by internal strifes and theological disputes lost the hard-won battle.
The seeds of truth had been sown in republicanism and
Protestantism, and these two institutions should have been held in
Germany. Education—Christian education—alone could hold them
there. This was neglected; and as lost children, the two went hand
in hand to the Netherlands, to England, and finally to America, in
search of a fostering mother,—a pure system of education. The spirit
and life so manifest in the teaching of the great Reformers, passed
on, leaving Europe with the form. A house empty, swept, and
garnished does not long so remain. The form was occupied by the
spirit of the papacy, and Europe relapsed into a position from which
she can be reclaimed only by a renewal of the plans of the
sixteenth-century Reformers—a system of Christian education.
 XIII
THE REACTION AFTER THE EDUCATIONAL
REFORMATION

The most momentous event of the world’s Widespread

history, excepting alone the birth of the Redeemer, effects of the
was the Reformation of the sixteenth century. Reformation
Great religious movements have occurred before and since, but they
are eclipsed by the brilliancy and far-reaching results of this one.
More men have been reached, more lives revolutionized, than by the
combined forces of all changes in civil and domestic circles since that
time. The fact is, that when the causes of political changes in the
modern world are considered, it must be acknowledged by every
candid thinker that these changes are due in one way or another to
the attitude assumed by the people concerned toward that one
Reformation which was set in motion by the Wittemberg monk.
Christ had been forgotten, and He came before the world again in
the days of Luther.
A few quotations from Ranke show how far the Reformation
extended in the brief space of forty years; and since we are dealing
with the causes of this rapid spread, it is gratifying to see that this
author gives in the most natural way due credit to the influence of
the schools. Two things, then, should be noticed in reading these
selections; first, the extent of territory covered by Protestant
principles; second, the part played by schools and teachers in the
conversion of nations. It is about the year 1563.
“In the Scandinavian realms they [the Protestants] had
established themselves the more impregnably, because there their
introduction was coincident with the establishment of new dynasties,
and the remodeling of all political institutions. From the very first
they were hailed with joy, as though there was in their nature a
primitive affinity to the national feelings.”
“In the year 1552, the last representatives of Catholicism in
Iceland succumbed.”
“On the southern shores, too, of the Baltic Lutheranism had
achieved complete predominance, at least among the population of
German tongue.”
In Poland it was said, “A Polish nobleman is not subject to the
king; is he to be so to the pope?”
In Hungary, “Ferdinand I could never force the diet to any
resolutions unfavorable to Protestantism.”
“Protestantism not only reigned paramount in northern Germany,
where it had originated, and in those districts of upper Germany
where it had always maintained itself, but its grasp had been
extended much more widely in every direction.”
“In Wurzburg and Bamberg by far the greater part of the nobility
and the episcopal functionaries, the magistrates and the burghers of
the towns, at least the majority of them, and the bulk of the rural
population, had passed over to the reforming party.”
In Bavaria “the great majority of the nobility had adopted the
Protestant doctrine, and a considerable portion of the towns was
decidedly inclined to it.”
“Far more than this, however, had been done in Austria. The
nobility of that country studied in Wittemberg; all the colleges of the
land were filled with Protestants.”
We are not surprised, therefore, to read that “it was said to be
ascertained that not more, perhaps, than the thirtieth part of the
population remained Catholic: step by step, a national constitution
unfolded itself, formed upon the principles of Protestantism.” “In the
Rauris, and the Gastein, in St. Veit, Tamsweg, and Radstadt, the
inhabitants loudly demanded the sacramental cup, and this being
refused [in order to compel them to remain Catholic], they ceased
altogether to attend the sacrament. They withheld their children,
too, from the [Catholic] schools.”
“The Rhenish nobility had early embraced Protestantism.... In all
the towns there existed already a Protestant party.... The inhabitants
of Mainz, too, did not hesitate to send their children to Protestant
schools. In short, from west to east, and from north to south,
throughout all Germany, Protestantism had unquestionably the
preponderance.”
“The Protestant notions extended their vivifying Accomplished
energies to the most remote and most forgotten by education
corners of Europe. What an immense domain had
they conquered within the space of forty years! From Iceland to the
Pyrenees, from Finland to the heights of the Italian Alps. Even
beyond the latter mountains opinions analogous had once, as we are
aware, prevailed. Protestantism embraced the whole range of the
Latin church. It had laid hold of a vast majority of the higher classes,
and of the minds that took part in public life; whole nations clung to
it with enthusiasm, and states had been remodeled by it. This is the
more deserving of our wonder, inasmuch as Protestantism was by no
means a mere antithesis, a negation of the papacy, or an
emancipation from its rule; it was in the highest degree positive, a
renovation of Christian notions and principles, that sway human life
even to the profoundest mysteries of the soul.”[128] Notice again
that this was due to the educational ideas propagated by
Protestants, and the reason why the papacy was so fast losing its
foothold was because it had not yet learned that this Reformation,
which began in schools, and was carried forward by Christian
schools, must be defeated in schools and by teachers. For forty
years Protestants had the right of way in education, and the results
were stupendous.
Ranke says: “Protestant opinions had triumphed Protestant
in the universities and educational establishments. schools winning
Those old champions of Catholicism [the teachers] everywhere
who had withstood Luther were dead, or in advanced years: young
men capable of supplying their places had not yet arisen. Twenty
years had elapsed in Vienna since a single student of the university
had taken priest’s orders. Even in Ingoldstadt, pre-eminently Catholic
as it was, no competent candidates of the faculty of theology
presented themselves to fill the places that had hitherto been always
occupied by ecclesiastics. The city of Cologne founded an endowed
school; but when all the arrangements for it had been made, it was
found that the regent was a Protestant. Cardinal Otto Truchess
established a new university in his city of Dillingen, with the express
design of resisting the progress of Protestantism. The credit of this
institution was maintained for some years by a few distinguished
Spanish theologians; but as soon as these left it, not a single scholar
could be found in all Germany to succeed to their places, and even these
were likewise filled with Protestants. About this period the teachers in
Germany were all, almost without exception, Protestants. The whole
body of the rising generation sat at their feet, and imbibed a hatred of

the pope with the first rudiments of learning.”[129]

Stress is not laid on their hatred of the pope, but Success of
on the fact that the rising generation sat at the feet Reformation
of Protestant teachers throughout Germany; that due to schools
parents withheld their children from the papal school, even though it
might be necessary in so doing to send them from home to be
educated; and finally, that the papacy was dying, and Protestantism
was spreading through the work of the schools. Would that those
schools might have retained their pristine purity and simplicity. No
power on earth could then have retarded the progress of
Protestantism, and instead of only modifying the history of many
countries, it would eventually have swept from the earth all forms of
tyranny, both civil and religious, for it breathed the freedom of the
gospel, and no oppression could stand before it. It is as impossible
to withstand pure Christian education as it is to withstand Christ,
whose power is its life and strength.
It is with a pang that one is forced to trace in Protestants
this movement that oft-repeated chapter in the failed to
history of mankind. As the leader of Israel was recognize its
strength
allowed to view the promised land from the top of
Pisgah, but must there lay aside his armor and sleep the sleep of
death because of a departure from right principles, so Protestantism,
through its schools, looked across Jordan, but failed to maintain the
principle of faith which could at the crucial moment command the
waters to part.
One reason for the decline is thus stated by Education by
Painter: “In their efforts to give Christian doctrine a faith lost
scientific form [that is, to formulate it], they lost its
spirit. Losing its early freedom and life, Protestantism degenerated in a
large measure into what has been called ‘dead orthodoxy.’ ... Christian
life counted for little, and the Protestant world broke up into
opposing factions. Says Kurtz, who is disposed to apologize for this
period as far as possible: ‘Like medieval scholasticism, in its concern
for logic, theology almost lost vitality. Orthodoxy degenerated into
orthodoxism; externally, not only discerning essential diversities, but
disregarding the broad basis of a common faith, and running into
odious and unrestrained controversy; internally, holding to the form
of pure doctrine, but neglecting cordially to embrace it and to live
consistently with it.’”[130]
How narrow the line between truth and error! Scholasticism
How easy for those who had been given to eat of killed
the tree of life to turn to the tree of knowledge of Protestant
schools
good and evil! What a pity that Protestant
educators could not remain true to their trust! When on the eve of
success, they turned to the old paths, and “called into existence a
dialectic scholasticism which was in no way inferior to that of the
most flourishing period of the Middle Ages.”[131] Papal principles are
papal, whether advocated by Catholics or Protestants; having left
the fountain of the pure waters of faith, they turned to the only
other accessible source of knowledge—the pagan world. That
system of education introduced by Luther and Melancthon, founded
upon the Holy Scriptures, and through them viewing the sciences,
mathematics, and literature, using the latter only as a means of
illustrating God’s Word, was replaced by the scholasticism of the
Middle Ages. One involuntarily asks, “How many times, O Israel, wilt
thou return into Egypt?”
This decline is described in the following Form took the
quotations taken from Painter, and they need no place of life
comment: “During the period extending from the
middle of the sixteenth to the beginning of the eighteenth century,
three leading tendencies are apparent in education. These may be
characterized as the theological, the humanistic, and the practical....
A large share of the intellectual strength of the age was turned to
theology. Every phase of religious truth, particularly in its doctrinal
and speculative aspects, was brought under investigation. Theology
was elevated to a science, and doctrinal systems were developed
with logical precision, and extended to trifling subtilities.”[132]
In the figure of the Bible they strained for gnats, meanwhile
swallowing the camel. The life was thus lost in the pulpit and in the
theological schools. It was again the “teaching for doctrines the
commandments of men.”
Painter further says: “The schools, which stand Further return
in close relation to religion, were naturally to papal
influenced in a large measure by the theological methods
tendencies of the age. Theological interests imposed upon the
schools a narrow range of subjects, a mechanical method of
instruction, and a cruel discipline. The principle of authority, exacting
a blind submission of the pupil, prevailed in the schools of every
grade. The young were regarded not as tender plants to be carefully
nurtured and developed, but as untamed animals to be repressed or
broken.”[133]
Notice the creeping in of those very characteristics of papal
education so often referred to heretofore: 1, narrow range of
subjects; 2, mechanical instruction,—memory work devoid of
understanding; 3, arbitrary government, as seen in the matter of
discipline. To this we must add that which is the natural
accompaniment in papal instruction—the teaching of Latin. Says
Painter, quoting Dittes: “‘In the higher institutions, and even in the
wretched town schools, Latin was the Moloch to which countless
minds fell an offering in return for the blessing granted to a few. A
dead knowledge of words took the place of a living knowledge of
things. Latin schoolbooks supplanted the book of nature, the book of
life, the book of mankind. And in the popular schools youthful minds
were tortured over the spelling book and catechism. The method of
teaching was almost everywhere, in the primary as well as in the
higher schools, a mechanical and compulsory drill in unintelligible
formulas. The pupils were obliged to learn, but they were not
educated to see and hear, to think and prove, and were not led to a
true independence and personal perfection. The teachers found their
function in teaching the prescribed text, not in harmoniously developing
the young human being according to the laws of nature—a process,
moreover, that lay under the ban of ecclesiastical orthodoxy.’”[134]
That there was a cramming process followed Cramming
equal to any twentieth-century school, is evident. system and
“The discipline answered to the content and spirit memory work
of the instruction.... The principle was to tame the pupils, not to
educate them. They were to hold themselves motionless, that the
school exercises might not be disturbed. What took place in their
minds, and how their several characters were constituted, the school
pedants did not understand and appreciate.”
In order to appreciate the rapidity with which the Sturm’s school
relapse took place from the educational system a compromise
introduced by Luther to the medieval principles and
methods, our attention is directed to the school of John Sturm. This
man, “regarded as the greatest educator that the Reformed Church
produced during this period,” died in 1589, less than seventy years
after the Diet of Worms; hence his work fell within the half century
following those forty years of unusual prosperity for Protestantism
which has already been noticed. His work is contemporary with the
first Jesuit school of Germany. The decline is visible in every feature
of his work.
John Sturm presided for forty years over the gymnasium of
Strasburg, and his boast was that his institution “reproduced the
best periods of Athens and Rome; and, in fact, he succeeded in
giving to his adopted city the name of New Athens.” Sturm’s school
stood as a halfway mark between the Christian schools and the
purely papal schools of the Jesuits, but since compromise always
places a person or institution on the side of wrong, in weighing the
worth of his school the balances necessarily tip in favor of the
papacy.
That his was a mixture of the medieval classical Course of study
literature with a thin slice of Scripture sandwiched in Sturm’s
in for effect, is seen in the course of study as school
outlined by Painter. The school was divided into ten classes covering
ten years, but only so much is given as is necessary to show the
character of the studies: “Tenth class—The alphabet, reading,
writing, Latin declensions and conjugations, German or Latin
catechism.” “Ninth class—Latin declensions and conjugations
continued. Memorizing of Latin words.” The eighth and the seventh
classes are about the same. In the sixth, Greek is begun. The fifth
class is as follows: “Study of words, ... versification, mythology,
Cicero, and Virgil’s eclogues, Greek vocabulary.... On Saturday and
Sunday, one of Paul’s epistles.”[135] The remaining four classes have
much “learning by heart,” rhetoric, Paul’s epistles, orations of
Demosthenes, the Iliad of Odyssey; memorizing and recitation of the
Epistle to the Romans, dialectics, and rhetoric continued; Virgil,
Horace, Homer, Thucidides, Sallust, weekly dramatic entertainments,
and again a reading of Paul’s epistles.
Such a course of instruction was well fitted to bridge the gulf
between the papacy and Protestantism. It was imbibing perhaps
unconsciously the spirit of the new papal schools. “History,
mathematics, natural science, and the mother tongue are ignored. A
great gap is left between the gymnasium and life—a gap that could
not be filled even by the university. In aiming to reproduce Greece
and Rome in the midst of modern Christian civilization, Sturm’s
scheme involves a vast anachronism.”[136]
The Strasburg gymnasium at one time numbered Influence of
several thousand pupils representing Denmark, Sturm’s school
Poland, Portugal, France, and England. “Sturm’s
influence extended to England, and thence to America.” An English
writer says: “No one who is acquainted with the education given at
our principal classical schools, Eaton, Winchester, and Westminster,
forty years ago, can fail to see that their curriculum was framed in a
great degree on Sturm’s model.”[137] And yet it is acknowledged that
his “scheme involves a vast anachronism.”
To show that Sturm is the father of much of the Modern schools
instruction now given in our high schools and follow Sturm
universities, Rosenkranz says: “John Sturm, of
Strasburg, long before Comenius, had laid the foundation of what
has become the traditional course of instruction and methods of
study in the classical schools for preparation for college.”[138]
The decline in the matter of instruction was Reaction as
accompanied by a corresponding retrogression in seen in
the morals of university students. Painter tells us discipline
that “the state of morals at the universities of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries was very low. Idleness, drunkenness, disorder,
and licentiousness prevailed in an unparalleled degree. The practice
of hazing was universal, and new students were subjected to
shocking indignities.” Duke Albrecht, of the university of Jena, wrote
in 1624: “‘Customs before unheard of, inexcusable, unreasonable,
and wholly barbarian, have come into existence.’” Then he speaks of
the insulting names, the expensive suppers, and the carousing of the
students, until “‘parents in distant places either determine not to
send their children to this university, ... or to take them away
again.’”[139]
 Protestantism lost much because she ceased to educate her children. Had
Protestantism remained true to her first principles of education, her
overthrow would have been impossible. She paved the way for her
own fall by departing gradually from the gospel, and by leaning
more and more toward the classics and scholasticism.
It was this decline on her own part, caused by Ignatius Loyola
the insidious workings of the Jesuits, which made solves the
possible the great victories of this order in later problem
years. It was when Rome saw her youth slipping from her hands into
the Protestant schools, and as a result, a few years later, found
whole nations refusing obedience, and building for themselves new
forms of government, that, in her distress, she grasped the offer
made by Loyola. And while the power he represented in its
organization, placed itself above the pope, becoming, as it were, a
papacy of the papacy, still she accepted his offer, and the counter
educational move began. The Jesuits organized to combat reformation in
educational lines. In speaking of the Jesuits, Painter says: “This order,
established by Ignatius Loyola [in 1534], found its special mission in
combating the Reformation. As the most effective means of arresting
the progress of Protestantism, it aimed at controlling education,
particularly among the wealthy and the noble. In rivalry with the
schools of Protestant countries, it developed an immense
educational activity, and earned for its schools a great reputation.”
Again, the same writer says: “More than any other agency it stayed
the progress of the Reformation, and it even succeeded in winning
back territory already conquered by Protestantism. Although
employing the pulpit and the confessional, it worked chiefly through
its schools, of which it established and controlled large numbers.
Education in all Catholic countries gradually passed into its hands.”
In order to understand the reason for the Jesuit schools
success of the Jesuits as teachers it is necessary to
glance at the plan of studies prepared in 1588 from a draft made by
Loyola himself. “Every member of the order,” says Painter, “became a
competent and practical teacher. He received a thorough course in
the ancient classics, philosophy, and theology. During the progress of
his later studies he was required to teach.” Jesuit schools contained
two courses, the lower corresponding very closely to the work of
Sturm. Rosenkranz gives an excellent description of the educational
system of the Jesuits. He says:—
“In instruction they developed so exact a Course of
mechanism that they gained the reputation of instruction
having model school regulations, and even
Protestants sent their children to them. From the close of the
sixteenth century to the present time they have based their teaching
upon the Ratio et institutio studiorum Societatis Jesu of Claudius of
Aquaviva. Following that, they distinguished two courses of teaching,
a higher and a lower. The lower included nothing but an external
knowledge of the Latin language, and some fortuitous knowledge of
history, of antiquities, and of mythology. The memory was cultivated
as a means of keeping down free activity of thought and clearness of
judgment. The higher course comprehended dialectics, rhetoric,
physics, and morals. Dialectics was expounded as the art of
sophistry. In rhetoric, they favored the polemical and emphatic style
of the African Fathers of the church and their gorgeous phraseology;
in physics, they followed Aristotle closely, and especially encouraged
reading of the books ‘De Generatione et Corruptione’ and ‘De Coelo,’
on which they commented after their fashion; finally, in morals,
casuistic skepticism was their central point. They made much of
rhetoric, on account of their sermons, giving to it careful attention.
They laid stress on declamation, and introduced it into their showy
public examinations through the performance of Latin school
comedies, and thus amused the public, disposed them to approval,
and at the same time quite innocently practiced the pupil in the art
of assuming a feigned character.
“Diplomatic conduct was made necessary to the pupils of the
Jesuits, as well by their strict military discipline as by their system of
mutual distrust, espionage, and informing. Implicit obedience
relieved the pupils from all responsibility as to the moral justification
of their deeds. This exact following out of all commands and
refraining from any criticism as to principles, created a moral
indifference; and, from the necessity of having consideration for the
peculiarities and caprices of the superior on whom all others were
dependent, arose eye service. The coolness of mutual distrust
sprang from the necessity which each felt of being on his guard
against every other as a talebearer. The most deliberate hypocrisy
and pleasure in intrigue merely for the sake of intrigue—this
subtilest poison of moral corruption—were the result. Jesuitism had
not only an interest in the material profit, which, when it had
corrupted souls, fell to its share, but it also had an interest in the
educative process of corruption. With absolute indifference as to the
idea of morality ... or the moral quality of the means used to attain
its end, it rejoiced in the efficacy of secrecy, and the accomplished
and calculating understanding, and in deceiving the credulous by
means of its graceful, seemingly scrupulous, moral language.”[140]
Here is a picture of this papacy of the papacy. Spread of
Again I say, had Protestantism remained true to Catholicism by
principle, even this system could not have schools
accomplished its overthrow; but since truth was neglected by
Protestant schools, this system of the Jesuits easily carried every
country into which it was introduced. “The Jesuit system of
education ... was intended to meet the active influence of
Protestantism in education. It was remarkably successful, and for a
century [following 1584] nearly all the foremost men of Christendom
came from Jesuit schools. In 1710 they had six hundred and twelve
colleges, one hundred and fifty-seven normal schools, twenty-four
universities, and an immense number of lower schools. These
schools laid very great stress on emulation. Their experiments in this
principle are so extensive and long-continued that they furnish a
most valuable phase in the history of pedagogy in this respect alone.
In the matter of supervision they are also worthy of study. They had
a fivefold system, each subordinate being obedient to his superior.
Besides this, there was a complete system of espionage on the part
of the teachers and pupil monitors.”[141]
 On the subject of emulation, as made use of in Methods of
the schools of the Jesuits, Painter gives us these Jesuitical
thoughts: “The Jesuits made much of emulation, schools
and in their eager desire to promote it they adopted means that
could not fail to excite jealousy and envy. Says the Plan of Studies:
‘He who knows how to excite emulation has found the most
powerful auxiliary in his teaching. Let the teacher, then, highly
appreciate this valuable aid, and let him study to make the wisest
use of it. Emulation awakens and develops all the powers of man. In
order to maintain emulation, it will be necessary that each pupil
have a rival to control his conduct and criticise him; also magistrates,
questors, censors, and decurians should be appointed among the
students. Nothing will be held more honorable than to outstrip a
fellow student, and nothing more dishonorable than to be
outstripped. Prizes will be distributed to the best pupils with the
greatest possible solemnity. Out of school the place of honor will
everywhere be given to the most distinguished pupils.’”[142]
As the Colossus of Rhodes stood astride the Greek waters, so the
Jesuit schools spanned the gulf of education. One foot stood in
Greece amidst its classics (for “Aristotle furnished the leading text-
books”), the other on Christian soil, having the form of godliness;
but like the demigods of Greece, it was neither human nor divine.
The results of the educational system of the Jesuits are well
summed up in another paragraph from Painter:—
“The Jesuit system of education, based not upon a study of man,
but upon the interests of the order, was necessarily narrow. It
sought showy results with which to dazzle the world. A well-rounded
development was nothing. The principle of authority, suppressing all
freedom and independence of thought, prevailed from beginning to
end. Religious pride and intolerance were fostered. While our baser
feelings were highly stimulated, the nobler side of our nature was
wholly neglected. Love of country, fidelity to friends, nobleness of
character, enthusiasm for beautiful ideals, were insidiously
suppressed. For the rest, we adopt the language of Quick: ‘The
Jesuits did not aim at developing all the faculties of their pupils, but
merely the receptive and reproductive faculties. When the young
man had acquired a thorough mastery of the Latin language for all
purposes; when he was well versed in the theological and
philosophical opinions of his preceptors; when he was skillful in
dispute, and could make a brilliant display from the resources of a
well-stored memory, he had reached the highest points to which the
Jesuits sought to lead him. Originality and independence of mind,
love of truth for its own sake, the power of reflecting and of forming
correct judgments, were not merely neglected, they were
suppressed in the Jesuits’ system. But in what they attempted they
were eminently successful, and their success went a long way
toward securing their popularity.’”[143]
One can not condemn without reserve the Wherein Jesuit
Jesuitical system of education; for all false systems schools worthy
contain some points of truth, and the strength of of imitation
all these systems lies in their close counterfeit of the true. Hence we
can agree with these words: “Whatever its defects as a system of
general education, it was admirably suited to Jesuit purposes, and in
some particulars it embodied valuable principles.” As the progress of
the papacy through the Jesuitical schools is followed into one
country and then another, one admires the constancy and self-
sacrifice of those who have committed their lives to the order. Had
Protestants been one half as diligent in advocating the principles of
Christian education as the Jesuit teachers have been in
counteracting the influence of the Reformation, far different results
would to-day be seen in the world.
In tracing the growth of the schools of the Spread of Jesuit
Jesuits we begin with Germany, the heart of the schools
reform movement, and follow quite carefully the
history as given by Ranke: “Bishop Urban became acquainted with
Le Jay and heard from him, for the first time, of the colleges the
Jesuits had founded in several universities.
 “Upon this the bishop advised his imperial Jesuit college in
master [Ferdinand I] to found a similar college in Vienna
Vienna, seeing how great was the decay of Catholic
theology in Germany. Ferdinand warmly embraced the suggestion; in
a letter he wrote to Loyola on the subject, he declares his conviction
that the only means to uphold the declining cause of Catholicism in
Germany, was to give the rising generation learned and pious
Catholics for teachers.” We can understand the grounds for this
decision when we recall the statement that about 1563 it was said
that “twenty years had elapsed in Vienna since a single student of
the university had taken priest’s orders.” “The preliminaries,” says
Ranke, “were easily arranged. In the year 1551 thirteen Jesuits,
among them Le Jay himself, arrived in Vienna, and were in the first
instance, granted a dwelling, chapel, and pension, by Ferdinand,
until shortly after he incorporated them with the university, and even
assigned to them the visitation of it.” “Soon after this they arose to
consideration in Cologne,” but for a time had little success. In 1556
the endowed school referred to before governed by a Protestant
regent, “gave them an opportunity of gaining a firmer footing. For
since there was a party in the city bent above all things on
maintaining the Catholic character of the university, the advice given
by the patrons of the Jesuits to hand over the establishment to that
order, met with attention.” “At the same period they also gained a
firm footing in Ingoldstadt.” “From these three metropolitan centers
the Jesuits now spread out in every direction.” These schools were,
some of them at least, training schools for Catholic teachers; for
Ranke tells of a certain man in Hungary, Olahus by name, and
dedicated in infancy to the church, who, “contemplating the general
decay of Catholicism in Hungary, saw that the last hope left for it
was that of maintaining its hold on the common people, who had
not yet wholly lapsed from its rule. To this end, however, there
lacked teachers of Catholic principles, and to form whom, he
founded a college of Jesuits at Tyrnau in the year 1561.” “Two privy
councilors of the elector Daniel, of Mainz, ... conceived likewise that
the admission of the Jesuits was the only means that promised a
recovery of the University of Mainz. In spite of the opposition made
by the canons and feudal proprietors, they founded a college of the
order in Mainz, and a preparatory school in Aschaffenburg.”
The Jesuits advanced up the Rhine. “They School at
particularly coveted a settlement at Spires, both Heidelberg
because ... there were so many distinguished men
[assembled there] over whom it would be of extraordinary moment
to possess influence; and also in order to be placed near the
Heidelberg University, which at that day enjoyed the highest repute
for its Protestant professors. They gradually carried their point.” It is
interesting to note how they shadowed the Protestant schools, as if,
like a parasite, to suck from them their life. “In order to bring back
his University of Dillingen to its original purpose, Cardinal Truchess
resolved to dismiss all the professors who still taught there, and to
commit the establishment entirely to the Jesuits.”
To show the rapidity with which the Jesuits Rapid growth of
worked, Ranke says: “In the year 1551 they had Jesuit schools
not yet any fixed position in Germany;” “in 1556
they had extended over Bavaria and the Tyrol, Franconia, and
Swabia, a great part of Rhineland, and Austria, and they had
penetrated into Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia.” True to the
purpose of the order, “their labors were above all devoted to the
universities. They were ambitious of rivaling the fame of those of the
Protestants.”
“The Jesuits displayed no less assiduity in the Jesuits’
conduct of their Latin schools. It was one of the preparatory
leading maxims of Lainez that the lower schools
grammatical classes should be supplied with good teachers, since
first impressions exercise the greatest influence over the whole
future life of the individual.” The Jesuits were willing to devote a
lifetime to one phase of education. “It was found that young persons
learned more under them in half a year than with others in two
years; even Protestants called back their children from distant
schools, and put them under the care of the Jesuits.” From this last
sentence two things are to be observed. Protestants had lost sight of
the importance of education, and their schools had greatly
deteriorated, else they would not have intrusted their children to the
Jesuits. While the Jesuits began by working into the universities,
“schools for the poor, modes of instruction adapted for children, and
catechizing followed.”
“The instruction of the Jesuits was conveyed Reputation of
wholly in the spirit of that enthusiastic devotion Jesuit schools
which had from the first so peculiarly characterized
their order.” This had its effect; for earnest, whole-hearted work on
the part of the teacher, even though the methods may be wrong and
material false, will surely react in the lives of the pupils. Viewing the
work of Jesuit teachers, one feels to exclaim, “Since thou art so
noble, I would thou wert on our side!” And so “erelong the children,
who frequented the schools of the Jesuits in Vienna, were
distinguished for their resolute refusal to partake on fast days of
forbidden meats which their parents ate.”
Teachers had more weight with the children than Jesuits
the parents themselves, and became leaders of the conquered
older members of the family, so that “the feelings Germany by
their schools
thus engendered in the schools were propagated
throughout the mass of the population by preaching and confession.”
The final results in Germany, Ranke gives thus: “They occupied
the professors’ chairs, and found pupils who attached themselves to
their doctrines.... They conquered the Germans on their own soil, in
their very home, and wrested from them a part of their native
land.”[144] So much for Germany and its Jesuit schools.
Concerning the capture of France by the Jesuits Jesuit schools
it is not necessary to say much. Ranke gives a few in France
strong paragraphs, showing the work of the order
as teachers. The Protestants of France made a great mistake, and
brought their cause into disrepute, especially in Paris, by taking up
arms in a time of commotion, and Ranke says: “Backed by this state
of public feeling, the Jesuits established themselves in France. They
began there on a somewhat small scale, being constrained to
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