NECRT CIVICS CLASS 6TH SUMMARY by ORACLE IAS, DEHRADUN

Chapter 1
Understanding Diversity
Diversity in India: India is a country of vast diversity. People speak
different languages, celebrate different festivals and eat various types of
food. Diversity is a reality created by individuals and groups from a broad
spectrum of demographic and philosophical differences.

Factors Influencing Diversity: Historical and geographical factors are the

two factors that influence the diversity of a region. Life of people near the
sea is different from the people in a mountainous area.

Ladakh: Ladakh is a land with awesome physical features and is set in an

enormous and spectacular environment. It is surrounded by the world’s
mightiest mountain ranges, the Karakoram in the North and the Great
Himalayas in the South.

Kerala: Kerala is located in the South-Western part of India. It is

surrounded by sea on one side and hills on the other.

Unity in Diversity: India is a land of different religions and communities.

There is a great diversity in our habits and customs and yet we all live
together as Indians. “Unity in Diversity” has been the distinctive feature of
our country.

Everyone on earth differs from each other with respect to aspects like
looks, behaviour, culture, religion, language, talent etc. This means that
there is diversity among people in these aspects. Diversity means the lack
of uniformity and the sense of variety.

Inequality comes about among people when they have different access to
resources and opportunities. The caste system, religion, financial well-
being, education, etc. are various forms of inequality in the society.

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India is a country of several diversities. Since it is a very big country,

people in different parts differ in their customs, language, habits, etc.
These diversities arise from the fact that different regions have different
histories and environments.

Despite the diversities listed above, there are similarities that unite us. We
all are Indian and during the freedom struggle, the whole country came
together to send away the British, Irrespective of their diverse
backgrounds. The Indian national flag is the most important national
symbol and it reminds us of our unity in diversity.

Diversity: The sense of variety that exists in the traits, looks, behaviour,
culture, religion, language, abilities, resources and opportunities related to
different people is said to be diversity.

Inequality: The differences between two or more people that arise

because of their abilities, resources and opportunities, or their caste, etc.
are termed as inequalities.

Habitat: The geographical area where a living being has adapted and lives
comfortably is called the habitat of that living being.

Resources: Anything that can be of any use in any activity is said to be a

resource.

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Chapter 2
Diversity and Discrimination
Difference and Prejudice: Differences can only be stated on the basis of
a comparison or categorization. Whereas, prejudice is an unfavourable
opinion or feeling, formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or
reason.

Stereotypes: A “stereotype” is a generalisation about a person or group of

persons. We resort to prejudice by ascribing characteristics to a person
based on a stereotype, without the knowledge of complete facts.

It reduces an individual to a rigid image and does not consider the fact that
human beings are complex and multidimensional with unique attributes.
Stereotypes suggest that people or groups of people are the same, although
they are quite different.

Caste: A system of rigid social stratification characterised by hereditary

status, endogamy and social barriers sanctioned by customs, law and
religion.

It refers to any of the hereditary social classes or sub-classes of traditional

Hindu society, stratified according to Hindu ritual purity, namely, the
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra castes.

Mahars: The Mahars are an important social group within the Indian state
of Maharashtra and its surrounding states. A group of related endogamous
castes, the Mahars are the largest Scheduled Caste group in Maharashtra.

Constitution: The fundamental law, written or unwritten, that establishes

the character of a government by defining the basic principles to which
society must conform.

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How we live, what we speak, what we eat and wear and what we play—all
depend upon the historical background and geographical settings of the
place we live in.

Each of the eight major world religions is followed in India. There are
over 1600 mothertongues and over a hundred dance forms.

Many of us are prejudiced about people that differ from us—like we think
our traits, religions, etc. to be the best and we automatically presume that
those of others are not good. This is not a healthy trait of our diversity. In
prejudice, we often hurt others.

We also tend to create stereotypes—that is, we form one particular

image—positive or negative—about something, without pondering over it
carefully. The stereotype may be with respect to religion, place of origin or
residence, sex, race, background, etc.

When people act in a way that is driven by their prejudices or stereotypes,

discrimination happens. In this, we prevent people from using their rights
just because we thirik they are inferior.

Castes were created as a result of discrimination on the basis of occupation

of people. Rules were created by the people who called themselves upper
caste. The group at the bottom of the caste ladder were labelled as
“untouchable”.

The “untouchables” were not allowed to take on work, other than what
they were meant to do. People maintained distance from them. They were
called ‘Dalits’.

Many Dalits and women came forward to demand equality with other
castes and men, respectively. When India became independent, the
Constitution was made which laid down laws for equality among all
Indians.

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Dr Ambedkar, a Dalit himself who had suffered a lot, is considered the

father of the Constitution.

Prejudice: The tendency to judge other people negatively or consider

them inferior is said to be prejudice.

Stereotype: When one forms a particular image—positive or negative—

about something, without thinking over it carefully, this is said to be the
stereotype. It may be with respect to one’s religion, place of origin or
residence, sex, race, background, etc.

Discrimination: When people act in a way that is due to their prejudice or

stereotype, then discrimination takes place: For example, not sharing the
same seat with a person of another caste is a form of discrimination.

The Constitution: A document of national importance, that laid out the

rules by which the nation would function, is the Constitution: It was
prepared after India got independence.

Untouchability: A form of discrimination in which a particular caste of

people is considered impure by “upper-caste” people is called
untouchability. That caste is called “untouchables”. This form of
discrimination should be discouraged.

The Preamble: The first page of the Constitution that presents a

“summary” of the rules by which that nation must function, is called the
Preamble.

The extract is from “Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Writings and Speeches” (ed.
Vasant Moon). It tells the story of a day when Ambedkar and his
companions were discriminated against just because they were
untouchables. The sense of discrimination was so much that the station
master who met them refused to entertain them once he got to know their
caste.

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Later, when the bullock- cart drivers came to know this, even they refused
to carry them and afford to get “polluted” for even double the price. This is
the first-hand experience of Ambedkar, who later came up as one of the
greatest leaders of India.

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Chapter 3
What is Government
Government: Government is “the organisation, that is the governing
authority of a political unit”, “the ruling power in political society” and the
apparatus through which a governing body functions and exercises
authority”.

Levels of Government: India is a representative democracy where people

are eligible ‘to vote, elect representatives and participate in the decisions
making the process. The government works at different levels: national,
state and local level.

National Level: It refers to the area of the government which is concerned

with national issues such as taxation, defence, international relations and
trade.

State Level: Each of the State Governments has its own police force,
education system and road laws.

Local Level: The local governments are known as Panchayats in rural

areas and Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Nagar Panchayats in
urban areas.

Laws and the Government: A rule of conduct established and enforced

by the authority, legislation or custom of a given community, state or
nation is called law. It is both the responsibility of the government and
citizens to uphold the integrity of laws.

Types of Government: Governments can be classified into several types.

Some of the most common types of governments are a democracy,
monarchy, etc.

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Democracy: It is a form of government run by elected representatives who

hold the decision making power. The word ‘democracy’ originates from
the Greek words ‘demos’ and ‘krotos’, meaning “rule of the people.” It
can be classified into direct and indirect democracy.

Monarchy: A monarchy refers to the rule by a king or queen. Sometimes,

a king is called an “emperor”. It is a government with a hereditary head of
the state. It can be classified into two types, i.e., absolute and
constitutional monarchy.

Representative Democracy: The type of democracy in which the citizens

delegate authority to their elected representatives.

Women’s Suffrage: A Movement started in the early 20th century

vigorously for many years, demanding equality with men and the right to
vote.

Franchise: A privilege or right officially granted to a person or a group by

a government, especially the constitutional or statutory right to vote.

Each country needs a government to make important decisions and

function well. The decisions may be economic, educational or social.

The government also takes care of international boundaries and relations

with other countries. It is responsible for the transport facilities and health
facilities for citizens.

The government works at different levels—like, local level, state level,

national level.

The government makes laws and every citizen is supposed to follow them.
Laws need to be enforced for proper function of the government.

Citizens can also take the help of law if they are dissatisfied with
something.

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There are some types of government, like the democratic, monarch, etc. In
a democracy (like India), the people elect the government themselves by
voting in the election. In a monarchy, the king/queen has the power to
make decisions and no one from the citizens can* object to them.

The basic idea of democracy is that people rule themselves by taking part
in the law-making.

Nowadays, democratic governments are better known as ‘representative

democracies’. People do not participate directly. They choose their
representatives during elections and these representatives come together
for the decision-making process. All adults in the country are eligible to
vote according to the universal adult franchise.

There are instances in history when governments did not allow women, the
poor people and the uneducated to vote. But when India got independence,
the universal adult franchise was enforced.

Government: The system or machinery present in each country in order to

make decisions for the proper running of the country is called government.

Laws: The rules laid down by the government for the proper functioning
of the country are called laws.

Democracy: A system of government in which the people (citizens) of the

country choose their leaders to rule is called democracy. The elected
government is answerable to its people for its decisions.

Monarchy: A system of government which is run by a king/queen on a

hereditary basis and where people do not get their say in decision-making
is called a monarchy. The king/queen is said to be the monarch.

Elections: The process in which citizens of a democratic country cast their

votes for the leaders of their choice is called the election. The elected
leaders form a government later.

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Representative Democracy: A form of democracy in which people do

not elect the government directly but only choose their representative, who
collectively form a government is called representative democracy. Most
democracies are representative in nature.

Universal Adult Franchise: The rule that allows all adults in the country,
irrespective of caste, creed, gender, literacy, occupation, etc., to vote and
take part in the elections, is the universal adult franchise.

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Chapter 4
Key Elements of a Democratic
Government
Role of the People: The people play an important role in the proper
functioning of a democratic government, which includes elections as well
as the working and decision-making responsibility of the government.

Election: In a democracy, people cast their vote to elect their

representatives, who take decisions on behalf of the people. The
government is elected for a period of five years in India.

Social Movements: People express their views in many ways like

dhammas, strikes, rallies and signature campaigns, e.g., Activists of the
Bhartiya Kisan Union staged a demonstration at the Mini Secretariat to
protest against the power shortage during the paddy transplantation season.

Recognition to Minority: The democratic character of the government of

a country would be stronger if the minority people (Dalits, Adivasis,
Women) participate in the process of the government. The minority
communities and Adivasis participated in the working of the government
by demanding the inclusion of Santhali language in the Constitution of
India.

Role of the Government: Suppose, if a religious procession and

celebrations lead to conflicts, the government, particularly the police play
an important role in getting the representatives of the concerned
community to meet and try to arrive at a solution.

Equality and Justice: The key idea of a democratic government is its

commitment to equality and justice. The minority communities were
denied of many facilities. Dr Ambedkar realised that such practices must
not continue and justice can be achieved only if people are treated equally.

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In South Africa, we can find people of several races — black native

people, whites and Indians.

The country was governed by apartheid laws. Apartheid means separation

on the basis of race.

South African people were divided into white, black, Indian and coloured
races and apartheid laws prevented them from getting mixed with each
other.

Non-white had to face several distinctions. They were not allowed to vote.
Neither they availed other basic privileges.

Hence, the African National Congress started a struggle against the

apartheid system under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.

Nelson Mandela fought for several years. Finally, South Africa became a
democratic country in 1994. Now, there is no apartheid there and people of
all races are considered equal.

There are fixed periods for the governments that are elected. In India, once
the government is elected, it can stay in power for five years. Thus, people
participate in the process of government by using their voting rights.

People also participate by taking an interest in the working of the

government and by criticising it when required.

People express their views against the government’s wrong decisions by

holding dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature campaigns, etc.

People also participate by organising themselves into social movements

and seek to challenge the government and its functioning.

The government plays a major role in resolving the conflicts if they occur
among people of different cultures, religions, regions, etc.

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Religious processions and celebrations can sometimes lead to conflicts.

Rivers can also become a source of conflict between states.

Equality and justice are key elements of democracy.

The practice of untouchability is now banned by law in order to bring

equality and justice in society.

The government also takes steps to bring girl child on an equal level with a
boy child.

Apartheid: It refers to the system under which separation is practised on

the basis of race.

Race: One of the main groups that humans can be divided according to
their physical differences, for example, the colour of their skin.

Representative: The person elected through people’s voting right to take

part in the system of governance.

Participation: People’s involvement in the process of government.

Conflict: Differences between people of various castes, cultures or creed.

The conflict may arise in the name of region, religion, language, etc.

Resolution: Solution of the conflict.

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Chapter 5
Panchayati Raj
Gram Sabha: It is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral
rolls at the village level within the area, of the Panchayat. The presiding
officer of the Panchayat is known as the Sarpanch, and the Pradhan a
Mukhiya.

Recommendations of the Gram Sabha are binding on the Gram Panchayat.

The key roles entrusted to the Gram Sabha are micro planning, the social
audit of Panchayat functioning, ratification of Panchayat accounts, balance
sheets, identification and approval of beneficiaries, and supervisory and
regulatory functions.

The institution of the Gram Sabha is very important as it gives an

opportunity to each and every voter of the Gram Panchayat at the local
level to take part in the decision-making process of the decentralised
governance as well as in planning and development.

Gram Panchayat: It is the executive wing of the Gram Sabha.

Panchayat Samiti: It is an executive body. The work of the Gram

Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha. The Gram Panchayat is
answerable to the Gram Sabha.

The Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate and seek
answers from their elected representatives.

Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas.

Each ward elects a representative who is known as the ward Member or

Panch.

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The Gram Sabha members elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat

President.

The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch together form the Gram Panchayat.

The term of Gram Panchayat is five years.

The Gram Panchayat and the Gram Sabha have one common secretary.
The secretary is appointed by the government.

It is the secretary who calls the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram
Panchayat.

One of the main functions of the Gram Sabha is to prevent the Gram
Panchayat from doing wrong things.

The Gram Panchayat is responsible for the implementation of the

developmental programmes for the villages that come under its
jurisdiction.

The Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate

in their own government.

The Panchayati Raj System is the first tier or level of democratic

government. It extends to two other levels— Block level (Janpad
Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti), District Panchayat (Zila Parishad).

Gram Panchayat: It is the primary unit of governance in the Panchayati

Raj System. It
consists of a Panchayat President and its members elected by the people
through a general election. .

Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate

and seek answers from their elected representatives.

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Sarpanch: He is the Panchayat President.

Panchayati Raj System: It is a process through which people participate

in their own government.

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Chapter 6
Rural Administration
Quarrel in the Village: Mohan noticed that Raghu had shifted the bund
but Raghu refused to accept and instead he beats Mohan. Mohan’s
neighbours helped him and he was provided first aid.

Gram Sabha: The Panchayati Raj, through the Gram Sabha, can solve
land dispute problems, instead of taking the issues to the police station.

Work at the Police Station: In the police station, Mohan met the Station
House Officer and said that he wanted to give the complaint in writing. At
first, the S.H.O. refused, but later, he agreed that he would register the
case. The S.H.O promised that he would send a constable to investigate the
incidence.

Patwari’s Duties: They include conducting land surveys, field supervision

and reporting the crime to the police. The role of the Patwari is important
in an investigation. The record of the Patwari helps the police to find out
which person has extended his bund from the original boundary.

Revenue Department: Keeping track of all these is the work of the

revenue department. Senior people in this department supervise the
Patwari’s work.

Local Administration: All the States of India are divided into districts.
For managing matters relating to land, these districts are further sub-
divided. These sub-divisions of a district are known by different names
such as Tehsil, Taluka, etc.

At the head is the District Collector and under him are the Revenue
Officers, also known as the Tehsildars. Tehsildars have to hear disputes
and supervise the work of the Patwari and ensure that records are properly
kept and land revenue is collected. They make sure that farmers get a copy

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of their land records. Students can obtain their caste certificates, etc from
them as well.

A New Law: The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into
force from September 2005. The Government of India has issued a
notification to this effect.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005): This Act has been passed to
remove gender discriminatory provisions in the Hindu Succession Act,
1956 and gives the following rights to daughters under Section 6:
The daughter of coparcener (joint heir) by birth becomes a coparcener by
right in the same manner as the son. The daughter has the same rights in
the coparcener property as she would have had if she had been a son. In
the new law, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of
the land.

Tehsildar: Tehsildar is a revenue administrative officer in charge of

obtaining taxation from a Tehsil. A Tehsildar is also called Patwari.

Every police station has an area that comes under its control. All persons
in that area can report cases or inform the police about any occurrence like
theft, accident, fight, etc.

The police of that area then inquire, investigate and take action. Thus, the
police maintain law and order in the area.

Land disputes are common features of the villages. Hence, it is essential to

maintain records so that conflicts may be avoided. Here, comes the role of
the Patwari.

Patwari is the person whose main task is to measure land and keep land
records. He also updates these records.

Each Patwari is responsible for a group of villages.

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The Patwari is also responsible for organising the collection of land

revenue from the farmers and providing information to the government
about the crops grown in this area.

The revenue department of the government plays a major role in this

direction. Senior people in this department supervise the Patwari’s work.

For managing matters relating to land, districts are sub-divided, known as

sub-divisions.

These sub-divisions of a district are known by different names such as

tehsil, taluka, etc.

The District Collector is at the head. The revenue officers known as

Tehsildars work under him.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act was passed in 2005. According to this

Act sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land.

Police Station: It is a place where people register their complaints. Every

police station has an area that comes under its control. All persons in that
area can report cases or inform the police about any theft, accident, fight,
injury or illegal occurrence etc.

S.H.O: Station House Officer who is the person-in-charge of the police

station.

Patwari: One whose job is to measure land and keep land records.

Tehsildar: He is the revenue officer working under the District Collector.

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Chapter 7
Urban Administration
Ward Councillor:

 The Ward Councillors are responsible for the construction of

hospitals.
 They are elected by the people living in that ward/area.
 Groups of Councillors make decisions on policy-making.
 Committees of Ward Councillors look after water, garbage
collection and street lighting.

Duties of the Ward Councillors:

 Ward Councillors make the budget.

 They look into the demands of their respective Wards.
 They assign the task of implementation to the administrative staff.

Administrative Staff:

 Ward people can approach Ward Councillors regarding their

problems, within a Ward. Members of the Councillor Committees
decide on various issues.
 Commissioner and the administrative staff implement the issues.
 Commissioner and administrative staff are appointed people.
 Ward Councillors are elected.

Municipal Council:

 It is an Administrative Department in the cities.

 It supervises the Division of work in different departments.
 It includes the Departments of water, garbage collection,
construction of roads, sanitation, etc.

Municipal Corporation:

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 Takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, etc.

 Creates awareness about epidemics such as malaria, dengue, etc.
 Teaches people about preventive measures to avoid diseases.
 Runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries.

Community Protest:

 Ward Community can submit its petition to the Ward Councillor.

 Collective action taken is by the Ward Engineer and Ward Council.
 Petitions are forwarded to the Municipal Corporation Office.
 Municipal Corporation solves the issues.

Municipality: A place with own local government: a city, town or another

area.

In the city, there is the Municipal Corporation that takes care of street
lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the
markets clean.

The Municipal Corporation is also responsible for ensuring that diseases

do not break out in the city.

In smaller towns, these works are done by a little bit smaller organisation
known as a
Municipal Council.

The city is divided into different wards and ward councillors get elected.

The complicated decisions that affect the entire city are taken by groups of
Councillors who form committees to decide and debate issues.

When the problems are within a ward then the people who live in the ward
can contact their Councillors.

After the decisions taken by Councillor’s Committees and the Councillors,

the Commissioner and the administrative staff implement them.

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The Commissioner and the administrative staff are appointed while the
Councillors are elected.

As the city is so large, the work here is divided into different departments,
such as the water department, the garbage collection departments,
sanitation department, etc.

Municipal Council: The organisation that looks after the welfare of small
towns is known as Municipal Council.

Municipal Corporation: The organisation that takes care of big cities is

known as Municipal Corporation.

Councillor: The elected representative of the ward.

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Chapter 8
Rural Livelihoods
Different Occupations: People in this village are involved in different
professions such as blacksmiths, teachers, washermen, weavers, barbers,
mechanics, shopkeepers and traders.

Shops: Kalpattu village has a variety of small shops such as tea-shops,

grocery stores, barber shops, cloth shops, tailor shops, fertilizers and seed
shops.

Life of a Woman Farmer: The woman, Thulasi works in farmland of

Ramalingam and does various work like transplanting paddy, weeding and
harvesting. She earns 40 rupees daily. She also does household tasks like
cooking, cleaning and washing clothes.

Being in Debt: Farmers borrow money to fulfil the basic needs of the
farming land. Sometimes, they are unable to return the loan due to the
failure of monsoon, which results in debt and finally the major cause of
distress.

Farmers: In Kalpattu village, there are labourers and farmers. All of them
depend on farming. Big farmers cultivate their land and sell their products
in the market. Some people in the village depend upon a forest, animal
husbandry, dairy produce, fishing, etc.

Sources of Livelihood: Farming and collection of mahua, tendu leaves,

honey, etc. from the forest are the important sources of livelihood.

Rural Livelihood: People in rural areas earn their living in various ways.
They undertake in farming or non¬farming activities. However, some
people do not find work to keep them employed throughout the year.

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Pudupet: People earn their living by fishing in the sea in this area.
Catamarans (fishing boats) are used for fishing. They return to the coast
with their catch to sell in the market. Fishermen usually take loans from
banks to purchase catamarans, nets and engines.

There are different ways in which people earn their living in villages.

Vill&ge people are engaged in both farm activities and non-farm works,
such as making utensils, baskets etc.

There are agricultural labourers as well as big farmers.

Working on farms involves operations such as preparing the land, sowing,

weeding and harvesting of crops.

In India, nearly two out of every five rural families are agricultural
labourer families.

The members of these families usually work on other people’s fields to

earn a living.

In India, 80 per cent of farmers belongs to this group. Only 20 per cent of
India’s farmers are well-off.

Many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal
husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc.

Rural livelihoods: Different ways of earning living in rural areas.

Pesticide: A chemical used for killing pests, especially insects.

Migration: The movement of a large number of people from one place to

another to find jobs.

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Harvest: The act of cutting and gathering crops.

Terrace Farming: This is a type of farming in which the land on a hill

slope is made into flat plots and carved out in steps. The sides of each plot
are raised in order to retain water. This allows water to stand in the field,
which is suitable for rice cultivation.

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Chapter 9
Urban Livelihoods
Vendors and Government Measures: There are some shops on the
pavement. Vendors sell things prepared at home like snacks or food. Street
vending is an obstruction to traffic. The government has introduced
measures to reduce the number of vendors. Hawking zones have been
suggested for towns and cities.

Market: Markets in the cities are crowded during the festivals. There are
different shops selling sweets, toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, electronic
goods, etc.

Business Persons: In cities, there are people who own shoes in various
markets. Harpreet, a businesswoman, opened readymade showrooms. She
buys the materials from different cities of India like Mumbai, Ahmedabad,
etc. and some items even from foreign countries.

Showrooms: Businesspersons are not employed by anyone but they

employ a number of workers as supervisors and helpers. They get a licence
from the Municipal Corporations to open showrooms.

Shops in Market Place: Medical clinics are also set up in the market
place. The dental clinic helps people to solve tooth problems. Next to the
dental clinic is a cloth showroom with three floors.

Factory area: A factory area consists of small workshops. In one of the

factories, people work on sewing machines and stitch clothes. In another
section, the stitched clothes are stacked. Many women work as tailors in
the export garment unit.

Factory Workshop Area: Some groups of people stand in a place called

“labour chowk”. They are the daily wage labourers who work as helpers to

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masons. They also work at construction sites and lift loads or unload
trucks in the market.

Salespersons: Sales-persons work is to get orders from shopkeepers and

collect payments from them. Each sales-person is responsible for a
particular region.

Marketing Manager: A Marketing Manager’s task is to manage the

marketing resources of a product or business. He can be an in-charge of a
single product or brand or can be a General Manager responsible for a
broad array of products and services.

Urban life is different from rural life.

People of urban areas are engaged in different activities. Some are

rickshaw pullers, some are vendors, some are business persons, some are
shopkeepers, etc.

These people work on their own. They are not employed by anyone.

There are almost one crore street vendors in the country working in urban
areas.

In the urban market one can find a variety of shops—shops selling sweets,
toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, etc. There are garment showrooms too.

There are several business persons in the market who manage their own
shops or business. They are not employed by anyone. But they do employ
a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.

The urban market has small offices and shops that provide services, such
as banks, courier services and others.

A number of daily wage labourers can be found in the city. They work as
helpers to mansons.

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Several urban people are engaged in factories, such as garment factories.

In garment factories most workers are usually employed on as casual

basis. They are required to come as and when the employer needs them.

Jobs on a casual basis are not permanent. There is no job security. Workers
are expected to work very long hours. They do not get any facility.

There are many workers in the city who work in offices, factories and
government departments where they are employed as regular and
permanent workers.

Permanent and regular workers avail several benefits such as saving for
old age, holidays, medical facilities etc.

In big cities, working in call centres has become a new form of

employment.

Call centres are generally set up as large rooms with work stations that
include a computer, a telephone set and supervisor’s stations.

India has become a major centre not only for Indian companies but also
foreign companies.

Vendor: One who sells things of daily use by going door to door.

Urban areas: Towns and cities.

Business person: One who earns his livelihood by engaging himself in

some business.

Employer: One who gives the job to someone.

Casual worker: One who is engaged in temporary work.

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Labour chowk: A place where daily wage labourers gather together with
their tools and wait for people to come and hire them for work.

Call centre: It gives a new form of employment to the people of big cities.
It is a centralised office that deals with problems and questions that
consumers/customers have regarding goods purchased and services like
banking, ticket booking, etc.

Hawker: One who sells things by going from place to place asking people
to buy them.

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Chapter 1
On Equality
Equality is a condition in which adequate opportunities are given to all. It
is the soul of Indian democracy.

Equal Right to Vote

In a democratic country like India, adults, irrespective of their religion,
caste education, status or place of birth, are given the right to vote under
Universal Adult Franchise.

Does Equality Exist

 In reality, a difference exists between rich and poor.

 The caste system is also rigid.
 Dalits in India and minorities are denied the right to dignity and
equality.

Equality in Indian Democracy

 The Indian Constitution recognizes every person as equal. However,

it does not mean that inequality does not exist in India.
 Universal Adult Franchise gives political equality, not social and
economic equality.
 Dignity is the thinking or state of being worthy of esteem or respect.
 The dignity of an individual is violated on the basis of their caste,
religion or gender.
 The government has tried to implement equality first through laws
and second through government programmes or schemes to help
disadvantaged communities.
 Everyone is equal before the law. There is no discrimination on the
basis of caste, colour, religion, race, gender; everyone has access to
all public places and untouchability has been abolished.

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 Programmes like the mid-day meal scheme have been launched to

improve the attendance and enrolment ratio of children in schools.

Issues of Equality in other Democracies

In the USA also the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s restored the
dignity of Afro-American based on colour.

Equality is the soul of Indian democracy. It influences all aspects of its

functioning.

In a democratic country like India, all adults irrespective of what religion

they belong to, how much education they have had, what caste they are, or
whether they are rich or poor are given the right to vote, which is called
Universal Adult Franchise.

Universal Adult Franchise gives political equality to the people but it does
not ensure social and economic equality.

Kanta Devi is a domestic worker. She has gone to vote. She is standing in
the queue and is waiting for her turn like others. She is happy that she is
equal to all of the others because of each of them lies one vote. It gives her
a good feeling that even wealthy and influential persons are standing in the
queue.

But the world beyond it is something else. In this world, there is no

equality. When Kanta has to face the bitter reality of this world, she
becomes sure that she is prey to social and economic inequality. She
cannot compare herself with the members of her Saheb’s family, where
she works as domestic help.

The only guarantee of voting rights to all adult persons is not the solution
of all the problems. There are many people like Kanta in our country who
have the right to vote but whose daily living and working conditions are
far from equality.

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There are several kinds of inequalities that exist in our country. Just take
the example of the caste system which has been in existence in India for
centuries. This deeply- rooted evil has created divisions among people.

The lower caste people and Dalits are the exploited lot. They have always
been discriminated against.

Dalit means broken. Dalits belong to the unprivileged class.

Omprakash Valmiki is a famous Dalit writer who writes about his bitter
experience for being a Dalit in his autobiography, Jonathan. His
headmaster tortured him greatly. He made him sweep the school and the
playground. While other children in his class were studying he was
sweeping. This was very much insulting for him.

The Ansaris were also exploited, people. They were not given a flat by the
landlady simply because they belonged to other religion.

Both Omprakash Valmiki and the Ansaris are badly treated. Their dignity
is hurt.

The Indian constitution recognises every person as equal. While earlier no

law existed to protect people from discrimination, now there are several
that work to see that people are treated with dignity and as equals.

Every person is equal before the law. What this means is that every person
from the president of the country to a domestic help like Kanta has to obey
the same laws.

No person can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, race,

caste, place of birth etc.

Thus, there are several laws in India that protect every person’s right to be
treated equally.

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In addition to laws, the government has also set up several schemes to

improve the lives of communities and individuals who have been treated
unequally for several centuries.

The Midday meal scheme is one of the various steps of the government in
this direction.

Under the midday meal scheme, all government elementary schools

provide children with cooked food.

This scheme has helped increase the enrolment and attendance of poor
children in school.

In spite of all these efforts to increase equality of opportunity, there

continue to be big differences in our country between schools that the rich
attend and those that the poor attend.

India is not the only country where there is inequality. There are many
democratic countries around the world where the issue of equality
continues to be the key issue around which communities struggle.

In the United States of America, the African-American were seriously

discriminated against. They were considered to be social inferiors.

In the late 1950s there took place a movement known as the Civil Rights
Movement for equal rights for African-Americans. Rosa Parks became the
leader of this movement.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of

race, religion or national origin.

The struggle for the recognition of all persons as equal and for their
dignity should be maintained so that we may be hopeful for a society of
equals.

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Universal Adult Franchise: It means that all adult citizens have the right
to vote irrespective of their social or economic backgrounds. Here, adult
means those who are 18 and above.

Dalit: It means broken.

Dignity: Thinking of oneself and other persons as worthy of respect.

Constitution: A document that lays down the basic rules and regulations
for people and the government in the country to follow.

Civil Rights Movement: This movement took place in the USA in the
1950s in which the African- Americans demanded equal rights and an end
to racial discrimination.

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Chapter 2
Role of the Government in Health
What is Health?
Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries. There are
certain factors which affect our health.

Healthcare in India

 India has the largest number of medical colleges in the world and is
among the largest producer of doctors.
 India is the fourth largest producer of medicines in the world.
 Most doctors settle in urban areas, while people in rural areas have
to travel long distance for medical facilities.
 About 5 lakh people die from tuberculosis every year, while 2
million cases of malaria are reported every year.
 In India, a paradoxical situation exists as health care resources are
uneven.

Private and Public Healthcare

 Healthcare is divided into two categories: Public health services and

private health services.
 Public health services is a chain of health centres and hospitals run
by the government. One important aspect of public health is that it is
meant to provide quality healthcare services either free or at a low
cost so that even the poor can seek treatment. It is available in both
the rural and urban areas.
 Private health services are not owned or controlled by the
government. People have to pay a lot of money for every service
that they use.

Healthcare and Equality

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 In India, private health services are increasing but public health

services are not. As the cost of these private services is high, many
people cannot afford them.
 Private services sometimes encourage practice which is unethical.
Barely 20% of the Indian population can afford medicines that they
require during an illness.
 It is the responsibility of the government to provide quality
healthcare services to all its citizens, especially the poor and the
disadvantaged.
 In 1996, Kerala decentralized its health budget at Panchayati level to
ensure effective health planning.
 The best example of healthcare comes from Costa Rica where the
government provides for adequate healthcare to people.

In a democratic country, it is the expectation of the people that government

work for their welfare through the provision of education, health,
employment, etc.

Health is a vital aspect because only healthy people can prove themselves
resourceful.

Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries. In broader
sense, health means something more than this. Apart from disease, we
need to think of other factors such as clean drinking water, pollution-free
surroundings etc. that affect our health. Adequate food is also essential for
keeping ourselves in good health.

A life with stress will lead us to illness. Hence we need to be without

mental strain. Thus, good health includes both a sound mind and sound
body.

We need proper healthcare facilities to maintain good health.

Healthcare facilities include health centres, hospitals, laboratories for test,

ambulance services, blood banks, etc.

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In order to run such facilities, we need health workers, nurses, qualified

doctors, etc.

We also need medicines and equipment that are essential for treating
patients.

India has no dearth of qualified doctors. There are a large number of

clinics and hospitals too. Perhaps, therefore, a large number of medical
tourists come to our country for treatment at a reasonable cost.

India is the fourth largest producer of medicines in the world and is also a
large exporter of medicines. Despite all this, the health situation in our
country is very poor. The reason is that the government fails to make
necessary healthcare available to all.

Healthcare facilities can be divided into two categories—Public health

services and Private health facilities.

The public health service is a chain of health centres and hospitals run by
the government. It is found in both the rural and urban areas.

At the village level, there are health centres where there is usually a nurse
and a village health worker. They deal with common illnesses.

At the district level is the District Hospital that supervises all the health
centres.

Big cities have many government hospitals.

Under the public health system, quality health care services are provided
either free or at a low cost, so that even the poor can seek treatment.

Under this system, the action is also taken to prevent the spread of diseases
like Tuberculosis, malaria, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea, chikungunya, etc.

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A wide range of private health facilities exists in our country. A large

number of doctors run their own private clinics.

In the rural areas, Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs) are found

whereas in the urban areas a large number of doctors can be seen.

There are hospitals and nursing homes that are privately owned, and not
run by the government.

Unlike public health services in private hospitals, patients have to pay a lot
of money for their treatment.

In our country, private services are increasing but public sen/ices are not.
As the private sen/ices are run for profit, the cost of these services is rather
high. Poor people find it difficult to get treatment here.

Adequate healthcare is not available to all in the country. Only 20% of the
population can afford all the medicines that they require during illness.

It has been found that 40% of people who are admitted to a hospital for
some illness have to borrow money or sell some of their possessions to pay
for the expenses.

For the poor, every illness is a curse. As they are undernourished and live
in unhygienic conditions they frequently fall ill. The expenses on illness
make their situation even worse.

So far women’s health is associated, it is easily ignored.

Many tribal areas have few health centres.

Thus, we can say without a doubt that the health situation of most people
in our country is not good.

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However, Kerala has made efforts to provide adequate healthcare to

people of the state.

Costa Rica is a country in North America. It is considered to be one of the

healthiest countries in the continent.

The Costa Rican government curtailed the expenses on the army to spend
it on health, education and other basic needs of the people. It provides
them with safe drinking water, sanitation, nutrition and housing.

Medical Tourists: The foreigners who come to our country for medical
treatment at hospitals that change the reasonable cost.

Communicable Diseases: Diseases that spread from one person to another

through water, food, air, etc.

Public: A service that is meant for all people in the country and is
organised by the government. For example, schools, hospitals, etc.

Private: A service that is organised by an individual or company for their

own profit.

OPD: It refers to the Out Patient Department. This is where people are
first brought in and treated in a hospital without being admitted to any
special ward.

RMPs: It refers to Registered Medical Practitioners. They are found in

rural areas.

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Chapter 3
How the State Government Works
Government works at three levels-national, state and local.

In states, it is the MLA (Member of Legislature Assembly) who represents

the people. The MLAs enter the assembly and form the government.

Every MLA is elected from one area. This area is known as his
constituency.

A political party whose MLA’s win more than half the number of
constituencies in the state get the majority. The political party is called the
ruling party.

All the other members are called opposition.

Working of the Government

 The organization of the state government includes the Governors,

the state legislature and the state council of ministers.
 Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly and duration of the
Legislative Assembly is five years.
 The head of the state is the Governor while the head of the
government consists of the council of ministers headed by the Chief
Minister.
 The leader of the ruling party who forms the government is the Chief
Minister.
 The Legislative Assembly is a place where leaders debate and
discuss on important issues and make important bills.
 In addition to the Legislative Assembly, the press conference is also
a mode of knowing what the government does for the people.

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 The government works through various departments like public

works department, agriculture, health and education.
 The government has the power to make new laws for the state
regarding health and sanitation.
 Laws for the state are made by the state Legislative Assembly.
 Laws for the country are made by the Union Parliament.

An MLA is a member of the Legislative Assembly. He is elected by the

people. In this way, he represents people.

Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly.

Each state is divided into constituencies.

A constituency is an area from which all the voters living there choose
their representatives, who then become Members of the Legislative
Assembly (MLAs).

These MLAs belong to different political parties.

A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the number of
constituencies, a state can be said to be in a majority.

The political party that has a majority becomes the ruling party and all
other members become the opposition.

After the elections, the MLAs belonging to the ruling party elect their
leader who becomes the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister then selects
other people as ministers.

The Governor of the state appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers.

The ministers have separate offices.

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Some MLAs have dual responsibilities—one as an MLA and the other as a

minister.

The debate is generally held in the Assembly to discuss current problems.

During debate time MLAs can express their opinions and ask questions
related to the issue or give suggestions about what should be done by the
government. The minister then replies to the questions and assures the
Assembly that adequate steps are being taken.

The Chief Minister and other ministers together are responsible to run the
government.

The word ‘government’, refers to government departments and various

ministers who head them.

All the MLAs who gather together in the legislative assembly are called
the Legislature.

The Legislature Assembly is not the only place where opinions are
expressed about the work of the government. There several newspapers,
TV channels, and other organizations which also talk about the
government.

After the discussion in the assembly, a press conference is generally held

by a particular minister who explains the steps taken by the government.
Media persons then report these discussions in several newspapers.

The government can also decide to make new laws for the state regarding
sanitation and health facilities. The various government departments then
implement these laws.

Whenever the government fails to satisfy people’s needs, they organize

meetings to voice their opinions and protest against the government.

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Constituency: It refers to a particular area from which all the voters living
there choose their representatives.

Majority: A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the
number of constituencies in a state can say to be in a majority.

Opposition party: The elected representatives who are not the members
of the ruling party belong to the opposition party. The representative
together plays the role of questioning government decisions and actions.
They also raise new issues for consideration in the Assembly.

Ruling party: The political party that has the majority is known as the
ruling party.

Press conference: A gathering of media persons who are invited to hear

about and ask questions on a particular issue and are then expected to
report on this to the larger public.

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Chapter 4
Growing up as Boys and Girls
Gender is a social construction through which the social and cultural roles
of males and females are defined.

Most of the societies value men and women differently. The role women
play and the work they do are usually valued less than the roles men play
and the work they do. This clears the fact that men and women do not have
the same status.

Gender justice is an important issue to be highlighted.

Samoan Islands

 The Samoan islands are one of the large groups of small islands in
the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. Till the 1920s, children in
this island did not go to school. When the babies started walking on
own, they were left under the care of their older brothers and sisters.
Children as old as five years looked after their younger siblings.
 After attaining nine years of age, boys joined the older boys for
outdoor activities like fishing and planting coconuts. However, girls
continued looking after the younger ones.
 When girls became teenagers, i.e., 14 years of age, they were
allowed more freedom as they could then go for fishing and
plantation activities or help their mothers in cooking, etc.

Madhya Pradesh

 In Madhya Pradesh, India, boys and girls had a different outlook.

The school for boys was open while the one for girls was closed.
 Men and women do equal work, but it is not valued equally.

Valuing Housework

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 Many women work in offices and many do only household work.

 Valuing housework is an important element which needs to be
propagated in society.
 If we look at the lives of domestic workers, they are involved in
activities like sweeping, cleaning, cooking, washing clothes and
dishes or looking after children. Most of these are women.
 A number of housework actually involves many different tasks. The
work requires strenuous and physically demanding situation.

Women’S Work and Equality

 Equality is an important principle of our constitution which says that

being male or female should not become a reason for discrimination.
 While the constitution does not discriminate between male and
female, in reality, discrimination still carries on.
 Government has introduced measures like Anganwadis or Child
Care Centres to improve the status of women in society.
 The government has also started creche facilities to help women to
take up employment outside the home.

We find distinctions between boys and girls in our societies. This begins at
a very young age.

Boys are often taught to be tough and serious while girls are taught to be
soft and mild.

Boys are given toys like cars and guns to play with while girls are seen
playing with dolls. These toys become a way of telling children what they
will have different futures when they become men and women.

Most societies value men and women differently. The roles women play
and the work they do are usually valued less than the roles men play and
the work they do. This clears the fact that men and women do not have the
same status.

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If a woman is a housewife, it is often said that she does not work. But the
reality is that it is always the woman who bears the main responsibility for
housework and caregiving tasks like looking after the family. As she does
not earn money by doing these tasks, her work is not recognized.

The term houseworks involves many different tasks which require heavy
physical work.

In both rural and urban areas women and girls carry heavy headloads of
firewood. Housework also involves washing clothes, cleaning, sweeping
and cooking foods, etc. for the family. All these works are very tough,
still, women do them every day. They do not complain or show any
anguish on their face.

The work of women is time-consuming too. They do not have much time
for leisure.

Many women nowadays work both inside and outside the home. This is
often referred to as the double burden. Women bear this double burden
very skilfully and efficiently.

Equality is an important principle of our constitution which says that being

male or female should not become a reason for discrimination. But what
we see in reality is that inequality still exists between both the sexes. The
government is, therefore, very much keen to take some positive measures
to improve the situation.

The government has set up Anganwadis or Child-care Centres in several

villages in the country.

The government has also started creche facilities to help women to take up
employment outside the home.

Caregiving: Looking after the family with great sincerity.

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Devalue: When we do not give due recognition for work, it means we

devalue it. In our society, women’s work is easily devalued.

Double-burden: There are several women who work both inside and
outside the home. This is known as a double burden.

Identity: It is a sense of awareness of who one is. For example, a person

can be a brother, a pilot, an engineer, etc.

Physically demanding: It refers to the household tasks which are very

tough and demand great physical strength.

Time-consuming: It refers to the various household tasks which take

much time.

Strenuous: Very tough and difficult.

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Chapter 5
Women Change the World
Women have been facing inequalities at every step.

By getting an education, women have got opportunities to rise in every

field.

Women’s movement has risen to challenge discrimination in all parts of

the world.

Fewer Opportunities and Rigid Expectation

 A lot of people feel that women are fit only for certain kinds of jobs
as a nurse. They are not fit for technical jobs.
 In most families, women are taught that after school they have to get
married. Laxmi Lakra, however, broke this stereotype image when
she became the first woman engine driver of the Northern Railways.
 We live in a society full of pressures. If boys do not work hard and
get a good salary they are bullied

Learning for Change

 Going to school is an important part of life.

 Today, it is difficult for us to imagine that school and learning could
be seen as out of bounds or not appropriate for some children.
 In the past, very few people learnt reading and writing. Most
children learnt the work their families or elders did. Even in families
where skills like pottery, weaving and craft were taught, the
contribution of daughters and women was seen as secondary.
 In the nineteenth century, new ideas about learning and education
appeared. But there was a lot of opposition to educating girls ever
then.
 In the 1890s, Ramabai championed the cause of women’s education.

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 Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain learnt English from her elder brother and
an elder sister in spite of family opposition and went on to become a
famous writer.
 Rashsundari Devi of Bengal was the first Indian woman to write an
autobiography called ‘Amar Jiban’.

Schooling and Education Today

Today both boys and girls attend school in large numbers.

The difference in Their Education Still Remains

 Today education is the right of both boys and girls, despite that only
50 % of the girls receive an education.
 India has a census every 10 years which counts the population of the
country. This information is used to measure things like literacy,
sex-ratio, etc.
 A huge number of SC and ST children leave school at an early age.
The 2014 census even shows that Muslim girls are less likely than
Dalit girls to complete primary school.
 Many reasons like non-availability of teachers and schools, lack of
transport, cost of education, indifferent attitude of teachers and
parents are responsible for the negligence of education.

Women’s Movement

 Women have individually and collectively struggled to bring about

changes. This is called the Women’s Movement.
 Different strategies have been used to spread awareness, fight
discrimination and seek justice.
 These movements are related to campaigning, raising awareness,
protesting and showing solidarity.
 Men and women in society are looked upon as playing specific
gender roles.

Women have been facing inequalities at every step since time immemorial.
No doubt, their position and status have been improved with the change of
time, still, they lag behind men in almost every field.

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In this male-dominated society, they fail to avail equal privileges and

opportunities.

It has also been seen that some occupations are considered to be more
suitable for men than for women. It means women are good at only certain
jobs.

Many people believe that women make better nurses because they are
more patient and gentle. It is also believed that women do not bear
technical mind and therefore they are not capable of dealing with technical
things. Thus, they have been stereotyped as good nurses, good teachers,
etc. They are never seen as army officers, pilots, railway engine drivers,
etc.

A majority of Indians believe in these stereotypes. It is, therefore, girls do

not get the same support that boys do to study and train to become doctors
and engineers.

Today’s women have become very aware. They are determined to break
these stereotypes by excelling them in fields which were considered male
preserves till now. We have now women pilots, engineers, police officers,
scientists etc. We can mention here the name of Laxmi Lakra who by
becoming an engine driver, showed the world that women can do
everything.

Children especially boys are under great pressure. They are pressurised to
think about getting a job that will pay a good salary.

It is a matter of great anxiety for the parents if their son shows his
inclination towards studying subjects other than science or maths.

In our present social set-up parents have developed a false belief that only
science and maths are meaningful subjects. Only these subjects can make
their son’s future secured. These notions have no base. They must be

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eliminated from our mind. Subjects like history, political science, etc. are
also job oriented.

One positive change that is visible today is that more and more children
have started going to school. In the past, the skill of reading and writing
was known to only a few. Most children learnt the work their families or
elders did.

But girls faced the even worse situation. In communities that taught sons
to read and write, daughters were not allowed to learn the alphabet.

Slowly and steadily there came more and more positive changes. The
communities that never learnt reading and writing started sending their
children to school. In the beginning, there was a lot of opposition jp
educating girls. But there were also women and men who made efforts to
open schools for girls.

Women struggled to learn to read and write. Here, the experience of

Rashsundari Devi (1800-1890) is worth mentioning. She was a housewife
from a rich landlord’s family. At that time, it was believed that if a woman
learnt to read and write, she would become a widow. Despite this, she
taught herself how to read and write in secret, after her marriage. She
wrote her autobiography in Bangla which titled Amar Jaban,

Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was another example who did a lot for
women’s education. She knew how to read and write Urdu, but she was
stopped from learning Bangla and English. In those days only boys were
taught English. However, she learnt to read and write Bangla and English.
Afterwards, she became a writer and wrote a remarkable story titled
Sultana’s Dream in 1905. She did a lot to help other girls go to school and
to build their own dreams. In 1910, she started a school for girls in Kolkata
which is still functioning well.

No doubt more and more girls have started attending school, still they lag
behind boys. As per the most recent census of 2001, 76% of boys and men

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are literate but the figure is comparatively very low in case of girls. Only
54% of girls and women are literate in India. Thus, the percentage of the
male group is higher than the female group.

Girls who are from Dalit and Adivasi backgrounds are less likely to
remain in school. One of the many reasons is that several families are too
poor and unable to bear the cost of educating all their children. Boys easily
get preference in such circumstances.

The position and status of women have undoubtedly improved a lot which
is due to the collective efforts of the women of the country. Women’s
Movement also gets the support of men. They used different strategies to
spread awareness, fight discrimination and seek justice. For example, they
organise campaigns to fight discrimination and violence against women.
They also protest when violations against women take place. Women’s
Movement also shows solidarity with other women and causes.

Stereotype: the Fixed image of a person and a community. Stereotypes

prevent us from looking at people as unique individuals.

Discrimination: Treating people unequally.

Violation: When someone forcefully breaks the law or a rule or openly

shows disrespect, we often say that he/she has committed a violation.

Sexual Harassment: Physical or verbal behaviour that is of a sexual

nature and against a woman’s wishes.

Protest: To raise voice against the wrong action or decision.

Scheduled Caste (SC): It is the official term used for Dalit class of
people.

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Scheduled Tribe (ST): It is the official term used for Adivasi class of
people.

Autobiography: Autobiography is the life sketch of the writer himself.

Manuscript: The script written in the writer’s own handwriting.

Census: Census is held every 10 years. It counts the whole population of

the country. It also gathers information about the people living in India—
their age, schooling, what work they do, and so on.

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Chapter 6
Understanding Media
Media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a
phone call to the evening news on TV can be called media. TV, radio, and
newspapers are forms of media. Since they reach millions of people across
the world they are called mass media.

Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the various
ways through which we communicate in society.

Media and Technology

 Life without media is difficult. Cable TV and the Internet are recent
phenomena.
 Both print media and electronic media have played an important role
in social change.
 Changing technology or machines help media to reach more people.
 Television has enabled us to think of ourselves as members of the
global people.
 It is the responsibility of the media to present a fair and balanced
report.
 Media is far from being independent. This is because of the control
of the government over media called censoring and because big
business houses control the media.
 An independent media means that no one should control and
influence its coverage and news.

Media and Money

 The different technologies that mass media use are expensive.

 In a news studio, it is not only the newsreader who needs to be paid
but also a number of other people who help put the broadcast
together.

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 A lot of money is spent on getting the latest technology. To meet this

cost, it needs money.
 Media thus has come to be owned by big corporate.
 Media, therefore, uses advertising as a tool to raise revenue.

Media and Democracy

 Media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing

events taking place in the country and the world.
 New stories of media inform people about important events in the
country.
 Some important ways by which people can take about important
events in the country are organizing public protests, starting a
signature campaign, etc.

Setting Agendas

 The media also plays an important role in deciding which stories to

focus on.
 By focusing on particular issues, it influences and shapes our
thoughts. It is said the media sets the agenda for people.
 Very recently, the media reported alarming levels of pesticides in
cold drinks. This report led to safety standards being set for colas.
 Media plays a very important role in our lives as it tells us about
working of the government.
 Freedom of expression should be given to media to report events
independently.

Media is the plural form of the word ‘Medium’. It describes the various
ways through which we communicate in society.

Media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a

phone call to the evening news on television.

Television, radio, and newspapers are called mass media because they
reach millions of people at the same time.

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Cable television and the widespread use of the Internet is a recent

phenomenon.

The technology that mass media uses keeps changing.

Newspapers and magazines come under print media while television and
radio come under electronic media.

Changing technology, or machines and making technology more modern,

helps media to reach more and more people. It also improves the quality of
sound and the images. It also changes the ways in which we think about
our lives.

Television plays a major role in our life. We cannot think of life without
TV. It gives us news and entertainment and many other things.

Mass media uses expensive technologies. A TV studio needs lights,

cameras, sound recorders, transmission satellites, etc. All these cost a huge
amount of money.

Mass media also spends a lot of money on getting the latest technology.

Most television channels and newspapers become a part of big business

houses in order to fulfill their requirement of money.

Mass media earns money by advertising different things such as surf,

chocolates, etc.

Media plays a significant role in democracy. It provides news and

discusses events that take place in the country and the world. It is on the
basis of this information we come to know how the government works.

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The information that the media provides should be balanced. A balanced

report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then
leaves it to the readers to make up their minds.

Independent media can write a balanced report. Hence, it is necessary for

the media to be independence.

But the reality is that media is far from independent.

There are two reasons behind it. The first is the control that the
government has on the media. Where the government prevents either a
news item or scenes from a movie, or a lyric of a song from being shared
with the larger public, this is known as censorship. During the Emergency
period (1975-77) the government censored the media.

While the government does continue to censor films, it does not really
censor the media’s coverage of news.

Despite the absence of censorship by the government, most newspapers do

not provide a balanced report.

It has been found out by the persons who research media that business
houses control media. It means that the media is not independent.

Media sets the agenda. It means media has to decide what stories to focus
on and therefore, decides on what is newsworthy.

Media should focus on issues that are significant in our lives. But very
often it fails to do so. Cricket, fashion shows are very popular with the
media.

Local media deals with small issues that involve ordinary people and their
daily lives. Khabar Lahriya, a fortnightly newspaper, is run by eight Dalit

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women in Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh. It is written in the local

language, Bundeli.

Media: The word ‘media’ refers to all means of communication,

everything ranging from a phone call to the news on television.

Public protest: When people collectively state their opposition to some

issue by organizing a rally, starting a signature campaign, etc., it is known
as a public protest.

Balanced report: A balanced report is one that discusses all points of

view of a particular story and then leaves it to the leaders to make up their
minds.

Censorship: The government has the power to disallow media from

publishing or showing certain stories. This means that the government can
censor the media.

Broadcast: A TV or radio programme that is widely transmitted.

Setting Agenda: One of the important functions of media is that it decides

what stories should be focused on and thus decides on what is
newsworthy. This is often said that the media sets the agenda.

Local Media: It deals with small issues that involve ordinary people and
their daily lives. It publishes news of local importance.

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Chapter 7
Understanding Advertising
Advertisements draw our attention to various products, describing them
positively so that we become interested in buying them. Advertisements
are found in several forms: Print and electronic media as well as in
hoarding or on taxis.

Building Brands and Brand Values

 Advertising is all about building brands. At a very basic level,

branding means stamping a product with a particular name of the
sign. Products have an associating brand value with which the
consumer associates themselves.
 For example, there are many soaps but every company will have to
give the soap a different name, by doing this, they create another
brand of soap.
 Through advertisements, the company uses visuals and images to
create a brand value for their product such that the products may
create an impression in the customer’s mind.

Brand Values and Social Works

 Advertisements play an important role in social and cultural life.

 Branded products are costly but companies link them to style,
design, etc. such that people tend to buy them.
 Advertisements appeal to personal emotion of people which induce
people to buy the products.

How Does An Advertisement Get Made

 Advertising plays an important role in making a brand name.

 Advertising is normally made by advertising agencies which help in
devising a marketing strategy.

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 Making an advertisement involves a high cost.

 Campaigning is done carefully by the companies to promote their
products.

Advertising and Democracy

 Advertising a product costs a lot of money. Small manufacturers are

not able to compete in the market.
 It makes us believe that things that are packaged and have a brand
name are far better than things that do not come in packets.
 Democracy is based on equality. Sometimes advertisements confuse
the customers and influence their thinking. As citizens of a
democratic country, people should understand that they can take a
better decision about whether they wish to buy a product or not.

All of us are very much familiar with advertisements or ads. It is because

we see advertisements everywhere—on television, on street walls, in
newspapers, etc.

Advertisements draw our attention to various products and describe them

positively in order to impress us.

Advertising is all about building brands. Branding actually means

stamping a product with a particular name or sign in order to differentiate
it from other products in the market.

Only branding a product is not enough because there are many brands of
the same product available in the market. This creates tough competition
for the manufacturers. They have to convince us that their products are
better than the others. And at this juncture advertising comes in. It plays a
crucial role in trying to convince us to buy a product that is advertised.

But when a similar product under different brand names is advertised, it

creates confusion for the consumers. They fail to decide which one they
should buy.

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The advertisers are aware of this. Therefore, they begin claiming certain
special values for their brand. In this way, they try to differentiate it from
other similar product. These brand values are conveyed through the use of
visuals and words to give us an overall image that appeals to us.

Advertisements have become a part of our social and cultural life.

All of us watch advertisements with great attention. Most of us discuss

them and often judge people according to the brand products they use.

Advertisements influence our life to a great extent.

Branded products are costly because they include the costs of packaging
and advertising. It is therefore, many people cannot afford them.

Those who manage to buy them feel exalted but those who fail to buy feel
depressed.

We must be aware of the fact that there is little difference between things
sold in packets and those sold loose.

Advertisements often target our personal emotions. By linking our

personal emotions to products, advertisements tend to influence the ways
in which we value ourselves as persons.

Our cricket heroes and film stars advertise several products. We often feel
tempted to buy these products.

Advertisements often show us images of the lifestyles of rich people and

seldom show us the real-life situation.

Advertisements aim to get people to buy a particular brand. This means

that often we see an advertisement we should want to buy the brand.

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The persons who make advertisements decide on what images, text and
personal emotions to use to sell the product.

Advertising a product is a costly affair. It is therefore only large companies

can advertise.

Small business cannot afford the cost of advertisement and therefore they
sell their products in weekly markets and neighborhood shops.

Product: A thing or a service that has been made for sale in the market.

Brand: A special identification or name that is associated with a product.

Branding: Stamping a product with a particular name or sign.

Manufacturer: One who is associated with the production of a thing or

things.

Advertisement: Advertisement is a visual and verbal representation to

provide a product among the masses.

Consumer: The person for whom the goods or products have been made
and who pays money to buy and use them.

Lifestyle: The way of living.

Social Advertisements: These are made by the State or private agencies

that have a larger message for society.

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Chapter 8
Markets Around Us
A market is where buyer and seller are involved in the sale and purchase
of goods. It establishes a link between the producer and the consumer.

There are different kinds of markets namely; weekly market, shops,

shopping complex or mall.

The profit earned by different market varies. It depends on the type of

investment made by seller and buying capacity of the customer.

In present times, goods are also sold by online marketing and home
delivery.

Weekly Market

 A weekly market is so-called because it is held on a specific day of

the week.
 Shops may be permanent or hawker type. They provide different
goods and sometimes even on credit.
 There are thousands of such markets in India. People come here for
their everyday requirements.
 Traders set up shops for the day and then close them up in the
evening.
 Many things are available in a weekly market at cheaper rates.

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 Weekly markets even have a large number of shops selling the same
goods which means there is a competition among them.
 One advantage of weekly markets is that most of the things of need
are available in one place.

Shops in the Neighbourhood

 There are many shops that sell goods and services in our
neighborhood.
 We may buy milk from the dairy, grocery from the departmental
stores, etc.
 These shops are useful as they are near our home and we can go
there on any day of the week.

Shopping Complexes

 There are other markets in the urban area which have many shops at
one place called a shopping complex.
 In many urban areas, we also have multi-storied air-conditioned
buildings with shops on different floors as malls.
 Malls sell branded and non branded goods and invest a huge amount
of money in their shops.

Chain of Markets

 The people in between the producer and the final consumer are
traders.
 The person who produces goods in the producer. The person who
buys goods from him is the wholesaler. The wholesaler gives it to
the traders who gives it to the consumer.
 This trader is known as the retailer.
 The retailer could be a trader in a weekly market, a hawker,
neighborhood shop owner in the shopping complex, etc.

Markets Everywhere

 All markets work in a space in a particular manner and time.

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 Buying and selling take place in different ways, not necessarily

through shops in the market.
 There are even markets we may not be aware of. This is because a
large number of goods that we don’t use directly are also bought and
sold. For example a car factory purchases engine, parts, gears, petrol
tanks, axles, wheels, etc. from various other factories. We, however,
do not get to know about either the manufacturers or the sellers
involved in it.

A market is a place where we go to buy many things such as rice,

toothpaste, clothes, notebooks, bread, etc.

There are many kinds of markets—shops, hawker’s stall in our

neighborhood, a weekly market, shopping complex and mall.

The weekly market is held on a specific day of the week. Such markets do
not have permanent shops. Traders set up shops for the day and then close
them up in the evening. Things in weekly markets are available at cheaper
rates. We can bargain easily. Another feature of these markets is that most
of the things that we need are available at one place.

We also find shops in our neighborhoods. These shops sell things of daily
use. We may buy milk from the dairy, groceries from departmental stores,
stationery, eatables or medicines from other shops. Shops in the
neighbourhood may be permanent and roadside stalls. Neighborhood
shops are very useful. As the buyer and seller know each other, these
shops also provide goods on credit.

Apart from these markets, there are shopping complexes and malls too
which are usually found in urban areas. These urban shops are large multi-
storeyed air-conditioned buildings where one can get both branded and
non-branded goods. Branded goods are expensive and therefore a very
small group of people can afford to buy them. These shops are usually not
meant for the common people.

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The goods that we purchase in different types of shops are produced in

factories, on farms, and in homes. However, we don’t buy directly from
the factory or from the farm. The producers are also not interested in
selling us small quantities.

The trader comes in between the consumer and the producer. The
wholesale trader buys goods in huge quantities from the producer and then
he sells these goods to the retailers. These retailers finally sell different
articles to consumers. Thus, it is through these links of traders that goods
reach far away places.

This is the age of the Internet. One of the major benefits of the Internet is
that we can buy things of our need without going to the market. We can
place orders for a variety of things through the phone and the Internet and
the goods are delivered at our home.

Medical representatives are also engaged in the selling of goods. Thus,

buying and selling take place in different ways.

There are also markets that we may not be aware of. This is because a
large number of goods are bought and sold that we don’t use directly. A
car factory purchases engines, gears, petrol tanks, wheels, etc. from
various other factories. We do not usually see these types of buying and
selling.

There is a great difference between the shop owners in a weekly market

and those in a shopping complex. The shop owners in a weekly market are
small traders with little money to run the shop but the owners of shopping
complexes or malls are big businessman, with a lot of money.

One thing is clear that the weekly market trader earns little compared to
the profit of a regular shop owner in a shopping complex. Thus, we don’t
see equality in market places.

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So, far buyers are concerned, they are also not at all equal. There are many
who are not able to afford to buy even the cheapest goods while others are
busy shopping in beautiful malls.

Market: A Market is a place where buying and selling take place.

Weekly Market: It is held on a specific day of the week. Such markets do

not have permanent shops.

Mall: It is a large multi-storeyed air-conditioned building with shops on

different floors. Malls are found in urban areas.

Chain of Market: A series of markets that are connected like links in a

chain because goods or products pass from one market to another.

Wholesaler: The trader who buys a product in huge quantities from the
producers, and sells this product to small traders, i.e. retailers

Retailer: The trader who buys goods from the wholesaler in small
quantity and sells this to the consumer.

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Chapter 9
A Shirt in the Market
Cotton Farmer in Kurnool

 Cultivation of cotton is very expensive and a difficult task.

 A small farmer grows cotton on his small piece of land. Once the
harvesting is done, cotton balls are collected.
 These are taken to the local trader as the farmer had borrowed
money from the trader to buy seeds, fertilisers, etc. for cultivation.
 Even though the market price is high, the trader buys it at a meagre
price from the farmer.

The Cloth Market of Erode

 The bi-weekly market of Erode in Tamil Nadu is one of the biggest

cloth markets in the world.
 Cloth made by weavers from all over comes here for sale.
 Instructions about the type of cloth to be made are given in advance.
 The weavers get yam from the merchants and supply them the cloth.
 The arrangement between the merchant and the weaver is termed as
a putting-out system.
 It saves money of the weavers as they do not have to buy yam.
Likewise, the problem of selling the cloth is also taken care of.
 Since weavers do not know the price of the cloth, they are at a loss
and get a very small amount.

The Garment Exporting Factory Near Delhi

 Erode merchants send the cloth to garments export centre in Delhi.

 The garments factory makes shirts to be sold to the chain of business
from the US and Europe.
 They set a standard of quality and time.
 Faced with the pressure the garment centre tries to extract maximum
work from their workers of the lowest cost.

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 Most hired workers are temporary and get a low salary.

The Shirt in the US

 The shirts sent from garments export centres are sold in dollars in
the US.
 The shirts sold at Rs 200 by the garment export centre sell at Rs
1,200 in the US.
 Thus, a chain of markets links the producers of cotton to the buyers
at the supermarket.

Market and Equality

 Foreign businessmen make huge profits in the market.

 Garment manufacturers only make moderate profits.
 Weavers at Erode market and small farmers don’t make a huge
profit.
 Poor people have no option but to depend on the rich.
 Poor are exploited in the market.
 Laws should be made to protect the interest of weavers and small
farmers.

Cultivation of cotton is a very complicated and difficult task. It is very

expensive too because it requires high levels of inputs such as fertilisers
and pesticides. Farmers, therefore, have to incur heavy expenses for which
they need to borrow money from the local traders.

The local traders are very clever people. They give loan to such farmers
and in turn, make them promise to sell all their cotton to them. Thus, they
take advantage of the poor financial condition of the farmers. Here, we can
give an example of Swapna, who is also a cotton farmer and takes a loan
from a local trader to meet all the expenses on cotton cultivation. As a
result, she has to sell all her cotton to that local trader a low price. Thus,
farmers, in spite of their hard labour, never get a fair price.

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A large variety of cloth is sold in Erode’s bi-weekly cloth market in Tamil

Nadu. The cloth that is made by weavers is also brought here for sale. This
cloth is bought by the cloth merchants and other traders.

There are other weavers who make cloth under the instruction of the cloth
merchants. These merchants supply cloth on order to garment
manufacturers and exporters around the country. They purchase the yam
and give instructions to the weavers about the kind of cloth that is to be
made.

The weavers are happy because they do not have to spend their money on
the purchase of yarn. They also get rid of the problem of selling the
finished cloth. But at the same time, they lose their freedom. They begin to
depend on the merchants both for raw materials and markets.

The arrangement between the merchant and the weavers is termed as the
putting-out system.

The Erode merchant supplies the cotton cloth produced by the weavers to
a garment-exporting factory near Delhi. The garment exporting factory use
the cloth to make shirts to export them to foreign buyers. These foreign
buyers are powerful business persons. They demand the lowest price from
the supplier. In addition, they set high standards for quality of production
and timely delivery.

These conditions put the exporter in a light situation. Still, they accept the
deal, because they have nothing to do at the cost of their own benefit. They
start cutting costs. They get the maximum work out of the workers at the
lowest possible wages. Thus, their profit remains intact. The sufferers are
always the workers/labourers who hardly fulfil their day-to-day needs. The
weavers too are an exploited lot. Thus, everyone does not gain equality in
the market. Some make huge profits, some make moderate profits. But
nobody thinks about those who are working at the root level. They remain
poor in spite of their hard labour.

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Ginning Mill: It is a factory where seeds are removed from cotton bolls.
The cotton is pressed into bales which are sent for spinning into thread.

Putting-Out system: In this system, the cloth merchant supplies the raw
material to the weavers and receives the finished product.

Exporter: One who sells goods in foreign countries.

Profit: The amount that is left or gained from earnings after deducting all
the costs.

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Chapter 10
Struggle for Equality
The Indian Constitution recognizes all Indians are equal before the law and
states that no person discriminated against because of their religion, sex,
caste, or whether they re rich or poor.

All adults in India have equal rights to vote during elections, and this
‘power over the ballot box’ has been used by people to elect or replace
their representatives for many years.

However the feeling of equality on the basis of ‘one vote one person’ in
reality does not extend to Poor people face negligence and these people do
not get justice in matters of health, education, etc.

Domestic helpers, small farmers, and many others are forced to work in
hardships due to poverty a shortage of resources.

People also face inequality on grounds of religion, caste, and gender in

India.

Struggles for Equality

 Poverty and discrimination have created inequalities in our society.

 Throughout the world, people are fighting for their rights and
equality, trying to end the discriminator which they face.
 Women’s struggle and movements for equality was one such group
fighting for equality.
 The Tawa Matsya Sangh in Madhya Pradesh is also an example of
people coming together to fight an issue.
 There are many other struggles such as those of beedi workers,
fishermen, agricultural laborers, si dwellers, etc. who have been
fighting for equality and justice.

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Tawa Matsya Sangh (TMS)

 It is a federation of fishermen’s cooperatives that fights for the rights

of forest dwellers who have h displaced from Satpura forest located
in Madhya Pradesh.
 With the beginning of the construction of Tawa Dam in 1958 till its
completion in 1978, large parts the forest and agricultural areas were
submerged. Thus, the forest dwellers had to suffer a set bad they
earned very little.
 To government gave rights for fishing in the Tawa reservoir but to
only private contractors in 1994
 When the contractors started exploiting the poor villagers, they came
together to form a union and up an organization to protect their
rights, which was called Tawa Matsya Sangh.
 Rallies and Chakka jam were organized time and again. In response,
the government granted fish; rights to the villagers in 1996.
 With the TMS taking over the fishery workers were able to increase
their earnings substantially.

The Indian Constitution as a Living Document

 The foundation of all movements for justice and the inspiration for
all the poetry and songs on equals is the recognition that all people
are equal.
 Movements and struggle for equality in India promote equality.
 Indian constitution is a living document recognizing greater equality
on existing and other issues.
 It guarantees dignity, self-respect, and equality, all of which are
required in a democracy.

India is a democracy and the soul of democracy is equality. But we do not

see equality at any place except on the polling day on which every adult
citizen of India enjoys the equal right to vote.

Right from the beginning of the chapter, we have been introduced to

persons like Kanta, Ansari, Swapna, Melani, and so on. These people have
to face discriminations because they lack resources.

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Under such circumstances, some people take initiative and start struggles
for equality. Others extend their support for the cause.

In India, there are several struggles in which people have come together to
fight for issues that they believe are important. The methods used by the
women’s movement to raise issues of equality can be mentioned here.
Another example can be given of the Tawa Matsya Sangh in which people
came together to fight for an issue.

The Tawa Matsya Sangh is an organization fighting for the rights of the
displaced forest dwellers of Salpura forest in Madhya Pradesh.

The Tawa dam began to be built in 1958 and was completed in 1978. It
submerged large areas of forest and agricultural land. The forest dwellers
were left with nothing. Some of the displaced people began fishing in the
reservoir.

In 1994, the government gave the eights for fishing in the Tawa reservoir
to private contractors. These contractors were not friendly. They began to
push out the local people.

The villagers now stood united and set up Tawa Matsya Sangh (TMS) to
protect their rights.

The TMS organized rallies and a chakka jam demanding their right to
continue fishing for livelihood.

Finally, the government accepted their demand and from Jan. 2, 1997 they
began fishing.

Later on, the TMS set up a cooperative which would buy the catch from
the fishworkers at a fair price. Now, they were able to earn three times
more than they earned earlier.

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The TMS has also begun giving the Fishworkers loans for repair and the
buying of new nets.

In a democracy, there are always communities and individuals trying to

expand the idea of democracy and push for greater recognition of equality
on existing as well as new issues. Thus, issues of equality are central to
democracy.

The dignity and self-respect of each person can only be realized if he/she
has adequate resources.

Reservoir: An artificial lake where water is collected and kept in quantity

for use.

Dam: A dam is built across a river at sites where one can collect a lot of
water.

TMS: Tawa Matsya Sangh is an organization fighting for the rights of the
displaced forest dwellers of the Salpura forest in Madhya Pradesh.

Contractor: One that contracts to perform work or provide supplies.

Creative Expression: Writers, singers, dancers, and artists have also been
active against inequality. They use their pen or their voice or their ability
to dance to draw attention to issues of inequality. This is known as creative
expression.

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Chapter 1
The Indian Constitution
For the proper functioning of a country, laws are necessary.

A Constitution consists of a set of rules and principles to govern the

country.

The Indian Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly

which was formed in December 1946.

The Constituent Assembly consisted of 300 members in 1946. It

was headed by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

The Constituent Assembly completed the work in two years, eleven

months and eighteen days.

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26th November 1949 and

came into force on 26th January 1950.

The main features of the Indian Constitution are Federalism,

parliamentary form of government, separation of powers,
fundamental rights, an independent judiciary, and secularism.

Six fundamental rights have been granted to the citizens of India.

A secular state is that which does not officially promote any

particular religion as the state religion.

Society is bound to a certain set of rules which makes it what it is

and differentiates it from other kinds of society. These rules, in large

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societies in which different communities of people live together, are

formulated through consensus. In modern countries, this consensus
is usually available in written form. A written document in which we
find such rules is known as a Constitution.

Constitution lays certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of
country that we as citizens aspire to live in.

A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all

persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in
which they want the country to be governed. This includes the type
of government and also an agreement on certain ideals that they all
believe the country should uphold.

Principles and ideals of a monarchy are quite different from those of

a democracy. Therefore soon after the transition in the governing
system in Nepal, the government started the process of making a
new Constitution of Nepal because the earlier one did not suit their
new setup.

The country of Nepal needs to change all its constitutive rules in

order to usher in a new democratic society for which people had
struggled for a long period.

The Constitution defines the nature of a country’s political system.

In a monarchy, king is the supreme power whereas in a democracy
people rule the country. The government is run by the
representatives elected by people at large.

The Constitution also describes rules that guard against misuse of

power by the leaders. In India such provisions have been made in
the section of Fundamental Rights.

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The Indian Constitution guarantees the Right to Equality. In one of

the Fundamental Rights to all persons and says that no citizen can
be discriminated against on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender,
and place of birth.

The Constitution ensures that a dominant group does not use its
power against other, less powerful people or groups.

The Constitution also contains rules that ensure that minorities are
not excluded from anything that is normally available to the majority.
Thus the Constitution prevents the tyranny or domination by the
majority of a minority.

The Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that

we might take that could have an adverse effect on the larger
principles that the country believes in.

After independence, it was unanimously agreed that India should be

a democratic state where everyone must avail equal opportunity.

For this, there was a need for Constitution which could ensure a
perfect democracy. A group of around three hundred people who
became members of the Constituent Assembly in 1949 and who
met periodically for the next three years to write Indian Constitution.

There were so many factors, most of them quite contrary to each of

them, to be assimilated with clear cut explanations that made the
task very difficult. However, the Constitution was finalised with a lot
of unique features.

Federalism is the prime feature of our Constitution which refers to

the existence of more than one level of government in the country.
In India there are governments at the state and the centre.
Panchayati Raj is the third tier of the government.

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While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on

certain issues, they are bound to follow the laws of the central
government as a matter of national concern. The Constitution
clearly defines the jurisdictions of powers of the government at state
and that at center.

Parliamentary form of Government is the other feature of Indian

Constitution which provides that the different tiers of governments
shall constitute of the representatives elected by the people. It also
guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens.

The provision for separation of powers in the Constitution of India

recommends for three organs of the State: the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary. The legislature refers to our elected
representatives whereas the executive refers to a smaller group of
people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the
government and the judiciary refers td the system of courts in the
country for preventing the misuse of power by any branch of the
State. It also ensures the balance of power between all three
organs.

The feature of Fundamental Rights is the ‘conscience’ of the Indian

Constitution. These Rights protect citizens against the arbitrary and
absolute exercise of power by the State. The Constitution, thus,
guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as
against other individuals.

The Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution include:

1. Right to Equality,
2. Right to Freedom,
3. Right against Exploitation,
4. Right to Freedom of Religion,
5. Cultural and Educational Rights,
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies.

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In addition to the Fundamental Rights there is the provision of

Directive Principles of State Policy which ensure greater social and
economic reform, and serve as a guide to the independent Indian
State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the poverty of
the masses.

Secularism, a key feature of the Indian Constitution, defines that a

secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote
any one religion as the state religion.

The Constitution, thus, plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals
that we would like all citizens of the
country to adhere to, including the representatives that we elect to
rule us.

Constitution: Usually a written document which contains the rules

of governing a sovereign state.

Consensus: Agreement of all the people on an issue.

Democracy: A form of government in which people at large hold

the ultimate power of governance. The representatives of people
constitute the government and undertake the Constitutional
responsibilities in order to achieve the ideals of the Constitution.

Fundamental Rights: The set of Rights which ensures the life of

dignity and honor to all who live in its jurisdiction.

Equality: State of being equal in all respects.

Majority: Maximum in number.

Minority: Minimum in number.

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Federalism: The existence of more than one levels of government

in the country.

Representative: The person who is elected by people through a

general election to represent a constituency in the government.

Secularism: A system under which a state does not officially

promote any one religion as a state religion.

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Chapter 2
Understanding Secularism
A country which does not officially promote any religion as it’s
country’s religion is a secular country. India is one of them.

India adopted a policy to separate the power of religion and the

power of the state.

The separation of religion from the state is known as secularism.

The state can intervene in religion in order to end an evil social

practice which it believes discriminates and violates fundamental
rights.

The Indian secularism is different from other democratic countries

as the Indian states can intervene in religious affairs.

The term secularism refers to the separation between the power of

religion and the power of the State. This is important for a country to
function democratically.

There are two chief reasons why the separation between religion
and State is important.

 The first is to prevent the domination of one religion over

another.
 The second is to protect the freedom of individuals to come
out of their religion, embrace another religion or have the
freedom to interpret religious teachings differently. We can
give an example of the practice of untouchability which
allowed upper caste people to dominate lower caste people.

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Secularism’s opposition to institutionalized religion means that it

promotes freedom and equality between and within religions.

Indian secularism does protect an individual’s religious freedom by

maintaining a separation from religion.

The Indian State is not ruled by a religious group. It also does not
support any one religion.

In India, government spaces such as law courts, police stations,

government schools and offices are not supposed to demonstrate
or promote any one religion.

Indian secularism follows a strategy of non-interference. But at

some time it also intervenes in religion. Again we can give an
example of the practice of untouchability. The Indian Constitution
bans this practice. In this instance, the State is intervening in
religion in order to end a social practice that it believes
discriminates and excludes and that violates the fundamental rights
of lower caste people.

The intervention of the State can also be in the form of support.

Indian secularism is different from that of other democratic countries

such as the United States of America. There is a strict separation
between religion and the State in American secularism but in Indian
secularism, as mentioned above, the State can intervene in
religious affairs.

In Indian secularism, though the State is not strictly separate from

religion it does maintain a principled distance vis-a-vis religion. This
means that any interference in religion by the State has to be based
on the ideals laid out in the Indian Constitution.

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Secularism: It refers to the separation of religion from the State.

Coercion: Forcing someone to do something. In the chapter, the

term refers to the force used by a legal authority such as the State.

Freedom to interpret: It refers to the freedom that all persons shall

have to understand things in their own way. In the chapter, it refers
to individual liberty to develop their own understanding and
meaning of the religion they practice.

Intervene: In the chapter, the term refers to the State’s efforts to

influence a particular matter in accordance with the principles of the
Constitution.

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Chapter 3
Why Do We Need a Parliament?
The Indian Parliament was formed after 1947 to enable the citizens
of India to participate in decision making and control the
government.

The Parliament is made up of elected representatives of different

political parties and has a lot of power.

The Parliament consists of total of 543 representatives. They are

called Members of Parliament.

Parliament has two houses Lok Sabha, i.e. Lower House and Rajya
Sabha, i.e. Upper House, headed by their presiding officers i.e.,
speaker and chairman respectively.

The Vice-President is the Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

In the Parliament, some seats are reserved for SC, ST and women
candidates.

The Money Bill is presented only in Lok Sabha, whereas an

ordinary bill can be presented in any of the Houses.

The important functions of Parliament include making laws, and to

control, guide and inform the government.

India got freedom after a long and tough struggle. In this struggle
for freedom people from different backgrounds participated. They

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were greatly inspired by the ideas of freedom, equality and

participation in decision-making.

The British government had created such a havoc that they never
dared to criticise any of their decisions even if they did not agree
with them.

The freedom movement changed this situation. The nationalists

began to openly criticise the British government and make
demands. They demanded that there should be elected members in
the legislature with a right to discuss the budget and ask questions.
The Government of India Act 1909, allowed for some elected
representation.

However, all adults were not allowed to vote. Also people could not
participate in decision making under the British rule.

But the nationalists wanted that all persons in independent India

would be able to participate in making decisions.

Therefore, when India got freedom, the dreams and aspirations of

the freedom struggle were made concrete in the Constitution. The
Constitution of Independent India laid down the principle of
universal adult franchise. Now, all adult citizens of the country have
the voting right.

In a democratic form of government, the individual or citizen is the

most important person. Now the question arises how does the
individual give approval to the government? One way of doing so is
through elections.

People would elect their representatives to the Parliament, then one

group from among these elected representatives forms the
government.

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The Parliament is made up of all representatives together and it

guides the government.

It means people through their chosen representatives form the

government and control it.

The Indian Parliament came into existence in 1947. It is the

representative of the people and enjoys immense powers.

Elections to the Parliament are held in a similar manner as they are

for the state legislature.

The Lok Sabha is usually elected once every five years. The
country is divided into several constituencies. Each of these
constituencies elects one person to the Parliament.

The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different

political parties. Once elected, these candidates become Members
of Parliament, also known as MPs. These MPs together form the
Parliament.

The Parliament performs several functions. It selects the national

government.

The Parliament in India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha

and the Lok Sabha.

After the Lok Sabha elections are declared, the leader of the party
with the majority of elected members is invited by the President to
form a government. The other political parties form the opposition.
The largest amongst these parties are known as the opposition
party.

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Sometimes, it so happens that one political party does not get a

clear majority. In such a situation a group of parties comes together
to form a government. Such a government is known as a coalition
government.

The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the
Lok Sabha. From the MPs who belong to his party, the Prime
Minister selects ministers to work with him to implement decisions.

The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the

states of India in the Parliament.

It plays an important role of reviewing and altering (alterations are

required) the laws initiated by the Lok Sabha.

The Parliament keeps a check on the ministers and their work. MPs
have the right to question the ministers about the working of their
departments. This is usually done during the question hour.

The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by

the questions by the MPs.

In all matters dealing with finances, the Parliament’s approval is

crucial for the government.

The Parliament makes laws for the entire country.

The Parliament now has more and more people from diverse
backgrounds.

There has also been an increase in political participation from the

Dalit and backward castes and the minorities.

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Some seats are reserved in the Parliament for SCs and STs.

It has also been suggested that there should be reservation of seats

for women. However, this issue is still debated.

EVM: It stands for Electronic Voting Machine.

Approval: It refers to the formal consent through elected

representatives that Parliament has as well as the fact that it needs
to continue to enjoy the people’s trust.

Representative: The person who is elected by the people is known

as the people’s representative.

Universal Adult Franchise: All adult citizens of the country enjoy

the right to vote.

Coalition: When one party does not get a clear majority, a group of
political parties
form a coalition and elect a leader who then forms a government,
known as a coalition government.

Parliament: The Parliament in India consists of the President, the

Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. It is the highest law-making body
in the country. It is also known as Sansad.

Rajya Sabha: It is also known as the Council of States. Its total

membership is 245.
It is chaired by the Vice-President of India.

Lok Sabha: It is also known as the House of the People. Its total
membership is 545.
It is presided over by the Speaker.

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Opposition Party: The opposition in Parliament is formed by all the

political parties that oppose the majority party or coalition formed.
The largest amongst these parties is known as the opposition party.

Ruling party: The party that rules the country.

Unresolved: It refers to the situations in which there are no easy

solutions to problems.

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Chapter 4
Understanding Laws
In Indian democracy, the Parliament is in charge of making laws.
According to the constitution, all are equal before law.

The rule of law applies equally to all citizens and no one can be
above the law. Neither a government servant nor even the
president of the country.

Any crime or violation of law is subject to specific punishment.

In ancient times, there were so many laws. The British Government

introduced the rule of law. This law was arbitrary.

In India, citizens can express their unwillingness by holding

meetings or writing in newspapers to accept repressive laws.

When any law favors one group and disregards the other, then it is
called Controversial Law. This type of law leads to conflict.

In India, the court has the power to cancel or modify any type of
controversial law framed by the Parliament.

All persons in independent India are equal before the law. It means
that the law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of
their religion, caste or gender. Laws apply equally to all citizens of
the country and no one, not even the President of the country is
above the law.

Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment.

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But in ancient India laws did not apply equally to all. Even the
punishment that two persons received for the same crime varied
depending on their caste backgrounds, with lower castes being
more ruthlessly penalised.

Even the colonial government failed to establish the rule of law in

India. The colonial law was arbitrary. The Sedition Act of 1870
presents the best example of the arbitrariness of British law. Under
this Act, any person protesting or criticising the British government
could be arrested without due trial.

Indian nationalists raised voice against the arbitrary use of authority

by the British. They began fighting for greater equality and wanted
to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced
to obey, to law as including ideas of justice.

By the end of the 19th century, the Indian legal profession also
began emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts.

Indian judges began to play a greater role in making decisions.

Their efforts did not go in vain. The rule of law emerged during the
colonial period.

When the Indian Constitution came into existence, laws for the
country began to be made by our representatives.

The Indian Parliament makes laws for the entire country.

Whenever, people think that a new law is necessary, they propose

for it. The Parliament then comes forward and does what is
required.

The issue of domestic violence was raised by the people. It was

brought to the attention of the Parliament which in due course

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passed a law ‘The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence

Act’ to uproot this issue.

The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different

concerns that people might have into laws.

Sometimes it so happens that laws passed by the Parliament turn

out to be unpopular. Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid
and hence legal, but it can continue to be unacceptable to people
because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.
In such a situation, people might civilize this law by holding
meetings, etc.

When a large number of people begin to raise voice against a

wrong law, then the Parliament has to change it.

We can make it clear through an example. Various municipal laws

on the use of space within municiple limits often make hawking and
street vending illegal. No one will dispute the necessity for some
rules to keep the public space open for people’s convenience. At
the same time one cannot deny that hawkers and vendors provide
essential services. This is their means of livelihood.

Hence, if the law favours one group and disregards the other it will
be controversial and lead to conflict. In such a situation people can
go to the court which has the power to modify or cancel laws if it
finds that they do not adhere to the constitution.

In a democratic country like India people have full right to protest

unjust laws.

Rule of Law: It means that all laws apply equally to all citizens of
the country and no one can be above the law.

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Sedition: This applies to anything that the government might

consider as stiring up resistance or rebellion against it. The British
passed the Sedition Act in 1870. Under this Act any person
protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested
without a trial.

Evolution: In the chapter, it refers to the way in which protecting

women against domestic violence developed from an urgently-felt
need to a new law that can be enforced in the entire country.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005: According to this law,

sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of family
property.

Domestic violence: It refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury

or harm caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his
wife: Injury may be caused by physically beating up the woman or
by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the women usually includes
verbal, sexual and economic abuse.

Criticize: In the chapter, the term refers to citizens who find fault
with the functioning of government.

Repressive: In the chapter, the term refers to laws that use brutal
methods to control persons and prevent them from exercising their
Fundamental Rights.

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Chapter 5
Judiciary
In India, to enforce the rule of law, we have a judicial system, which
is an organ of the state.

The judicial system plays an important role in the functioning of

Indian democracy.

The important functions of the judicial system, i.e. the judiciary are:
Dispute Resolution, Judicial review, Upholding the Law and
Enforcing the Fundamental Rights.

In India, there are three different levels of court, i.e. District Court,
High Court, and the Supreme Court.

The law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts as it

is the highest level court in the country.

Supreme Court is headed by the Chief Justice and 25 other Judges.

They are appointed by the President of India.

In India, there are two branches of the legal system, i.e. Civil Law
and the Criminal law.

Civil Law deals with any harm or injury to the rights of an individual.

Criminal Law deals with conducts or acts that the laws define an
offense.

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Supreme court has devised a mechanism called PIL, i.e. Public

Interest Litigation so that a poor person can easily get access to
justice.

The rule of law is enforced through a judicial system which consists

of the mechanism of courts. Whenever a law is violated one can
approach these courts.

The judiciary is an organ of the State. It plays a major role in a

democratic country. It performs several functions:

 – The judiciary not only applies the law of the country, it also
settles disputes and punishes the guilty. These disputes may
take place between citizens, between citizens and the
government, between two state governments and between
the centre and state government.
 The judiciary has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds
that they violate the basic structure of the constitution. This is
know as judicial review.
 In case our Fundamental Rights are violated, we can
approach the Supreme Court or the High Court. In this sense,
the courts play a very significant role in protecting our
Fundamental Rights.

We have an independent judiciary. It means that the courts are not

under the government and do not act on their behalf.

The Courts play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of

power by the legislature and executive.

There are three different levels of courts in our country. At the

district level, we have subordinate district courts. At the State level,
we have several High Courts. The High Court is the highest judicial
authority in a state. At the top is the Supreme Court. The Supreme
Court of India is the highest judicial authority in our country. It is

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located is New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of

India. The decisions made by the Supreme Court is binding on all
other courts in India.

We have an integrated judicial system. It means that the decisions

made by the higher courts are binding on the lower courts.

Different levels of courts are connected to each other through the

appellate system which means that a person can appeal to a higher
court if they are not satisfied with the judgement passed by the
lower court.

Court cases are broadly divided into two categories:

 Civil cases deals with matters like money, property,

inheritance, marriage disputes, etc.
 Criminal cases deal with cases of theft, cheating, robbery,
physical injury and murder.

In Civil cases, a petition has to be filed before the relevant court by

the affected party only. The court gives the specific relief asked for.

Criminal cases usually begin with the lodging of an FIR with the
police who investigate the crime after which a case is filed in the
court. If found guilty, the accused can be sent to jail.

In principle, all citizens of India can approach the courts in the

country and seek
justice. But in reality, courts are not easily accessible. For a vast
majority of the poor in India, it is very difficult to approach the
courts. Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paperwork
takes up a lot of time. Therefore, poor people often avoid to go to
the courts to get justice.

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The Supreme Court, therefore, devised a mechanism of Public

Interest Litigation or PIL in the early 1980s in order to increase
access to justice. It allowed any individual or organisation to file a
PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of these
whose rights were being violated. The legal process was greatly
simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme
Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL.

Judicial System: It is a mechanism of courts that a citizen can

approach when a law is violated.

Judicial review: The judiciary has the power to modify or cancel

particular laws passed by the Parliament if it finds that they do not
adhere to the Constitution. This is known as judicial review.

Violation: It means breaking a law or encroaching someone’s

Fundamental Rights.

Separation of power: It means that the powers of the state and the
powers of the judiciary are separate.

Independent judiciary: It means that the judiciary is not under the

government and does not act on its behalf.

To appeal: To file a petition before a higher court.

Acquit: The court declaring that a person is not guilty of the crime
which he/she was tried for by the court.

Civil law: It deals with matters like money, property, marriage

disputes, etc. ‘

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Criminal law: It deals with cases of theft, robbery, cheating,

murder, etc.

PIL: It stands for Public Interest Litigation. It has been devised to

facilitate justice.

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Chapter 6
Understanding Our Criminal Justice
System
There are four key players in the criminal justice system: The
Police, The Public Prosecutor, The Defence Lawyer and The
Judge.

The main role of the police is to investigate a crime, when FIR, i.e.
First Information Report is registered at a police station.

An investigation includes recording statement of witness and

collecting different kinds of evidence.

The role of the Public Prosecutor begins when the police have filed
the charge sheet in the court.

The Public Prosecutor conducts the prosecution on the behalf of the

State.

The Judge conducts the trial impartially in an open court and on the
basis of the evidence presented, he pronounces the sentence.

According to Indian Constitution, every citizen, irrespective of the

class, caste, gender, religion and background must get a fair trial
when accused.

A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the

Police Station only for questioning.

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The Indian Constitution guaranteed that every arrested person must

be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.

There are four people who play a key role in our criminal justice
system. These are: the police, the Public Prosecutor, the defence
lawyer and the judge.

The role of the police begins with the lodging of an FIR in the police
station. After the registration of the FIR, the police start the
investigation. On the basis of the investigation, they form an
opinion.

If the police think that the evidence points to the guilt of the accused
person, then they file a charge sheet in the court.

Police investigations always have to be conducted in accordance

with the law and with full respect for human rights.

The police are not allowed to torture or beat or shoot anyone during
an investigation.

In court, the Public Prosecutor represents the interests of the State.

His role begins once the police has conducted the investigation and
filed the charge-sheet in the court.

The Public Prosecutor is expected to act impartially and present the

full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court.

The defence lawyer acts on behalf of the accused. He also

produces witnesses and evidence before the court in favour of his
client.

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The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence
presented by the prosecution and the defence.

Afterwards, he decides whether the accused person is guilty or

innocent.

It the accused is guilty, then the judge pronounces the sentence.

Witness: It refers to the person who is called upon in court to give a

first-hand account of what he/she has seen, heard or knows.

Detention: It refers to the situation when the police forcibly keeps

someone in custody.

Offence: Any act that is defined by the law as a crime.

Investigation: It refers to an official examination of the facts about

a crime.

Memo: It refers to an official note.

Cognizable: It refers to an offence for which the police may arrest a

person without the court’s permission.

Cross-examine: To question the witness carefully who has already

been examined by the opposite side to determine the truth of
his/her testimony.

Evidence: It refers to the facts or signs that make you believe that
something is true.

Confession: Acceptance of an offence.

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Chapter 7
Understanding Marginalisation
Marginalization is when groups of people or communities are being
excluded from the majority because of their language, customs or
religion.

The people who lived in close association with forests are known as
Adivasi. Around 8% of India’s population is Adivasi.

The religious practices and the languages of Adivasis is totally

different from the majority.

Due to deforestation activities for different purposes, Adivasis are

forced to migrate to cities.

The communities which are numerically small in relation to the rest

of population are known as Minorities.

The Constitution of India provides safeguards to protect minority

communities.

In India, Muslims are considered as one of the minority community.

They are 13.4% (According to 2001) of total population. But
according to 2011 census the Muslims constituted 14.23% of total
population.

Marginalisation is a complex phenomenon which requires a variety

of strategies, measures and safeguards to redress the situation to
protect the diversity.

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Marginalisation refers to a situation in which an individual or a group

of individuals is deprived of certain privileges or treated as different
from others.

Marginalisation is experienced in every sphere of life. Economic,

social, cultural and political factors work together to make certain
groups in society feel marginalised.

The term Adivasi means the original inhabitants.

Adivasis have always been in close connection with forests. They

are also known as
Scheduled Tribes.

About 8% of India’s population is Adivasi.

There are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.

Adivasi dominated states are Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya

Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal and the north-eastern states.

Adivasis worship their ancestors, village and nature spirits. They

have always been influenced by different surrounding religious such
as Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Christianity etc.

Adivasis have their own languages, Santhali is one of them.

Adivasis are usually portrayed in colourful costumes and headgear.

Their dances are also unique.

It is the general belief of the people that Adivasis are exotic,

primitive and backward. But it is not so in reality.

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Forests played a very significant role in the life of the Adivasis.

Adivasis had deep knowledge of forests. History is witness that big
empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to
forest resources.

But today they are considered marginalised communities.

The pre-colonial Adivasis were basically hunter-gatherers and

nomads. They practised shifting cultivation. Some Adivasis also
cultivated in one place.

Slowly and steadily they began to migrate because of economic

changes, forest policies, • etc. Thus, they lost their access to
forests.

The forest land that once belonged to Adivasis, were cleared for
different purposes such as agriculture and industry.

According to official figures, more than 50% of persons displaced

due to mines and mining projects are tribals.

Another recent data shows that 79% of the persons displaced from
the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand
tribals.

With the loss of access to forests Adivasis lost their means of

livelihood. As a result, they migrated to cities in search of work.

In the cities, they lead a very miserable life. Their children are
malnourished. They have no access to education.

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45% of tribal groups in rural areas and 35% in urban areas live
below the poverty
line.

The term minority refers to the communities that are numerically

small in relation to the rest of the population.

People belonging to majority group may suppress or overpower

minority communities. This may lead to their marginalisation.
Hence, it is necessary to protect their interest. Our Constitution
provides safeguards to them.

The Muslim community is also socially marginalised.

Muslims are 13.4 % of India’s population. They have over the years
been deprived of the benefits of socio-economic development. They
have little access to education. They are deprived of basic
amenities like water, electricity. In public employment too they
always lag behind to other communities.

The government is very active to improve the condition of the

Muslim community.

It set-up a high-level committee in 2005 to examine the social,

economic and educational status of the Muslim Community in India.
The report discusses in detail the marginalisation of this community.
It suggests that on a range of social, economic and educational
indicators the situation of the Muslim community is comparable to
total of other marginalised communities like Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.

Muslim customs and practices such as wearing burqa and fez make
them different from others. Because of this, they tend to be

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identified differently and some people think that they are not like the
‘rest of us’. This often becomes an excuse to treat them unfairly.

This social marginalisation of Muslims has led to them migrating

from places where they have lived.

In our country, there are several marginalised communities like

Dalits.

It is quite essential to bring these communities in the mainstream so

that they may avail access to rights, development and other
opportunities.

Marginalisation: The term refers to the situation in which an

individual or a group of individuals is deprived of certain privileges
or treated as different from others.

Adivasi: It literally means ‘original inhabitants’.

Hierarchy: A graded system or arrangement of persons or things.

These who find themselves avail the least power.

Mainstream: People or communities that are considered to be at

the centre of a society.

Displaced: People who are forced to move from their homes for
some reasons such as construction of dams, etc.

Militarised: An area where the presence of the armed forces is

considerable.

Malnourished: One who does not get adequate food.

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Ghettoization: Ghettoisation is a process in which an area or

locality is populated largely by.members of a particular community.

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Chapter 8
Confronting Marginalisation
Confronting refers to the way in which groups and individuals
challenge the existing inequalities.

In many cases, the marginalised groups are derived from the

Fundamental Rights. In this case, they forced the government to
enforce these laws.

The marginalised groups also influenced the government to frame

new laws. The abolition of untouchability is one of such examples.

The Constitution always tries to ensure Social and Cultural Justice

to the marginalised groups. The government has framed many
schemes and policies for the marginalised groups and made efforts
to promote them.

Reservation is one of them, which plays an important role in

providing social justice to Dalits and Adivasis.

For the safeguards of Dalits, the government has framed SC and

ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

The 1989 Act also helps the Adivasis to defend their right to occupy
the land that traditionally belonged to them.

Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, and women come under marginal groups.

These groups experience inequality and discrimination at every
level in society. As this hurt them, they want to come out of this.
They often challenge existing inequalities.

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They argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country,

they process equal rights that must be respected. Many of them
look up to the Constitution to address their concerns.

The Constitution provides Fundamental Rights which are available

to all Indians equally, including the marginalised groups.

But as the marginalised groups fail to enjoy equal rights, they insist
the government to enforce laws.

The government, as a result, frame new laws in keeping with the

spirit the Fundamental Rights.

Untouchability has been abolished. This means that no one can

henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering
temples, using public facilities, etc.

Our Constitution States that no citizen of India shall be

discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth. This has been used by Dalits to seek equality where
it has been denied to them.

There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised groups in
our country.

The government sets up a committee or undertakes a survey and

then makes an effort to promote such policies in order to give
opportunities to specific groups.

The government tries to promote social justice by providing for free

or subsidized hostels for students of Dalit and Adivasi communities.

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The Government’s reservation policy is a very significant effort to

end inequity in the system.

The laws which reserve seats in education and government

employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important
argument that in a society like ours, where for centuries sections of
the population have been denied opportunities to learn and to work
in order to develop new skills or vocations, a democratic
government must assist these sections.

Governments across the country have their own list of SCs or

Dalits, STs, and backward and most backward castes. The central
government too has its list.

Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for

posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste or
tribe status in the form of caste and tribe certificates.

If a particular Dalit caste or a certain tribe is on the government list,

then a candidate from that caste or tribe can avail of the benefit of
reservation.

Besides policies, there are also specific laws to protect the rights of
marginalised communities.

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of

Atrocities) Act
came into being in 1989 to. protect Dalits and Adivasis from the
domination of the powerful communities.

Dalit: The term Dalit means ‘broken’ or oppressed socially and

economically.

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Confront: To come face to face or to challenge someone or

something. In the chapter, the word refers to groups that challenge
their marginalisation.

Policy: A well-planned course of action that provides direction for

the future, sets goals to be achieved or lays out guidelines to be
followed and acted upon.

Ostracise: To socially boycott an individual and his family.

Dispasses: To give up ownership or authority.

Morally reprehensible: An act that violates all norms of decency

and dignity that society believes in.

Assertive: An individual or a group that expresses themselves and

their views strongly.

Manual Scavenging: It refers to the manual practice of removing

human and animal waste or excreta with the help of brooms, tin
plates and baskets from dry latrines and carrying it on the head to
disposal grounds.

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Chapter 9
Public Facilities
Government plays an important role in providing pub’ facilities to
everyone. It should provide safe drinking water to the people and
also take care of Sanita. facilities.

Public facilities relate to people’s basic needs. Any modem society

requires these facilities.

The right to life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons
living in the country.

It is the responsibility of the government to provide these facilities

as private companies give these facilities at high rates.

When the resources are less, the alternative sources are to be

searched for, like in Chennai.

Public facilities relate to our basic needs such as water, health,

education, etc.

The government is expected to play a major role in providing public

facilities to ail.

Water is the basic need of people. It is essential for life and for good
health.

Safe drinking water can prevent several water-borne diseases such

as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, etc. Unfortunately, India has the
largest number of cases of these diseases.

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Children below the age of five reportedly die every day because of
these diseases.

It means safe drinking water is not available to all.

Our constitution recognizes the Right to Water as being a part of

the Right to Life under Article 21. It means that there should be
universal access to water. But in reality, it does not happen so.

Not only water but other public facilities such as healthcare,

electricity, public transport, schools and colleges also need to be
provided for all.

The chief feature of a public facility is that once it is provided, its

benefits can be shared by several people. For example, if an area is
supplied with electricity it means that the entire people of that area
can use its benefit.

One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure

that public facilities are made available to everyone.

The government gets money for public facilities from the taxes
collected from the people.

The government is empowered to collect these taxes and use them

for such programmes. For example, to supply water the government
has to incur costs in pumping water, carrying it over long distances,
laying down pipes for distribution, treating the water for impurities,
and finally, collecting and treating waste water. It meets these
expenses partly from the various taxes that it collects and partly by
charging a price for water. This price is set so that most people can
afford a certain minimum amount of water for daily use.

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Although public facilities should be made available to all, in reality,

we find their shortage. As mentioned above water is a public facility
of great importance. But the tragedy is that it is not available to all.

The poor are the worst sufferers because they don’t have money to
purchase water from private companies.

Crisis of water becomes acute during the summer months in

several cities of the country.

The shortage in municipal water is increasingly being filled by an

expansion of private companies who are selling water for profit.

A shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of

the government.

Our constitution recognizes many of the public facilities as being a

part of the Right to Life. Now it is the government’s responsibility to
see that these rights are protected so that everyone can lead a
good life.

Public facilities: They are associated with our basic needs such as
water, electricity, public transport, etc.

Universal access: Universal access is achieved when everyone

has physical access to a good condition or can also afford it.

Sanitation: Provision of facilities for the safe disposal of human

urine and feces.

Company: A company is a form of business set up by people or by

the government.

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Chapter 10
Law and Social Justice
Enforcement of the law is important to protect the rights of
minorities from the majority. In order to ensure the abolition of child
labor, the government has to regularly inspect the factories and
punish those who violate the law.

Many of these laws have their basis in the Fundamental Rights

guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. For instance, Right against
Exploitation:

 According to this right, no one can be forced to work on low

wages or under bondage
 No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed in
shops, factories or mines.

The EPA (Environment Protection Act), 1986 came into force soon
after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered umbrella legislation
as it filled many gaps in the existing laws.

The Environment Protection Act authorizes the central government

to protect and improve environmental quality, and control and
reduce pollution from all sources. It prohibits or restricts the setting
or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.

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According to the 2001 census, over 12 million children in India

between the age group of 5 and 14 worked in various occupations.
In 2006, the Government of India amended the Child Labour
Prevention Act.

Minimum Wages Law deals with the wages of the workers, ensuring
that they are not underpaid and this is updated every year.

There is also a law to protect the interest of the producers and

consumers in the market. So, laws are there to ensure the
relationship between the worker, consumer and producer. They are
governed in an un-exploitative manner.

Markets tend to be exploitative of people. Therefore the government

makes certain laws to protect people from such exploitation. These
laws try to check unfair practices in the markets.

Private companies, contractors, etc. in order to make maximum

profits might deny workers their rights and not pay them wages.

In this regard, there is a law on minimum wages which ensures that

workers are paid fairly.

The government is also keen to protect the interests of producers

and consumers in the market. There are also laws for them.

These laws ensure that the relations between the worker, consumer
and producer are governed in a manner that is not exploitative.

Well, laws are there to protect various interests. But what is

important in this regard is the implementation of these laws. Unless
these laws are enforced it will be difficult to protect the weak from
the strong.

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To ensure that every worker gets fair wages, the government has to
regularly inspect work sites and punish those who violate the law.

Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the

government can control the activities of individuals or private
companies in order to ensure social justice.

In October 2006, the government amended the Child Labour

Prevention Act, banning children under 14 years of age from
working as domestic servants or as workers in dhabas, restaurants,
etc. It made employing these children punishable offense.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy is the world’s worst industrial tragedy that took
place in the year 1984. Union Carbide (UC), an American company,
had a factory in Bhopal in which it produced pesticides. At midnight
on 2 December 1984 methyl-isocyanide (MIC), a highly poisonous
gas, started leaking from this VC plant which took numerous lives.
Among those who survived, many developed severe respiratory
disorders, eye problems etc. Children developed peculiar
abnormalities.

The disaster was not an accident. Union Cabinet had deliberately

ignored the essential safety measures in order to cut costs.

Although UC stopped its operations, it left behind tons of toxic

chemicals which have seeped into the ground to contaminate water.

25 years later, people are still fighting for justice, for safe drinking
water, for healthcare facilities and jobs for the people poisoned by
UC.

Now the question arises why Union Carbide set up its plant in India.

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Foreign companies usually come to India for cheap labor. Here,

they can save costs and earn higher profits.

Lower working conditions including lower safety measures are used

as ways of’ cutting costs. In the UC plant, every safety device was
malfunctioning.

In India, there is so much unemployment, that there are many

workers who are willing to work even in unsafe conditions in return
for a wage. Employers take advantage of this.

The government must ensure that safety laws are implemented. It is

also the duty of the government to ensure that the Right to Life
guaranteed by the Constitution is not violated.

The Bhopal disaster shows lacking on the government’s part. There

were weak safety laws and these too were not enforced.

Government officials refused to recognize the plant as hazardous

and allowed it to come up in a crowded locality. In this way, the
safety of the people was disregarded both by the government and
by private companies.

In the year, the Bhopal gas tragedy took place, there were few laws
protecting the environment in India. The environment was treated
as a free entity and any industry could pollute the air and water
without any restrictions.

The Bhopal disaster brought the issue of the environment to the

forefront.

The Indian government introduced new laws on the environment.

Henceforth, the polluter was to be held accountable for the damage
done to the environment.

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Laws were important not only for the workers but also for those who
might be injured due to industrial accidents.

• One of the prime responsibilities of the government is to make

appropriate laws and to enforce them. Laws that are weak and
poorly enforced can cause a serious disaster.

Consumer: One who buys goods for personal use.

Producer: A person or an organisation that produces goods for

sale in the market.

Investment: It refers to the money that is spent to purchase new

machinery or buildings or training so as to be able to increase
production in the times to come.

Hazardous: Condition that is full of dangers.

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What is Democracy? Why Democracy?(Chapter 2)

 Meaning and Features of Democracy
 Importance of Democracy
 Alternatives to Democracy

What is Democracy?

Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.

 Myanmar where the army rules, Dictator Pinochet’s rule in Chile, or President Nkrumah’s rule in • Ghana was
not democratic. They were not chosen by the people.
 Hereditary kings, like the king of Nepal or Saudi Arabia, are also not democratic rulers. They rule because they
were born into noble families.

In a democracy final, decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people.

 In Pakistan, President Musharraf had the power to dismiss national and state assemblies; so the final powers
rest with the army and the General himself. We cannot call it a democracy. Now Pakistan has an elected
government.

Democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.

For example, in Mexico elections have been held every six years since 1980. But the same party, PRI, has won the
elections. Obviously, there has been rigging and malpractices, with freedom denied to the opposition. This is not what a
democracy should be.

In a democracy, people’s will is ascertained by each adult citizen having one vote and each vote has one value.
Democracy is based on the fundamental principle of political equality.

A democratic government rules within the limits set by constitutional and citizens’ rights.

 A democratic government cannot do what it likes after winning the elections. It has to respect certain basic rules
and is accountable not only to the people but also to other independent officials.

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The Pillars of Democracy are The Sovereignty of the people, Government based upon the consent of the government,
Majority rule, Minority rights, Guarantee of basic human rights, Free and Fair elections, Equality before the law,
Constitutional limits on government, Values of tolerance, Pragmatism, Cooperation and Compromise.

Why Democracy?

Points Against

There has been a criticism of democracy by various people. The charges are that:

 It creates instability by changing its leaders frequently.

 Democracy is about power play and political competition. There is no scope for morality.
 So many people have to be consulted before any issue is resolved. It leads to delay.
 Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people.
 It leads to corruption for it is based on electoral corruption.
 Ordinary people do not know what is good for them, so decision-making should not be left to them.

Alternative to Democracy

To overcome political instability and legislative gridlock associated with democratic rule, expansions of executive power
and limits on democratic freedoms are been looked for.

An exceptional example is that of Russia’s transition from unstable democracy in the 1990s to economic growth and
political stability.

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Constitutional Design (Chapter 3)

In this chapter:

 Democratic Constitution in South Africa.

 Making of the Indian Constitution

Democratic Constitution in South Africa

 Nelson Mandela, the South African leader of African National Congress, fought a long battle against Apartheid.

 Imprisoned for 28 years (1964-1992) emerged as the first President of the Republic of South Africa.

 People struggled against the horrible discrimination practised against them by the white minority rulers.

 Apartheid system began to fall apart in the 1980s. Finally; in 1994, the first free multiracial elections were held.

 Remarkable constitution, forgot past sufferings, sought co-operation of all the races which made South Africa
based on equality, democratic values and social justice.

Do We Need A Constitution?

 Yes. A constitution has written laws accepted by people living together in a country.

 It generates trust and coordination.

 It specifies how a government should be constituted.

 It lays down limits on the powers of the government.

 It expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

Making of the Indian Constitution

 From 1858 onwards, the British Government passed many Acts for the government of India but could not satisfy
Indian aspiration.

 The demand for a Constitution was first raised in 1934 by the Indian National Congress.

 In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru formulated the demand for a Constituent Assembly.

 In 1942, the British Government recognized that Indians should frame a new Constitution by themselves.

 Participation in Provincial Legislatures helped Indians in framing their Constitution.

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 The Leaders were inspired by the French Revolution, British Parliamentary System and the Bill of Rights of the
US.

 They also learnt what the British were denying Indian citizens.

The Constituent Assembly

 Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946.

 Dr B.R. Ambedkar was appointed Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

 The Constitution was adopted on 26th November 1949, and enacted on 26th January 1950, when India became
a Republic state.

 The Constitution reflects the best minds of the country. The Constituent Assembly was called Mini- India.

 Every law was debated clause by clause and a consensus arrived at.

 It is the longest written Constitution in the world.

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Electoral Politics (Chapter 4)

In a democracy, people do not govern directly. They govern through the elected- representatives. Governing through
elected representatives is the most common form of democracy.
Electoral politics is all about understanding election of representatives, need of elections and how to make election
democratic. It also involves examining the role of the election commission in ensuring free and fair elections.

Elections
The mechanism or procedure by which people choose their representatives at regular intervals is called election. If
people are not satisfied with the working of the government then they can change the government in the next term of
elections.

Procedure of Elections
The procedure of election can be understood by the real example of Haryana Assembly elections. It will show how
candidates standing in election become representatives and how power can be removed from their hands.

Assembly Election in Haryana

Formation of New Party ‘Lok Dal’ Haryana had been ruled by Congress party since 1982. At that time, Chaudhary Devi Lai
was an opposition leader. He led movement called Nyaya Yudh (struggle for justice) and formed new party ‘Lok Dal’.

Election Campaign of Devi Lai In election campaign of 1987 Assembly election, Devi Lai promised voters that if his party
win, he would give loans to farmers and small businessmen.

Voters favoured Lok Dal As people were unhappy with the existing government, they were attracted by Devi Lai’s
promise. They voted in favour of Lok Dal and its partners won 76 out of 90 seats.

Results Announced Lok Dal won 60 seats that’s why it had a clear majority in the – Assembly. The party with a clear
majority is invited by the governor to form the government. Congress got only 5 seats. As the election result was
announced, the existing Chief Minister of Congress resigned.

Devi Lai became Chief Minister The newly elected Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) of Lok Dal chose Devi Lai as
their leader. The Governor invited’ Devi Lai to be the new Chief Minister. After three days of the election result, he took
the oath. Then his government issued a government order to give loans to small farmers, agricultural labourers and
small businessmen.

Congress again forms Government Lok Dal ruled die state for 4 years. In 1991 election, the party did not win people’s
support. This time Congress won the election and formed the government.

Need for Elections

Elections are needed to elect representatives. The need of elections can be understood by imagifufig of democracy
without elections.

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In the absence of the election, all the people have to sit together every day and take all the decisions. But this is not
possible in any large community. Nor it is possible for everyone to have the time and knowledge to take decisions on all
matters. Therefore, in most democracies, people rule through their representatives.
The elections are needed for any representative democracy because

 They solve the problem of assessing people on the basis of education, knowledge or experience,

 They help in analysing that people like their representatives or not.

 They ensure that the representatives rule as per the wishes of the people and make sure that those who are not
working for the people, do not remain their representatives.

In an election, the voters make many choices like

 They can choose who will make laws for them.

 They can choose who will form the government and take major decisions.

 They can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and lawmaking.

What Makes An Election Democratic?

Elections are held in all democratic countries and also in most of the non-democratic countries in many ways. But there
is a simple list of the minimum conditions which make an election democratic like

 Everyone should have the right to choose a representative. It means everyone has one vote and every vote has
equal value.

 Political parties and candidates should be free to contest elections and offer some real choices to the voters.

 The choices should be offered at regular intervals. For that elections must be held regularly after a certain
period.

 The candidates preferred by the people only should get elected.

 Elections are conducted in a free and fair manner where people choose those representatives whom they really
wish.

Political Competition
Elections are all about competition. Without competition, elections would become meaningless. Political competition
takes place when different political parties compete to gain confidence and ultimately the vote of the voters. They make
promises and give incentives to motivate the voters.

This electoral competition has many demerits like

 It creates a sense of disunity and factionalism (Groupism) and party-politics in every locality.

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 Different political parties and candidates often use dirty tricks like booth capturing to win elections.

 The pressure to win electoral fights does not allow to- form useful long term policies.

 The competition leads to the idea of being dragged into the unhealthy competition. That’s why good people do
not enter and participate in political competition.

The electoral competition also has some merits like

 Regular electoral competition provides incentives to political parties and leaders. If they can satisfy the voters
with their work, they will be able to win again.

 If a political party is motivated only by the desire to be in power, even then it will be forced to serve the people.

 It reveals the real motive of political parties.

 It gives choices to voters to choose among the best.

System Of Elections In India

In India, Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) elections are held regularly every five years. After five years, the term
of all the elected representatives comes to an end. Elections are held in all constituencies at the same time, either on
the same day or within a few days. This is known as General Election. Sometimes an election is held only for one
constituency to fill the vacancy caused by death or resignation of a member. This is known as a by-election.

Electoral Constituencies
In India, an area based system of representation is followed where the country is divided into different areas for purpose
of elections. These are called Electoral Constituencies. Every voter who lives in an area elect one representative.

For the Lok Sabha election, India is divided into 543 constituencies. The representative elected from each constituency is
called Member of Parliament or an MP. One of the features of a democratic election is that every vote has equal value.
For Vidhan Sabha election, each state is divided into a specific number of assembly constituencies and the elected
representative of eaph assembly constituency is called the Member of Legislative Assembly or an MLA.

By-election: If a representative from a constituency dies while in office or if the office-falls are vacant because of
reasons like resignation, fresh elections are held in that particular constituency. Such an election is called a by-election.
Constituency’ Voters in a geographical area who elect a representative to the Legislative Bodies.
Each parliamentary constituency has within it several assembly constituencies. The same principle applies for Panchayat
and Municipal elections.

Each village or town is divided into different wards that are like constituencies. Each ward elects one member of the
village or the urban local body. Sometimes these constituencies are counted as ‘seats’ and each constituency represents
one seat in the assembly.
For example, when we say that ‘Lok Dal won 60 seats1 in Haryana, it means that candidates of Lok Dal won in 60
assembly constituencies in the state and thus Lok Dal had 60 MLAs in the State Assembly.

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Reserved Constituencies
The Constitution makers were worried that in an open electoral competition, certain weaker sections may not stand a
good chance to get elected to the lok Sabha and the state Legislative Assemblies.
If that happens, our Parliament and Assemblies would be deprived of the voice of a significant section of our population.
That would make our democracy less representative and less democratic.

Reservation for SC and ST

The makers of our Constitution thought of a special system of reserved constituencies for the weaker sections. Some
constituencies are reserved for people who belong to the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
In an SC reserved constituency, only someone who belongs to the Scheduled Castes can stand for election.
Similarly, only those belonging to the Scheduled Tribes can contest an election from a constituency reserved for ST.

Reservation in Lok Sabha/ District/Local Level

A few seats in Lok Sabha are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). This number is in
proportion to their share in the total population.

In the year 2012, 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 for the Scheduled Tribes (in Lok Sabha).
Thus, the reserved seats for SC and ST do not take away the legitimate share of any other social group. This system of
reservation was extended later to other weaker sections at the district and local level. In many states, seats in rural
(panchayat) and urban (municipalities and corporations) local bodies are now reserved for Other Backward Classes
(OBC) as well.
However, the proportion of seats reserved varies from state to state. Similarly, one-third of the seats are reserved in
rural and urban local bodies for women candidates.

Voters List
When the constituencies are decided, the next step is to decide who can and who cannot vote. In a democratic election,
the list of those who are eligible to vote is prepared much before the election and given to everyone. This list is officially
called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the Voters’ List.

This is an important step as it is linked to the first condition of a democratic election i.e. everyone should get an equal
opportunity to choose representatives. All the citizens are human beings with their own needs and views. That is why all
of them deserve to have an equal say in decisions that affect them. Therefore everyone is given the right to vote.
The right to vote falls under Universal Adult Franchise. It means all the citizens aged 18 years and above can vote in an
election regardless of his or her caste, religion or gender.

Maintaining of Voters’ list

It is the responsibility of the government to get the names of all the eligible voters put on the voters’ list. As new
persons attain voting age, names are added to the voters’ list, names of those who move out of a place or those who are
dead are deleted. A complete revision of the list takes place every five years. This is done to ensure that it remains up to
date.
[Note Some criminals and persons with unsound mind can be denied the right to vote, but only in rare situations.]

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Election Photo Identify Card (EPIC)

In the last few years, a new system of Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) has been introduced. The voters are required
to carry this card when they go out to vote so that no one can vote in their place. The card has not been made
compulsory for voting, and. voters can show many other proofs of identity like the ration card, driving’ licence or Adhar
Card.

Nomination Of Candidates
The system of our country provides almost no restrictions on anyone to contest the election. This only makes any
election a democratic election.
Anyone who can be a voter can also become a candidate in elections. The only difference to be a voter is that the
minimum age is 18 years while to be a candidate in the election the minimum age is 25 years. There are also some other
restrictions on criminals but these apply in very extreme cases.
Political parties nominate their candidates who get the party support and symbol. Party’s nomination is often called
Party Ticket. The candidate has to fill a nomination form and give some money as a security deposit.

Moreover, every candidate has to make a legal declaration giving full details of

 Educational qualifications of the candidate

 Details of the assets and liabilities of the candidate and his/her family; and

 Serious criminal cases pending against the candidate.

The information provided has to be made public in order to provide an opportunity to the voters to make their decision
on the basis of the information provided by the candidates.
Electoral Roll It is the voters’ list prepared by a door to door survey to include only bonafide voters and minimise the
role of bogus voters. Universal Adult Franchise Every Indian citizen of 18 years and above have the right to vote
irrespective of caste, creed and sex.

Educational Qualifications for Candidates

There is no educational qualification for candidates for being an MP or an MLA. However, the relevant qualification for
candidates is the ability to understand people’s concerns, problems and to represent people’s interests.

Putting an educational qualification would go against the spirit of democracy because it would deprive a majority of the
citizens right to contest elections. This is because still, the majority of the Indian population is uneducated.

Election Campaign
Election campaign means the promotion (or propaganda) of the policies, offers and promises that the candidates make
to voters to fulfill if they are elected. In this way, voters can decide the candidate to vote for. They vote for the
candidate whose policies they like.

In our country, election campaigning takes place for a two-week period between the announcement of the final list’of
candidates and the elate of polling.

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During this period, the candidates contact their electorate, political leaders, address. ..election meetings and political
parties mobilise their supporters. This is also the period when Print Media and television news are full of election-
related stories and debates.

The election campaign is not limited to these two weeks only. Political parties start preparing for elections months
before they actually take place.

They prepare their election manifestos. In election campaigns, political parties try to focus public attention on some big
issues. They want to attract the public to that issue and get them to vote for their party on that basis.

Slogans Given by Different Political Parties

Some of the successful slogans given by different political parties in various elections are given below

 The Congress party led by Indira Gahdhi gave the slogan of ‘Garibi Hatao’ (Remove poverty) in the Lok Sabha
elections of 1971. The party promised to reorient all the policies of the government to remove poverty from the
country.

 ‘Save Democracy’ was the slogan given by Janata Party in the next Lok Sabha election held in 1977. Hie party
promised to undo the .excesses committed during Emergency and restore civil liberties.

 The Left Front used the slogan of ‘Land to the Teller’ in the West Bengal Assembly elections held in 1977.

 ‘Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugus’ was the slogan used by N.T. Rama Rao, the leader of the Telugu Desam
Party in Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections in 1983.

Code of Conduct and Laws

To regulate the election campaign, there are some election laws. According to these laws, no party or candidate can

 bribe or threaten voters,

 appeal to them in the name of caste or religion,

 use government resources for election campaign and

 spend more than Rs. 25 lakh in a constituency for a Lok Sabha election or Rs. 10 lakh in a constituency in an
Assembly Election.

If any party or candidate is found practising any of the above, their election can be rejected by the court even after they
have won the election. In addition to the laws, all the political parties in our country have agreed to a Model code of
conduct for an election campaign.

According to this, no party or candidate can

 use any place of worship for election propaganda

 use government vehicles, aircraft and officials for elections

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 once elections are announced, ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any project, take any big policy
decision or make any promise of providing public facilities.

Polling
On the day when dying voters cast or ‘poll’ their vote is called an Election Day. Every person whose name is on the
voters’ list can go to a nearby potting booth and cast his/her vote through a Secret ballot. Once the voter goes inside the
booth, the election official identify him/ her, put a mark on the voter’s finger and allow him/ her to cast his/ her vote.

An agent of each candidate is allowed to sit inside the polling booth and ensure that the voting takes place in a fair way.
Earlier voting was done, by putting a stamp on the ballot paper. A ballot paper is a sheet of paper on which die names of
the contesting candidates along with party name and symbols are listed. Now Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are
used to record votes. The machine shows the names of the candidates and the party symbols. The voter has to press the
button against the name of the candidate, he/she wants to cast his/her vote.

Counting of Votes
Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a secure place. A few days later, oft a fixed date, all the
EVMs are opened and the votes secured by each candidate are counted. The candidate who secures the highest number
of votes from a constituency is declared elected. Within a few hours of counting, all the results are declared. In general
elections, the counting of votes in all constituencies takes place at the same time, on the same day. Within a few hours
of counting, all the results are declared and it becomes clear as who will form the next government. This event is
reported by television channels, radio and newspapers.

What Makes Elections In India Democracy?

There are many factors which ensure that elections held in India are democratic. An independent body ‘Election
Commission’ responsible to conduct elections is formulated in the Constitution of India.

Independent Election Commission :

In our country, elections are conducted by an independent and very powerful Election Commission (EC). It enjoys the
same kind of independence that the judiciary enjoys. The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed by the
President of India. But once appointed, he is not answerable to even the President or the government Powers of
Election Commission Potters enjoyed by dying Election Commission ate.

 It takes decisions on every aspect of conduct and control of elections right from the announcement of elections
to the declaration of results.

 It implements the code of conduct and punishes any candidate or party that violates it.

 During the election period, die Election Commission can order the government to follow some guidelines to
prevent the use and misuse of governmental power to enhance its chances to win elections or to transfer some
government officials.

 When on election duty, government officers work under the control of the Election Commission and not the
government.

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 When election officials come to the opinion that polling was not fair in some booths or even an entire
constituency, they order a repoll.

Popular Participation
The participation and enthusiasm of people in an election is another criterion to check the quality of elections.
If the election process is not free or fair, people will not continue to participate in the exercise. People’s participation in
election is usually measured by voter turnout figures. Turnout indicates the per cent of eligible voters who actually cast
their vote. In India, there is greater voter turn out of poor illiterate people as compared to western democracies.

Acceptance of Election Outcome

The outcome of elections-the final test of the free and fairness of it. If elections are not free or fair, the outcome always
favours the powerful. In such a situation, the ruling parties do not lose elections. Usually, losing party does not accept
the outcome of a rigged election.

The outcome of India’s election speaks for itself

 The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India both at the national and state level.

 In the US, an incumbent or sitting elected representative rarely loses an election. But in India, about half of the
sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.

 Candidates who are known to have spent a lot of money on buying votes and those with Known criminal
connection often lose elections.

 Except for some disputed elections, the electoral outcomes are usually accepted by the defeated party as
‘people’s verdict’.

Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

The challenges to free and fair elections are listed as follows

 Candidates and parties with a lot of money may not be sure of their victory but they do enjoy an unfair
advantage over smaller parties and independents.

 Some candidates with criminal records are able to secure party tickets from major parties due to their
connections political.

 Some families tend to dominate political parties; a tendency for the dynastic rule is very common.

 Elections offer only little choice to ordinary citizens. All the major parties are quite similar to each other both in
policies and practice.

 Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage compared to bigger parties in terms of
money power and organisational support.

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These challenges exist not only in India but also in many established democracies. This is a matter of concern for all who
believe in democracy. This is the reason due to which there is the demand for reforms in our electoral system by
citizens, social activists and organisations.

Summary
The most common form of democracy in our times is for the people to govern through their representatives.
 The mechanism by which people can choose their representatives at regular intervals is called Election.
 In elections, the voters can choose who will form the government. Each vote has an equal value.
 As an alternative to elections, all the people can sit together every day and take all the decisions, but this is not
possible in large communities.
 The procedure of elections favours political competition among different political parties.
 Electoral Competition creates a sense of disunity and factionalism in every locality.
 Different political parties and candidates often use a dirty trick like booth capturing, allegations to win elections.
 In India, the General EISfefione for Lok Sabha and Vidhan
Sabha is held regularly after every five years and elections are held rn all constituencies at the same time.
 Sometimes an election is held for one constituency to fill the vacancy caused by death or resigning of a member.
This is known gs By-election.
 In India, an area based system of representation is followed where the country is divided into different areas for
election purposes is called Electoral Constituencies.
 For Lok Sabha election, .India is divided into 543 constituencies. The representatives elected from each
constituency are called Members of Parliament or MPs.
 For Vidhan Sabha, each state is divided into the number of Assembly constituencies. The elected representative
from each Assembly constituency is called Members of Legislative Assembly or MLA$.
 Each village or town is divided into several words and the same electoral procedure takes place for Panchayat
and Municipal Elections.
 A special system of Reserved Constituencies for the weaker sections especially for the Scheduled Castes (SCs)
and Scheduled Tribes (STs) is also followed in India.
 Reservation is also followed for seats in rural and urban local bodies, for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and
women.
 In democratic elections, the list of people eligible to vote is
prepared much before the election and is officially called the Electoral Roll or the Voter’s List. Which is updated
from time to time.
 Incur country, all the citizens aged 18 years and above have the Right to Vote regardless of his or her caste,
religion or gender. This is known as the Universal Adult Franchise.
 A new system Of Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) has been introduced. The voters are required to carry this
card when they go out to vote so that /io one can vote in the place of someone else.
 Political parties nominate their candidates who get the party support and symbol. Party’s nomination is often
called Party Ticket. The candidate has to fill a nomination form and give some money as a security deposit.
 Candidate getting, the party ticket should be 25 or above and has to declare educational qualifications, assets,
liabilities and criminal cases pending if any.
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 In our country, election campaign takes place for a two-week period between the announcement of the final list
of candidates and the date of polling.
 Each political party has to agree to the Model Code of Conduct. Violation of the code can result in the rejection
of the candidate.
 On the day when the voters cast or poll their vote is called an Election Day and such voting is done through
Secret Ballot.
 Voting is done through ballot papers and Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs).
 Counting is done on a fixed data arid the candidate securing the highest number of votes is declared a winner
from that constituency.
 In our country, elections are conducted by an independent and very powerful body, known as Election
Commission.
 The Chief Election Commissioner. (CEC) is appointed by the President of India, and is, not answerable to the
President or the government.
 The election commission takes decisions on each and every aspect of the elections.
 People’s turnout in the elections indicate a free and fair election procedure.
 The political parties have to accept the outcome of the elections in aH circumstances.
 Due to some challenges to a free and fair election, there is the demand of reforms in our electoral system by
citizens, social activists and organisations.

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Working of Institutions (Chapter 5)

In a democracy, the rulers have to follow some rules and procedures. They have to work with and within institutions. In
this process, they come across three institutions that play a key role in major decisions. These institutions are legislature,
executive and judiciary. In this chapter, we will understand how all the institutions together carry on the work of the
government.

Process Of Taking A Major Policy Decision

A major policy decision is taken through a government order. To know the process of taking a major policy decision, it is
important to know about government order and its issuing.

A Government Order
Issuing of Government Order A government order is a written direction on an issue signed by a government authority
(office). e.g. On 13th August, 1990 the Government of India issued an order. It was called an Office Memorandum. It had
a specific number. It was signed by the Joint Secretary, who is an officer in the Department of Personal and Training in
the Ministry of Personal, Public Grievances and Pensions.

Decision Announced by an Order The order announced a major policy decision. According to the order, 27% of the
vacancies in civil posts and services of government were reserved for SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward
Classes). Earlier benefit of job reservation was available to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). Now the
third category SEBC was also eligible for quota of 27%.

Controversy Over the Order The issuing order led to the country wide protest. Some of the protests were violent- As a
result, the issue became the most debated in the media with different views and opinions. The people reacted strongly
because this decision affected thousands of job opportunities.

Appeal to Stop Implementation of Order Some person and associations filed a number of cases in courts against the
order. They appealed to declare the order invalid and stop its implementation. This case came to be known as the Indira
Sawhney and Others vs Union of India Case.

Supreme Court’s Declaration Over the Order By a majority, the Supreme Court in 1992, declared the order valid. It also
asked the government to identify its original order.

Modifications in Order and End of Dispute The order was modified and declared that well-to-do persons of backward
classes should be excluded from the benefit of reservation.
On 8th September, 1993 another memorandum was issued by the Department of Personal Training. Since then, the
dispute ended and the same policy was followed.

Main Events before the Passing of Government Order

The main events before the passing of Government Order for OBC reservation were as follows

 The Government of India had appointed the Second Backward Classes Commission in 1979. It was neaded by BP
Mandal. Hence, it was popularly called the Mandal Commission.
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 The Commission gave its Report in 1980 and made many recommendations. One of these was that 27% of
government jobs be reserved for the socially and economically backward classes. For several years, many
parliamentarians and parties kept

 Then came the Lok Sabha election of 1989. in its election manifesto, the Janata Dal promised that if voted to
power, it would implement the Mandal Commission report.

 The Janata Dal did form the government after this election.

 It’s leader VP Singh became the Prime Minister and he implemented it.

The Decision Makers

The major decision involves some major functionaries in our country. These are

 President He is the head of the state and is the highest formal authority in the country.

 Prime Minister He is the head of the government and actually exercises all governmental powers. He takes most
of the decisions in the Cabinet meetings.

 Parliament It consists of the President and two houses—Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Lok Sabha or the Lower
House is composed of the elected representatives of the people. The Rajya Sabha or Upper House represents
the interests of the States and Union Territories. The Prime Minister must have the support of a majority of Lok
Sabha members.

In our country, all the major decision are taken by the council of ministers in the cabinet meetings headed by the Prime
Minister. After that, the decisions are discussed in Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and after the approval of
Parliament (approval by the majority of members of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha), It is sent to President for final
approval. Once the decision is approved by the President, it is ready to be implemented and issued by the concerned
government authority (officer) as government order.

How to Oppose Government Decisions

If Some people or associations are not satisfied by government orders and there is a dispute regarding government
order, then they can file the cases in the Supreme Court or in High Court.

For example, some persons and associations filed a case in the Supreme Court against the Government of India decision
of 27% of reservation for socially and educationally backward classes in civil posts and services. This case was known as
‘Indira Sawhney and Other vs Union of India Case’.

Need for Political Institutions

The arrangements made in the democracies to take decisions implemented the decision to see what is wrong and what
is right in case of disputes regarding the decision are sailed Political Institutions.

So without the functions of (the tasks assigned to the political institution, the democracy cannot work. Institutions
involve rules and regulations, which can bind the hands of the leaders. By having meetings arid making committees

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institution consult a wider set of people for any decision, Institution makes it difficult to have a good decision taken very
quickly, but at the same time, they make it equally difficult to rush through a bad decision.

Parliament
Parliament is a set of people elected regularly by the people of the country, directly (through direct elections) or
Indirectly (through indirect election).

All the by the government, before implementation, are put in the Parliament for discussion. Decisions can be
implemented only after the approval by the Parliament.

Need of Parliament
We need Parliament due to the following reasons.

 Parliament is the final authority for making new laws and changing existing laws in our country.

 In India, the control of Parliament over the government is direct and full. Those who run the government can
take decisions only as long as they enjoy the support of the Parliament

 Parliament controls all the money that the government has. In most countries, public money can be spent only
when Parliament sanctions it.

 Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and national policy in my country.
Parliament can seek information about any matter.

Two Houses of Parliament

The Parliament plays a central role in modern democracies. Large countries have divided the role and powers of
Parliament into two parts. They are called Chambers or Houses.

Usually, One house is directly elected by the people and exercises the real power on behalf of the people. The second
house is usually elected indirectly, its main work is to look after the Interests of Various States, regions or federal units.
Indian Parliament consists of two houses or chambers.

Lok Sabha (House of the People) or Lower Chamber It is Usually directly elected by the people and exercises the real
power on behalf of the people.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States) or Upper Chamber It is indirectly elected and performs special functions such as interest
of various states, regions or federal units.

The President of India is a part of the parliament of, although she is not a member of either house. Due to this reason, all
laws made in the houses come into force only after they receive the assent of the President.

Special Powers of Lok Sabha

Over Rajya Sabha
Our Constitution gives some special powers to Rajya Sabha but on most of the matters, the Lok Sabha exercises supreme
power.
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These are
Any ordinary law needs to be passed by both the houses. But if there is a difference between the two houses, the final
decision is taken in a joint session, where the view of Lok Sabha is likely to prevail because of its larger number of
members.

Lok Sabha exercises more powers in money matters. Once the Lok- Sabha passes the budget of the government or any
other money-related law or Money Bill, foe Rajya Sabha cannot reject it.

The Rajya Sabha can only delay it by 14 days or suggest to change it. But, foe Lok Sabha may or may not accept these
changes.

Most importantly, foe Lok Sabha controls foe Council of Ministers. Only a person Who enjoys the support of foe majority
of foe members in foe Lok Sabha is appointed foe Prime Minister. If the majority of foe LokSabha members say that they
have ‘no confidence’ in foe Council of Ministers, all ministers including foe Prime Minister have to quit. But, foe Rajya
Sabha does not have this power.

Executive
The functionaries (the people and organisation) who take day-to-day decisions but do not exercise supreme power on
behalf of the people are known as executive. They are called executive because they are in charge of the execution of
the policies of the government. By executive we usually mean the government.

Political and Permanent Executive

In a democratic country, two categories make up the executive. They are Political executive and Permanent executive.
Political Executive They are elected by the people for a specific period. They take major decisions. Political leaders fall in
these categories.

Permanent Executive They are appointed on a long-term basis. They are also known as civil servants. They remain in
office even when the ruling party changes. They work under the political executive and assist them for carrying out daily
administration.

Powers of Permanent and Political Executive

The political executive has more power than the permanent executive. This is because the political executive is elected
by the people and in a democracy will of people is supreme. The political executive exercise the will of the people on
their behalf. They are answerable to the people for all consequences of their decisions.

Permanent executive are more educated and-have expertise on the subject of ministry. For instance, advisor of the
finance ministry know more about economics than the finance minister.

But still decision of the finance minister will be the final. Political executive call take advice of the permanent executive
arid then decide the overall framework and objectives of the policy to be implemented.

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Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and actually exercises all the government powers. He is the most
important political institution in the country.

Appointment of Prime Minister

There is no direct election to the post of the Prime Minister. The President appoints the leader of the majority party or
the coalition of parties that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha as a Prime Minister. In case, no single party gets a
majority, the President appoints the person most likely to secure majority support.

Collective Responsibility For any decision or action of the Cabinet, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible. If
any of the Cabinet decisions is not approved by the Parliament, the entire Council of Ministers has to resign.

Tenure of Prime Minister

The Prime Minister does not have a fixed tenure.
He continues in power as long as he remains the leader of the Majority or coalition party.

Powers of the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister has wide-ranging powers.
These are

 On the advice of the Prime Minister, the President appoints other ministers.

 The Prime Minister is free to choose ministers, as long as they are members of Parliament.

 He chairs and takes most of the decisions in the Cabinet meetings.

 He coordinates the work of different departments and his decisions are final in case disagreements arise
between departments.

 He exercises general supervision of different ministries and all ministers work under his leadership.

 He distributes and redistributes work to the ministers.

 He also has the power to dismiss ministers. When Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits.

Council of Ministers
It is the official name for the body that includes all the ministers. It usually has 60 to 80 ministers of different ranks. The
Council of Ministers has collective responsibility.

The Council of Ministers comprise

Cabinet Ministers are usually top-level leaders of the ruling party or parties who are in charge of the major ministries.
They meet to take decisions in the name of the Council of Ministers. The cabinet is the inner ring of the Council of
Ministers. It comprises about 20 ministers.

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Ministers of State with independent charge are usually in charge of smaller ministries. They participate in the Cabinet
meetings only when specially invited.

Ministers of State are attached to and required to assist Cabinet Ministers.

Appointment of Council of Ministers

After the appointment of the Prime Minister, the President appoints the Council of Minister on the advice of Prime
Minister. They are usually from the party or coalition that has the majority in Lok Sabha. Some times, a person who is
not a member of Parliament can also become a minister. But such a person has to get elected to one of the Houses of
Parliament within 6 months of his appointment.

Cabinet Form of Government

Since it is not practical for all ministers to meet regularly and discuss everything, the decisions are taken in Cabinet
meetings. That is why parliamentary democracy in most countries is often known as the Cabinet form of government.
The secretaries provide the necessary background information to the ministers to take decisions. The Cabinet as a team
is assisted by the Cabinet Secretariat. This includes many senior civil servants who try to coordinate the working of
different ministries.

The President
The President is the head of the state. In our political system, the head of the state exercises only nominal powers. Thus,
the President is like the Queen of Britain, whose functions are to a large extent ceremonial.
The President supervises the overall functioning of all the political institutions in the country, so that they operate in
harmony to achieve the objectives of the state.

Appointment of the President

The President of India is elected indirectly, by an electoral college, in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of the single transferable vote.

The electoral college consists of

 the elected Members of both Houses of Parliament (MPs).

 the elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies of the states (MLAs),

 the elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) of Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry.

A candidate standing for President’s post has to get a majority of votes to win the election. This ensures that the
President can be seen to represent the entire nation. The President can never claim the kind of direct popular mandate
that the Prime Minister can. This ensures that he remains only a nominal executive.

The Presidential System

Presidents all over the world are not always nominal executives like the President of India. The US President is directly
elected by the people. He personally chooses and appoints all ministers.

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The lawmaking is still done by the Legislature (called the Congress in the US), but the President can veto any law. Most
importantly the US President does not need the support of the majority of members in the Congress and neither is. he
answerable to them. The President has a fixed tenure of 4 years and completes it even if his party does not have a
majority in Congress.

This model is followed in most, of the countries of Latin America and many of the ex-Soviet Union countries. Given the
centrality of the President, this system of government is called the Presidential form of government.

Powers of the President

The President enjoys the following powers

All governmental activities take place in the name of the President. All laws and major policy decisions of die
government are issued in her name.

All major appointments are made in the name of the President. These include the appointment of the Chief Justice of
India, the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts of the states, the Governors of the states, the Election
Commissioners, Ambassadors to other countries, etc.
Electoral College A specially constituted elected body’to elect the President and Vice-President of India.

All international treaties and agreements are made in the name of the President. The President is the supreme
commander of the defence forces of India. The President has emergency powers i.e. powers to deal with an unexpected
and critical situation, e.g. power to declare emergency or President’s rule and issuing an ordinance.

Power to Appoint Prime Minister

President appoints Prime Minister. The leader of the party or coalition of parties who secures a clear majority in the Lok
Sabha elections is appointed as Prime Minister. When no party or coalition gets a majority in the Lok Sabha, the
President exercises her discretion and*appoints a leader who in her opinion can muster majority support in the Lok
Sabha.

Limitation on the Power of the President

Inspite of these powers, there is a limitation on the powers of the President. He can exercise all these powers only on
the advice of the Council of Ministers. The President can ask the Council of Ministers to reconsider its advice. But if the
same advice is given again, the President is bound to act according to it. Similarly, a bill passed by the Parliament
becomes a law only after the President gives assent to it. If the President wants, she can delay this for some time and
send the bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration. But if the Parliament passes the bill again, the President has to
sign it.

The Judiciary
Judiciary refers to an institution empowered to administer justice and provide a mechanism for the resolution of legal
disputes. All the courts at different levels in a country put together are called the judiciary.

The Indian judiciary consists of a Supreme Court for the entire nation, High Courts and Subordinate Courts in the states,
District Courts and the courts at the local level and Lok Adalats. India has an integrated or unified judiciary. It means that

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the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country. Its decisions are binding on all other courts of the
country.

Independence of Judiciary
It means that judiciary is not under the control of the legislature or the executive. The judges do not act on the direction
of the government or according to the wishes of the political party in power. That’s why all modem democracies
including India have courts that are independent of the legislature and the executive.

Appointment of Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts

The judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime
Minister and in consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The senior judges of the Supreme Court select
the new judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. There is, very little scope of interference by the political
executive. The senior most judge of the Supreme Court is usually appointed the Chief Justice.

Removal of a Judge of Supreme Court and High Court

Once a person is appointed as judge of the Supreme Court or the High Court, it is nearly impossible to remove him or her
from that position. It is as difficult as removing the President of India.

A judge can be removed only by an impeachment motion passed separately by two-thirds members of the two houses
of the Parliament. It has never happened in the history of Indian democracy.

Powers of the Supreme Court

The Supreme Court can take up any dispute

 between citizens of the country

 between citizens and government

 between two or more State Governments

 between governments at the union and state level

Role of the Supreme Court and the High Courts

The Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power to interpret the constitution of the country. They can declare
invalid any law of the legislature or the actions of the executive, whether at the union level or state level if they find
such law or action is against the Constitution. They can determine the constitutional validity of any legislation or action
of the executive in the country when it is challenged before them. This is known as the judicial review.
The Supreme Court of India was also ruled that the core or basic principles of the. The constitution cannot be changed
by Parliament.

Judiciary as the Highest Authority

The powers and the independence of the Indian judiciary allow it to act as the guardian of the Fundamental Rights.
Anyone can approach the courts if the public interest is hurt by the actions of the government. This is called Public
Interest Litigation (PIL).

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The courts intervene to prevent the misuse erf the government’s power to make decisions. They check malpractices on
the part of public officials. That is why, the judiciary enjoys a high level of confidence among the people.

Summary
There are two categories of executive i.e. permanent executive and political executive.

The political executive is more powerful than the permanent executive.

The Prime Minister is the head, of the government and actually exercises all the government powers.

The leader of the majority party or coalition is appointed the Prime Minister by the President.

The Prime Minister does not have a fixed tenure. He continues in power until he has majority.

The Prime Minister has wide-ranging powers. He advises the President to appoint the other ministers.

The Council of Ministers is the official name for the body that includes cabinet ministers, ministers of state with
independent charge and ministers of state.

The President is the head of the state and exercises only nominal powers.

The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college in accordance with the system of proportional representation.

All the courts at different levels in a country put together is called integrated judiciary.

The powers and the independence of the Judiciary allow it to act as the guardian of the Fundamental Rights.

Through Public Interest Litigation (PIL) anyone can approach the courts if public interest is hurt by the actions of.
Government.

In a democracy, the rulers have to work with and within institution and in this process, they CCme across three
institutions : Legislature, Executive and Judiciary that play a key role in major decisions.

A major policy decision is taken through a government order. An order, issued by Government is called an Office
Memorandum (OM).

The major decision involves some major functionaries of our country. They include the President, The Prime Minister
and Parliament.

Parliament is a set of people who are regularly elected by the people, directly or indirectly.

The importance of Parliament lies in the fact that it is the final authority for making new laws and changing existing laws
in our country.

The Parliament of India consists of two houses i.e. the upper house and the lower house.

The upper house or Rajya Sabha is indirectly elected and performs special functions.
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The lower house or Lok Sabha is directly elected by people and exercises the real power on behalf of the people.

The Constitution of India gives some special powers to Rajya Sabha but the Lok Sabha exercises supreme power on most
matters.

Executives take the day-to-day decision but do not exercise Supreme power on behalf of the people.

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Democratic Rights (Chapter 6)

Rights are the reasonable claims of a person over other fellow beings, the society and the government. The claims
should be such that they can be made available to others in an equal measure. Thus, a right comes with an obligation to
respect other’s rights. When the socially recognised claims (rights) are written into law in a democracy, they are called
democratic rights.

Life Without Rights

The importance of rights can be judged by the one whose life has absence of rights. The following three examples state
what it means to live in the absence of rights.

Prison in Guantanamo Bay

About 600 people were secretly picked up by the US forces from all over the world and put in a prison in Guantanamo
Bay, near Cuba. According to the American Government, they were enemies of the US and linked to the attack on New
York on 11th September, 2001. As a result, there was no trial before any magistrate in the US, nor could these prisoners
approach courts in their own country.

Protest Regarding the Imprisonment

Amnesty International, an International Human Rights Organisation reported that the prisoners were being tortured in
ways that violated the US laws. Despite the provisions of international treaties, prisoners were being denied the
treatment.

Many prisoners tried to protest by going on a hunger strike, They were not released even after they were declared not
guilty.
Amnesty International An international organisation of volunteers, who campaign for human rights. The organisation
brings out independent reports on the violation of human rights all over the world.

Citizens’ Rights in Saudi Arabia

Many countries like Saudi Arabia, Yugoslavia denied citizens’ rights.
The position of citizens in Saudi Arabia can be understood by the following facts

 The country is ruled over by a hereditary king and the people have no role in electing or changing their rulers.

 The king selects the Legislature as well as the Executive. He appoints the judges and can change any of their
decisions.

 Citizens cannot form political parties or any political organisations. Media cannot report anything that the
monarch does not like.

 There is no freedom of religion. Every citizen is required to be Muslim. Non-Muslim residents can follow their
religion in private, but not in public.

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 Women are subjected to many public restrictions. The testimony of one man is considered equal to that of two
women.
Note There are many countries in the world where conditions like Saudi Arabia exist.

Ethnic Massacre in Kosovo

In Yugoslavia, Serbs were in majority and Albanians were in minority. A democratically elected Serb leader Slobodan
Milosevic wanted to dominate the country. Serbs thought that the Albanians, (the Ethnic Minority Group) should leave
the country or accept the dominance of Serbs.

A brutal massacre took place in Kosovo in which thousands of Albanians were killed. Finally, several other countries
intervened to stop the massacre. Milosevic lost power and was tried by the International Court of Justice for crimes
against humanity.
As a result, Kosovo with the majority population of Albanians declared independence in February 2008.

Rights In A Democracy
In the discussed examples, the victims are the prisoners in Guantanamo Bay, women in Saudi Arabia and Albanians in
Kosovo. So, in these positions, everyone would desire a system where security, dignity and fair play are assured.

Everyone wants a system where at least a minimum assurance is guaranteed to all, whether he/she powerful or weak,
rich or poor, majority or minority. No one, should be arrested without proper reason and information. If it happens then
he/she should have a fair chance to defend themselves. This assurance should not only be on paper. There should be
someone to enforce them and to punish those who violate them. This is real spirit behind the rights.

Meaning of Rights
Rights ate reasonable claims of persons recognised in society and sanctioned by law. When fellow Citizens or the
government do not respect their rights, we call it violation of our rights. In such situations, citizen can approach courts to
protect their rights.

Need of Rights
Rights are necessary for the very sustenance of a democracy. In a democracy, every citizen has to have the Right to Vote
and the Right to be Elected to government.

Rights protect minorities from the oppression of majority. They ensure that majority cannot do whatever it wishes to do.
Rights are like guarantees which can be used when things go wrong. Specially when some citizens may wish to take away
the rights of others. In most democracies, the basic rights of the citizen are written down in the Constitution.

‘Ethnic minority group An ethnic minority group is a human population whose members usually identify each other on
the basis of a common ancestry. People of an ethnic group are united by cultural practices, religious beliefs
and.pistorical memories.

Rights In The India Constitution

Some rights which are fundamental to our life are given a special status in Indian Constitution. They are called
Fundamental Rights. These are the basic human rights, which are given to every citizen in a democracy for the

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development of his/her personality. These rights are guaranted by the Constitution. They promise to secure for all its
citizens equality, liberty and justice. Hence, they are an important basic feature of India’s Constitution.

The six Fundamental Rights recognised by the Constitution are

1. Right to Equality

2. Right to Freedom

3. Right against Exploitation

4. Right to Freedom of Religion

5. Cultural and Educational Rights

6. Right to Constitutional Remedies

1. Right to Equality
The Constitution says that the government shall not deny the equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws
to any person in India It means that the laws apply in the same manner to all, regardless of a person’s status. This is
called the rule of law.

Right to Equality is the foundation of any democracy. It means that no person is above the law. The government shall
not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Every citizen shall have access to public places like shops, restaurants, hotels and cinema halls. Similarly, there shall be
no restrictions with regard to the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats: roads, playgrounds and places of public resorts
maintained by government or dedicated to the use of general public.

Reservations
The Government of India has provided reservation for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs). But these reservations are not against the Right to Equality.

Equality does not mean giving everyone the same treatment, no matter what they need. Rather it means giving
everyone an equal opportunity to achieve, whatever one is capable of. Sometimes, it is necessary to give special.
treatment to someone in order to ensure equal opportunity. Thus, the reservations of this kind are not a violation of the
Right to Equality.

Untouchability, The principle of non-discrimination extends to social life as well. The Constitution directs the
government to put an end to the practice of untouchability. It is the extreme form of social discrimination.

Untouchability does not mean refusal to touch people belonging to certain castes. Rather it refers to any belief or social
practice which looks down upon people account of their birth with certain caste labels.

Such practice denies their interaction with others or access to public places as equal citizens. That’s why the Constitution
made untouchability a punishable offence.

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Many Forms of Untouchability

In 1999, P. Sainath wrote a series of news reports in ‘The Hindu’ newspaper describing untouchability and caste-
discrimination that was still being practised against Dalits or persons belonging to Scheduled Castes.
P. Sainath travelled to various parts of the country and found that in many places, Tea stalls kept two kinds of cups, one
for Dalits one for others.

 Barbers refused to serve Dalit clients.

 Dalit students were made to sit separately in the classroom and drink water from the separate pitcher.

 Dalit grooms were not allowed, to ride a horse in the wedding procession.

 Dalits were not allowed, to use common handpump or if they did, the handpump was washed to purify it.

2. Right to Freedom
Freedom means the absence of constraint (restrictions). In practical life, it means the absence of, interference in our
affairs by others—be it other individuals or the: government. Under the Indian Constitution, all citizens have the right to

 Freedom of speech and expression

 Assembly in a peaceful manner

 Form associations, unions and cooperative societies

 Move freely throughout the country

 Reside in any part of the country

 Practice any profession or to Carry on any occupation, trade or business.

One cannot exercise his freedom in such a manner that violates others’ Right to Freedom. A person is free to do
everything which injures or harms no one else. Freedom is not an unlimited license to do what one wants. The
government can impose certain reasonable restrictions on our freedom in the larger interests of society.

Freedom of Speech and Expression

It is one of the essential features of any democracy. Even if a hundred people think in one way, you should have the
freedom to think differently and express your views as you wish. You may express your views through pamphlets,
magazines, newspapers, paintings, poetry or songs. However, you cannot use this freedom to stimulate violence against
others and excite people to rebel against the government. Neither can we use it to defame others by saying false and
mean things that cause damage to a person’s reputation?

Assembly in a Peaceful
Manner/Form Associations
Citizens have the freedom to hold meetings, processions, rallies and demonstrations on any issue. But such meetings

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should be peaceful and people participating in these should not carry weapons. Citizens also can form associations to
promote their interests.

Freedom to Travel/Choice of Occupations

The citizen have the freedom to travel to any part of the country and are free to reside or settle in any part of the
territory of India. This right allows lakhs of people to migrate from villages to towns an<f from poorer regions of the
country to prosperous regions and big Cities.

The same freedom extends to choice of occupations. No one can force you to do or not do a certain job (especially
women). Even people from deprived caste cannot be forced to keep their traditional occupations.

Personal Liberty
The Constitution says that no person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure
established by law. It means that no person can be killed unless the court has ordered a death sentence. It also means
that a government or police officer cannot arrest or detain any citizen unless he has proper legal justification.
Even when police arrests someone, they have to follow some procedures like.

 A person who is arrested and detained in custody will have to be informed of the reasons for such arrest and
detention.

 Such as person shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of 24 hours of arrest.

 Such a person has the right to consult a lawyer or engage a lawyer for his own defence.

3. Right Against Exploitation

Once the Right to Liberty and Equality is granted, it follows that every citizen has a right not to be exploited. Still the
Constitution makers thought it is necessary to write down certain clear provisions to prevent exploitation of the weaker
sections of the society. The Constitution mentions three specific evils and declares these illegal.

First, the Constitution prohibits ‘traffic’ in human beings. Traffic here means selling and buying of human beings, usually,
women or children, for immoral purposes.

Second, our Constitution also prohibits forced labour or Begar in any form. Begar is a practice where the worker is
forced to render service to the master free of charge or at a nominal remuneration. When this practice takes place on a
life long basis, it is called the practice of bonded labour.

Finally, the Constitution prohibits child labour. No one can employ a child below the age of 14 to work in any factory or
mine or any other hazardous work, such as railways and ports. Using child labour as a basis, many laws have been made
to prohibit children from working in industries such as beed making, fire crackers and matches, printing and dyeing, etc.

4. Right to Freedom of Religion

Every person has a right to profess, practice and propagate the religion he or she believes in. Every religious group or
sect is free to manage its religious affairs. Freedom to propagate one’s religion, does not mean that a person has right to
compel another person to convert into his religion by means of force, fraud, inducement or allurement. However, a

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person is free to change religion on his or her own will. Freedom to practice religion does not mean that a person can do
whatever he wants in the name of religion. For example, one cannot sacrifice animals or human beings as offerings to
supernatural forces or Sods.

Secularism
It is based on the idea that the country is concerned only with relations among human beings. India is a secular state. A
secular state is one that does not establish any one religion as official religion. In India no privilege or favour is provided
to any particular religion.

The government cannot compel any person to pay any tax for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion
or religious institution. There shall be no religious instruction in the government educational institutions. In educational
institutions managed by private bodies, no person can be compelled to take part in any religious instruction or to attend
any religious worship.

5. Cultural and Educational Rights

The working of democracy gives power to majority. Thus, it is the language, culture and religion of minorities that need
special protection. Otherwise, they may get neglected or undermined under the impact of the language, religion and
culture of the majority.
The following cultural and educational rights for minorities are specified by our Constitution

 Any section of citizens with a distinct language or culture have a right to conserve it.

 Admission to any educational institution maintained by the government or receiving- government aid cannot be
denied to any citizen on the grounds of religion or language.

 All minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

6. Right to Constitutional Remedies

The Fundamental Rights in the Constitution are important because they are enforceable. We have a right to seek the
enforcement of these mentioned rights. This is called the Right to Constitutional Remedies. This right makes other rights
effective. When any of the Fundamental Rights are violated, then citizens can directly approach the Supreme Court or
the High Court. Both courts have the power to writs (Habeas corpus, Manclamus, prohibition, Quo warranto and
Certiorari) for the. enforcement of the rights. That’s why Dr Ambedkar called the Right to Constitutional Remedies the
heart and soul of our Constitution.

Right to Property
The Constitution originally provided for the Right to Property under Articles 19 and 31. But the 44th Amendment Act of
1978 abolished this right from the list of Fundamental Rights. The Amendment made it a legal right under Article 30-A in
the Constitution. This right states that no person shall be deprived of his property.

Right to Education
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child. It came into force on 1st April 2010. The Article 21-A says that state shall provide free and compulsory education
to all children of the age of six to fourteen years. Thus, this provision makes elementary education a Fundamental Right.

Securing The Fundamental Rights

There can be no law or action that violates the Fundamental Rights. If any act of the Legislature or the Executive takes
away or limits any of the Fundamental Rights, it will be invalid. Citizens can challenge such laws in courts which enforce
the Fundamental Rights against private individuals and bodies.

Any person can go to court against the violation of the Fundamental Right. If it is of social or public interest, it is called
Public Interest Litigation (PIL). Under the PIL, any citizen or group of citizens can approach the Supreme Court or a High
Court for the protection of public interest against a particular law or action of the government.

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

It is an independent commission established in 1993. The Commission is appointed by the President. The Commission
focuses on helping the victims to secure their human rights. These include all the rights granted to the citizens by the
Constitution.
The Commission also considers the Human Rights mentioned in the UN sponsored international treaties that India has
signed. The NHRC makes an independent and credible inquiry into any case of violation of human rights. The
Commission presents its findings and recomrpendations to the government.

Expanding Scope Of Rights

Demands for many new Fundamental Rights have been coming up time to time. Some of these demands have been
included under the scope of Fundamental Rights.

For example, Right to Freedom of Press, Right to Education and Right to Information.
According to the Right to Education, every child has the right to get elementary education. According to Right to
Information, anybody can demand information regarding the functions of a government department or official.
Constitution provides many more rights, which may not be Fundamental Rights.: e.g. the-Right to Property, Right to Vote
in Election are not Fundamental Rights, but these are Constitutional Rights.

Human Rights
Sometimes, the expansion of rights takes place in human rights. Human rights are universal moral claims that may or
may not have been recognised by laws. With the expansion of democracy, all over the world, there is greater pressure
on governments to accept these claims. Some international covenants have contributed to the expansion of rights. Thus,
the scope of rights has been expanding and new rights are evolving over time. New rights emerge as societies develop or
as new Constitutions are made. For example, the Constitution of South Africa guarantees its citizens several kinds of new
rights.

These are

 Right to privacy, so that citizens or their home cannot be searched, their phones cannot be tapped, their
communication cannot be opened.

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 Right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well being.

 Right to have access to adequate housing.

 Right to have access to health care services, sufficient food and water; no one may be refused emergency
medical treatment.

Many people in our country think that the Right to Work, Right to Health, Right to Minimum Livelihood and Right to
Privacy should be made as Fundamental Rights in India.

International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The international covenant recognises many rights that are not directly a part of the Fundamental Rights in the Indian
Constitution.
This has not yet become an international treaty. But human right activists all over the world see this as a standard of
human rights.
These include

 Right to work i.e. an opportunity to everyone to earn a livelihood by working.

 Right to safe and healthy working conditions, fair wages that can provide a decent standard of living for the
workers and their families.

 Right to an adequate standard of living including adequate food, clothing and housing.

 Right to social security and insurance.

 Right to health i.e. medical care during illness, special care for women during childbirth and prevention of
epidemics.

 Right to education i.e. free and compulsory primary education, equal access to higher education.

Claim Demand for legal or moral entitlements, a person makes on fellow citizens, society or the government.
Covenant Promise made by individuals, groups or countries to uphold a rule or principle. It is legally binding on the
signatories to the agreement or the statement.

Fundamental Rights and Duties Summary

 Rights are reasonable claims of persons recognised by society and sanctioned by law and rights are necessary for
the very sustenance of democracy.

 The importance of rights can easily be judged by the one whose life has an absence of rights, e.g. the prisoners
in Guantanamo Bay and the citizen’s Rights in Saudi Arabia.

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 Everyone, whether he/she is powerful or weak, rich or poor, wants a system where at least a minimum
assurance is guaranteed to all.

 Rights are necessary for the very sustenance of democracy.

 Every citizen has to have the Right to Vote and the Right to be Elected to government.

 Some rights are given special status in Indian Constitution which are known as Fundamental Rights.

 There are six Fundamental Rights recognised by the Constitution of India.

 The Right to Equality, means that, the government shall not deny equality before the law to any person in India.

 Reservation has been provided to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes by the
Government of India,

 The constitution directs the government to put an end to the practice of untouchability which is the extreme
form of social discrimination.

 Right to Freedom means absence of interference in our affairs by others, be it other individuals or the
government.

 One cannot exercise freedom in such a manner that violates other’s ‘Right to freedom’.

 Freedom of Speech and Expression is one of the essential features of any democracy.

 The Constitution provides its citizens the freedom to hold meetings, processions, rallies and demonstrations on
any issue.

 The citizen have the freedom to travel to any part of the country and are free to reside in any part of the
country.

 The Constitution says that no person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to
procedure established by law.

 The Constitution provides Right against Exploitation which prohibits evils like traffic in human beings, begar and
child labour.

 Every person has been granted right to profess, practice and propagate the religion he or she believes in.

 Secularism is based on the idea that the country is concerned only with relations among human beings.

 The Constitution of India provides Cultural and Educational Rights.

 Right to Constitutional; Remedies provides the right to the citizehffto directly approach the Supreme Court or
the High Court for the enforcement of the other rights.

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 Both courts have the power to writs which are Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto and
Certiorari.

 The Right to Proparty under Article 19 was deleted and made a legal right under Article 30 A their 44th
constitutional Amendment act of 1978.

 Article 21A inserted in 2010 provides Right to Education to provide free and compulsory education to all children
of the age of six to fourteen years.

 Any person can go to court against the violation of the Fundamental Right. It is known as Public Interest
Litigation if the violation is of social or public interest.

 The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) focusses on helping the victims,to secure their human rights.

 Demands for many new fundamental rights have been coming up time to time.

 Human Rights are universal moral claims that may or may not have been recognised by laws.

 The international covenant recognises many, rights that are not directly a part of the Fundamental Rights in the
Indian Constitution.

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Power Sharing (Chapter 1)

‘Ethnic’:
Ethnic means a social division based on shared culture and common descent. People belonging to an ethnic group need
not have the same religion or nationality.

Majoritarianism:
A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the
wishes and needs of the minority is majoritarianism.

Power Sharing in Sri Lanka:

Two major social groups are: (a) Sri Lankan Tamils (b) Indian Tamils. Sinhala-speaking (74 per cent) — Buddhism

Tamil-speaking (18 per cent)—Hindus or Muslims: Sri Lankan Tamils (13 per cent), Indian Tamils (5 per cent).

Establishment of Sinhala supremacy:

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The democratically elected government adopted a series of
measures to establish Sinhala supremacy:

1. In 1956, an Act was passed to make Sinhala the official language.

2. The government followed preferential policies favouring Sinhala applicants for University positions and
government jobs.

3. The Constitution provided for State protection and fostering of Buddhism.

The Sri Lankan Tamils felt that none of the major political parties led by the Buddhist Sinhala leaders were sensitive to
their language and culture and the government policies denied them equal political rights. The Sri Lankan Tamils
launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in every
field. Therefore, the measures adopted by the government to establish Sinhala supremacy led to Civil War.

Ethnic composition of Belgium:

Belgium is a small country in Europe, having a population of a little over one crore. 59 per cent of the country’s total
population lives in the Flemish region and speak Dutch language. Another 40 per cent people live in Wallonia region and
speak French. Remaining one per cent of the Belgians speak German. Whereas in the Belgian capital, Brussels, 80 per
cent of the population is French-speaking and 20 per cent is Dutch-speaking.

Belgian power-sharing model:

The power-sharing arrangements made by the Belgian leaders were different and more innovative than any other
country. To recognize the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities, they amended their Constitution four
times between 1970 and 1993.
The major elements of the Belgian Model are:

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1. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central
Government. No single community can take decisions unilaterally.

2. The State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.

3. Brussels, the capital, has a separate government where both the communities have equal representation.

4. A third kind of government, ‘Community Government’, is elected by people belonging to one language
community — Dutch, French and German speaking—no matter where they live. This government can decide on
cultural, educational and language related issues.

‘Lebanon’—conflict related to power-sharing disputes were resolved by power sharing:

People from various communities lived in Lebanon’s capital city, Beirut, and fought a bitter Civil War amongst
themselves. As a result, thousands of people of various communities were either killed or lost their livelihood. At the
end of this Civil War, Lebanon’s leaders came together and agreed to some basic rules for power-sharing among
different communities. As per these rules it was agreed that:

 The President would be from Maronite sect of Catholic Christians;

 The Prime Minister must be from the Sunni Muslim community;

 Deputy Prime Minister would be from an Orthodox Christian sect;

 Speaker—a Shia Muslim.

As per the pact, the Christians agreed not to seek French protection and Muslims agreed not to seek unification with the
neighbouring state of Syria.

Prudential reasons:
Prudential reasons stress that power-sharing would bring out better outcomes by helping to reduce the possibility of any
conflict between the social groups and power-sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order through
unity of the nation.

Moral reasons:
Moral reasons uphold power-sharing as the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with
those affected by its exercise. People have the right to be consulted and have equal participation in the government.

Principles of a good democracy:

 that power of a government must not vest in one person or a group of persons.

 that people are the source of all political power.

 that due respect be given to diverse groups and everyone should have a voice in the shaping of public policies.

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System of checks an of balances:

The horizontal distribution of power ensures that power is shared among different organs of government—the
legislature, executive and judiciary. It allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise
different powers. In a democracy, ministers and government officials exercise power. They are responsible to the
Parliament or State Assemblies. The judges appointed by the executive can check the functioning of executive or laws
made by the legislature. The horizontal distribution of power is also called a system of checks and balances.

Power-sharing in contemporary democracies:

In contemporary democracies, power-sharing takes the form of competition among different parties. Such competition
ensures that power does not remain in one hand and is shared among different political parties representing different
social groups and ideologies. This type of sharing often leads to the formation of an alliance between two or more
parties, which, goes to form a Coalition Government.

Federalism (Chapter 2)
Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent
units of the country. This vertical division of power among different levels of governments is referred to as federalism.
Federalism is one of the major forms of power-sharing in modem democracies.

Key features of federalism are:

1. Two or more levels of government.

2. Different levels of government govern the same citizens, where each level has its own jurisdiction in specific
matters of legislation, taxation and administration.

3. Existence and authority of each level of government is constitutionally governed.

4. The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed. Such changes require the
consent of both the levels of government.

5. Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution. The highest court acts as the umpire if any dispute arises
between different levels of governments.

6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are specified to ensure its financial autonomy.

7. Federal system has dual objectives to safeguard and promote unity of the country, and to accommodate
regional diversity.

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Union Territories:
Some units of the Indian Union, which are too small to become an independent state and could not be merged with any
of the existing states, are called Union Territories. They are also called ‘Centrally Administered Territories’. For example,
Chandigarh, Lakshadweep.

Coalition government:
A government formed by coming together of at least two political parties. Usually, partners in a coalition form a political
alliance and adopt a common programme.
For example, National Democratic Alliance (NDA), the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and the Left Front.

India a federal country:

The Constitution declares India as a Union of States. Although the word ‘Federation’ is not used, the Indian Union is
based on the principles of federation. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the
Union Government or the Central Government representing Union of India and the State Governments. A third-tier of
federation was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy
separate jurisdiction. The Constitution provides for a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union
Government and State Government. It contains three lists:

 Union List (100 Subjects),

 State List (61 Subjects),

 Concurrent List (52 Subjects).

Since India is an example of ‘holding together’ federation where the Central Government is more powerful vis-a-vis the
states; some states, for example, enjoy a special status like Jammu & Kashmir, which has its own Constitution.

‘Coming together’ federations:

This agreement induces independent states coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling
sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. Examples are: USA, Switzerland and Australia.

‘Holding together’ federations:

In this agreement, a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national
government. The Central Governments tend to be more powerful vis-a-vis the states. Often different constituent units
of the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers, for example, India, Spain, Belgium.

Sharing of power between the Union Government and State Governments:

The sharing of power between the Union Government and the State Governments is basic to the structure of the
Constitution. The Parliament cannot, on its own, change this arrangement. Any change has to be first passed by both the
Houses of the Parliament with at least two-third majority. It has then to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of
the total states. In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a
decision.

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Reasons for success of federalism in India:

 Clearly laid out Constitutional Provisions providing a three-fold distribution of powers in the three lists—Union
List, State List and Concurrent List—between the Union and State Governments,

 The nature of democratic politics in our country.

 The creation of linguistic states. Boundaries of several old states of India were changed in order to create new
states. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same state.

 Restricting of Centre-State relations.

Language policy of India:

Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. The formation of linguistic states
united the country and made administration easier. The leaders of our country adopted a very cautious attitude in
spreading the use of Hindi. Hindi was identified as official language. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages
recognized as scheduled languages by the Constitution.

Major steps towards decentralization taken in 1992 are:

 Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to Local Government bodies.

 Seats are reserved in elected bodies for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes (OBCs).

 Atleast one-third of all positions are reserved for women.

 The State Election Commission was created to conduct Panchayat and Municipal elections.

 The State Governments are required to share some powers and revenue with Local Government bodies.

Structure of the new Panchayati Raj institutions: Rural Local Government is known by the name of Panchayati Raj.

 Each village or group of villages has a Gram Panchayat. Panch, President or Sarpanch are directly elected by all
the adult population of the village and is the decision-making body.

 The Panchayat works under the supervision of Gram Sabha, with all the voters as its members. The local
structure goes up to the district level—a group of Gram Panchayats form a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal.
All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals together constitute the Zilla Parishad which consists of elected members.

 Lok Sabha members, Local MLAs and officers are also members of the Zilla Parishad. Its Chairperson is the
political head of the Parishad.

Urban areas local bodies:

Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations. Both are controlled by elected
bodies consisting of people’s representatives. Municipal chairperson is the political head of the Municipality. The head
of Municipal Corporation is an officer called the Mayor.
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Democracy and Diversity (Chapter 3)

Homogeneous Society:
A society that has similar kinds of people, especially where there are no significant ethnic differences, for example,
Germany and Sweden.

‘Migrant’:
Anybody who shifts from one region or country to another region within a country or to another country, usually for
work or other opportunities, is called migrant.

Civil Rights Movement:

Led by Martin Luther King Jr., this movement lasted from 1954-1968. The movement refers to a set of events and reform
movements aimed at abolishing legal racial discrimination against African-Americans. This movement practiced non-
violent methods of civil disobedience against racially discriminatory laws and practices.

Black Power Movement:

This movement emerged in 1966 and lasted till 1975. It was a more militant and anti-racist movement. The Black Power
Movement advocated even violence, if necessary, to end racism in the US.

Incident of two US athletes who protested at Mexico Olympics in 1968:

Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the US athletes received their medals wearing only a pair of black socks with no shoes to
represent Black poverty. The black-gloved and raised clenched fists were meant to symbolize Black Power. They were
responding to social divisions and social inequalities. With this gesture their intention was to draw international
attention to racial discrimination in the United States. Peter Norman wore a human rights badge on his shirt during the
ceremony to show his support to the two Americans. The medals were taken back from Tommie Smith and John Carlos
because the International Olympic Association held both of them guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a
political statement.

Origins of Social differences:

 Accident of birth: We don’t choose to belong to our community. We belong to it simply because we were born
into it. We experience social differences based on accident of birth in our everyday lives.

 Based on choices: Some of the differences are based on our choices. Some people are atheists. They don’t
believe in God or any religion. Some people choose to follow a religion other than the one in which they were
born. Most of us choose to study a subject of our interest and an occupation where we can excel. All these lead
to formation of social groups that are based on our choices.

Overlapping:
Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions. In overlapping, one kind of social
difference becomes more important than the other and the people start feeling that they belong to a different
community.
For example, in Northern Ireland, class and religion overlap each other. If you are Catholic, you are likely to be poor,
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suffering a history of discrimination.

Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern Ireland.

Cross-cutting:
Cross-cutting social differences are easier to accommodate. In cross-cutting, groups that share a common interest on
one issue, are sometimes on different sides on different issues.
For example, in Netherlands, class and religion tend to cut across each other. Catholics and Protestants are about
equally likely to be poor or rich. There are no conflicts in the Netherlands.

Factors determining the outcome of politics of social divisions are:

 How people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in exclusive terms, it becomes difficult to
accommodate. As long as people in Northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their
differences were difficult to reconcile. It is easier if identities are complimentary with national identity. This
helps to stay together.

 How political leaders raise demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within
the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community. The demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was
at the cost of the interest and identity of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka.

 How Government reacts to demands of different groups. If the rulers are willing to share power and
accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, as in Belgium, social divisions become less
threatening for the country. But if the demand is suppressed in the name of national unity, as in Sri Lanka, the
end result is quite opposite. Such attempts at forced integration sow the seeds of disintegration.

Gender, Religion and Caste (Chapter 4)

Feminist:
A woman or a man, who believes in equal rights and opportunities for women and men, is called a feminist.
Feminist Movements are radical women’s movements aiming at attaining equality for women in personal and family life
and public affairs. These movements have organized and agitated to raise channels for enhancing the political and legal
status of women and improving their educational and career opportunities.

Patriarchal society:
A patriarchal society is essentially male dominated. The line of descent is traced through the father. Men are valued
more in terms of work they do and the place they hold in society. This gives them more power than women.

Communal politics:
When the demands of one religious group are formed in opposition to another and when State power is used to
establish domination of one religious group over the rest, this manner of using religion in politics is called communal
politics.

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Discrimination against women:

 In studies girls mostly perform better than boys, but they drop out simply because parents prefer to spend their
resources on their boys’ education. A smaller proportion of girls gp for higher studies.

 On an average, a woman works more than an average man everyday. Since much of her work is not paid for,
therefore often not valued.

 The Equal Wages Act provides for equal wages for equal work. But in almost all areas of work
from sports to cinema, from factories to fields, women are comparatively paid less.

 The child sex ratio (number of girl children per thousand boys) is very low. In India the national average is 927. In
some places it is as low as 850 or even 800, because parents prefer to have sons so they get the girl child
aborted before her birth.

 In urban areas, women are unsafe. Even in their homes they suffer from beating, harassment and other forms of
domestic violence.

Caste inequalities in India:

Caste has not disappeared from contemporary India and caste division is special to India. Even now most people marry
within their own caste. The caste groups that had access to education under old system have done well, whereas those
groups that did not have access to education have lagged behind. There is a large presence of ‘upper taste’ among the
urban middle classes in our country. Caste continues to be linked to economic status as is evident from National Sample
Survey. The average economic status of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy—the ‘upper’ castes are best off, the
Dalits and Adivasis are worst off and the backward classes are in between. The upper castes are heavily over
represented among the rich while the lower castes are under-represented. The SC, ST and OBC together account for
about two-thirds of India’s population.

Status of women’s representation in India’s legislative bodies:

The one way to ensure that women related problems get adequate attention is to have more women as elected
representatives. To achieve this, it is legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies.

 Panchayati Raj in India has reserved one-third seats in Local Government bodies for women.

 In India, the proportion of women in legislature has been very low. The percentage of elected women members
in Lok Sabha is not even 10 per cent and in State Assemblies less than 5 per cent. Only recently, in March 2010,
the women’s reservation bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament
and State Legislative bodies.

Religion and politics in India:

Gandhiji said, “Religion can never be separated from politics”. By religion he did not mean any particular religion like
Hinduism or Islam, but moral values and ethics drawn from religion to guide politics. Religion in politics is not as
dangerous as it may seem to us. Ethical values of each religion can play a major role in politics. According to human

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rights groups, most of the victims of communal riots in our country are from religious minorities. Government can take
special steps to protect them. These instances show a relationship between religion and politics. People should be able
to express in politics their needs, interests and demands as members of a religious community. Thus, it is the
responsibility of those whose political power is able to regulate the practice of religion, to prevent discrimination and
oppression.

Reasons which have contributed to changes in caste system:

 Efforts of political leaders and social reformers like Gandhiji, B.R. Ambedkar who advocated and worked to
establish a society in which caste inequalities are absent.

 Socio-economic changes such as: urbanization; growth of literacy and education; occupational mobility;
weakening of landlord’s position in the village; breaking down of caste hierarchy; have greatly contributed.

 The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination.

 Provision of fundamental rights has played a major role because these rights are provided to all citizens without
any discrimination.

Popular Struggles and Movements (Chapter 5) – to be discussed in class

Political Parties (Chapter 6)

A party that secures atleast 6 per cent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly Elections in four States and
wins atleast four seats in the Lok Sabha, is recognised as a ‘National party’.

A party, that secures atleast 6 per cent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative Assembly of a State and wins
atleast two seats, is recognized as a ‘State party’.

Tabulate four national parties and four regional parties of India.

National Parties:
Indian National Congress; BJP (Bharatiya Janta Party); CPI (Communist Party of India); CPI (M) (Communist Party of India
—Marxist).
Regional Parties:
Akali Dal (Punjab); DMK (Tamil Nadu); RJD (Rashtriya Janta Dal) (Bihar); Shiv Sena (Maharashtra).

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Components of a political party are:

 The leaders,

 active members and

 the followers.

Partisanship:
A partisan is a person who is strongly committed to a party, group or faction. As parties (political) are about a part of the
society, they involve ‘partisanship’.

Role of an opposition party:

Opposition parties mobilize opposition to the government. It puts forward its own views in Parliament and criticizes the
government for its failures. By doing this, it keeps a check on the ruling party.

Source of inspiration of Bharatiya Janata Party:

The source of inspiration of Bharatiya Janata Party is the ancient Indian culture and values. Cultural nationalism
(Hindutva) is an important element in its conception of Indian nationhood and politics.

Source of inspiration of Bahujan Samaj Party:

The Bahujan Samaj Party draws inspiration from the ideas and teachings of Sahu Maharaj, Mahatma Phule, Periyar
Ramaswami Naicker and Babasaheb Ambedkar. It stands for the interest and welfare of the dalits and other oppressed
people.

Ideology of Indian National Congress:

Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress sought to build a modem secular democratic
republic in India. The party propagates secularism and welfare of the weaker sections and minorities of society. It
supports new economic reforms but with a human face.

There are three kinds of party systems as given below:

1. One-party system. In some countries only one party is allowed to control and run the government. For example,
in China only the Communist Party is allowed to rule.

2. Two-party system. In this system, several parties may exist, contest the elections and win a few seats in the
national legislatures. But only two main parties have a serious chance of winning majority of seats to form
government. For example, The USA and the UK.

3. Multi-party system. In this system, the government is formed by various parties coming together in a coalition.
When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning
power, it is called an alliance or a front.
For example, in India there were three major alliances in 2004 parliamentary elections—the National
Democratic Alliance (NDA), the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and the Left Front. This system on one hand

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leads to political instability but at the same time, allows for a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political
representation.

Efforts to reform political parties are:

1. The Constitution has been amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. Now if any
elected MLA or MP changes his party, he/she will lose his/her seat in the Legislative Assembly or Parliament.
This amended law has helped to bring down the number of defections.

2. The Supreme Court has passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. Now it has become
mandatory for every candidate, who contests election, to file an affidavit giving details of his assets and criminal
cases pending against him. This has helped in making this information available to the public.

3. The Election Commission has passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold their
organisational elections and file their Income-tax Returns.

Role of money and muscle power grows during elections:

Since focus of the parties is on winning elections, they use short-cuts to win the elections. They nominate candidates
who have or can raise lot of money. In some cases, parties support criminals who can win elections. Thus the role of rich
people and big companies in the democratic process has been a cause of worry.

Dynastic succession:
Most political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning. So there are very few ways
for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party. Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position of unfair
advantage as they favor people close to them or even their family members.
In many parties, the top positions are always controlled by members of a particular family, which is unfair to other
members of the party, and bad for democracy.

Functions of Political Party:

 Contesting Elections. Political parties contest elections.

 Policies. Political parties put forward different policies and programmes so that the voters can choose from
them. The policies and programmes of the Ruling Party are expected to be followed by . the government.

 Making Law. Political parties play a decisive role in making laws for the country.

 Formation of Government. Political parties form and run governments. The executive body is formed by people
from the ruling party.

 Playing Opposition. A party which does not get majority or come under the majority coalition, needs to play the
role of opposition.

 Shaping Public Opinion. Political parties shape public opinion. They do so by raising and highlighting issues in the
legislature and in the media.
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 Providing Access to Government Machinery. Political parties provide people access to government machinery
and welfare schemes implemented by governments.

Outcomes of Democracy (Chapter 7)

Democracy produces an accountable, responsive and legitimate government:
A democracy is concerned with ensuring that people have the right to choose their rulers and have control over the
rulers.

When possible and necessary, citizens should be able to participate in decision-making in a democracy. Democracy
ensures that decision-making is based on norms and procedures. A citizen has the right and the means to examine the
process of decision-making. Thus democracy entails transparency.

For a democracy to produce an accountable, responsive and legitimate government, it must ensure the following—

Regular, free and fair elections; Open public debate on major policies and legislation’s; Citizens’ right to be informed
about government policies; A government free from corruption.

Two conditions necessary for a democracy to achieve harmonious society:

Democracy must fulfill the following two conditions in order to achieve a harmonious social life:

1. Majority and minority opinions are not permanent. Democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The
majority needs to work with the minority so that government may function to represent the general view.

2. Rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic groups,
etc. Democracy remains democracy so long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority at some point of
time. No individual should be debarred from participating in a democracy on the basis of religion, caste,
community, creed and other such factors..

Outcomes of democracy:
There are certain things that democracy must provide.

1. In a democracy people have the right to choose their rulers and people will have control over them. Whenever
possible and necessary, citizens should be able to participate in decision¬making, that affects them all.

2. It is right to expect democracy to produce a government that follows procedures and is accountable to people.
Democratic government develops mechanisms for citizens—regular, free and fair elections, open public debate
on major policies and legislation’s, and citizens’ right to information about the government and its functioning.

Democracy is a better form of government than others:

 Based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation. Thus the necessary delay in implementation.

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 Decisions are acceptable to people and are more effective.

 A citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of- decision-making. There is transparency.

 Democratic government is legitimate government, people’s own government.

 There is inability of democracy to achieve higher economic growth which is a cause of worry.

 Ability to handle differences, decisions and conflicts is a positive point of democratic regimes.

 Democracy has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and
equal opportunity.

Dignity and freedom of citizens are best guaranteed in a democracy:

1. Dignity of women. The one way to ensure that women related problems get adequate attention is to have more
women as elected representatives. To achieve this, it is legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the
elected bodies. Panchayati Raj in India has reserved one-third seats in local government bodies for women. In
March 2010, the Women’s Reservation Bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha ensuring 33% reservation for women
in Parliament and State legislative bodies.

2. Democracy has strengthened the claims of disadvantaged and discriminated castes. When governments are
formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.
Some political parties are known to favour some castes. Democracy provides for equal status and opportunities
for all castes.

3. Democracy transforms people from the status of a subject into that of a citizen. A democracy ensures that
people will have the right to choose their rulers and people will have control over the rulers.

4. A citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision-making. There is transparency in a
democracy like India. In October 2005, the Right to Information (RTI) law was passed which ensures all its
citizens the right to get all the information about the functions of the government departments.

Challenges to Democracy (Chapter 8)

Challenge:
A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress.

The challenges faced by democracy are:

 Foundation challenge;

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 Challenge of expansion;

 Challenge of deepening of democracy.

Political reform:
All the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called democratic reforms or
political reforms

Challenges faced by countries which do not have a democratic form of government:

1. These countries face the foundation challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting
democratic government.

2. They also face the challenge of bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, and keeping the military
away from controlling the government.

3. Such countries have to make great efforts to establish a sovereign and functional State.

Three challenges faced by democracy:

 Foundation challenge. It relates to making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic
government. It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from
controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional State.

 Challenge of expansion. It involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions,
different social groups and various institutions. It pertains to ensuring greater power to local governments,
extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc.
Most established democracies, e.g., India and US, face the challenge of expansion.

 Challenge of deepening of democracy. This challenge involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of
democracy. It means strengthening those institutions that help people’s participation and control in the
government. It aims at bringing down the control and influence of rich and powerful people in making
governmental decisions.

Broad guidelines for political reforms:

1. As legal-constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy, democratic reforms

need to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens.

2. Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Generally, laws, that seek a ban on
something are rather counter-productive; for example, many states have debarred people who have more than
two children from contesting Panchayat elections. This has resulted in denial of democratic opportunity to many
poor women, which was not intended. The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic
reforms; for example, the Right to Information Act which acts as a watchdog of democracy by controlling
corruption.
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3. Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political parties. The most important concern
should be to increase and improve the quality of political participation by ordinary citizens.

4. Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution, but also about who will
implement it and how. Measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens organizations and media are likely
to succeed.

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Chapter 1 Constitution: Why and How?

 A constitution is a written set of laws and fundamental principles to develop a
relationship between the people and the government which comprises a number of
articles about the state.
 We need a constitution:
 To provide a set of basic rules to allow minimal coordination amongst the
members of a society.
 To specify how the government would be constituted and who has power to
make decisions in the society.
 To lay some limitations on government’s power by guaranteeing rights to the
citizens.
 To enable the government to fulfill aspirations of a society and create conditions
for a just society.
 To express the fundamental identity of people.
The Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly in 1946 under the Cabinet
Mission Plan.
The Constituent Assembly spent 2 years 11 months and 18 days to prepare the constitution to
be adopted on November 26, 1949 and came into force on 26 January, 1950.
The Constitution of India is the Supreme Law to be accepted and respected by all the citizens
as well as institutions of the country.
The Constitution of India is a blend of flexibility and rigidity as it is federal in form but unitary
in spirit.
The main federal features of the Indian Constitution are written and flexible constitution,
distribution of powers between the center and the states, supremacy of judiciary and
existence of bi-cameral legislature.
The framers of Indian Constitution have borrowed a number of provisions as per the suitability
of the nation from different countries, i.e. the British Constitution, the American Constitution,

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the Constitution of Canada, the Constitution of Ireland, the French Constitution, etc. along
with the Government of India Act, 1935.
Important terms:
 Promulgation: To announce publically at the starting of a law.
 Deliberation: Considerations during the framing of Constitution.
 Disparity: A lack of equality and similarity in a war that is not fair.
 Suppressed: To prevent to express the feelings of someone.
 Sects: Different groups within a community.
 Laws: A set of rules governing the administration of country to be enforced by political
authority.
 Integration: A harmonious relation with the feelings of brotherhood.
 Objective Resolution: Resolution to define aims of Assembly.

Chapter 2 Rights and Duties in the Indian Constitution

 Rights are the favorable conditions and guarantees to be provided by a state to its
citizens to live up a dignified life.
 These rights can be categorized as Social Rights, Political Rights and Fundamental Rights
to procure equality, liberty and social justice into society.
 Fundamental Rights are specially protected to ensure that they are not violated even by
the government. Because these are protected by the constitution of the country.
 There are 6 Fundamental Rights guaranteed by Indian Constitution to its citizens:
 Right to Equality
 Right to Freedom
 Right to Freedom of Religion

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 Right against Exploitation

 Cultural and Educational Rights
 Right to Constitutional Remedies
Fundamental Rights except the Right to Life and personal liberty may be suspended only
during the emergencies like foreign attacks or internal disturbances.
South African Constitution grants most extensive range of rights to its citizens including even
right to dignity, privacy, fair labour practices, healthy environment, adequate housing,
information, etc.
Indian Constitution contains Directive Principles of State Policy also to establish a welfare state
along with the Fundamental Rights.
The judiciary has the power to enforce the Fundamental Rights but the Directive Principles of
State are not enforceable by law.
By the 42nd amendment, in 1976, the Fundamental Duties have also been inserted which are
ten in numbers to defend our country, promote harmony and protect the environment.
The inclusion of fundamental duties has not changed the status of our fundamental rights.
Important terms:
 Rights: These are guarantees to citizens to live up a social life in a dignified manner.
 Duties: A performance towards others or society to enjoy rights.
 Constitutional Remedies: Protective arrangements to citizens by the Constitution
against any exploitation.
 Exploitation: The act of doing injustice with others in any manner.
 Begar: A forced labour without payment.
 Minorities: These are the groups having common language or religion and in a particular
part of the country or in a country as a whole, these are out-numbered by some other
social sections.

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 Marginalized Communities: Communities left ignored like Dalits, OBCs, Weaker

sections,, etc.

Chapter 3 - Election and Representation

 The modem period is considered as the age of democracy where participation of people
ensured at every level of government. In the words of Abraham Lincoln. “Democracy the
government of the people, for the people and by the people”.
 Democracy can be classified into two types, i.e. Direct Democracy and Indirect
Democracy.
 Ancient times, the direct democracy was prominent due to small sizes of kingdoms but ,
iow the states are vast along with higher population.
 In an indirect democracy, the people do not participate directly but they participate
indirectly through their elected representatives who act in accordance with the wishes
of the people.
 Indian Electoral System experiences some unique features as Universal Adult Franchise,
Joint Electorate, Combination of direct and indirect elections, secret Ballot system,
Election petition, etc.
 By Universal Adult Franchise, we mean every person above the age of maturity (18 years
and above) is entitled to enjoy the right to vote in elections irrespective of caste, creed ,
colour, race, language, religion, etc.
 The age of attaining maturity is fixed by the state. In India, England and Russia, it is 18
years, in Switzerland 20 years and in America 21 years and in Norway it is 23 years.
 Adult franchise has many merits. It provides political training and education as well as
creates the feelings of self-respect among the people. It ensures participation of people
in governance.
 The constitution of India appoints our Election Commission also to perform election
related activities, i.e. to prepare voters’ list, provide recognition to political parties,
declares constituencies and control over the machinery of election.

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 The election process begins with the election notification issued by the president under
section 14 of the People’s Representation Act, 1951, which is followed by the
announcement of election dates by the Election Commission.
 Though Election Commission performs its duties very well, despite the following
discrepancies have been observed during elections:
 Use of money and use of power by candidates has become dominant.
 In actual, voters do not create much interest in the elections.
 Misuse of public funds and facilities.
 Even the candidate less than majority of votes becomes victorious.
The following suggestions might be there to remove the drawbacks mentioned above:
 To control money and muscle power
 The participation of women should be encouraged.
 The persons from criminal background should be prohibited.
 During election campaign, the candidates should not use words related to any
caste, religion, language, etc.
Important terms:
 First Past the Post System (FPTP): In this system whoever has more votes than all other
candidates is declared elected.
 Proportional Representation (PR): Large geographical areas are demarcated as
constituencies.
 Universal Adult Franchise: Every person above the age of maturity enjoys the right to
vote without any discrimination.
 Democracy: A rule or government of the people, for the people and by the people.

Chapter 4 - Executive
 In a democracy, the Government is divided into three organs:
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 The Legislative
 The Executive
 The Judiciary
The legislature and the executive are interdependent in a parliamentary system. The
legislature frames the laws and the executive enforces them to run the administration.
In such a manner, the legislature controls the executive and in turn it is controlled by the
executive.
Different types of executives are Parliamentary, Semi-Presidential, Presidential, Monarchical
or Ceremonial, etc.
A distinction can be made between the parliamentary and the presidential executives.
In a parliamentary system, the real head of executive is the Prime Minister and the President is
the nominal head.
The Prime Minister is assisted by the Council of Ministers and advises the President.
The President enjoys the right to be informed of all important matters and functioning of the
council of ministers.
The Vice President is the ex-office Chairman of Rajya Sabha and acts for the President when
the office of the President falls vacant.
The council of minister is responsible collectively to the house of the people and it shall not
exceed 15% of total number of members of the house of the people.
The President appoints the Prime Minister who is the leader of the majority party in the Lok
Sabha.
The executive, thus, includes the Prime Minister, the ministers and large administrative
machinery. 13. The bureaucrats implement the decisions of ministers.
These bureaucrats are skilled and trained officers who work as a permanent employees of the
government and assist the government in formulating and implementing the policies.
Important terms:

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 Electorate: The people who elect the representatives using votes.

 Constituency: An area comes under parliament and a member is elected from there.
 Components: Parts or organs
 Insolvent: The one who is unable to pay one’s debts.
 Harmonious: Balanced.
 Tenure: A fixed period of office.
 Impeachment: An act of officially accusing for a serious crime or offence.
 Minimum Wages Act, 1948: An Act to provide for fixing minimum rates of wages in
certain employment.
 Nominate: To propose formally that somebody should be chosen for a position, an
office, etc.

Chapter 5 - Legislature
 In India, the parliamentary form of government is adopted at the centre by adopting
bicameral legislature.
 The legislature helps people in holding the representatives accountable.
 In India, there are two houses of parliament Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
 The Lower House of Parliament is called the Lok Sabha which consists of 545 members.
 The members of the Lok Sabha are called Members of Parliament (MPs), who are
elected on the basis of universal adult franchise.
 Two Anglo-Indians are nominated by the president if he feels that Anglo-Indians have
not been represented suitably in the parliament.
 The Lok Sabha has a speaker who presides over its session.

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 The Upper House of Parliament is called the Rajya Sabha having 250 members out of
which 238 are elected by State Legislative Assemblies and 12 members are nominated
by the President.
 The Vice President of India is the ex-office Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
 The Lok Sabha enjoys the powers of making laws, to enact Money or non-Money Bills,
approves taxation, budgets and annual financial statement, amends constitution, etc.
 Rajya Sabha enjoys the powers to suggest amendments to Money Bills, exercise control
over executives and can give power to make laws on matters included in the state list.
 The Parliament uses the various devices to have a parliamentary control over its
executives as financial control, deliberation and discussion, approval or refusal of laws
and no confidence motion, etc.
Important terms:
 Bill: A bill is a draft of the proposed law, which can be of different types.
 Defection: If a member remains absent in the House, when asked by the party
leadership to remain present or votes against the instructions of the party or voluntarily
leaves the membership of the party.
 Budget: It is the detail of income and expenditure of a country’s income from taxes and
how it will be spent, i.e. on annual government statement.
 Deadlocks: A statement in mutual negotiations.
 Ordinance: An order, rule of law made by government or authority who is entitled for
the same.
 Question Hour: A period of time to put up with the questions by members of parliament
to the ministers.
 Zero hour: It starts at twelve noon immediately after the question hour.

Chapter 6- Judiciary
 Judiciary is an independent body to settle down the disputes arisen between the
individuals or groups or government on the basis of the rule of law.
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 The rule of laws ensures supremacy of law which safeguards the rights of individuals,
settles disputes and ensures that democracy does not give way to individual or group
dictatorship.
 A judiciary should be independent means executive or legislature should not interfere
either in the functioning or decisions of the judiciary as well as judges could perform
their duties without any fear or favour.
 The constitution of India has the provision for single integrated judicial system.
 The provisions for Supreme Court of India have been made consisting a Chief Justice and
25 other judges.
 The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President after consultation with
such of judges of the Supreme Court and of the high courts in the states as the President
may deem necessary for the purpose.
 The judges of the Supreme Court holds the office till the age of 65 years.
 The judges’ salaries (Supreme Court) are determined by the Parliament by law, which
are specified in the second schedule.
 A judge of the Supreme Court or the high court can be removed only on the ground of
misbehaviour or incapacity. If some charges are imposed against the judges, it must be
approved by special majority in both the houses.
 When the office of Chief Justice falls vacant, the duties may be performed by the other
judge of the same category to whom the President may appoint for the same purpose.
 Supreme Court exercises its jurisdiction in the form of Original, Writ, Appellate, Advisory
and Special Powers.
 Original: To settle disputes between the union and the states and among states.
 Writ: Can issue constitutional writs to protect fundamental rights of the people.
 Appellate: Tries appeals in civil, criminal and constitutional cases.
 Advisory: Advises the President on the matters of public importance and law.

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 Special powers: Can grant special leave to an appeal from any judgement or
matter passed by any court in the territory of India.
The decisions of Supreme Court are binding on all courts. It can transfer the judges of high
courts, can move cases from any court to itself or can transfer cases from one high court to
another.
High court hears appeals from lower courts, can issue writs to resort fundamental rights, can
deal with the cases within jurisdiction of the states and exercise control and superintendence
over its subordinate courts.
District court deals with the cases arising in the district, consider Appeals on decisions given by
lower courts and decides cases involving serious criminal offences.
Subordinate courts to Supreme Court and high courts consider cases of civic and criminal
nature.
The Supreme Court is considered as the guardian of the constitution.
Judicial review stands for the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of
any law.
Public Interest Litigation or Social Action Litigation is to hear cases where case is not filed by
aggrieved person but by others on their behalf or consideration of an issue of public interest.
Important terms:
 PIL or SAL: Public Interest Litigation or Social Action Litigation.
 Lok Adalats: The popular courts to decide cases at quicker speed.
 Original Jurisdiction: A power granted to a court to hear cases in first instance.
 Appellate Jurisdiction: A power granted to a higher court to hear appeals against
judgement of lower court.
 Election Petition: To request to a court to reconsider the fairness of election’s results.

Chapter 7- Federalism
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 Federalism is a distribution or share of power or an institutional mechanism to

accommodate two sets of politics one at the regional level and the other at the national
level.
 A culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint helps federation to
function smoothly.
 Federation is an instrument to bind various states into one bond, i.e. it appeals unity in
diversity.
 The constitution of India has made provisions for unitary and federal forms of
government.
 The one government is created for the entire nation, i.e. national government and other
for each unit known as the state government.
 The federal features of constitution are written constitution, partly rigid and partly
flexible, Division of powers between the central and state governments and Bicameral
Legislature.
 The constitution of India has provided the division of power on the basis of matters and
lists of the subjects, i.e. the union list, the state list and the concurrent list.
 On the subjects of union list, the central government enjoys the power to pass the laws
and the subjects are of national importance, i.e. defense of the country, foreign affair,
currency, etc.
 The state government can legislate the laws on the subjects in the state list which are
important for a state, i.e. police, local government, to maintain law and order, etc.
 On concurrent list, both the central and state governments can legislate laws which
include education, marriage, divorce, economic planning, etc.
 The relationship between the center and state can be classified into the legislative,
administrative and financial relation.
 The finance commission of India is an independent commission created by the
constitution of India, to make recommendations on the distribution of finances between
the center and the states.

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 The most extra-ordinary feature of federal arrangements created in India is that many
states get a differential treatment, i.e. Jammu and Kashmir where the central
government enjoys only limited powers and other powers listed in the union list and
concurrent list can be used only with the consent of state government. (Art. 370)
 Division of powers in the constitution of India has been referred as follows:
 Union list-Defense, Atomic Energy, Foreign Affairs, War and Peace, Banking,
Railways, Post and Telegraph, Airways, Ports, Foreign Trade, Currency and
Coinage to be made laws by union legislature only.
 State list-Agriculture, Police, Prison, Local Government, Public health, Land,
Liquor, Trade and Commerce, Livestock and Animal Husbandry, State public
services to be made laws by the State legislature.
 Concurrent list-Education, Transfer of property other than Agricultural land,
Forests, Trade unions, Adulteration, Adoption and succession to be made laws by
both the union and State legislature.
 Residuary powers include all other matters not mentioned in any of the lists,
i. e. Cyber law, hence, union legislature alone has power to legislate laws on such
matters.
The Indian constitution has created a strong central government to handle the social-
economic problems of the counting in cooperation with the state governments.
Many states as well as the political parties have demanded that states should have more
autonomy.
The role of governor has always been a controversial issue between the central and state
governments especially when two different parties are in power at the centre and the state,
his role becomes more controversial.
There are the disputes when states demand more autonomy from the centre and on the issues
like share in revenue resources as well as disputes have been arisen between two states and
among more than two states.

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The constitution has some special provisions for some states given their peculiar social and
historical circumstances,
i.e. the eastern states like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.

Chapter 8 - Local Governments

 Local government is the government at the village and district level involving the day-
to-day life and problems of ordinary citizens.
 Local government ensures people’s participation in the meaningful manner to run the
administration.
 The development at any place can be done through the cooperation of the people living
at that particular place only.
 Earlier the self-governing village communities existed in the form of ‘Sabhas’ (Village
assemblies) and later on it was converted into ‘Village Panchayat’ (an assembly of five
members)
 Under the Government of India Act 1979, Village Panchayats were established in a
number of provinces and continued after the Government of India Act, 1935.
 During India’s freedom movement, Mahatma Gandhi strongly pleaded for
decentralization of economic and political power to ensure local involvement to be
successful.
 The Central or State Governments cannot tackle the problems faced by people in such a
large country, hence the involvement of local authorities was felt to sort out the local
problems known as local self-government.
 Local self-government manages the local affairs by the representatives who knows the
best about local needs and aspiration of people.
 In the big cities of India like Delhi, Mumbai, the Municipal Corporation look after the
interests of the people and in small cities, Municipal Committees look after the interest
of the people.

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 In 1882, the Viceroy of India, Lord Ripon, created the local boards in the form of local
government.
 In 1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were passed by the parliament.
 The 73rd amendment is about rural local governments known as PanchayoU Raj
institutions, it demarcated the levels of Panchayati Raj in Gram Panchayat the base,
Iviandal (Block) intermediary and the Zila Panchayat apex.
 The 73rd amendment included the three tier structure (mentioned above), elections at
every regular interval of five years, reservations for SC’s, ST’s and OBC’s and 29 subjects
from state list in eleventh schedule of constitution were transferred to Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRI).
 The 74th Amendment dealt with the Urban local bodies or Nagarpalikas. This is a
repetition of the 73rd amendment except that it applies to the Urban areas only.
 Sometimes, the formation of the local bodies is criticized on the ground not to change
the way in which decisions are taken at the central and state level and the people at the
local level do not enjoy much power of choosing allocation of resources.
 The dependence of local bodies on the state governments and Central Government for
financial support has greatly eroded their capacity to operate effectively.

Chapter 9- Constitution as a Living Document

 The Constitution of India was adopted on November 26, 1949 and its implementation
started from January 26, 1950.
 Since 1950, the same constitution has been continuing to function under the framework
to be operated in the country.
 The basic structure of our constitution cannot be changed and has been made as per the
suitability of the country.
 Article 368 states that parliament may in exercise of its constituent power amend by
way of addition, variation or repeal any provision of this constitution in accordance with
the procedure laid down in this article.
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 The Constitution of India is partially rigid and partially flexible because some
amendments can be made by a simple majority of Parliament and some require at least
2/3 majority of parliament with ratification by the legislatures of at least one half of the
states.
 Some amendments require a special majority of Parliament in both the houses
separately.
 A living constitution refers to the amendments made without changing the basic
structure of the constitution, which has been resulted due to judicial interpretation.
 As a ‘Living Constitution’, it responds to the experiences arisen in different situations
from time to time.
 For example, the Supreme Court held in the case of reservations, which cannot exceed
50% of total seats in jobs and educational institutions.
 This was the only decision of the Supreme Court to emerge creamy layer who were not
entitled to be benefited under reservations.
 The supreme court even gave the Keshavanand ruling in 1973. In the past three
decades, this ruling has governed all interpretations of the constitution and all
institutions in the country have accepted the theory of the basic structure.
 On 26 January, 2014, the constitution of India completed 64 years and it has been
amended a number of times, but its basic structure has not been changed, only
explanations took place.

Chapter 10 - The Philosophy of the Constitution

 The laws and moral values are interrelated with each other.
 Hence, the Constitution of India is democratic, secular, federal, liberal, egalitarian, open
to community values as well as sensitive towards the needs and aspirations of the
peoples to maintain integrity of the county.
 The philosophy of the constitution does not contain only moral content but mediate
between the various interpretations of the core value of Indian polity.
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 The Constitution of India has made the arrangements to protect the rights and interests
of SCs, STs, Minorities by providing the reservation of seats in the legislatures for them.
 The same reservations have been made for them even in government jobs also to
secure their interest.
 The Constitution of India is a supreme law to be respected and accepted by the
institutions and citizens both because only this protects the fundamentalities of citizens
and country.
 The Constitution of India experiences the federal character because it distributes the
powers between the central government and its constituent units, it is a written
document, it is partially flexible and partially rigid.
 The judiciary of India is supreme, and the bi-cameral legislature exists in India.
 The constitution has a centralized idea of national unity as its preamble outlines the
objectives of constitution by providing justice, equality, fraternity, liberty and unity and
integrity of the country.
 The philosophy of the constitution can be approached by getting the concept of
constitution in a clear manner, grasping or analyzing the set of ideals in constitution as
well as a detailed justification for the same.
 The philosophy of the constitution mainly emphasizes on peaceful and democratic
measures to develop a democratic transformations in the form of equality, freedom and
national unity and integrity.

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(PS: This PDF deals with political concepts in very brief.)

Chapter 1- Political Theory: An Introduction
 Political theory has been made one of the sub fields with the rise of political science as a
subject.
 Political theory is the study of the state from the philosophical and empirical point of
view.
 Political theory manages an understanding between the persons and the state and sort
out the ways to improve the shortcomings.
 A political theory can be referred to as a combination of thoughts, philosophies and
sciences or arts.
 Politics is referred to struggle for power to maintain relationship between power and
authority which is a desire of an act of will.
 Political theory deals with how the present has come and on what assumptions, it may
stay and in future, what it will lead.
 India is a free country where issues concerning freedom, equality and democracy arise
from time to time and implemented also by the intervention of the state.
 As freedom has been guaranteed by the constitution, still many discriminatory issues
are raised and encountered with the interpretations of the state.
 Along with the changes in time and periods, people’s aspirations and needs are also
changed and new dimensions are discovered as well.
 Political theories debate and examine the diverse meaning and opinions in a systematic
manner and easily to be understood by the ordinary peoples.

Chapter 2 - Freedom
 Freedom is a liberty to do whatever a person likes to do or a positive power of doing
and enjoying the worth of work.
 Freedom has the two aspects, i.e. positive and negative.
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 Positive freedom refers to those rights which do not reach any harm to others if enjoyed
as well essential for an individual’s development.
 Negative freedom implies the absence of any restraints on freedom.
 Freedom can be classified as natural freedom, civil freedom, political freedom,
economic freedom, religious freedom, individual freedom, etc.
 Various safeguards have been provided for freedom, i.e. democratic setup, equal rights
for all, economic security constitutional provisions, etc.
 Freedom of expression require non-interference or should not be restricted because it is
a fundamental value to be possessed by the people.
 Though, a number of times, the demands have been raised to ban books, films, articles,
journals, etc.
 Banning is an easy solution for the short term to meet the immediate demand but it is
very harmful for long term prospects of freedom in a society.
 Because once one begins to ban, then one develops a habit of banning. Constraints of
different kinds thus exist and we are subject to them in different situations.

Chapter 3- Equality
 Equality refers that all human beings are equal in all aspects because they are equal by
birth as a human being. And everybody should be equally educated, wealthy, and equal
status in the society.
 But this is a negative aspect of equality because every person cannot be equal in all the
spheres as human beings are created even equal by God.
 The human beings differ from each other in intelligence, height and physique also.
 Positive aspects of equality refers to give adequate opportunities to develop one’s own
potentialities and to abolish special privileges to be given to some sections of society.
 Equality can be classified as natural, social, civil, economic and political.

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 Article 14 of the constitution of India guarantees equality to all the citizens before law
and equal protection within India.
 Freedom and equality are closely interrelated with each other and work as a basis of
democratic set up.
 Equality refers to be eligible to enjoy various opportunities provided by the state.
 Some inequalities existing in country are:
 Disparity of income
 Gender inequality is society
 Existing slums
 Inequality among educational institutions.

Chapter 4 - Social Justice

 Justice was associated with dharma in ancient society to be a primary duty of a king.
 The Greek philosopher Plato interprets justice in his book ‘The Republic’ as a life of
people conforming to the rules of functional specialization.
 Justice has been defined in a various ways, i.e. at sometimes it believed “As you sow, so
shall you reap”, and sometimes considered the result of actions in previous birth or the
will of God.
 According to Prof. Selmond justice is a means to distribute the due share to every body
while Marxist considers from each according to his ability to each according to his
needs”.
 John Rawls describes justice as thinking under a ‘veil of ignorance’ where position and
status in society, everybody would decide as per one’s own interests.
 The fundamental elements of justice are equality before law, respect for the necessities
of nature, truth and freedom, etc.
 Justice exercises four dimensions, i.e. political, legal, social and economic.

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 Social justice refers to equal treatment to each and everybody in the society without
any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, color, race, religion, etc.
 Justice and liberty and justice and equality are closely related to each other.

Chapter 5 - Rights
 Rights are primarily those claims which are necessary for leading a life of respect and
dignity.
 Rights are those conditions or guarantees which the state provides to every citizen in
order to attain best self in the society.
 The legal rights are given by the government to its citizens which are classified as social
rights, political rights and fundamental rights.
 Duty is an obligation by which, we are bound to do something which can be classified as
fundamental duties, legal duties and moral duties.
 A bill of rights is enshrined in the constitution to be given a primary importance, known
as fundamental rights.
 Political rights give to the citizens the right to equality and to participate in political
processes.
 Economic rights gives the right to enjoy the opportunities to earn one’s own livelihood
to fulfill their basic needs.
 But rights can be enjoyed only, if a person is committed towards the duties also.
 Moral duties include duties towards self, family, society, neighbors, humanity, etc.
 Legal duties include obedience of law, payment of taxes, to participate in military
services if required as well as to cooperate with government employees.
 On 10th of December 1948, the General Assembly of the UN adopted and proclaimed
the universal declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all
peoples and all nations.

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Chapter 6 - Citizenship
 Citizenship refers to the collective political identity of individuals of the state who enjoy
some certain rights also.
 A citzen is entitled to abide by the laws of a particular country in which one enjoys
therights as a citizen.
 An ideal citizen can be referred to possess the qualities to be educated, aware of rights
and duties, to have a high gravity in character as well as to be loyal to the country.
 In a democratic setup, the citizens enjoy the political rights also, i.e. right to vote, to
contest elections, to form political parties and to hold public offices, etc.
 Every citizen is entitled to perform some certain duties also associated with the rights, i.
e. obedience of law, loyalty towards the state, cooperation with the public servants and
payment of taxes, etc.
 A natural born citizen is the one who either born in the country or if one’s parents are
the citizens of a particular country.
 The citizenship of a country can be acquired by marriages, appointment as a
government official, acquisition of a territory and purchases of immovable property, etc.
 A good citizenship may be hindered by in differences, poverty, narrow growing and lack
of education, etc.
 Global citizenship makes the work easier to deal with the problems to extend across
national boundaries and to need cooperative actions of the states on the issues of
migrants, stateless people as well as to ensure basic rights and protection, etc.

Chapter 7- Nationalism
 The nationalism is a sense of an independent nation that is combined together for the
achievement of common goal.
 The persons of a nation are known citizens of a country to enjoy political and civil rights
to obey the laws of country.

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 An ideal citizen possesses some good qualities, i.e. well educated, aware of one’s own
rights and duties having staunch loyalty to the country and with lofty character.
 Nationalism refers to the right of self-determination to imply that every nation in the
world should exercise a right to determine its destiny in all walks of life without
interference of other states in the world.
 Every nationalist is supposed to perform some duties, i.e. obedience of law, payment of
taxes, cooperation with public servants and loyalty with the state, etc.
 State and society are distinguished from each other, i.e. a society has been originated
before state and does not enjoy any sovereignty whereas a state has fixed territory and
possess sovereignty also.
 State and nation enjoy some distinctions, i.e. state has four essential elements but
nation has none. Out of these sovereignty and definite territory are essential for a state.
 State and government are also distinguished, i.e. government is an essential element of
state.
 The terms like state, nation and nationality have its own their separate meanings, i.e.
state is a political organisation to be either co-existent with nationality.
 Where a state is exclusively composed of one nationality, it is a nation state. But where
we have a state to consist of more than one nationality or where a nationality is spread
over several states, the state and nation do not coincide.
 Nation refers to be a self-governing nationality.

Chapter 8 - Secularism
 The word ‘Dharma’ has been derived from Sanskrit refer to adopt along with the basic
principle to do welfare of all.
 Secularism refers equal respect for all religions, i.e. the state does not profess any
religion and treats all the religions at par.
 Originally, India was not declared a secular state, the word secular was added by the
42nd Amendment Act.

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 Secularism refers that political system and administration should be based upon a
secular ideology to leave the task of coordination among the different religions and
bring unity among them through voluntary social organisation.
 Religion and beliefs are considered as a personal matter, hence, state should have no
interference in it.
 India is a secular state because India is impartial in religious matters, all citizens enjoy
freedom to adopt any religion as per choice, no discrimination is made on the ground of
religion. India has no state religion, religion is kept separate from politics, etc.
 India used to believe since ancient times the nation of Sarva Dharm Sam Bhava (सससस
सससस सस ससस ) because India respects all religions equally.
 Hence, secular states are neither theocratic nor establish any religion.
 Indian secularism can be criticized on the grounds of being anti-religions, imported from
western culture, charge of minoritism, interventionist based on vote bank politics and it
is considered to be an impossible project.

Chapter 9 - Peace
 Peace is often defined as an absence of war and nations establish the relations with
each other in a peaceful and harmonious way to achieve progress in the world.
 Terrorism is a hindrance in the peace of some nations to be violent and unlawful to
achieve the desired goals by terrorists.
 To maintain peace, some nations have adopted disarmament as a policy to stop the
manufacturing and storage of deadly war weapons.
 India has followed the policy of non-alignment and settled international disputes
through peaceful methods and cooperation.
 The 19th century German philosopher, Fried rich Nietzsche did not value peace because
he believed that only conflict could facilitate growth of civilization.
 The non-violence refers not to injure anything on the earth in thought, word or deed but
sometimes it is necessary to use the force to maintain peace but war should be the last
resort only.
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 Pacifism covers a spectrum of views to preach opposition to war or violence as a means

to settle disputes.
 The United Nations organisation is an international organisation, founded on 24 October
1945 after the Second World War come to an end.
 The UNO established international peace and security to promote social, economic,
cultural and human relationship at international level.
 For the establishment of peace, various approaches have been developed, i.e. to respect
sovereignty and treat competition, to grant deep rooted nature of inter state rivalry and
envisages the emergence of supranational order, etc.

Chapter 10 - Development
 The idea of development became a main concern after the industrial revolution.
Development refers to the achievement of social and economic progress by
transforming conditions of underdevelopment as low productivity, stagnation and
poverty.
 Development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and an aspiration
for a better life to articulate a vision for the society as a whole and methods to achieve
it.
 Development cannot be understood as only in economic terms but it can place also in
social and political terms.
 Development bears the different approaches also like psychological, human needs
development, dependency, Gandhian and market-friendly approaches, etc.
 Sustainable development makes the efforts to meet the well being needs of present and
future generations.
 Gandhiji viewed development to be different from Western model of development and
made a distinction between economic and real development.
 This concept gained importance after the second half of 20th century when many
countries from Asia and Africa attained political independence.

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 A criticism has taken place that development projects to be proven very costly for
developing countries.
 The development pays a high social cost also because displacement has led to many
struggles in the countries.
 Development should not be measured only in the terms of materials only but it can also
be measured in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs.

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Chapter 6- International Organisations

The United Nation [UN]
 The United Nations was established in 1945 immediately after the Second World War. It
was a successor to the league of nations which was formed after the First World War.
 The objective of United Nations is to prevent international conflict and to facilitate
cooperation among states.
 In the UN Security Council, there are five permanent members (United Kingdom, United
State of America, Russia, France and China) and other non-permanent members who
are elected after every two years. The most important public figure of the UN is the
Secretary General.
 There are different structures and agencies of UN. These include World Health
Organisation (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United
Nations Human Rights Commission (UNHRC ), the United Nations High Commission for
Refugees (UNHCR) etc.
Reform of the United Nations after the Cold War
 Reforms and improvement are necessary for any organisation to perform better. The
UN is also not an exception.
 There have been demands to bring reforms in the UN. Two demands have been raised
i.e. reform of the organisation’s structures and processes and, a review of the issues
that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.
 On the reform of structures and processes, there has been the demand to increase the
membership of permanent and non-permanent in UN Security Council.
 On the issues within the jurisdiction of the UN, some countries want the organisation to
play a greater role in peace and security missions.
 While some other countries want the role of UN to be confined to development and
humanitarian work.
Reform of Structures and Processes of the UN

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 A resolution was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1992 over the reforms in the
security council. The resolution reflected three main complaints.
 To look into the complaints over the restructuring of the UN, on 1st January, 1997, the
UN Secretary General Kofi Arman initiated an inquiry into how the UN should be
reformed.
 Criteria for inclusion of a new member was decided. Some of them were that a new
member must be a major economic and military power, a substantial contributor to the
UN budget etc.
 Different governments saw advantages in some criteria and disadvantages in others
depending on their interests and aspirations. A demand to abolish the veto power
altogether was also raised. Many perceived the veto to be in conflict with the concept of
democracy and sovereign equality in the UN.
 Permanent members have two privileges i.e. veto power and permanency in the
security council.
 By veto power means that if a permanent member cast a veto in a negative manner
then it may state the decision.
 Without veto power, there is the danger that the great powers would lose interest in
the world body and without their support the body would be ineffective.
Jurisdiction of the UN
 A meeting was held in September 2005 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the United
Nation and to review the situation.
 The leaders in this meeting decided some steps that should be taken to make the UN
more relevant in the changing content. .
 Steps include establishment of a Human Rights Council, creation of a democracy fund,
an agreement to wind up the trusteeship council etc.
India and the UN Reforms
 India has always supported the restructuring of the United Nations. It believes that a
strengthened and revitalised UN is desirable in a changing world.

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 The most important demand of India is regarding the restructuring of the security
council. It supports an increase in the number of both permanent and non-permanent
members.
 It also argues that an expanded council, with more representative, will enjoy greater
support in the world community.
 India itself wishes to be a permanent member in a restructured UN. India is the world’s
largest democracy and the second most populous country in the world.
 The country’s economic emergence on the world stage is another factor that perhaps
justifies India’s claim to a permanent seat in the Security Council.
 Despite India’s wish to be a permanent veto holding member of the UN, some countries
question its inclusion. They are concerned about Indo-Pak relations, India’s nuclear
capabilities etc.
The UN in a Unipolar World
 It is believed by many countries that the reform and restructuring of the UN could help
the UN cope better with a unipolar world in which the US was the most powerful
country.
 The US stands as the only superpower after the disintegration of USSR hence US power
cannot be easily checked.
 Within the UN, the influence of the US is considerable. As the single largest contributor
to the UN, the US has unmatched financial power.
 The UN is not therefore a great balance to the US. Nevertheless, in a unipolar world in
which the US is dominant, the UN can and has served to bring the US and the rest of the
world into discussions over various issues.
 The UN is an imperfect body, but without it the world would be worse off.
 It is important for people to use and support the UN and other international
organisations in ways that are consistent with their own interests.
Other International Organisations

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 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organisation that looks upon
international financial institutions and regulations. It has 188 member countries. The G-
8 members (the US, Japan, Germany, France, UK, Italy, Canada, Russia), China and Saudi
Arabia have more than 52 per cent votes in IMF.
 World Bank is an important international organisation created during Second World War
in 1944. It provides loans and grants to the member countries; especially developing
countries.
 World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international organisation set up in 1995 as the
successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). It sets the rules for
global trade. It has 157 member countries.
 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation established
in 1957. It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use
for military purpose.
 Amnesty International is an international Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) which
campaigns for the protection of human rights all over the world.
 Human Rights Watch is an international NGO which is involved in research and advocacy
on human rights.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. International organisations help countries to cooperate to create better living conditions all
over the world and provide common platform to discuss contentious issues and find peaceful
solutions, by a mechanism, rules and bureaucracy.
2. The United Nations was founded as a successor to ‘League of Nations’ immediately after the
Second World Charter by 51 states on 20th October 1945 with the headquarter at New York.
3. The UN has 192 member states to prevent international conflicts to facilitate co-operation.
The UN’s main organs are the General Assembly and Security Council. The UNSC consists of
five permanent members i.e. the US, Russia, France, China and the UK, who enjoy Veto Power.
The UN’s representative head is Secretary General.

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4. The UN consists of many specialised agencies to deal with social and economic issues like
WHO, UNDP, UNHRG, UNHCR, UNICEF, and UNESCO to work in an efficient manner and to
bring world together.
5. After the Cold War, some of the changes occurred which affected the functioning of the UN
i. e. collapse of Soviet Union, emergence of China and India as rising powers, entry of new
members, and confrontations with the challenges like genocide, civil war, ethnic conflict,
terrorism, nuclear proliferation etc.
6. They faced two kinds of reforms over the time i.e. organisations structure and processes
and a review of the issues that fall within jurisdiction of UN as why veto powers to permanent
members only, dominance of powerful countries and to play more effective role in peace and
security missions etc.
7. In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution over the reform of UN complaining
no longer representation by contemporary powers, dominance of few countries based on
western values etc. Following these in January 1997, Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General
initiated on “How the UN should be reformed?”
8. Since 1997 onwards, a new member to be added to the UN should fulfil the parameters of
being a major economic and military power, contributor to UN Budget, a populous one, should
respect democracy and human rights and to make council more representative.
9. In September 2005, the heads of all member states of the UN took the steps to make the
UN more relevant by creating peace building commissions, human rights council, agreement
to achieve Millennium Development Goals, condemnation of terrorism, creation of democracy
fund and an agreement to wind up Trusteeship Council.
10. India is a big supporter of restructuring of the UN to promote development and
cooperation among states, to composition of Security Council arid to include more
representation in council for its political support.
11. Being a citizen of India, we would firmly support India’s candidature for the permanent
membership of UN Security Council on the grounds to be second most populous country,
largest democracy, initiations in the UN, economic emergence and regular financial
contributor to the UN.

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12. Some countries question India’s inclusion as permanent members in the Security Council
on the basis of its troubled relationship with Pakistan, nuclear weapon capabilities, and if India
included, some emerging powers (Brazil, Germany, Japan, South Africa) will also be
accommodated. France and the USA advocate that Africa and South America must be
represented for they do not have any representation in the present structure.
13. The UN can not serve as a balance against US dominance because the US is the only
Superpower after 1991 and may ignore any international organisation economically and’
militarily, its veto power also can stop any move damaging its interests as well as enjoys a
considerable say in the choice of Secretary General of the UN.
14. Despite the above mentioned strong activities of the US, the UN serves a purpose in
bringing the world together in dealing with conflicts and social and economic issues. The UN
provides a space within which arguments against specific US attitude and policies are heard
and compromised.
UN’S SIGNIFICANT AGENCIES
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(a) At the international level, overseas financial institutions and regulations.
(b) It consists of 180 members. Out of them, G-8 members enjoy more powers i.e. the US,
Japan, Germany, France, the UK, Italy, Canada and Russia except China and Saudi Arabia.
(c) The US alone enjoys 16.75% voting rights.
2. World Bank
(a) It was created in 1944.
(b) It works for human development, agriculture and rural development, environmental
protection, infrastructure and governance and provides loans and grants to developing
countries.
(c) It is criticised for setting the economic agenda of poorer nations, attaching stringent
conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms.
3. WTO-World Trade Organisation
(a) An international organisation to set the rules for global trade which was set up in 1995 as a
successor to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and has 157 members, (as on 1
September 2012)
(b) Major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan have managed to use the WTO to
frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
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(c) The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedure and being pushed
around by big powers.
4. IAEA-International Atomic Energy Agency
(a) It was established in 1957 to implement US president Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for
Peace” proposal.
(b) It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military
purpose.
(c) IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian
reactors are not being used for military purposes.
5. Amnesty International
(a) An NGO to campaign for the protection of human rights all over the world.
(b) It prepares and publishes reports on human rights to research and advocate human rights.
(c) Governments are not always happy with these reports since a major focus of Amnesty is
the misconduct of government authorities.
6. Human Rights Watch
(a) Another international NGO involved in research and advocacy of human rights.
(b) The largest international human rights organisation in the US.
(c) It draws the global media’s attention to human rights abuses.
(d) It helped in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop
the use of child-soldier and to establish the international criminal court.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. UN Charter: A constitution of the UN to deal with objectives of the UN.
2. Veto: It is a negative vote to be enjoyed by five permanent members of Security Council
to stop a decision.
3. Secretary General: A representative head of the UN to prepare an annual record of the
UN activities.
4. WHO: World Health Organisation to deal with matters related to health.
5. UNICEF: United Nation’s Children Fund to deal with child welfare.

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6. UNESCO: United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation to deal with
promotion of education, science and culture.
7. Peace Keeping Operation: A mechanism for restoring peace and security by sending
UN controlled troops in the affected area.
TIMELINE
1. August 1941: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt
and British PM Winston S. Churchill.
2. January 1942: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington
D.C., to support the Atlantic Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’.
3. December 1943: Tehran Conference Declaration of the three powers (US, Britain and
Soviet Union)
4. February 1945: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin)
decides to organise a United Nations conference on the proposed world organisation.
5. April-May 1945: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on International
Organisation at San Francisco.
6. June 26, 1945: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so
the UN has 51 original founding members)
7. October 24, 1945: The UN was founded (hence October 24 is celebrated as UN Day).
8. October 30, 1945: India joins the UN.
UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL
1. Trygve Lie (1946-1952) Norway: Lawyer and foreign minister, worked for ceasefire between
India and Pakistan on Kashmir; criticised for his failure to quickly end the Korean war, Soviet
Union opposed second term for him; resigned from the post.

2. Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961) Sweden: Economist and lawyer, worked for resolving the
Suez Canal dispute and the decolonisation of Africa; awarded Nobel Peace Prize posthumously
in 1961 for his efforts to settle the Congo Crisis, Soviet Union and France criticised his role in
Africa.

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3. U Thant (1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar): Teacher and diplomat worked for resolving the
Cuban Missile crisis and ending the Congo Crisis; established the UN Peacekeeping force in
Cyprus; criticised the US during the Vietnam war.

4. Kurt Waldheim (1972-1981) Austria: Diplomat and foreign minister; made efforts to
resolve the problems of Namibia and Lebanon; oversaw the relief operation in Bangladesh,
China blocked his bid for a third term.

5. Javier Perez de Cuellar (1982-1991) Peru: Lawyer and diplomat, worked for peace in Cyprus,
Afghanistan and El Salvador; mediated between Britain and Argentina after the Falklands war;
negotiated for the independence of Namibia.

6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-1996) Egypt: Diplomat, jurist, foreign minister; issued a report,
‘An Agenda for Peace’; conducted a successful UN operation in Mozambique; blamed for the
UN failures in Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements, the US blocked a
second term for him.

7. Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana: UN official, created the Global Fund to Fight AIDS,
Tuberculosis and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq as an illegal act; established the
Peacebuilding Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005; awarded the 2001 Nobel
Peace Prize.

Chapter 7- Security in the Contemporary World

Traditional Notions of External Security
 The greatest danger to a country is from military threats. The root of this danger is the
other country which by threatening military action endangers the core values of
sovereignty and independence.
 There are three choices with the government in response to the threat of war. These
choices are to surrender, to prevent the other side from attack and to defend itself
during the war and four components of traditional security i.e. deterrence, defence,
balance of power and alliance building.

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 Deterrence means prevention of war; defence means limiting or ending war; balance of
power means there should be balance between bigger and smaller countries and
alliance building means coalition of states.
 A good part of maintaining a balance of power is to build up one’s military power that
coordinate their actions to deter or defend against military attack.
 According to the traditional view of security, most threats to a country’s security come
from outside its borders.
 Within a country, the threat of violence is regulated by an acknowledged central
authority i.e. the government.
 But in world politics, each country has to be responsible for its own security.
Traditional Notions of Internal Security
 Traditional security must concern itself with internal security which has not been given
so much importance due to various reasons.
 After the Second World War, internal security was more or less assured to the powerful
countries on the Earth.
 Most of the European countries faced no serious threats from groups or communities
living within those borders. Hence these countries gave importance to external security.
 The main concern for the external security was the era of Cold War. Both the
superpowers were afraid of attacks from each other.
 The colonies which became independent were under fear of conversion of Cold War
into a Hot War.
 The newly independent African and Asian countries were more worried about the
prospect of military conflict with neighbouring countries.
 They were worried about internal threats from separatist movements which wanted to
form independent countries.
Traditional Security and Cooperation

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 It is universally accepted that war can takes place for the right reasons, primarily self-
defence or to protect other people from genocide.
 Traditional views of security also gives importance to other forms of cooperation like
disarmament, arms control and confidence building.
 Disarmament requires all states to give up certain kinds of weapons.
 Arms control regulates the acquisition or development of weapons, e.g. United States
and Soviet Union signed a number of other arms control treaties.
 Confidence building means a process in which countries share ideas and information
with their rivals.
 Force is both the principle threat to security and the principle means of achieving
security in traditional security.
Non-Traditional Notions
 The non-traditional notions of security go beyond military threats to include a wide
range of threats and dangers affecting the condition of human existence.
 Non-traditional views of security have been called ‘human security’ or ‘global security’.
 By human security we mean the protection of people more than the protection of
states.
 Proponents (supporters) of the ‘narrow concept’ of human security focus on violent
threats to individuals.
 On the other hand, proponents of the ‘broad concept’ of human security argue that the
threat agenda should include hunger, disease and natural disaster.
 The idea of global security emerged in the 1990s in response to the global nature of
threats such as global warming, AIDS and so on.
New Sources of Threats
 Some new sources of threats have emerged about which the world is concerned to a
large extent. These includes terrorism, human rights, global poverty, migration and
health epidemics.
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 Terrorism refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and

indiscriminately.
 There are three types of human rights. The first is political rights, second is economic
and social rights and the third type is the rights of colonised people.
 Another type of insecurity is global poverty. Rich states are becoming richer whereas
poor states are getting poorer.
 Poverty in the South has also led to large scale migration to seek a better life, especially
better economic opportunities, in the North.
 Health epidemics such as H1V-AIDS, bird flu and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS) have been increasing across countries through migration.
 It is important to understand that the expansion of the concept of security does not
mean to include everything.
 To qualify as a security problem, an issue must share a minimum common criterion.
Cooperative Security
 Dealing with certain issues of security require cooperation rather than military
confrontation. Military help can be taken to deal with terrorism but it will be of no use
in dealing with issues like poverty, migration and so on.
 It becomes important to devise strategies that involve international cooperation which
can be bilateral, regional, continental or global.
 Cooperative security may also involve a variety of other players, both international and
national.
 But cooperative security may also involve the use of force as a last resort. The
international community may have to sanction the use of force to deal with
dictatorship.
India’s Security Strategy
 Indian’s security strategy depends upon four broad components

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 Strengthening the military capabilities is the first component of India’s security strategy
because India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbours.
 The second component of India’s security strategy has been to strengthen international
norms and international institutions to protect its security interests.
 The third important component of India’s security strategy is geared towards meeting
security challenges within the country.
 The fourth component is to develop its economy in a way that the vast mass of citizens
are lifted out of poverty and misery.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. ‘Security’ is freedom from ‘threats’, security protects core values from threatening by
preventing, limiting and ending the war.
2. The notions of security can be grouped into two i.e. Traditional concept and Non-traditional
concept. Traditional notion includes both external and internal threats. External threats
experience military war, balance of power and alliance building threats whereas internal
includes internal peace and order.
3. The means of traditional security limit the violence upto maximum extent through
disarmament, arms-control and confidence building. Disarmament bounds states to give up
certain kinds of weapons. Arms control regulates acquisition of weapons and confidence
building share ideas and information with rival countries.
4. Non-traditional security focuses on human and global security by covering all of human
kinds. Human security in a narrow sense protects individuals from internal violence only
whereas broadly it protects from hunger, diseases and natural disasters. Global security
responds to threats like global warming, international terrorism, health epidemics like AIDS,
bird flue and so on.
5. New sources of threats include terrorism, human rights, global poverty, migration, and
health epidemics. Terrorism refers to political violence targeting civilians deliberately and
indiscriminately. Human rights threats involve political rights, economic and social rights as
well as rights of colonised people and indigenous minorities.

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6. Global poverty suffers from low per capita income and economic growth and high
population migration creates international political friction as states pursue different rules for
migrants and refugees. Health epidemics cover HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS) through migration business, tourism and military operations.
7. Cooperative security is required to alleviate poverty, manage migration, refugee
movements and control epidemics. Cooperation may be bilateral, regional, continental or
global depending on the nature of threat and willingness and ability of countries to respond
either nationally or internationally.
8. India has faced both traditional and non-traditional threats to its security. India’s security
strategy has four broad components i.e. strengthening military capabilities, to strength
international norms and institutions, to meet security challenges inside the border and to
develop to lift citizens out of poverty, missing and economic inequalities.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Security: An essence for existence of human life to protect from threats either external
or internal.
2. Arms Control: It regulates acquisition of weapon.
3. Disarmament: It bounds states to give up certain kinds of weapons to avoid mass
destruction.
4. Confidence building: A process in which different countries share ideas and information
with rival countries by intimating each other about their military plans.
5. Global Poverty: It refers to a country to be suffered from low incomes and less
economic growth to be categorised as least developed or developing countries.
6. Migration: It is the movement of human resources from one state to another due to
some particular reasons.
IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS
1. BWC: Biological Weapons Convention
2. CWC: Chemical Weapons Convention
3. ABM: Anti-Ballistic Missile
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4. START: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

5. NPT: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
6. SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
7. SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
8. CBMS: Confidence Building Measures
9. NIEO: New International Economic Order
10. IMF: International Monetary Fund

Chapter 8 - Environment and Natural Resources

Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
 There have been many environmental issues that are concerns of the global politics.
 There is a decline in the availability of cultivable land and a substantial portion of
existing agricultural land is losing fertility.
 Around 1.2 billion people in developing countries have no access to safe water and 2.6
billion have no access to sanitation according to the Human Development Report, 2006.
 The loss of biodiversity continues due to destruction of habitat in areas which are rich in
species. The act of deforestation takes place for personal gains, removing the natural
inhabitants.
 Another danger to ecosystems and human health is a steady decline in the total amount
of ozone in the Earth’s stratosphere. Even the coastal waters are becoming increasingly
polluted due to land-based activities.
 The environmental consequences of economic growth acquired an increasingly political
character from the 1960s onwards.
 International agencies like the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), started
holding international conferences to deal with environment issues.

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 Earth summit or Rio summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992 which
produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, forestry and
recommended a list of development practices called ‘Agenda 21’.
The Protection of Global ‘Commons’
 Commons’ are the resources shared by the community as a whole not individually.
 In the world, there are some areas which are located outside the sovereign jurisdiction
of any one state and hence require common governance by the international
community. This is known as Global Commons. They include Earth’s atmosphere,
Antarctica, the ocean floor, and outer space.
 A number of agreements were signed which includes the Antarctic Treaty (1959), the
Montreal Protocol (1987) and the Antarctic Environmental Protocol (1991).
 The history of outer space as a global commons shows that the management of these
areas is thoroughly influenced by North-South inequalities.
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
 There were differences between the countries of the North and the South over
environment issues.
 The Northern countries want everyone to be equaliy responsible for ecological
conservation.
 The developing countries of the South believes that the ecological degradation is the
product of industrial development undertaken by the developed countries.
 In the Rio summit, 1992, it was accepted that special needs of the developing countries
must be taken into account in the development and interpretation of rules of
international environmental law.
 The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also
provides that the parties should act on the basis of equity.
 It was accepted that a large amount of greenhouse gas emission has originated in
developed countries and per capita emissions in developing countries are relatively low.

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 Developing countries like India and China were exempted from the requirements of the
Kyoto Protocol.
 The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement setting targets for industrialised
countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions.
Commons Property Resources
 It represents common property for the group but with a rule that members of the group
have both rights and duties with respect to the nature, levels of use of a given resource.
 But issues like privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and
ecosystem degradation have caused common property to dwindle in size.
India’s Stand on Environmental Issues
 India has signed and ratified Kyoto Protocol (1997) in August 2002. Developing countries
like India and China were exempt from the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol.
 At the G-8 meeting in June 2005, India pointed out that the per capita emission rates of
the developing countries are a tiny fraction of those in the developed world.
 The Indian Government is already participating in global efforts through a number of
programmes like Energy Conservation Act (2011), Electricity Act of 2003 and so on.
 In 1997, a review of the implementation of the agreements at the Earth summit in Rio
was undertaken by India.
 India suggested that the developing countries must get financial resources and clean
technologies from the developed countries in order to meet UNFCCC commitments.
Environmental Movements
 Some of the most significant responses to the challenge of environmental degradation
has come from groups of environmentally conscious volunteers working in different
parts of the world.
 The forest movements of the South, in Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Continental Africa and India are faced with enormous pressures regarding forest
clearing.

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 Another example is of the group which is working against mineral extraction company
as it leads to displacement of communities etc.
 Another groups of movements are those involved in struggles against mega-dams. In
India, Narmada Bachao Aandolan is one of the best known of these movements.
Resource Geopolitics
 Resource geopolitics means who gets what, when, where and how.
 Throughout the cold war the industrialised countries of the North adopted a number of
methods to ensure a steady flow of resources.
 Oil countries to be the most important resource in global strategy. The immense wealth
associated with oil generates political struggles to control it.
 West Asia, specifically the Gulf region, accounts for about 30 per cent of global oil
production.
 Another important resource relevant to global politics is water. Regional variations and
scarcity of freshwater in some parts of the world is a leading source of conflicts in the
21st century.
 A number of studies show that countries that share rivers and many countries do share
rivers are involved in military conflicts with each other.
The Indigenous People and their Rights
 As per the United Nations, indigenous population comprises the descendants of peoples
who inhabited the present territory of a country at the time
when persons of a different culture arrived there from other parts of the world.
 Indigenous people voices in world politics to treat them equally with other
communities.
 The areas occupied by indigenous people include Central and South America, Africa,
India and South-East Asia.
 The indigenous people appeal to governments to come to terms with the continuing
existence of indigenous nations as enduring communities with an identity of their own.

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 In India, indigenous people applies to the scheduled tribes who constitute nearly 8 per
cent of the population of the country.
 Issues related to the rights of the indigenous communities have been neglected in
domestic and international politics for very long.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Environmental concerns in Global politics cover losing fertility of agricultural land, and
grazing, depletion of water resources as well as loss of bio-diversity, real danger to eco-system
and coastal pollution, deteriorating of marine environment,
2. Environmental consequences of economic growth acquired a political shape from 1960s
onwards, following a book published in 1972 namely Limits To Growth and Initiatives taken by
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to promote co-ordination and effective
response on environment at global level.
3. The Earth Summit held in Rio-de-Janerio, Brazil in 1992 revealed different views i.e. global
north (the first world countries) and global south (the third world countries). Global North was
concerned with the issues of ozone depletion and global warming and global south focused on
economic development and environment management by Agenda 21.
4. Global commons refer to the areas or regions which require common governance by
international community on major problems of ecological issues i.e. discovery of ozone hole
over Antarctic, earth’s atmosphere and ocean floor associated with technology and industrial
development.
5. The Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992 adopted the principle of common but
differentiated responsibilities ‘refering special needs of developing countries in the fields as
development, application and interpretation of rules of international environmental law to
protect environment by both developing nations in a responsible manner.
6. The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also
emphasised to protect the climate system on the basis of equity and in accordance with their
common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities.
Example-Largest and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed
nations, hence low emissioned developing countries like India and China have been exempted
from Kyoto Protocol held in Japan in 1997.

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7. Common property resources refer to a group who have both rights and duties with respect
to nature, levels of use and the maintenance of a given resource with mutual understanding
and practices i.e. management of sacred groves on state owned forest land.
8. India plays a dominating role on the environmental issues as it signed and ratified 1997
Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 to follow common but differentiated responsibilities and India
is a wary of recent discussions with UNFCCC about introducing binding commitments. India
participated in global efforts by introducing National Autofuel Policy, Electricity Act, 2003 and
National Mission on Biodiesel. Besides, India supports to adopt a common position by SAARC
countries on major environmental issue to have a greater say regionwise.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally
conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at
raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India
faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against
mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how? The practices of
neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries
adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near
exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and
efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum
is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global
politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of fresh water may also lead to conflicts in
the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together.
Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who
speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in ocean
region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic
and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975
which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
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WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Earth Summit: A conference held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in June 1992 on Environment
and Development to deal with various environmental problems.
2. Agenda 21: The Earth Summit recommended a list of practices in reference of
development to attain sustainability, called Agenda 21.
3. Kyoto Protocol: An international agreement setting targets for industrialised countries
to cut their greenhouse gas emissions was agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in Japan, based on
principles set out in UNFCCC.
4. UNFCCC: The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provided
that parties should act to protect the climate system with common but differentiated
responsibilities.
5. Indigenous People: Indigenous people comprise the descendants of peoples who
inhabited the present territory of a country at the time when persons of different
culture arrived there from different parts of the world.

Chapter 9- Globalisation
Concept of Globalisation
 Globalisation means the flows of ideas, capital, commodities and people across different
parts of the world. It is a multidimensional concept. It has political, economic and
cultural manifestations and these must be adequately distinguished.
 Globalisation need not always be positive. It can have negative consequences for the
people.
 As a concept, globalisation fundamentally deals with flows. These flows can be ideas
moving from one part of the world to another, commodities being traded across
borders and so on.
 The crucial element is the worldwide inter connectedness which is created and
sustained as a consequence of these constant flows.

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Causes of Globalisation
 One important aspect of globalisation is that even though it is not caused by any single
factor, technology remains a critical element.
 The ability of ideas, capital, commodities and people to move more easily from one part
of the world to another has been made possible by technological advances.
 Interconnections is also an important aspect of globalisation. Any event taking place in
one part of the world could have an impact on another part of the world.
Consequences of Globalisation
Political Consequences
 Globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity i.e. by reducing the ability of
government to do what they want to do.
 It gives way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the
maintenance of law and order, and the security of its citizens.
 In place of the state the market becomes the prime determinant of economic and social
priorities.
 Globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state continues
to be unchallenged basis of political community.
 State capacity has received boost as a consequence of globalisation, with enhanced
technologies available at the disnosal of the state to collect information about its
citizens.
Economic Consequences
 In order to understand economic consequences of globalisation it is important to know
that in economic globalisation involves many actors other than IMF, WTO.
 It involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world. Some of this
is voluntary and some forced by international institutions and powerful countries.
 Globalisation has involved greater trade in commodities across the globe as it has
reduced the imposing of restrictions on the imports of one country on another.

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 Economic globalisation has created an intense division of opinion all over the world.
 According to some, economic globalisation is likely to benefit only a small section of the
population.
 On the other hand advocates of economic globlisation argue that it generates greater
economic growth and well-being for larger sections of the population.
Cultural Consequences
 The consequences of globalisation can also be seen on our culture too and thus it is not
confirmed only to the sphere of politics and economy.
 The process cultural globalisation poses a threat because it leads to the rise of a uniform
culture or what is called cultural homogenisation.
 Cultural globalisation has both positive as well as negative effect on the world.
 While cultural homogenisation is an aspect of globalisation, the same process also
generates precisely the opposite effect.
India and Globalisation
 Flows pertaining to the movement of capital, commodities, ideas and people go back
several centuries in Indian History.
 During the British rule, India became an exporter of primary goods and raw materials
and a consumer (importer) of finished goods.
 After independence, India decided to be a self-sufficient country rather than being
dependent on others.
 In 1991, India embarked on a programme of economic reforms that has sought
increasingly to de-regulate various sectors including trade and foreign investment.
Resistance to Globalisation
 Globlalisation has invited strong criticism all over the globe. For some globalisation
represents a particular phase of global capitalism that makes the rich richer and the
poor poorer.

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 Culturally, they are worried that traditional culture will be harmed and people will lose
their age-old values and ways.
 It is important to note here that anti-globalisation movements too participate in global
networks, allying with those who feel like them in other countries.
 The World Social Forum (WSF) is a global platform bringing together human rights
activists, environmentalists, labour, youth and women activists opposed to neo-liberal
globalistion.
India and Resistance to Globalisation
 Resistance to globalisation in India has come from different quarters.
 There have been left wing protests to economic liberalisation voiced through political
parties as well as through some forums.
 Resistance to globalisation has also come form the political right. This has taken the
forum of objecting particularly to various cultural influences.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Globalisation is the integration of economy of a country in the process of free flow of trade
and capital. It may also include ‘Brain drain’ across borders.
2. Globalisation increases the volume of trade in goods and services, inflows private foreign
capital, increases foreign direct investment, creates new jobs, strengthens domestic
economies, improves productive efficiency and healthy competition.
3. Globalisation may have negative impacts also as it failed to generate sufficient employment,
modern methods of cultivation are not acquainted to less educated persons, it creates income
inequality and exploits natural resources and labour force.
4. The globalisation is the result of historical factors, technological innovations, liberalisation
of foreign trade and investment policies, and opening of multinational companies.
5. Globalisation consequences may be political, economical and cultural, politically stunts’
capacity has received a boost with enhanced technologies to collect information about its
citizens.

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6. Economic flows in various forums, like commodity, capital, people and ideas prompts rich
countries to invest their money in countries other than their own. It also draws attention
towards the role of JMF and WTO in determining economic policies across the world.
7. Cultural globalisation emerges and enlarges our choices and modify our culture without
overwhelming the traditional norms i.e. burger can not be a substitute for masala dosa. Hence,
it broadens our cultural outlook and promotes cultural homogenisation.
8. Globalisation has been criticised on political, economic and cultural grounds i.e. politically it
weakens the state by reducing its sovereignty. Economically it has made the rich richer and the
poor poorer creating disparities. Culturally there has been harmed traditions and lost age old
values and ways. The World Social Forum (WSF) has also opposed neo-liberal globalisation.
9. In India, Globalisation has led to setting up of foreign companies as India realised the need
for relating the Indian economy with the world by responding to 1991 financial crisis.
10. Globalisation process includes the thrust to liberalisation or privatisation. Liberalisation
proclaims freedom of trade and investment, controls allocation of resources in domestic
economy, rapid technological progress whereas privatisation allows private sector and other
foreign companies to produce goods and services.
11. Resistance to globalisation in India has come from different quarters i.e. left wing protests
to economic liberalisation, trade unions of industrial workforce organised protest against
multinationals, the patents, resistance from political right i.e. objecting to various cultural
influences of foreign T.V. channels, celebration of Valentine’s Day and Westernisation of dress
of girls students in schools and colleges.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally
conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at
raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India
faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against
mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how. The practices of
neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries
adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near

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exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and
efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum
is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global
politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of freshwater may also lead to conflicts in
the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together.
Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who
speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in Oceanic
region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic
and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975
which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Globalisation: It signifies integration of an economy with the economies of other
countries under the process of free flow of trade and capital.
2. World Social Forum: A global platform to bring together a wide coalition of human
rights activists, environmentalists and women activists.
3. Privatisation: It allows private sector companies to produce goods and services in a
country.
4. Liberalisation: It signifies relaxation of government rules and regulations relating to
activities in sendee and industrial sector.
5. Cultural hetrogenisation: It signifies cultural differences and distinctive nature of
cultures to be generated by globalisation.

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Chapter 1- The Cold War Era

Cuban Missile Crisis
 Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received diplomatic and financial aid from it. In
April 1961, leaders of the USSR were worried that the United States of America would
invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow its President Fidel Castro.
 In 1962, the leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, placed nuclear missiles in
Cuba for converting it into a Russian base.
 Three weeks later, Americans became aware of it. The US President John F. Kennedy
and his advisers tried to find a solution to avoid full-scale nuclear war. But they were
determined to get Khrushchev to remove the missiles and nuclear weapons from Cuba.
 Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a
way of warning the USSR. This clash between the USA and the USSR came to be known
as the Cuban Missile Crisis. It made the whole world nervous.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis was a high point which came to be known as the Cold War. It
refers to the competition, the tensions and a series of confrontations between the
United States and Soviet Union.
Cold War
 The Cold War was the war of ideologies. The US followed the ideology of liberal
democracy and capitalism while the USSR backed the ideology of socialism and
communism.
 The Second World War (1939-1945) came to an end with the defeat of the Axis powers
led by Germany, Italy and Japan by the Allied forces led by the US, Soviet Union, Britain
and France.
 It marked the beginning of the Cold War. The Second World War ended when the
United States dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in August 1945, causing Japan to surrender.
 This decision of the US was both criticised and supported. But the consequence of the
end of the Second World War was the rise of two new powers on the global stage.

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 The United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest powers in the world with
the ability to influence events anywhere on Earth.
 But the Cold War inspite of being an intense form of rivalry between great powers,
remained a ‘cold’ and not hot or shooting war. It was due to the ‘logic of deterrence’.
 The ‘logic of deterrence’ means when both sides have the capacity to respond against
an attack and to cause so much destruction that neither can afford to initiate war.
 The two superpowers and their allies were expected to behave as rational and
responsible actors.
The Emergence of Two Power Blocs
 The two superpowers i.e. the US and USSR wanted to expand their spheres of influence
in different parts of the world. Hence, they decided to take help of the smaller
countries.
 These smaller states got the promise of protection, weapons and economic aid against
their local rivals, mostly regional neighbours.
 The first division took place in Europe. Most countries of Western Europe sided with the
US and thus, came to be known as ‘Western alliance.
 The countries of the Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp and came to be known as
‘Eastern alliance.’
 The Western alliance formed itself into an organisation, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO). It came into existence in April, 1949 with twelve states.
 The NATO declared that armed attack on any one of them in Europe or North America
would be regarded as an attack on all of them.
 The Eastern alliance, also known as the Warsaw Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. It was
established in 1955. Its principle function was to counter NATO’s forces in Europe.
 In East and South East Asia and in West Asia (Middle East), the United States built an
alliance system called the South-East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central
Treaty Organisation (CENTO).

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 Many newly independent countries were worried of losing their freedom. Cracks and
splits within the alliances were quick to appear.
 Communist China quarrelled with the USSR towards the late 1950s. The other important
development was the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
 The smaller countries were of more help to the superpowers because they were the
means to gain
vital resources such as oil and minerals; locations to spy each other and to launch
weapons.
Arenas of the Cold War
 The arenas of the Cold War refer to areas where crisis and war occurred or threatened
to occur between the alliance systems but did not cross certain limits.
 The Cold War was also responsible for several shooting wars.
 The two superpowers were poised for direct encounter in Korea (1950-53), Berlin
(1958-62), the Congo (the early 1960s) and in several other places.
 Jawaharlal Nehru, one of the key leader of NAM played a key role in mediating between
the two Koreas. In the Congo crisis, the UN Secretary General played a key mediatory
role.
 The US and USSR decided to collaborate in limiting or eliminating certain kinds of
nuclear and non-nuclear weapons.
 The two sides signed three significant agreements within a decade. These were :
 Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT).
 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABMT)
Challenge to Bipolarity
 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) offered the newly decolonised countries of Asia, Africa
and Latin America a third option i.e. not to join any of the alliances.

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 NAM was founded by three leaders-Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s Jawaharlal
Nehru and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser. Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame
Nkrumah strongly supported them. The first NAM summit was held in 1961 at Belgrade.
 Non-Alignment neither means isolationism nor neutrality. It played a role in mediating
between the two rival alliances.
New International Economic Order
 The challenge for the newly decolonised countries was to become more developed
economically and to lift their people out of poverty. The idea
of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) originated with this realisation.
 The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a
report in 1972 entitled ‘Towards a New Trade Policy for Development’.
 The nature of Non-Alignment changed to give greater importance to economic issues.
As a result,
NAM became an economic pressure group.
India and the Cold War
 India followed a two way policy regarding the Cold War. It did not join any of the
alliances and raised
voice against the newly decolonised countries becoming part of these alliances.
 The policy of India was not ‘fleeing away’ but was in favour of actively intervening in
world affairs to soften Cold War rivalries.
 The Non-Alignment gave India the power to take international decisions and to balance
one superpower against the other.
 India’s policy of Non-Alignment was criticised on a number of counts. But still it has
become both as an international movement and a core of India’s foreign policy.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Cuban Missile Crisis made whole world nervous by creating clashes between the two
superpowers, the US and Soviet Union namely Cold War.

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2. Cold War referred to competitions, tensions and series of confrontations between the US
and USSR.
3. In 1945, with the end of Second World War, Cold War began when the US dropped bombs
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in diplomatic manner to warn Soviet Union.
4. Both the powers became reluctant to initiate war to protect world from large scale
destruction as they were a.vare that it will not lead only political aim to them.
5. The greed of expansion of their spheres of influence divided the world into alliances. The
US built NATO, South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation
(CENTO).
6. The Soviet UnrIri created Eastern alliance known as WARSAW PACT.
7. Smaller states „Maine either the alliance to get the promise of protection, weapons and
economic aid against their local rivals.
8. Superpower required them to gain on access to vital resources, territory to launch weapons
and troops, to spy on each other and economic support.
9. Despite of occurring crisis in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, both the superpowers
behaved rationally and responsibly.
10. Both the superpowers maintained ‘arms control’ by signing various treaties as Limited Test
Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
11. Countries outside the two blocs known as NAM (Non-Aligned Movement), joined by
decolonised countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, played a crucial role in reducing cold
war conflicts to maintain peace and stability all over the world.
12. Five founder members of NAM were Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s JL Nehru, Egypt’s
leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah.
13. The majority of NAM members was categorised as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which
initiated economic development under the head of New International Economic Order (NIEO).
14. The United Nations Conference of Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a report
in 1972 to propose to give the LDCs control over their natural resources, to make western

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market available to them to reduce cost of technology and to provide greater role in
international economic institutions.
15. India responded to growth of Cold War into two fold. First, it stayed away from alliances
and secondary, it raised voice against newly decolonised countries becoming part of either the
alliance.
16. NAM served India’s interests also to participate in international decisions and maintained
balance between two superpowers.
17. India’s policy was criticised on grounds of possessing contradictory postures i.e. signed
treaty of friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years and developed good relations
with the US during Bangladesh crisis.
18. It is said that NAM has lost its relevance after disintegration of USSR and end of cold war in
1991.
19. NAM is based on a resolve to democratise international system to redress existing
inequities that poor and very small countries need not to follow any of the big powers instead
they can pursue an independent foreign policy also.
20. These core values make NAM relevant even in today’s scenario as it has stood of adverse
circumstances and served an important purpose of protecting the interests of third world
countries.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Cold War: Cold war referred to competitions, tensions and a series of confrontations
between the US and USSR.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis: It created tensions between the US and USSR when Soviet Union
(USSR) installed missiles in Cuba to make it a Russian base.
3. Allied Forces: Allied forces were one of the two camps during second world war
including the US, Soviet Union, Britain and France.
4. Axis Power: It was another camp against allied forces led by German” Italy and Japan.
5. Alliance System: Alliance system was created by the two superpowers to expand their
sphere of influence all over the world.

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6. Deterrence: It was a logic followed by both the superpowers to avoid large scale
destruction
i. e. not to take place hot war between them because both of them had the capacity to
retaliate.
7. Neutrality: Neutrality is a condition not to participate in world affairs or make oneself
aloof from world.
8. Decolonisation: To make colonised states free from the rule of mother country.
TIMELINE
 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine about containment of communism.
 1947-52 Marshall Plan: US aid for reconstruction of Western Europe.
 1948-49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union.
 1950-53 Korean War
 1954 Defeat of the French by Vietnamese at Dien Bien Phu; Signing of Geneva Accord;
Division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel formation of SEATO.
 1954-75 American intervention in Vietnam.
 1955 Signing of Baghdad Pact, later CENTO.
 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary.
 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba construction of Berlin Wall.
 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
 1965 American Intervention in the Dominican Republic
 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia.
 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China
 1978-89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
 1979-89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan

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 1985 Gorbachev becomes the president of the USSR and begins reform process.
 1989 Fall of Berlin Wall
 1990 Unification of Germany
 1991 Disintegration of Soviet Union, End of the Cold War era.

Chapter 2 - The End of Bipolarity

Soviet System
 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being after the Socialist
Revolution in Russia in 1917. The revolution was inspired by the ideals of socialism and
the need for an egalitarian society as opposed to capitalism.
 After the Second World War, the East European countries that the Soviet army had
liberated from the fascist forces came under the control of the USSR.
 There was change in the economic and political system of the USSR. Then the Soviet
economy became more developed than the rest of the world except the US.
 However, the Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authoritarian. It made life
very difficult for its citizens.
 In the arms race, the Soviet Union managed to match the US from time to time, but at
great cost.
Gorbachev and the Disintegration of the USSR
 Mikhail Gorbachev, who had become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in 1985, sought to reform the system. He introduced economic and
political reform policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness). But later
his policies were criticised.
 A coup took place in 1991 that was encouraged by Communist Party hardliners. The
people did not want the old-style rule of the Communist Party and wanted freedom.

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 Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the three major republics of the USSR, declared in
December 1991 that the Soviet Union was disintegrated.;
 Capitalism and democracy were adopted as the basis for the post Soviet republics.
Reasons for the Soviet Union Disintegration
There are several reasons which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. These were
 Internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions failed to meet the
aspirations of the people.
 The economy of the Soviet Union became stagnant. The Soviet economy used much of
its resources in maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal.
The Soviet Union too became stagnant due to rampant corruption, the unwillingness to
allow more openness in government, and the centralisation of authority in a vast land.
 A section of the society was not happy with the reforms of Gorbachev. It was believed
that the reforms introduced by Gorbachev were at a very slow pace.
 Another reason for the collapse of USSR was the rise of nationalism and the desire for
sovereignty within various republics including Russia and the Baltic republics.
Consequences of Disintegration
There are many consequences of the disintegration of USSR. They are as follows:
 It led to the end of Cold War confrontations. There was no dispute of Socialist ideology
and Capitalist ideology.
 Power relations in world politics changed and thus it led to change in the relative
influence of ideas and institutions.
 The US became the sole superpower which also backed the capitalist economy making it
the dominant economic system internationally.
 The end of the Soviet bloc paved way for the emergence of many new countries. All
these countries had their own independent aspirations and choices.
 The international system saw many new players’ emerge, each with its own identity,
interests and economic and political difficulties.
Shock Therapy in Post-Communist Regimes
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 The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe from an authoritarian
socialist system to a democratic capitalist system which was influenced by the World
Bank and the IMF came to be known as ‘Shock Therapy’.
 This process of transition was due to the Collapse of Communism.
 There was a need to make a total shift to a capitalist economy which meant rooting out
completely any structures evolved during the Soviet period.
 Shock therapy also involved a drastic change in the external orientation of these
economics.
 It also involved a break up of the existing .
trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc.
Consequences of Shock Therapy
 The shock therapy brought ruin to the economies and disaster upon the people of the
entire region.
 The value of the Russian currency ‘Ruble’ declined dramatically. People lost all their
savings due to high rate of inflation.
 The government withdrew subsidies which pushed large sections of the people into
poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society.
 The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and
priority as the demands of economic transformation.
 Most of these economies, especially Russia, started reviving in 2000, 10 years after their
independence. The reason for the revival was the export of natural resources like oil,
natural gas and minerals.
Tensions and Conflicts in Former Soviet Republics
 There were tensions and conflicts in most of the former Soviet republics and many have
had civil wars and insurgencies.
 In Russia, two republics, Chechnya and Dagestan have had violent secessionist
movements.

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 Tajikistan witnessed a civil war for almost 10 years till 2001. The region had many
sectarian conflicts.
 Central Asia too become a zone of competition between outside powers and oil
companies.
 Czechoslovakia was divided into two, the Czechs and the Slovaks thus forming
independent countries.
 Yugoslavia broke apart with several provinces like Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina declaring independence.
India and Post-Communist Countries
 India maintained a cordial relationship with all the post-communist countries. The
strongest relation of India is still with Russia.
 Indo-Russian relation is an important aspect of India’s foreign policy. Both the countries
share a vision of a multipolar world order.
 India got benefits from Russia over issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, access to
Central Asia, balancing its relations with China.
 Russia stands to benefit from this relationship because India is the second largest arms
market for Russia. Both the countries have collaborated over many scientific projects.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. The Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917 gave birth to USSR with inspiration of socialism,
ensure a minimum standard of living for all its citizens and also the government subsidised
basic necessities and productive assets were owned and controlled by the state.
2. Russia was the only republic among fifteen republics who dominates everything and people
in the region.
3. Soviet Union lagged behind the west in technology, infrastructure and could not fulfil
political aspirations of people. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 also weakened the
system furthermore.

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4. Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985 initiated
the policies of economic and political reforms to democratise the system which were opposed
by leaders within communist party and contradictory view of people.
5. The people of republic had been fed up with old style rule of Soviet bloc and in Dec 1991,
under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin (an elected leader), Russia, Ukraine and Baltics declared
themselves independent.
6. The formation of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) came as a surprise and the
exclusion of these states was resolved by making them founder members of the CIS.
7. Russia was accepted as successor state of Soviet Union by inheriting a Soviet seat in UN
Security Council, who accepted all international treaties and commitments of Soviet Union and
carried out some nuclear disarmament measures with the US.
8. Now Soviet Union had been disintegrated on the grounds to maintain nuclear and military
arsenals, awareness of people of their backwardness than western capitalism as well as
alienation of ordinary people who were exempted from any kind of privileges.
9. The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within republics like Russia, the Baltic
Republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia and others proved to be the most
immediate cause for disintegration of USSR.
10. Disintegration of USSR resulted into the end of Cold War confrontations, created dominant
capitalist system, emerged many new states and the advantage was taken by Central Asian
countries of their geographical locations by maintaining relations with Russia, the West, the
US, China and others.
11. The process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist
system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe was influenced by World Bank and IMF came to
be known as Shock Therapy.
12. Shock Therapy involved privatisation of property, private firms emergence, complete
switch over to free trade and Foreign Direct Investment, Financial opening up, Currency
convertibility as well as break up of existing trade alliances among the countries of Soviet Bloc
to maintain relations directly with the West.
13. Shock Therapy resulted in the largest garage sale in history, declined value of Russian
Currency ‘Ruble’, due to inflation, food was imported, destroyed Old Social Welfare System,
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Migration of educated and intellectual manpower and disparities due to privatisation between
rich and poor regions of Russia.
14. The constitution of newly democratic institutions was drafted in a hurry where strong
executives appointed themselves as presidents due to weak Parliament and lack of
independent judiciary as in Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
15. Russia revived in 2000 due to export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals
which were available in abundance in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan. And from where these pipelines crossed, were paid on rent.
16. Most of the former Soviet Republics had civil wars and insurgencies as in Russia, two
republics Chechnya and Dagestan had violent secessionist movements, in Central Asia. Civil
War took place in Azerbaijan and Georgia. Czechoslovakia was also split into two. Even
countries and provinces like Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia are fighting over river water
leading to instability and making life difficult for ordinary people.
17. The Central Asian Republics were rich in hydrocarbon resources for economic benefit as Oil
Companies and outside powers had a competition to exploit these natural resources. Also, the
US approached them to hire bases and territories during wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
18. Russia and India share a vision of multipolar world order, collective security, greater
regionalism, negotiated settlements of international conflicts, on independent foreign policy
and decision making through UN.
19. India is benefitted from Russia on issues of Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing information
on international terrorism, access to Central Asia and balancing its relations with China. In
return, Russia has also been benefitted from India on the ground of second largest arms
market for Russia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Soviet System: Soviet system was introduced after Russian Revolution in 1917 based on
the principles of egalitarian society and planned economy controlled by the state.
2. Socialist Bloc: The east European countries were known as Socialist Bloc because these
countries were liberated from the fascist forces and their political and economic
systems were based on this bloc only.

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3. Capitalist Economy: In this economy, land and productive assets are owned and
controlled by the Capitalists.
4. Unipolar System: Affairs at international level are dominated by only one superpower.
5. Multipolar System: Affairs at international level can not be dominated by one
superpower only, instead group of countries play an important role.
6. Egalitarian Society: It believes that all people are equally important and should have the
same rights and opportunities in life.
7. Largest Garage Sale: It was resulted due to Shock Therapy to undervalue the valuable
industries of USSR to sell them at throwaway prices.
8. Shock Therapy: The model of transition from authoritarian socialist system to a
democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence
of the World Bank and IMF.
TIMELINE
 March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev electced as the General Secretary of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the Communist Party in
Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union.
 1988 Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia and Latvia.
 October 1989 Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free to decide
their own future; Berlin Wall falls in November.
 February 1990 Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year long
monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet Parliament (Duma) to permit multiparty
politics.
 March 1990 Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its
independence.
 June 1990 Russian parliament declares its dependence from the Soviet Union.
 June 1991 Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President of Russia.

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 August 1991 The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against
Gorbachev.
 September 1991 Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania becomes UN
members (Later join NATO in March 2004).
 December 991 Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decided to annul the 1992 Treaty on the
creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan joined the CIS (Georgia joined later in 1993); Russia took ones the USSR seat
in the United Nations.
 25 December 1991 Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of
the Soviet Union.

Chapter 3 - US Hegemony in World Politics

Beginning of the ‘New World Order’ by the US
 The disintegration of USSR led to the beginning of the US hegemony in 1991. It
remained with all its powers enhanced and intact.
 Kuwait was invaded by Iraq in August 1990 and was subsequently annexed. After a
series of diplomatic attempts failed at convincing Iraq to quit its aggression, the United
Nations mandated the liberation of Kuwait by force. This decision of UN was hailed by
the US President George HW Bush as the emergence of a ‘New World Order.’
 The First Gulf War took place in which Iraq was defeated by a coalition force of 6,60,000
troops from 34 countries. It was known as ‘Operation Desert Storm’ or ‘First Gulf War’.
 The war was overwhelmingly American. It revealed the vast technological gap that had
opened up between the US military capability and other countries.
The Clinton Years
 George HW Bush lost the US Presidential elections of 1992 to William Jefferson (Bill)
Clinton of the Democratic party.
 During this era, it was believed that the US had withdrawn into its internal affairs and
was not fully engaged in world politics.
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 The government led by Clinton focused on ‘soft issues’ like democracy promotion,
climate change and world trade rather than ‘hard politics’.
 Still, the US showed its military powers. Firstly, in 1999 in response to Yugoslavian
actions against the pre-dominantly Albanian population in the province of Kosovo.
Secondly, in response to the bombing of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar-es-
Salaam.
 ‘Operation Infinite Reach’, launched by the US, was a series of cruise missile strikes on
Al-Qaeda terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan.
9/11 and the ‘Global War on Terror
 On 11th September 2001, four American commercial aircrafts were hijacked and flew
into important buildings in the US.
 The first and second airline crashed into the North and South Towers of the World Trade
Centre (New York), the third crashed into the Pentagon building (Arlington, Virginia) and
the fourth aircraft came down in a field in Pennsylvania. These attacks came to be
known as ‘9/11’.
 The US response to 9/11 was swift and ferocious. George W Bush had succeeded Clinton
in the US Presidency.
 The US launched ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ as a part of its ‘Global War on Terror’.
 The operation was against all those suspected to be behind the 9/11 attack, mainly Al-
Qaeda and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
 Arrests were made all over the world by the US forces often without the knowledge of
the government of the persons being arrested.
 These persons were transported across countries and detained in secret prisons.
The Iraq Invasion
 Operation Iraqi Freedom’ was launched by the US on 19th March, 2003 and was joined
by more than forty other countries.
 The purpose of the invasion was to prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD).
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 As there was no evidence of WMD, it is speculated that the invasion was motivated by
other objectives such as controlling Iraqi oilfields, etc.
 The US invasion of Iraq was both a military and political failure as around 3000 US
military personnel were lost and Iraqi casualities were much higher.
Constraints on American Power
 There are three constraints on American power. The institutional architecture of the
America is the first constraint.
 The second constraint is domestic in nature and stems from the open nature of
American society. There is a deep scepticism regarding the purposes and methods of
government in American political culture.
 The third constraint on American power is the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) which is only organisation in the international system that could possibly
moderate the exercise of American power.
India’s Relationship with the US
 During the Cold War, India closest friendship was with the Soviet Union.
 Over the years, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with the global
economy. This made India an attractive economic partner for a number of countries
including the US.
 Two new factors emerged in Indo-US relations in recent years. They include :
 Technological dimension
 The role of the Indian-American diaspora.
 There are three different strategies to decide what kind of relationship India should
have with USA. They are as follows :
 Those Indian analysts who see international politics in terms of military power,
prefer that India should maintain its distance from US and should focus upon
increasing its own national power.

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 Other analysts see the growing convergence of interests between US and India as
a historic opportunity for India.
 A third group of analysts advocate that India should take the lead in establishing
the coalition of countries from developing world.
 Indo-US relations are too difficult to manage by a sole strategy. There should be mixing
of foreign policy strategies of deal with the US.
Meaning of Hegemony
 The word ‘hegemony’ means the leadership or predominance of one state over others
by virtue of its military, economic, political power and cultural superiority.
 Politics is all about gaining power. In world politics, countries and groups of countries
are engaged in constantly trying to gain and retain power.
 It is important to understand the distribution of power among the countries of the
world in order to understand world politics.
 During the Cold War Era, there were two superpowers, the US and the USSR. But after
the disintegration of USSR, only a single power was left i.e. the US.
 The international system dominated by a sole superpower or hyper-power is sometimes
called a ‘unipolar system’.
Hegemony as Hard Power
 Hegemony relates to the relations, patterns and balances of military capability between
states.
 The base of US power lies in the overwhelming superiority of its military power. It is
both absolute and relative.
 The military dominance of the US is not just based on higher military spending but on a
qualitative gap.
 But still, the US invasion of Iraq reveals weakness of American power as it was not able
to force the Iraqi people into submitting to the occupation forces of the US-led coalition.
Hegemony as Structural Power
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 The idea behind this type of hegemony is that an open world economy requires a
hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence.
 In this sense, hegemony is reflected in the role played by the US in providing global
public goods. The best examples of global public goods are Sea-Lanes of Communication
(SLOCs), Internet, roads, etc.
 The economic preponderance of the US is inseparable from its structural power, which
is the power to shape the global economy in a particular way.
 Another example of the structural power of the US is the academic degree called the
Masters in Business Administration (MBA). The idea of teaching skills for business is
uniquely American.
Hegemony as Soft Power
 In this type of hegemony, it implies class ascendancy in the social, political and
particularly ideological spheres.
 It suggests that a dominant power not only possess military power but also ideological
resources to shape the behaviour of competing and lesser powers.
 The US predominance in the world is based not only on its military power and economic
powers but on its cultural presence.
 During the Cold War, the US scored notable victories in the area of structural power and
soft power rather than hard power.
Overcoming the Hegemony
 It is important to understand that there is no single power to balance the US military.
There are various strategies which can be helpful to overcome the hegemony.
 According to the Bandwagon Strategy, it is suggested that instead of engaging in
activities opposed to the hegemonic power, it is advisable to extract benefits by
operating within the hegemonic system.
 Hide Strategy implies staying as far removed from the dominant power as possible.
China, Russia and the European Union are many examples of this behaviour.

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 Another belief is that resistance to American hegemony may come from non-state
actors rather than other states. It is believed that challenges to US hegemony will come
from a combination of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), social movements and
public opinion.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. America refers to the United States of America. It covers two continents—the North and the
South America, the US is only one of the countries of the continent which is a symbol of US
hegemony.
2. After the disintegration of USSR in 1991, the first instance of US hegemony came into
observation through Operation Desert Storm by the UN during first Gulf War to retreat Iraqi
forces from Kuwait. This operation was dominated and won by the US due to vast
technological gap between the US military capability and other states.
3. William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton, the newly elected President of the US in 1992 and again
in 1996, focused on soft issues like democracy promotions, climate change and world trade
rather than of military power and security. .
4. The above mentioned policies of the US were contradicted in response to Yugoslavian
action against predominant Albanian population in Kosovo by targeting bombards through
Operation Infinite against Al-Qaeda in response to the bombings of US embassies in Nairobi,
Kenya, Dar-es-Salaam and Tanzania in 1998.
5. On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers hailing from a number of Arab countries took
control of four commercial aircrafts shortly after take off and crushed into World Trade Centre
in New York, Pentagon building in Arlington. Virginia (US Defence Department) and the capital
building of the US Congress in Pennysylvania, came to be known as event of 9/11 in the US.
6. In response to 9/11, George W. Bush won the elections in the US succeeding Bill Clinton.
The US launched Operation Enduring Freedom against all those suspected behind attack in
9/11 mainly Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime.
7. The US forces made arrests all over the world, transported and detained the persons in
secret prisons like Guantanamo Bay, a US navy base in Cuba where the prisoners did not enjoy
the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the
UN representatives were not allowed to meet these persons.

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8. On 19 March 2003, the US launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to prevent Iraq from
developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) in the ostensible purpose to control oil fields
and installing a regime in Iraq friendly to US.
9. Hegemony is an international system with only one centre of power to be gained and
retained in the form of military domination, economic political chart and central superiority
which was enjoyed only by the US after disintegration of Soviet Union.
10. Hegemony as hard power is based on military capabilities of a country and the US has
proved it. The US today spends more on its military than the next 12 powers and even
technologically no other power can match with the US.
11. Hegemony as structural power must sustain global structure in economic sense. The US
has provided global public goods as sea lanes of communications (SLOCs) as well as accounts
for 15 percent of world trade if EU is included and 20 per cent in world economy. The US has
contributed basic economic structure in the form of Bretton Woods System and Degree in
MBA.
12. Hegemony as soft power implies class ascendency in social, political and ideological
spheres which is more effective than coercion to more hand in hand and the US was proved
ultimately triumphant in this.
13. Though the US has been a hegemonic power, still it experiences some constraints in itself
as institutional architecture (division of power). Open nature of American Society and the
presence of only one organisation in international system to moderate the exercise of
American Power i.e. NATO.
14. After the collapse of Soviet Union, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it
with global economy. Hence the US also found India an attractive economic partner due to
technological dimension and the role of Indian-American diaspora.
15. India needs an appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US. Either India
should maintain aloofness from Washington and comprehend its military power or to establish
mutual convergences or to lead a coalition in weaning the hegemony assay from its
dominance.
16. To deal with the hegemony, all the states bear the different strategies either to extract
benefits by operating within hegemonic system or to stay away as far as possible from

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dominant power i.e. Russia, China and European Union have opted this policy. Both the
policies are known as Bandwagon Strategy and to hide respectively.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. America: It covers two continents of North and South America and the US is only one of
the countries of American continent that symbolises US hegemony.
2. 9/11: To denote a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11
Sep, 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US.
3. Guantanamo Bay: A naval base in Cuba set up by the US where prisoners are forbidden
of the protection of international law or law of their own country or that of the US.
4. Hegemony: An international system to dominate world by only one superpower.
5. Qualitative Gap: It signifies US superiority in technology and no other power could dare
to challenge the US.
6. Bandwagon Strategy: To extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system in
place of opposing it.
7. Global Village: It refers to the US as the village headman and all the nations as its
members are neighbours.
8. Manufacturing Consent: It refers to win the consent of countries to the dominating
power in a manner favourable to ascendancy of the dominant class.
9. Bretton Woods System: A basic economic structure of world set up by the US after
Second World War.
10. Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs): It is the naval power of hegemony that
underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international
waters. These sea routes commonly waded by merchant ships.

Chapter 4 - Alternative Centres of Power

European Union

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 After the end of the Second World War, there was a dilemma among many European
leaders over the status of Europe. The Second World War shattered the structure on
which the European states had based their relations.
 The Cold War aided the integration of Europe after 1945. The European economy was
revived by the extensive financial support by USA under the ‘Marshall Plan’.
 The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established in 1948 to
channel aid to the West European states. Another step forward in political cooperation
was the establishment of the council of Europe in 1949.
 The disintegration of USSR led to the formation of European Union in 1992 which laid
the foundation for a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and
creation of a single currency.
 The European Union has evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly
political one.
 The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence.
 Economically, the European Union is the world’s biggest economy. It had a GDP of more
than $12 trillion in 2005. Its currency Euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US
dollar.
 On the political and diplomatic ground, Britain and France, the two members of EU are
permanent members of the UN Security Council.
 In the defence field, the European Union’s combined armed forces are the second
largest in the world.
Association of South East Asian Nations [ASEAN]
 Before and during the Second World War, the South East Asia suffered a lot from
repeated colonialism i.e. both European and Japanese.
 There were problems of nation-building, ravages of poverty and economic
backwardness and a pressure to align with any of the two super blocs.
 The South East Asian Countries established the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) in 1967 as an alternative to Bandung conference and the Non-Aligned

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Movement.
On the ASEAN logo, the ten stalks of paddy (Rice) represent the ten South East Asian
countries bound together in friendship and solidarity. The circle symbolises the unity of
ASEAN.
 There were five founding countries-Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand.
 The objectives of ASEAN was to accelerate economic growth, social progress, promote
regional peace, stability and cultural development.
 The members of the association promoted ASEAN way, a form of interaction that is
informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative.
 In 2003, an ASEAN community was established comprising three pillars, namely, the
ASEAN security community, the ASEAN economic community and the ASEAN socio-
cultural community.
 The member states promised to uphold peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference
and respect for national differences and sovereign rights.
 The ASEAN economic community aims for a common market and to aid social and
economic development in the region.
 ASEAN has a vision 2020 which has defined an outward looking role for ASEAN in the
international community.
Rise of the Chinese Economy
 China has been growing as an economic power since 1978. It is projected to overtake
the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040. In 1949, the economy of the China was
based on the Soviet model. It now relied on its own resources.
 During 1970’s, China established relations with the USA ending its political and
economic isolation.
 An ‘Open Door Policy’ was announced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, which aimed at
generating high productivity by investments in capital and technology from abroad.

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 Special economic zones were set up. State had a centralised role in setting up of China’s
economy.
 Still the Chinese economy did not benefit everyone in China. The rate of unemployment
has risen, working conditions and female employment is bad.
 However, regionally and globally, China has been in limelight economic power.
India-China Relations
 India and China had a cordial relations since time immemorial. Both have political,
economic and cultural relations.
 After India gained independence, both the countries shared a peaceful relation. During
this period the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini-Bhai Bhai’ was popular.
 Very soon both the countries involved in border dispute. The difference aroused from
the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950.
 India suffered military reverses in the conflict of 1962. Diplomatic relations between the
two countries were downgraded until 1976.
 It was during the visit paid by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to China in 1988
December, the relation between the two countries started improving.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. After the Second World War, Europe shattered the assumptions and structures on which
the European states had based their relations.
2. To revive European economy, the US introduced ‘Marshall Plan’ to establish organisation for
European Economic Cooperation in 1948. Through OEEL, Western European States began to
cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. European Union established in 1992, was a group of European Capitalist countries with a
common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs and creation of
single currency and also has its own flag, anthem and founding date.
4. The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence as the EU is
the world’s biggest economy which gives it influence over its closest neighbours and in Asia

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and Africa. And it functions as an important bloc in international world economic organisation
as the World Trade Organisation.
5. In political and diplomatic influence, two members of EU, Britain and France hold
permanent seat in the UN Security Council as well as non-permanent members in UNSC which
enabled to influence the US policies i.e. current position on Iran’s nuclear programme, use of
diplomacy, economic investment and in case of a dialogue with China on human rights and
environmental degradation.
6. Militarily, the EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world by spending
second after the US and Britain and France also have nuclear arsenal. And it is the most
important source of space and communications technology also.
7. Though EU bears common interests. Still, its member states have their own foreign relations
and defence policies that are often at odds with each other i.e. Britain favoured the US’s Iraq
invasion which other members of EU Germany and France opposed America’s this policy. All
these limit the ability of the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.
8. Before and during the Second World War South East regions of Asia suffered economic
political consequences of repeated colonialism as well as at the end of war it confronted with
the problems of nation building which gave birth to Association of South East Asian Nations
popularly known as ASEAN for uniform cooperation and interaction.
9. ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region-Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand by signing the Bangkok Declaration. Over the years Brunei,
Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia made its strength to ten.
10. ASEAN countries celebrated the ASEAN WAY’, a form of informal interaction, non-
confrontation and cooperation standing on three pillars in 2003 i.e. ASEAN Security
Committee, ASEAN Economic Committee and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Committee.
11. ASEAN VISION 2020 encourages negotiations over the conflicts in the region by mediating
the end of Cambodian conflict, East Umar Crisis and meets annually to discuss East Asian
Cooperation.
12. In recent years, India has also tried to make agreements with ASEAN by signing Free Trade
Areas with two ASEAN members—Singapore and Thailand as well as signed on FTA with
ASEAN itself.

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13. China emerged as the fastest growing economy since economic reforms of 1978 to be
projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040 with the economic
strength of population, land mass, resources, regional location and political influence.
14. After independence of People’s Republic of China in 1949, Soviet model of economy was
adopted under the leadership of Mao by assuring employment, social welfare, education to all
and better health as China began to use its own resources and grow Chinese economy at the
rate of 5-6 percent.
15. China ended its political and economic isolation with major policy decisions taken in 1970s.
These included China-US relations establishment in 1972, four areas of modernisation
(Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology) in 1973, open door policy in 1978, privatisation
of agriculture and industries in 1982 and 1990 and setting up of special Economic Zones.
16. Regionally and globally China is going to be recognised as an economic power due to
contributory factors i.e. integration and interdependency have tempered its issues with Japan,
the US, ASEAN, Russia, Taiwan. Even China’s outward-looking investment and aid policies in
Latin America and Africa are projecting it as a global player.
17. Indo-China relations experienced friendly gestures at the moments, but 1950 onwards
both the nations were involved in the differences on the issues of Tibet problem, border issues
in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin area of Ladakh, Chinese attack in 1962 and Chinese
contribution to Pakistan’s nuclear programme.
18. Relations between India and China began to improve slowly from the mid-1970, by a series
of talks to resolve border issues in 1981 and now these relations have strategic and economic
dimensions.
19. Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1980, Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit in 2003 have
accommodated both the countries to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. European Union: A group of European Capitalist countries established in 1992 founded
for common goals of foreign and security policy, cooperation and home affairs.
2. OEEC: Organisation for European Economic Cooperation established in 1948 to channel
aid to West European states to cooperate on trade and economic issues.

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3. Marshall Plan: It was introduced by America to provide financial help for revival of
European economy.
4. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations to accelerate economic growth through
social progress and cultural development.
5. ASEAN WAY: An interaction that is informal, non-confrontationists and cooperative to
promote supernational structures.
6. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): An organisation established in 1994 to promote
coordination of security and foreign policy.
7. Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Foreign investors could set up their own enterprises in
these zones.
8. Open Door Policy: To invite investment of capital and technology from abroad.
9. Three Pillars of ASEAN Community: ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic
Community, ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
TIMELINE
1. April 1951: Six West European Countries, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Luxembourg sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal
and Steel Community (ECSC).
2. March 25, 1957: These six countries sign the treaties of Rome establishing the European
Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).
3. January 1973: Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom join the European Community.
4. June 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament.
5. January 1981: Greece joins the EC.
6. June 1985: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC numbers.
7. January 1986: Spain and Portugal join the EC.
8. October 1990: Unification of Germany.
9. February 7, 1992: Treaty of Maastricht was signed establishing the European Union.
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10. January 1993: The single market was created.

11. January 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU.
12. January 2002: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in the 12 EU members.
13. May 2004: Ten new members Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia join the EU.
14. January 2007: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Slovenia adopts the EURO.

Chapter 5 - Contemporary South Asia

Pakistan
 The first military rule in Pakistan took place under General Yahya Khan. The reason for
this was the popular dissatisfaction against the rule of General Ayub Khan.
 After this, a government was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from
1971 to 1977.
 Bhutto Government was removed by General Zia-ul-Haq but had to face pro-democracy
movement from 1982 onwards.
 Again in 1988 an elected democratic government was established under Benazir Bhutto
but had to face competition from the Pakistan People’s Party and the Muslim League.
 Army stepped in again and General Pervez Musharraf removed Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif. General Musharraf got himself elected as the President in 2001.
 There were several factors which led to the failure of Pakistan in building a stable
democracy.
 At present, again a democratic form of government is ruling the country under Prime
Minister Nawaz Sharif.
India-Pakistan Conflicts
 After independence, both India and Pakistan got involved in issue related to Kashmir. It
led to wars in 1947-48 and 1965 which failed to settle the matter.
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 Both the countries face conflict over strategic issues like the control of the Siachen
glacier and over acquisition of arms.
 Both the countries continue to be suspicious of each other over security issue.
 Another issue of conflict among the two countries is over the sharing of river waters of
Indus river system.
 The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcationjine in Sir Creek in the
Rann ofKutch.
Bangladesh
 Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. But it started protesting against
the domination of Western Pakistan and the imposition of Urdu Language.
 A popular struggle against West Pakistani dominance was led by Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman.
 In 1970 election, the Awani league under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won all seats but the
government dominated by the West Pakistani leadership refused to convene the
assembly.
 The Pakistani army tried to suppress the movement which led to a large number of
migration to India.
 The Indian Government supported the demands of people of East Pakistan and helped
them. This led to a war with Pakistan in 1971. Bangladesh was formed as an
independent country after the end of war.
 A Constitution was adopted by Bangladesh declaring faith in secularism, democracy and
socialism. But government under Sheikh Mujibur amended the Constitution and formed
Presidential form of government.
 Sheikh Mujibur was assassinated and a military rule was established under Ziaur
Rahman. He was also assassinated and the rule of Lt Gen H.M. Ershad started this
continuing the military rule.

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 A pro-democratic movement was again started which led to election in 1991. Since then
representative democracy based on multi-party elections has been working in
Bangladesh.
Nepal
 Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom in the past but later changed into a constitutional monarchy
for many years.
 In the wake of a strong pro-democracy movement the king accepted the demand for a
new democratic Constitution in 1990.
 There was a conflict among the democrats, maoists and monarchist forces which led to
the abolition of parliament and dismissal of government in 2002 by the king.
 Again in 2006, after a pro-democratic movement, the king was forced to restore the
House of Representatives.
Sri Lanka
 The democratic set up of Sri Lanka was disturbed by the Ethnic conflict among the
Sinhalese and Tamil origin people.
 According to the Sinhalese, the region of Ceylon belonged to Sinhala people only and
not to the Tamils who migrated from India.
 This led to the formation of Liberation Tiger of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a militant
organisation, who demanded a separate country.
 The Government of India was pressurised by the Tamil people in India for the protection
of the Tamils in Sri Lanka.
 India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to stabilise relations between the
Sri Lankan Government and the Tamils.
 Eventually, the Indian Army got into a fight with the LTTE. Later on the Indian Peace
Keeping Force (IPKF) was pulled out of Sri Lanka in 1989 without achieving its aims.
 Presently, the LTTE has been destroyed by the Sri Lankan Government and the area
under LTTE has been recovered.

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 Inspite of the Ethnic conflict, the economy of Sri Lanka has always been high.
India and its Other Neighbours
 Neighbouring countries of India are Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives and
Pakistan.
 There are certain issues of conflicts between India and Bangladesh. These include
sharing of Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters, illegal immigration to India etc.
 Still, both India and Bangladesh share a cordial relation with each other. Economic
relations between the two have improved considerably.
 Nepal and India shares a friendly relation with each other but certain issues like warm
relation of Nepal with China, Maoist movement in Nepal etc have disturbed the relation.
 Despite differences, trade, scientific co-operation, electricity generation and inter
locking water management grids hold the two countries together.
 India enjoys a very special relationship with Bhutan too and does not have any major
conflict with the Bhutanese government.
Peace and Cooperation
 Even though there are certain issues of conflicts among the South Asian countries, they
recognise the importance of cooperation and friendly relationship among themselves.
 The South Asian countries initiated the establishment of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985 to evolve cooperation among each other.
 The SAFTA was signed in 2004 by the South Asian countries to allow free trade across
the borders.
 SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs by 20 percent by 2007.
 Although there has been issues between India and Pakistan, measures were being taken
to bring cordial changes between the countries.
 There is also an outside power which influence the region. China and the United States
remain key players in South Asian politics.

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FACTS THAT MATTER

1. South Asia is referred to as a group of seven countries namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka which stand for diversity in every sense and
constitutes geopolitical space.
2. Despite the mixed record of democratic experience, the people in these countries share an
aspiration for democracy which can be drawn from the examples of Bangladesh, Nepal,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
3. Pakistan began Post Cold War period with successive democratic governments but suffered
a military coup in 1999. In Nepal successful uprising led to restoration of democracy in 2006.
India and Sri Lanka have also operated a democratic system, despite many limitations and
even Maldives have strengthened democracy.
4. In Pakistan, military rule and democracy are two sides of the coin because, during
implementation of first constitution, General Ayub Khan took the command by-elections, but
thrown away by military due to dissatisfaction of his rule. After 1971, an elected government
was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, removed by General Zia-Ul-Haq in
1977.
5. Again in 1982, in Pakistan, by a pro-democracy protest, democratic government was
established in 1988 under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. Later on, the
history repeated and General Pervez Musharraf took the command in 1999 and got elected in
2005 to be continued till date.
6. Bangladesh was formed by migrants from West Pakistan and refused to form government
by East Pakistan despite winning all the seats. India intervened and supported the demand of
creation of East Pakistan financially and militarily. Consequently, in December 1971, Pakistan
surrendered with the formation of an independent country named Bangladesh.
7. Bangladesh drafted its own constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and
socialism. In 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman formed presidential setup, but was assassinated in
a military uprising. The new military ruler Ziaur Rahman formed his own Bangladesh National
Party and won elections in 1979. He was assassinated and another military take over followed
under the leadership of Gen. H.M. Ershad. Since 1991, representative democracy has been
working in Bangladesh.

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8. Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom and became constitutional monarchy in modern period. The
struggle for restoration of democracy began in 1990 and 2007 when king restored house of
representatives. Even today Nepal is demanding the formation of constituent assembly.
9. Ceylon, presently known as Sri Lanka experienced an ethnic conflict between Sinhalese and
Tamils for power sharing. LTTE demanded a separate state for Tamil 1983 onwards with the
support of Indian government who sent Indian Peace Keeping Forces there which was not
liked by Sri Lankans.
10. Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic political system with a considerable economic
growth i.e. one of the first developing countries to control population growth rate, liberalized
economy, and bears highest per capita gross Domestic Product despite the ongoing conflicts.
11. India-Pakistan conflicts in South Asian region is most important to be sorted out. The wars
between these countries took place in 1947-48,1965 and 1971 on the issues of Pak Occupied
Kashmir (POK) and Line of Control (LOC). Except, other issues of conflicts are control of Siachin
glacier, acquisition of arms and sharing of river water.
12. Both the governments are suspicious to each other on the ground of Pakistani strategy to
help Kashmiri militants and ISI to be involved in Anti-India campaign. Pakistan blames India for
making trouble in Sindh and Baluchistan.
13. India and Bangladesh experienced differences over the issues of sharing of Ganga and
Brahmaputra river water, illegal immigration to India, support for anti Indian-Islamic
fundamentalists, refusal to allow Indian troops and not to export natural gas to India. It is the
main link of India’s ‘Look East’ Policy.
14. India and Nepal also bear differences on the issues of Nepal’s relations with China and
inaction against anti-Indian elements i.e. Maoists. But still both the countries signed the treaty
of trade and commerce in 2005 and friendship in 2006 to provide financial and technical
assistance and to allow citizens to move without visas and passport.
15. India and Bhutan do not share any major conflict, but attached on the issues to need out
the guerrillas and militants from North-eastern India and involvement of India also in big
hydroelectric projects in Bhutan is the biggest source of development aid.
16. India is supportive to Maldives in their economy, tourism and fisheries. In November 1988,
India reacted quickly against an attack from Tamil Mercenaries on Maldives.

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17. In spite of the above-mentioned conflicts and differences, states of South Asia recognise
cooperation and friendly relations among themselves. Hence, a major regional initiative has
been taken in the form of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1982.
SAARC members signed South Asian Free Trade Agreements (SAFTA) to form free trade zone
for the whole South Asia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Geo-Politics: Geo-politics refers to the Association of countries who are bound with
each
other geographically and their interests are also interlinked with each other politically
and economically.
2. Bilateral Talks: Talks involving the two countries without any other mediation.
3. Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF): It was sent by India in Sri Lanka to support the
demand of Tamils to be recognised.
4. Seven Party Alliance (SPA): An alliance of seven parties in Nepal which also demanded
an end to monarch.
5. SAARC: It stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation having seven
members and aims at mutual trust and understanding.
6. SAFTA: It is South Asia Free Trade Area Agreement to trade free from custom
restrictions and duties by its member states.
7. LTTE: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam in Sri Lanka which demanded a separate state
for Tamils.
TIMELINE
1. 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as an independent nation after the end of British rule.
2. 1948: Sri Lanka gains independence. Indo-Pak conflict over Kashmir.
3. 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO and CENTO.
4. September 1960: India and Pakistan sign Indus Waters Treaty.
5. 1962: Border conflicts between India and China.
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6. 1965: Indo-Pak War, UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission.

7. 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement: Six-Point proposal of Sheikh
Mujib- ur-Rahman for greater autonomy to East Pakistan.
8. March 1971: Proclamation of independence by leaders of Bangladesh.
9. August 1971: Indo-Soviet Treaty of friendship signed for 20 years.
10. December 1971: Indo-Pak war, Liberation of Bangladesh.
11. July 1972: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement.
12. May 1974: India conducts nuclear test.
13. 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic relations.
14. December 1985: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter at the first summit in
Dhaka.
15. 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka
(1987-90).
16. 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup attempt by mercenaries.
India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear installations and facilities of
each other.
17. 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
18. December 1996: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka Treaty for sharing of the Ganga
waters.
19. May 1998: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests.
20. December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
21. February 1999: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey to Lahore to sign a Peace
Declaration.
22. June-July 1999: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan.
23. July 2001: Vajpayee-Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful.

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24. January 2004: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad.

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Chapter 1- Challenges of Nation Building

Challenges for the New Nation
India became independent in August 1947 immediately after independence, there were three
challenges
in nation building
 The first and the immediate challenge was to shape nation that was united, yet
accommodative of the diversity existing in the society and eradication of poverty and
unemployment.
 The second challenge was to establish democracy.
 The third challenge was to ensure the development and well-being of the entire society
and not only of some sections.
Partition: Displacement and Rehabilitation
 On 14th to 15th August, 1947, two nation-states India and Pakistan came into existence.
Lakhs of people from both sides lost their homes, lives and properties and became
victim of communal violence.
 On the basis of Muslim majority belt West and East Pakistan was created which were
separated by a long expanse of Indian Territory.
 Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan also known as ‘Frontier Gandhi’ was the undisputed leader of
the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). Despite his opposition NWFP was merged
with Pakistan.
 The portion of Punjab and Bengal caused the deepest trauma of partition.
Consequences of Partition
 The year 1947 was the year of one of the largest, most abrupt, unplanned and tragic
transfer of population of human history as known.
 Minorities on both sides of the border fled their home and secured temporary’ shelter
in ‘refugee camps’.

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 Women were often abducted, raped, attacked and killed. They were forcefully
converted to other , religion.
 Political and administrative machinery failed on both sides.
 There was huge loss of lives and property. Communal violence was on its culmination.
Integration of Princely States
 There were two types of provinces in British India—The British Indian Provinces (directly
under the control of the British Government) and Princely states (governed by Indian
princes).
 Immediately after independence there were almost 565 princely states. Many of them
joined Indian Union.
 Travancore, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur initially refused to join Indian Union.
Government’s Approach
 The then interim government took a firm steps against the possible division of India into
small principalities of different sizes.
 The government’s approach was guided by three considerations
 The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to become part of the
Indian Union.
 The government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions.
 Consolidation of the territorial boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme
importance.
Instrument of Accession
 The rulers of the most of the states signed a document called the ‘Instrument of
Accession’ but accession of the Junagarh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur proved
more difficult than the rest.
 After initial resistance, in September 1948, Hyderabad was merged with Indian Union,
by a military operation.

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 The Government of India succeeded in pressurising the Maharaja of Manipur into

signing a Merger Agreement in September, 1949. The government did so without
consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur.
Reorganisation of States
 During national movement Indian National Congress recognised the demand of state
reorganisation on linguistic basis.
 After Independence, this idea was postponed because the memory of partition was still
fresh and the fate of the Princely states had not been decided.
 After a long movement, in December 1952 Andhra Pradesh was created on linguistic
basis.
 Creation of this state gave impetus to reorganise states on linguistic basis. As a result,
Government of India appointed States Reorganisation Commission in 1953.
 This commission accepted that the boundaries of the state should reflect the
boundaries of different languages.
 On the basis of its report the Nstates Reorganisation Act was passed in 1956. This led to
the creation of 14 States and 6 Union Territories.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. The first speech of the first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru at the hour of
midnight on 14-15 August 1947 was known as famous “tryst with destiny” speech while
addressing a special session of the Constituent Assembly.
2. Immediately after independence, there were many challenges in independent India that
needed a solution i.e. a challenge to shape a nation as a united country, to develop democratic
practices and to ensure development and well-being by evolving effective policies for
economic development and eradication of poverty and unemployment.
3. On partition of India, two nation theory was propounded by Muhammad Ali Jinnah to create
a separate state for Muslims, resulted in Partition as India and Pakistan giving birth to many
difficulties like problem of east and west, merging of NWFP, problems with provinces of
Punjab and Bengal and the principle of religious majorities.

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4. The partition of 1947 was most abrupt and unplanned which created and spread communal
riots dividing country into various community zones, social sufferings to shelter in refugee
camps, killing of women and separation of family members, except, it divided financial assets,
employees and created conflicts between Hindus and Muslims.
5. British India was divided into British Indian provinces and princely states. Princely states
enjoyed some form of control over their internal affairs under British supremacy.
6. After independence, integration of princely states into Indian Union became a great
challenge due to problems like announcement by British to end paramountly over the states’
freedom to join either India or Pakistan. And the problems arose in Travancore, Hyderabad,
Bhopal to further divide India.
7. The government’s approach was based on three considerations i.e. will of integration of
people of princely states, a flexible approach to accommodate plurality and demands of region
and concern about integrity of India with peaceful negotiations in a firm diplomatic manner by
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Only four states’ accession was difficult i.e. Junagarh, Hyderabad,
Kashmir and Manipur.
8. Hyderabad was the largest princely state under the rule of Nizam who was not argued to be
integrated. But the society protested against the rule of Nizam. The central government had to
interfere against Razakars and in September 1948. Nizam’s forces were controlled with the
accession of Hyderabad.
9. Bodhachandra Singh, Maharaja of Manipur, made it a constitutional monarchy and became
first state to hold elections under Universal Adult Franchises. But on sharp differences over
merger of Manipur, the government of India pressurised Maharaja into signing an agreement
in September 1949.
10. In the early years of reorganisation of states was felt linguistic states may foster separatism
and create a pressure. Hence linguistic states were formed to change the nature of democratic
policies which accepted the regional and linguistic claims and provided a uniform base to the
plural nature of democracy.
11. The State Reorganisation Commission was formed in 1953 by central government to
redraw the boundaries of the states on the basis to reflect boundaries of state on behalf of
different languages and led to creation of 14 states and six union territories by giving uniform
basis to state boundaries.
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WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Two Nations Theory: It was propounded by Muhammad Ali Jinnah to create a separate
state for Muslims.
2. British Indian Provinces: The Indian provinces which were directly under the British
government before independence.
3. Princely States: States ruled by Princes who enjoyed some form of control over their
states internal affairs under the British supremacy.
4. Razakars: A para-military force of Nizam was sent to respond people’s movement which
had no bounds.
5. Nizam: Ruler of Hyderabad was titled as Nizam who was world’s richest person.
6. State Reorganisation Commission: It was appointed in 1953 to look into the matter to
redraw the boundaries of states.

Chapter 2- Era of One-Party Dominance

Challenge of Building Democracy
 The Election Commission of India was set-up in January 1950. Sukumar Sen was the first
Chief Election Commissioner.
 India’s vast size and low literacy rate etc were some of challenges to hold general
elections in 1952. Despite these challenges the election was held successfully in 1952.
Changing Methods of Voting
 In the first general election it was decided to place inside each polling booth a box for
each candidate with the election symbol of that candidate.
 By 2004 the entire country had shifted to the Electronic Voting Machine (EVM).
First Three General Elections

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 The Congress dominated in the first three general elections. It had many popular faces
like Jawaharlal Nehru, C Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel etc. Moreover Jawaharlal
Nehru was charismatic and a very popular leader.
 Congress worked at upper level as well as at grass root level. Congress was popularised
due to the participation in Civil Disobedience Movement.
 In Kerala, in 1957 the Communist Party came to power in the world for the first time
through democratic elections.
 This was the first state where Non-Congress Government was formed after
independence.
Nature of Congress Dominance
 The dominance of Congress party was in democratic condition. The roots of
extraordinary success of the Congress party go back to the legacy of the freedom
struggle.
 The Congress brought together diverse groups, whose interests were often
contradictory.
 By the time of independence, the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social
coalition broadly representing India’s diversity in terms of classes and castes, religions
and languages and various interests.
 This coalition-like character of Congress gave it an unusual strength.
Tolerance and Management of Factions
 Groups within party with diverse ideologies are called factions. Some of these factions
were based on ideological considerations but very often these factions were rooted in
personal ambitions and rivalries.
 The coalition nature of the Congress party tolerated and in fact encouraged various
factions.
Emergence of Opposition Parties
 The roots of almost all the Non-Congress parties of today can be traced to one or the
other of the opposition parties of the 1950s.
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 These opposition parties offered a sustained and often principled criticism of the
policies and practices of the Congress party.
 This kept the ruling party under check and often changed the balance of power within
the Congress.
Socialist Party
 The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was formed within the Congress in 1934 by a group of
young leaders who wanted a more radical and egalitarian Congress.
 In 1948, the Congress amended its Constitution to prevent its members from having a
dual party membership. This forced the socialists to form a separate socialist party in
1948.
 They criticised the Congress for favouring capitalists and landlords and for ignoring the
workers and peasants.
The Communist Party of India (CPI]
 In the early 1920s communist groups emerged in different parts of India taking
inspiration from the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
 In 1951 the communist party abandoned the path of violent revolution and decided to
participate in the approaching general elections.
 AK Gopalan, SA Dange, EMS Namboodripad; PC Joshi, Ajay Ghosh and P Sundarraya
were among the notable leaders of the CPI.
Bhartiya Jana Sangh [BJS]
 The Bhartiya Jana Sangh was formed in 1951 with Shyama Prasad Mukherjee as its
founder President.
 It emphasised the idea of one country, one culture and one nation and believed that the
country could become modem, progressive and strong on the basis of Indian culture and
traditions.
Swatantra Party

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 Swatantra party was formed in August in 1959. The party was led by old Congressmen
like C. Rajgopalachari, KM Munshi, NG Ranga and Minoo Masani.
 The party was critical of the development strategy of state intervention in the economy,
centralised planning, nationalisation and the public sector. It instead favoured
expansion of a free private sector.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. After independence, our leaders became conscious of critical role of politics in a democracy
as they wanted to run politics as a method to sort out problems as well as to decide and
pursue the public interest.
2. Consequently, the Election Commission of India came into existence in January 1950,
Sukumar Sen became first Chief Election Commissioner of India to hold elections in the
country. This commission required the drawing of the boundaries of electoral constituencies,
electoral roll consisting eligible voters to hold free and fair elections.
3. The first general election of India became a landmark due to its competitiveness,
encouraging
participation, fair results and proved its critics wrong not to hold elections in conditions of
poverty. . –
4. In the 1952 election Congress party scored a big victory but it was not in power in the states
like Travancore—Cochin i.e. Kerala, Madras and Orissa. Congress dominated in India due to
identification with freedom struggle, popular appeal of charismatic leaders, a broad manifesto
including every section of society and consensus building role of party.
5. Congress was founded by Dr. A.O. Hume in 1885 as a view to express the feelings of
discontentment changed to a political party in the form of social and ideological coalition by
accommodating different social groups and individuals holding different beliefs and ideologies.
Even in pre-independence days, many organisation and parties with their own constitutions
and organisational structures were allowed to exist within the Congress.
6. Factions are the groups formed inside the party. The coalition nature of the Congress Party
encouraged various factions which were based on either ideological considerations or
personal ambitions or rivalries.

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7. Before the first General Election of 1952, some of the vibrant and opposite parties came
into existence which gained as a token of representation only to maintain democratic
character. These parties kept ruling party under check, prevented resentment, groomed
leaders, alongwith a mutual respect and among Congress leaders as well as opposition parties
leaders.
8. The origin of the socialist party can be traced back to the mass movement stage of the
Indian National Congress which was formed in 1934 by Acharya Narendra Dev and later on, it
was separated to form socialist party in 1948 with ideology of democratic socialism and
criticised capitalism.
9. In the early 1920s communist groups emerged in different parts of India having a belief of
communism. The Communist Party of India was primarily secular, modem and authoritarian.
10. The Bharatiya Jana Sangh wTas formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee with the
ideology of one country, one culture and one nation and called for a reunion of India and
Pakistan in Akhand Bharat.
11. Swatantra Party was formed in August 1959 after the Nagpur Resolution of the Congress
which called for land ceilings. It’s important leaders were C. Rajgopalachari, K.M. Munshi, N.G.
Ranga, and Minoo Masani. Its ideology emphasised on the free economy and less involvement
of government in controlling the economy and advocated closer relations with the USA.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Electronic Voting Machine (EVM): It is a voting machine to record voters’ performances
on electric device, used through election processes.
2. First Past the Post System: This is the simple majority system in which the candidate
gets the maximum amount of votes is declared as elected.
3. Ideological Oriented Party: It is the party in which policies and decisions are formulated
under ideological considerations.
4. Interest-Oriented Party: This party protects particular interests and promotes the same
also i.e. caste, community, region, tribes etc.
5. Charismatic Leader Oriented Party: It is the party in which leader holds a very strong
position and is the nucleus of the party.

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Chapter 3- Politics of Planned Development

Political Contestation
 In a democracy or in a democrative country the final decision must be a political
decision, taken by people’s representatives who are in touch with the feelings of the
people.
 After independence, everyone agreed that the development of India will take place by,
economic growth alongwith social and economic justice.
 There was disagreement on the kind of role that the government must play in ensuring
economic growth with justice.
Ideas of Development
 Any discussion on development is bound to generate contradictions, conflicts and
arguments.
 ‘Development’ was about becoming more ‘modern’ and modern was about becoming
more like the industrialised countries of the West.
 Modernisation was associated with the ideas of growth, material progress and scientific
rationality.
Planning
 Despite the various differences, there was a consensus on one point: that development
could not be left to private sectors. So, there was the need for the government to
develop a design or plan for development.
 In 1944, the big industrialists drafted a joint proposal for setting up a planned economy
in the country known as Bombay Plan.
 Soon after India became independent, the Planning Commission came into being as
Prime Minister its chairperson.
The Early Initiatives
 The draft of the First Five Year Plan and then the actual Plan Document, released in
December 1951, generated a lot of excitement in the country.
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 The excitement with planning reached its peak with the launching of the Second Five
Year Plan in 1956 and continued somewhat till the Third Five Year Plan in 1961.
 The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) addressed mainly the agrarian sector including
investment in dams and irrigation.
 One of the basic aims of the planners was to raise the level of national income, which
could be possible only if the people saved money than they spent.
Rapid Industrialisation
The second Five Year Plan stressed on heavy industries. It was drafted by a team of economists
and planners under the leadership of PC Mahalanobis.
Key Controversies
The strategy of development followed in the early years raised several important questions.
Agriculture Versus Industry
 After first two plans agriculture could not develop at appreciable level. Gandhian
economist J.C. Kumarappa proposed an alternative blueprint that put greater emphasis
on rural industrialisation.
 Some others thought that without a drastic increase in industrial production, there
could be no escape from the cycle of poverty.
Public Versus Private Sector
 India adopted ‘mixed economy’ where elements of both public and private sector exist
together.
 Critics argued that the planners refused to provide the private sector with enough space
and the stimulus to grow. The enlarged public sector produced powerful vested
interests that created enough hurdles for private capital.
The First Five Year Plan Major Outcomes
 The early initiatives for planned development were at best realising the goals of
economic development of the country and well-being of all its citizens.
 Those who benefitted from unequal development soon became politically powerful and
made it even more difficult to move in the desired direction.
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There were three major outcomes. These are

1. Economic Foundations
 During first two plan foundations of India’s future economic growth were laid. Mega
dams like Bhakhra-Nangal and Hirakund for irrigation and power generation were built.
 Some of the heavy industries in the public sector-steel plants, oil refineries,
manufacturing units, defense production etc.-were started during this period.
 Infrastructure for transport and communication was improved substantially.
2. Land Reforms
 Colonial system of Zamindari was abolished.
 Attempts at consolidation of land-bringing small pieces of land together in one place
was initiated.
3. Green and White Revolution
 During 1960s the government offered high-yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, pesticides
and better irrigation at highly subsidised prices. This was termed as Green Revolution.
 The rich peasants and the large land holders were the major beneficiaries of this.
 Some regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh became agriculturally
prosperous, while others remained backward.
 In 1970 the rural development programme called Operation Flood was started.
 Operation flood organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nationwide milk grid,
with the purpose of increasing milk production.
 This was termed as White Revolution. Verghese Kurien is known as ‘Milkman of India.’
Later Developments
 The period from 1967 onwards witnessed many new restrictions on private industry.
Fourteen private banks were nationalised.
 Between 1950 and 1980 the Indian economy grew at a sluggish per annum rate of 3 to
3.5%.
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 The presence of inefficiency, corruption etc forced people to lose faith in country’s
economic system thus it results in decreasing the significance of state in India’s
economy from 1980s onwards.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Due to rising Global Demand for Iron, the reserved Iron-resource of Orissa has been an
important investment destination to be signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to
bring in capital investment and employment opportunities. Some conflicts arose in Orissa like
tribal population feared to be displaced from home and environmentalists became worried
about environmental pollution.
2. ‘Development’ refers to process of living standard and attaining an economic level of
industrial production. Immediately after independence, the Indian government took up the
tasks of poverty attenuation, social and economic redistribution and development of
agriculture.
3. Planning is a systematic regulation of purposeful activity to achieve national goals. India was
inspired by USSR for planning to provide basic necessities of life i.e. advanced education,
medical care and technological skills. ‘Bombay Plan’ was drafted in 1944 to make the states to
take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investments.
4. The Planning Commission of India was set up in 1950 as an ‘Extra-constitutional body’
alongwith Prime Minister as its chairman, ministers incharge and some other members to be
advisory in nature. It helps to reduce the wastage of time and increase the per capita income.
5. Before independence, the need for planning was felt to set up National Planning Committee
in 1930s to collect data and setting aims as well as opted for five year plans and annual
budget.
6. The first five year plan, commenced in 1951, drafted by economist K.N. Roy aiming at
investment in dams and irrigation, land reforms and to raise the level of National Income. It
differed from second five year plans which stressed on heavy industries by bringing about
quick structural transformation. 1
7. India did not only follow capitalist or socialist economy but adopted mixed economy to
co¬exist private and public sector also, to attain rapid economic development aiming at social
welfare and private owned means of production to be regulated by the state.

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8. Second five-year plan emphasised on heavy industrialisation even in rural areas, being
criticised for the creation of prosperity in urban and industrial sections at the cost of rural
welfare. It was argued also on the ground to be a failure not that of policy but of its
non¬implementation of politics of land owning classes.
9. During the planning period, the Agrarian sector witnessed a serious attempt at land reforms
to abolish Zamindari system, consolidate the lands. These were not much successful due to
some drawbacks i.e. people violated laws under considerable political influence and some laws
remained only on papers.
10. Between 1965 and 1967, severe droughts occurred in many parts of country and it was in
Bihar to feel a famine situation. On the other hand food prices also hit a high in Bihar and due
to government’s policy of zoning, trade of food across states was prohibited, which reduced
the availability of food in Bihar.
11. The Green Revolution emphasised on new strategies of agricultural practice to be offered
by government i.e. high yielding variety of seeds, fertilizers, pesticide better irrigation at highly
subsidised prices. Green Revolution produced favourable conditions for poor peasants and
made the ‘Middle Peasant Sections’ politically influential Green Revolution had some negative
effects also i.e. it created a gap between landlords and poor and it delivered only a moderate
agricultural growth.
12. The ‘White Revolution’ in Gujarat was started by Varghese Kurien known as the Milkman
of India’. He launched Gujarat Cooperative Milk and Marketing Federation Ltd., which further
launched ‘Amul’. The Amul pattern became a uniquely appropriate model for rural
development and poverty alleviation which came to be known as white revolution.
13. The Kerala model was based on ‘Decentralised Planning’ to focus on education, health,
land reforms, effective food distribution and poverty alleviations taken initiative to involve
people in making plans at panchayat, block and district level.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Planning: A systematic regulation to optimum use of resources and to reduce wastage
of time.
2. Capitalist Economy: The economy in which private sectors are prioritised in place of
social welfare.

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3. Socialist Economy: It aims at the public sector and planning with the aim to establish
egalitarian society.
4. Bombay Plan: It was a joint proposal of a section of big industrialists for setting up a
planned economy in the country to be drafted in 1944.
5. Planning Commission: It is an ‘extra-constitutional body’ to make plans for the country
to set up in March 1950 with the Prime Minister as its Chairman.
6. Plan Budget: It is the amount that is spent on a five-year basis as per the priorities fixed
by the plan.
7. Mixed Economy: The economy in which the private and the public sector both co-exist.

Chapter 4 -India’s External Relations

International Context or Relations
 In post independence period, India faced many challenges to make a strong foreign
policy.
 India shaped its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other
nations and to achieve security through the maintenance of peace.
 In post Second World War period, world politics led to the division of countries of the
world into two clear camps-one under the United States and other under the Soviet
Union.
The Policy of Non-Alignment
 The Cold War era marked the political, economic and military confrontation at the
global level between the two blocs led by the superpowers, the US and the USSR.
 Along with this in other prevailing world politics Indian leadership was in the direction to
pursue its national interests with these international context.
Nehru’s Role

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 Nehru exercised foreign policy from 1946 to 1964. The three major objectives of
Nehru’s foreign policy were to preserve the hard-earned sovereignty, protect territorial
integrity and promote rapid economic development.
 Despite the fact that many leaders from India, wanted India to follow a pro-US foreign
policy; Nehru wished to achieve his objectives of foreign policy through the strategy of
non-alignment.
Distance From Two Camps
 India wanted to keep away from the military alliances led by US and Soviet Union
against each other. The US was not happy about India’s independent initiatives the
policy of non-alignment.
 During 1950s India took an independent stand on various international issues and could
get aid and assistance from members of both power blocs.
 India’s independent stand and her growing relations with USSR hurt the sentiments of
USA. Therefore, there was a considerable unease in Indo-US relations during 1950s.
Afro-Asian Unity
 Nehru era marked the establishment of contacts between India and other newly
independent states in Asia and Africa.
 Under the leadership of Nehru, India convened the Asian Relations Conference in March
1947.
 India supported the process of decolonisation and opposed racism, especially apartheid
in South Africa.
 The Afro-Asian Conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955 which is
known as Bandung Conference and marked the establishment of the NAM.
 The first summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.
Peace and Conflict with China
 Independent India began its relationship with China on a friendly note as India was one
of the first countries to recognise the communist government.

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 Some of Nehru’s colleagues like Vallabhbhai Patel, were worried about possible Chinese
aggression in future but Nehru thought it was exceedingly unlikely that India will face an
attack from China.
Paonchsheel (The five principles of peaceful co-existence) Agreement signed between
Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29th April, 1954
was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between two.
Tibet
 Tibet, a plateau of the Central Asian region, is one of the major issues that historically
caused tension between India and China.
 After the Panchsheel Agreement of 1954 India conceded China’s claim over Tibet.
 In 1959, the Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama was given asylum (refuge) by India
which worsened the relations between both countries.
The Chinese Invasion, 1962
 China annexed Tibet in 1950 and removed historical buffer between two countries. The
issue of Dalai Lama added fuel to the fire.
 China claimed two areas within the Indian territory: Askai-Chin area in the Ladakh region
of Jammu and Kashmir and state of Arunachal
Pradesh in North Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA).
 China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed
areas.
 The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad.
 The Sino-Indian conflict and the growing rift between China and the Soviet Union
created irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI). The Pro-
USSR faction remained within the CPI and moved towards closer ties with the Congress.
Wars and Peace with Pakistan
 The conflict started with Pakistan just after independence over the dispute on Kashmir.
 The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in
1960 which has worked well despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations.
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 In April 1965, Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat
which was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-September.
 The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. Indian Prime Minister Lai
Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement,
brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.
Bangladesh War, 1971
 In a dramatic internal politics during 1970 the East and West Pakistani rulers were not
willing to accept the democratic verdict.
 Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who moved to
East Pakistan and took shelter in the neighbouring areas in India.
 After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war between India
and Pakistan broke out in December 1971.
 On 3rd July, 1972 the Shimla Agreement was singned between Indira Gandhi and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
India’s Nuclear Policy
 The first nuclear explosion undertaken by India in May 1974.
 In India nuclear programme was initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi
J. Bhabha.
 Nehru was against nuclear weapons and India wanted to generate atomic energy for
peaceful purposes.
 The five permanent members of the UN security council-tried to impose the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world.
 India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
 India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use
nuclear energy for military purposes.
FACTS THAT MATTER

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1. Immediately after independence, India faced the twin challenges of Welfare and
democracy. Moreover, India started participating in the world affairs as an independent nation
state with the overall context like the legacy of many international disputes left by the British,
pressures created by partition and poverty alleviation.
2. India was born in the backdrop of world war, hence it decided to conduct foreign relations
with an aim to respect the sovereignty of other nations to achieve security through
maintenance of peace. For this, India laid down directive Principles of State Policy in the
Article 51 of Indian Constitution.
3. The foreign policy of a nation is the interplay of domestic and external factors. Pt. J.L. Nehru
was the ‘Chief Architect of India’s Foreign Policy’ with the objectives of preserving sovereignty
of India, protection of territorial integrity and promotion of rapid economic development.
Hence India adopted NAM to stay away from any military blocs.
4. Nehru’s Era established the contacts between India and States in Asia and Africa by
convening conferences on Asian Relations (March 1947), Indonesia’s Freedom Struggle (1949),
decolonisation process, and engaged herself in Bandung Conference in 1955 .with the newly
independent Asian and African Nations.
5. Panchsheel, the five principles of peaceful co-existance (29 April 1954) between India and
China was a stronger step towards friendship and relations. India advocated China’s new
government as a communist even in the UN after Chinese revolution in 1949 to ahead a
friendly step.
6. India and China began to conflict on annexation of Tibet by China and suppressed Tibetan
culture also. China claimed Aksai Chin area and NEFA within the Indian territory, which
differences could not be resolved despite correspondence and discussions and led India to
indulge in conflict.
7. India and Pakistan conflicted on initiative of Pakistan’s serious armed conflict over Kashmir
issue in 1965. The UN intervened and made the both to sign Tashkent Agreement in 1966 to
relieve the situation. But 1965 war added to India’s already difficult economic situation.
8. India’s foreign policy reflects her desire to be an important regional power which reflected
during Bangladesh War 1971 when there were clashes between East and West Pakistan and
India supported freedom struggle in Bangladesh and declared unilateral ceasefire with the

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surrender of Pakistan. India and Pakistan signed Shimla Agreement on 3rd July 1972 to
formalise the return of Peace.
9. India’s Nuclear Policy advocates no first use and reiterates India’s commitment to global
verifiable on non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to nuclear weapons free world.
Pt. J.L. Nehru was against nuclear weapons, so he placed nuclear disarmament and considered
NPT as discriminatory and India has always been committed to use these weapons for
peaceful purposes.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Non-alignment: A policy not to join any military alliances created due to cold war.
2. Foreign Policy: It is an interplay of domestic and external factors of a nation.
3. Panchsheel: Five principles of peaceful co-existence to be signed in 1954 between India
and China.
4. Bandung Conference: An Afro-Asian conference in Bandung in 1955 to establish NAM
and India’s engagement with Asian and African nations.
5. NEFA: North-Eastern Frontier Agency known much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in
1960s.

Chapter 5- Challenges to and Restoration of Congress System

Challenge of Political Succession
 Nehru’s death in 1964 generated a lot of speculation about the question of succession.
The 1960s were labelled as the ‘dangerous decade’ due to many challenges and
unsolved problems.
 After the death of Nehru, Lai Bahadur Shastri was unanimously chosen as the leader of
the Congress parliamentary party, and became India’s next Prime Minister.
 During Shastri tenure from 1964 to 1966 the country faced two major challenges serious
food crisis and a war with Pakistan in 1965. Shastri’s famous slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’
symbolised the country’s resolve to face both these challenges.

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 After sudden death of Lai Bahadur Shastri in 1966 there was an intense competition
between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi for succession. Indira Gandhi was backed by
senior party leaders.
Fourth General Elections, 1967
 The year 1967 is considered as a landmark year in India’s political and electoral history.
 In prevailing political environment the economic situation trigerred off price rise. People
started protesting against the increase in prices of essential commodities, food scarcity
etc.
 The communist and socialist parties launched struggles for great equality.
 1960s also witnessed some of the worst Hindu-Muslim riots since Independence.
Non-Congressism
 Opposition parties were in the forefront of organising public protests and pressurising
the government.
 These opposition parties felt that the inexperience of Indira Gandhi and the internal
fractionalism within the Congress provided them an opportunity to topple the Congress.
 The socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia gave this strategy the name of Tion-
congressism’.
Electoral Verdict
 The fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies were held in
February 1967.
 The results jolted the Congress at both the national and state levels, and it was termed
as ‘political earthquake’.
Coalitions
 The elections of 1967 brought into picture the phenomenon of coalitions.

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 Since no single party had got majority, various non-congress parties came together to
form joint legislative parties (called Samyukt Vidhayak Dal in Hindi) that supported non-
congress governments.
Defection
Defection means an elected representative leaves the party on whose symbol he/she elected
and joins another party. The constant realignments and shifting political loyalties in this period
gave rise to the expression ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’.
Split in the Congress
After 1967 elections Congress saw split due to various differences.
Indira vs the ‘Syndicate’
 Syndicate was a group of powerful and influential leaders from within the Congress.
 Indira Gandhi faced two challenges from syndicate to build her independence from the
syndicate and to work towards regaining the ground that the Congress had lost in the
1967 elections.
Presidential Election, 1969
 The factional rivalry between the Syndicate and Indira Gandhi was clearly visibe when
the post of President of India was vacated in 1969 after the death of Zakir Hussain.
 Syndicate supported official candidate of the Congress N.Sanjeeva Reddy while Indira
Gandhi supported W Giri as the candidate for the President of India.
 Indira Gandhi announced the nationalisation of fourteen leading private banks and the
abolition of the ‘privy purse’ which removed differences between Morarji Desai and
Indira Gandhi.
 The defeat of official Congress candidate formalised the split in the party.
The 1971 Election and Restoration of Congress
The Indira Gandhi’s Government recommended the dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December
1970 and the fifth general elections to the Lok Sabha were held in February 1971.
The Contest

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 In 1971 election, all the major non-communist, non-congress opposition parties formed
an electoral alliance known as the Grand Alliance.
 Indira Gandhi said that the opposition alliance had only one cohunon programme Indira
Hatao, in contrast she put forward a positive programme captured in the famous slogan
Garibi Hatao.
 This Slogan and the programmes that followed it were part of Indira Gandhi’s political
strategy of building an independent nationwide political support base.
The Outcome and After Effect
 The results of the 1971 Lok Sabha elections were dramatic as the Congress (R) – CPI
alliance won more seats and votes than the Congress had ever won in the first four
general elections.
 They combine won 375 seats in Lok Sabha and secured 48.4 percent votes. Indira
Gandhi’s Congress (R) won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes on its
own.
 The Grand Alliance of the opposition proved a grand failure. Their combined tally of
seats was less than 40.
Restoration
 Indira Gandhi in many ways had re-invented the party. Now, it was a new Congress that
had emerged.
 While the Congress consolidated its position and Indira Gandhi assumed a position of
unprecedented political authority, the spaces for democratic expression of people’s
aspirations actually shrank.
 The popular unrest and mobilisation around issues of development and economic
deprivation continued to grow.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in May 1964. The 1960s were labelled as
‘dangerous decade’ due to some unresolved problems like poverty, inequality, communal and

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regional divisions to be speculated to lead to a failure of democratic project or even the

disintegration of the country.
2. India mainly faced two challenges from 1964 to 1966 during Lai Bahadur Shastri’s reign like
‘Economic Crisis’ due to Indo-China War of 1962 and Indo-Pak War of 1965 and failed
Monsoons, droughts and food crisis which was symbolised as a famous slogan to resolve the
issues like ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’.
3. The Congress Party faced the challenge of political succession for the second time after the
death of Lai Bahadur Shastri with an intense competition between Morarji Desai and Indira
Gandhi to resolved through a secret ballot among Congress MPs. Indira Gandhi defeated
Morarji Desai and a peaceful transition of power was seen as a ‘Sign of Maturity of India’s
Democracy’.
4. The government of Indira Gandhi decided to devalue the Indian rupee in order to check
economic crisis of 1967. Consequently, one US dollar could be purchased for less than Rs 5
after devaluation which cost more than Rs 7 to trigger a price rise and people protested
against essential commodities price rise and unemployment. It was struggled even by socialist
and communist parties for greater equality.
5. The Congress Party’s decision of devaluation gave birth to the concept of Non-Congressism
with different programmes and ideologies to form anti-Congress fronts. It was claimed to be
necessary for democratic purposes.
6. The fourth general election was held in 1967, not be in favour of Congress. The political
leaders like Kamraj in Tamilnadu, S.K. Patil in Maharashtra, Atulya Ghosh in West Bengal and
K.B. Sahay in Bihar were defeated alongwith majority lost in other states also for the very first
time any non-Congress party has secured majority including coalition government consisting
of different non-Congress parties which were termed as ‘Political earthquake’.
7. The election of 1967 brought the phenomenon of coalitions which was formed together by
joint legislature parties to be called SVD i.e. Samyukt Vidhayak Dal. The SVD in Bihar included
the two socialist parties-SSP and PSP along with CPI on the left and Jana Sangh on the right. In
Punjab, it was called popular United Front and comprised the two rival Akali Parties at that
time.
8. Immediately, after 1967, Indira Gandhi faced two challenges to build her independence
from ‘Syndicate’ and to regain ground which were lost in 1967 elections by Congress. And
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Indira Gandhi adopted a very bold strategy as she converted it into ideological struggle,
launched a series of initiatives and got the Congress Working Committee to adopt ‘Ten Point
Programme’ in 1967 including social control of Banks, Nationalisation of General Insurance,
Ceiling on Urban Property and Income, Public Distribution of Food Grains, Land Reforms etc.
9. Syndicate was the informal name given to a group of Congress leader like K. Kamraj, S.K.
Patil, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, Atulya Ghosh who were in control of Party as organisation i.e. within
Congress. Syndicate had a greater say in Indira Gandhi’s first council of Ministers and in Policy
formulations and implementations. After split, Congress (O) and Indira led Congress (R)
formed which won the popularity after 1971.
10. The formal split in Congress (Syndicate and Indira Gandhi) came into open in 1969 on
nomination of candidate for president’s post. Diplomatically, Indira Gandhi’s candidates won
over syndicate’s candidate (V.V. Giri over N. Sanjeeva Reddy), which formalised the split in
Congress into two separate parties i.e. Congress (O) i.e. organisation led by syndicate known
as a ‘Old Congress’ and Congress (R) i.e. requisitionists led by Indira Gandhi known as ‘New
Congress’.
11. Everyone believed that real organisational strength was under command of Congress (O),
on the other hand, all major parties like SSP, PSP, Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Swatantra Party and
Bharatiya Kranti Dal also formed ‘Grand Alliance’ against Indira Gandhi with a common
programme of‘Indira Hatao’.
12. In contrast to ‘Indira Hatao’, Indira Gandhi put forward a positive programme ‘Garibi
Hatao’ to generate a support base among landless labourers, dalits, adivasis, minorities,
women and unemployed youth as well as focused on growth of public sector, imposition of
ceiling on rural land holdings and Urban property and removal of disparity etc and succeeded
to build an independent nationwide political support base during election contest of 1971.
13. Indira Gandhi did not revive old Congress Party but she re-invented the party by forming
an entirely different popular party to accommodate some social groups, the poor, the women,
the dalits, adivasis and the minorities. Thus, Indira Gandhi restored the Congress system by
changing the nature of Congress system itself.

WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Defection: An elected representative who leaves the Party on whose symbol, he is
elected and joins another party.
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2. Non-Congression: Non-Congress parties alongwith their different programmes and

ideologies together to form anti-Congress fronts.
3. Congress (O): Congress led by syndicated also known as Old Congress, i.e. Congress
(organisation).
4. Congress (R): It was led by Indira Gandhi and known as New Congress, i.e. Congress
(Requisitionists).
5. Grand alliance: It was major electoral alliance formed by major parties like SSP, PSP,
Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Swatantra Party and Bharaitya Kranti Dal to form a United front.
6. Syndicate: A group of powerful and influential leaders from within the Congress.
7. Ten Point Programme: Adopted by Indira Gandhi in 1967 to regain ground for Congress
including social control of banks, land reforms etc.
8. Devaluation: To reduce the rate at which money can be exchanged for foreign money.
9. Political Earthquake: The electoral verdict of fourth general election in 1967 which
jolted the Congress at both the national and state levels.

Chapter 6- The Crisis of Democratic Order

Background to Emergency
 1970’s was a period of political turmoil in India. This period witnessed tensions in
relationship between the government and the judiciary.
 Ideological differences erupted within the Congress and it sharpened the division
between Indira Gandhi and her opponents.
Economic Context
 Congress gave the slogan of Garibi Hatao in 1971 elections. Due to various national and
international factors, the social and economic condition in the country did not improve
much after 1971-72.

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 In such a context non-Congress opposition parties were able to organise popular

protests effectively.
Gujarat and Bihar Movements
 Gujarat and Bihar were Congress ruled states. Despite this fact students from both the
states started agitation against rising prices of food grains, cooking oil and other
essential commodities, and against corruption in high places.
 Jai Prakash Narayan from Bihar gave a call for total revolution in the social, economic
and political spheres.
 In 1975, Jai Prakash led one of the largest march to the Parliament.
The Naxalite Movement
 In 1967, a peasant uprising took place in Naxalbari area of Darjeeling (West Bengal)
under the leadership of CPI (M), headed by Charu Majumdar.
 After sometime one branch broke off from them and was known as Communist Party
(Maxist-Leninist) (CPI-ML). It was founded by Charu Majumdar.
 Government have taken stern measures in dealing with the Naxalite movement.
Railway Strike of 1974
 A nationwide strike by all employees of the Railways was led by George Fernandes.
 Its main demand was related to bonus and service conditions.
 The government declared the strike illegal and it had to be called off after 20 days
without settlement.
Conflict with Judiciary
 1970s witnessed a bitter relationship between legislature and judiciary.
 Constitutional Amendment and its interpretation was a pivotal point of bitter relations.
 In 1973, issue of appointment of Chief Justice of India worsened the condition.

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 Highest point in controversy came when High Court declare Indira Gandhi’s election
invalid.
Declaration of Emergency
On 12th June, 1975, Justice Jagmohan Lai Sinha of the Allahabad High Court declared Indira
Gandhi’s election to the Lok Sabha invalid. This decision created a political crisis.
Crisis and Response
 In response to rapid changing political situation and JP Movement, the Government of
India on 25th June, 1975 recommended the imposition of emergency to President
Fakrudin Ali Ahmed. The President issued the proclamation immediately.
 The emergency was proclaimed under Article 352 of the Constitution which declare a
state of emergency of grounds of external threat or a threat of internal disturbances.
 The cabinet was informed about it at a special meeting at 6 am on 26th June, 1975 after
all this had taken place.
Consequences ‘
 Freedom of Press and some of the Fundamental Rights of the citizens were suspended.
All the ongoing protests ended, strikes were banned, opposition leaders were put in Jail.
 The Parliament also brought in many new changes to the Constitution.
 Prior approval of government was needed to publish any article or matter it is called
press censorship.
Controversies regarding Emergency
 After emergency, an investigation was done by Shah Commission. It found that in some
areas excess restrictions were implied during emergency.
 The government argued that in a democracy, the opposition parties must allow the
elected ruling party to govern according to its policies.
 The critics say that Indira Gandhi misused constitutional provision meant for saving the
country to save her personal power.

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 The Shah Commission estimated that nearly one lakh people were arrested under
preventive detention laws.
 Apart from the arrests of political workers and the restrictions on the press, the
emergency directly affected lives of common people in many cases.
Lessons from Emergency
 It is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
 ‘Internal’ emergency can be proclaimed only on the grounds of ‘armed rebellion’. Advice
to the President to proclaim it must be given in writing by the Council of Ministers.
 The emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil liberties.
Politics after Emergency
The experience of emergency was quite visible in 1977 Lok Sabha Elections. The people’s
verdict was decisively against the emergency.
Lok Sabha Elections, 1977
 The Janata Party made this election into a referendum on the emergency.
 For the first time since Independence, the Congress Party was defeated in the Lok Sabha
elections.
 The Congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha elections. The Janata Party and
its allies won 330 out of 542 seats in the Lok Sabha; Janata Party itself won 295 seats
and thus enjoyed a clear majority.
Janata Government
 After the election of 1977 there was stiff competition among three leaders for the post
of Prime Minister Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram. Finally Morarji Desai
became the Prime Minister.
 The Janata Party split and the government which was led by Morarji Desai lost its
majority in less than 18 months.
 Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in 1980 in which the Janata Party suffered a
comprehensive defeat and Congress Party came back in power.
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Return of Congress
 By 1970s the Congress Party identified itself with a particular ideology, claiming to be
the only socialist and pro-poor party.
 In an indirect manner the issue of welfare of the backward castes also began to
dominate politics since 1977.
 The issue of reservations for ‘other backward classes’ became very controversial in Bihar
and following this, the Mandal Commission was appointed by the Janata Party
government at the centre.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. The non-Congress parties opposed the Congress due to personalisation of politics. The
‘Marxist-Leninist’ groups were strong in West-Bengal, which used arms and insurgent
techniques to overthrow capitalist order to establish political system. But the state
government took stringent measures to suppress them.
2. The first nationwide Satyagraha was organised by Jayaprakash Narayan for Indira Gandhi’s
resignation. He made people aware not to obey illegal and ‘immoral orders’ by a massive
demonstration in Delhi’s Ramlila ground on June 25, 1975, as well as Indira Gandhi’s elections
were also declared invalid on grounds to use government servants inter-election campaign on
an election petition filed by Raj Narain, a socialist leader.
3. Railway strike of 1974 was called by ‘National Coordination Committee’ led by George
Fernandes for pressing their demands related to bonus and service conditions. The
government declared the strike illegal and deployed the territorial army to protect railway
trades. Thus, strike was called off after twenty days without any settlement.
4. Before, the declaration of emergency, many differences arose between the government and
the ruling party leading to a strain between judiciary, legislature and executive on issues of
intervention in constitutional provisions by government or parliament. It was proved in the
case of Keshavanand Bharti, where the judiciary declared that parliament cannot amend in
constitutional basic features in a controversial manner. It mixed up constitutional
interpretations and political ideologies rapidly.
5. In response to Raj Narain’s petition, on 25 June 1975, the government declared emergency
on recommendation of Prime Minister on a ground of threat of international disturbances,
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which invoked Article 352 of Constitution to bring law and order, restore efficiency and above
all, implement the pro-poor welfare programmes.
6. The proclamation of Emergency in 1975 had far reaching consequences and affected every
spheres of life such as:
(а) lt affected civil liberties by making large-scale arrests as well as citizen’s right to life and
liberty were also taken away.
(b) It affected relationship between the executive and judiciary to bring new changes in the
constitution by 42nd amendment like duration of legislatures, elections can be postponed by
one year during an emergency.
(c) It affected Mass Media also i.e. ‘Press censorship’.
7. After emergency was imposed, question and debates arose either emergency was necessary
or not. The government argued that opposition party must allow elected ruling party to govern
according to its policies whereas critics argued that people had the right to publicly protest
against the government.
8. The State commission headed by J.C. Shah, was appointed in May 1977 by Janata Party
government to enquire into several aspects of allegations of abuse of authority, excesses and
malpractices committed and action taken in the wake of emergency and Shah Commission
found out to be many excesses committed, maximum arrests under preventive detention law,
illegal restrictions on press and verbal orders to cut electricity at 2 a.m. of all newspaper
presses.
9. Emergency taught many lessons firstly, to be difficult to do away with democracy, secondly,
necessary the advice to proclaim emergency in writing (by president) by council of ministers,
thirdly, it made everyone more aware of the value of civil liberties.
10. As soon as the emergency was over and the Lok Sabha elections were announced in 1977
to be turned into a referendum. Hence politics after emergency was characterised by two
major developments:
(a) 1977 elections defeated Congress on people’s verdict against emergency and opposition
fought on the slogan ‘save democracy’.
(b)Midterm elections 1980 were held due to Janata Party lacked direction, leadership and a
common programme as well as could not bring any fundamental change in policies pursued by
Congress.

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11. The legacy of emergency of 1975 was felt in every spheres of life and the politics which can
be described as a period of constitutional and political crisis to have its origin in constitutional
battle over the jurisdiction of the parliament and the judiciary.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Emergency: In an emergency, the federal distribution of power remain practically
suspended and all powers were concentrated in the hands of Union government.
2. Press-censorship: Newspapers were supposed to get prior approval before publishing
any material.
3. Preventive Detention: The people were arrested on the ground/apprehension to
commit any offence in future.
4. Marxist-Leninist: This group was strong in West Bengal which had taken to arms and
insurgent techniques for overthrow of capitalist order and established political system.
5. Twenty Point Programme: It was announced by Indira Gandhi to bring law and order
and restore efficiency including land reforms, land redistribution, eradication of bonded
labour etc.
6. Satyagraha: It emphasised on peaceful demonstration as if people are fighting for
truthfulness and lawfulness, no need to adopt violent methods against the government
or entities.

Chapter 7- Rise of Popular Movements

Nature of Popular Movements
 The nature of popular movements can be simple as well as complex. Popular
movements depict a very unusual form of collective action. From time to time many
popular movements took place for protest. Here some novel tactics for protest are
used.
 Party Based Movements keep close association with political parties and follow their
objectives and ideologies. Non-Party Movements do not keep association with any
political parties and independent from specific ideologies.
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Some Popular Movements

Some of the popular movements are discussed below
Chipko Movement
 Chipko movement was an environmental movement to prevent cutting down of trees. It
demanded that local communities should have control over their natural resources.
 The movement began in some villages of Uttarakhand in early 1973 when the forest
department refused permission to the villagers to fell ash trees for making agricultural
tools.
 Issues of ecological and economic exploitation of the region were raised. Women’s
active participation was the most novel aspect of the movement.
Movements of Dalit Panthers
 Dalit Panthers was a militant organisation of the Dalit youth which was formed in
Maharashtra in 1972.
 Their activities were mostly centred around fighting against increased atrocities on
Dalits in various parts of the state. The larger ideological agenda of the panthers was to
destroy the caste system and to build an organisation of all oppressed sections.
 In the post-emergency period, Dalit Panthers got involved in electoral compromises, it
also underwent many splits, which led to its decline.
Growth of Bhartiya Kisan Union (BKU]
 BKU was an organisation of farmers from Western Uttar Pradesh and Haryana regions.
 The BKU demanded higher government floor prices for sugarcane and wheat, abolition
of restrictions on the inter-state movement of farm produce, guaranteed supply of
electricity at reasonable rates.
 Their activities to pressurise the government to accept their demands include-rallies,
demonstrations, and jail bharo.
 Until the early nineties, the BKU distanced itself from all political parties.

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 Unlike most of the Indian farmers who engage in agriculture for subsistence, members
of the BKU grew cash crops for the market.
 Like BKU other organisation of farmers were Shetkari Sanghatana of Maharashtra and
Rayata Sangha of Karnataka.
Anti-Arrack Movement
 This movement in Andhra Pradesh was a spontaneous mobilisation of women
demanding a ban on the sale of alcohol in their neighbourhoods.
 In the early 1990s, the women of Dubagunta in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh had
enrolled in the Adult Literacy Drive on a large scale.
 It is during the discussion in the class that women complained of increased consumption
of a locally brewed alcohol-arrack-by men in their families. Origin of Anti-arrack
movement can be traced here.
 The simple demand to ban arrack touched upon larger social, economic and political
issues of the region that affected women’s life. This movement inspired other women’s
movement in later periods.
Narmada Bachao Andolan
 This movement was against displacement caused by huge development projects.
 Sardar Sarovar Project It was an ambitious developmental project, launched in the
Narmada valley of Central India in early eighties.
 Numerous big and small dams was to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries
which were concerned with three states-Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
 Narmada Bachao Andolan was a movement to save Narmada. It was around 1988-89
that the issues crystallised under the banner of the NBA-a loose collective of all
voluntary organisations.
 The movement demanded that there should be a cost-benefit analysis of major
developmental projects including social costs.
 The social costs included forced resettlement of the project-affected people, a serious
loss of their means of livelihood and culture and depletion of ecological resources.
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 Many considerations led the NBA to shift from its initial demand for rehabilitation to its
position of total opposition to the dam.
 Narmada Bachao Aandolan continued a sustained agitation for more than twenty years.
 It use every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands.
Lessons From Popular Movements
 Popular movements helps us to understand better the nature of democratic politics.
 Popular movements ensured effective representation of diverse groups and their
demands.
 Popular movements suggested new forms of active participation and thus broadened
the idea of participation in India democracy.
Movement For Right to Information
 The movement started in 1990, when a mass based organisation called the Mazdoor
Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan took the initiative in demanding records of
famine relief work and accounts of labourers.
 In 1994 and 1996, the MKSS organised Jan Sunwais or Public Hearings, where the
administration was asked to explain its stand in public.
 In 1996 MKSS formed National Council for People’s Right to Information in Delhi to raise
RTI to the status of a national campaign.
 In 2002, a weak Freedom of Information Act was legislated but never came into force. In
2004 RTI Bill was tabled and received presidential assent in June 2005.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. A protest against commercial logging to be permitted by the government, began a world
famous environmental movement i.e. Chipko Movement by both men and women on refusal
of permission to villagers to fell ash trees for agricultural tools and allotted the same land to
sports manufacturer. It included a novel aspect in the form of active participation of women
with the agenda of social issues.

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2. On dissatisfaction with the attitude of the government, people come together and raise
voice to fulfil their demands. These movements are either party based and non-party based
movements. Party based movements are supported by political parties (Trade Union
Movement in Kolkata, Kanpur, Bombay etc.) and non-party based movements are based on
the loss of faith in existing democratic institutions or electoral politics (Students and Youth
from different sections merge themselves).
3. Non-party movements emerged due to disillusions among many sections of society, failure
of Janata experiment, a Gulf between Urban industrial sector, political instability, existence of
social inequality and sense of injustice.
4. Dalit Panthers was a militant organisation of Dalit Youth to be formed in 1972 in
Maharashtra. Dalit Panthers addressed the issues to fight against caste-based inequalities,
demanded effective implementation of reservations and social justice by restoring a mass
action in various states.
5. Bharatiya Kisan Union was one of leading farmers movement in the form of agrarian
struggle of farmers against process of liberalisation of Indian Economy. The BKU demanded
higher government floor prices, abolition of restrictions, guaranteed supply of electricity and
the provision of a government pension to farmers.
6. The Anti-Arrack Movement was started by rural women in the state of Andhra Pradesh
against alcoholism, mafias by a mobilisation of women to ban on the sale of alcohol. This
movement openly discussed the issues of domestic violence like dowry, sexual violence etc.
7. Narmada Bachao Andolan was a loose collective local organisation’s movement to save river
Narmada. It opposed the construction of multipurpose dam known as Narmada Sagar project
questioned ongoing developmental projects also. NBA was shifted from its initial demand for
rehabilitation to total opposition to the Dam. It achieved comprehensive National
Rehabilitation Policy 2003 by government.
8. The movements are not only about rallies or protests but these involve a gradual process of
coming together by making people aware of their rights and expectations to contribute in the
expansion of democracy rather than causing disruptions.
9. The movement for right to information started in 1990 on demand of records of famine
relief work and accounts of labourers by Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sanghthan (MKSS). Finally, it
was legislated and became a law in 2005.
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WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Party-based Movements: These movements are supported by political parties but
activists do not participate in elections formally.
2. Non-party Based Movements: These movements involve a mass-mobilisation which
remain outside party politics.
3. MKSS: It was Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan which demanded records of famine, relief
work and accounts of labourers.
4. Dalit Panthers: A militant organisation of Dalit Youth formed in 1972 in Maharashtra
against caste based inequalities and social injustice.

Chapter 8- Regional Aspirations

Region and the Nation: Indian Approach
 The Indian approach in nation building is to balance the principles of unity and diversity.
The nation would not mean the negation of the region.
 The one basic principle of the Indian approach to diversity is, the Indian Nation shall not
deny the rights of different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture.
 India adopted a democratic approach to the question of diversity. Democracy allows the
political expressions of regional aspirations and does not look upon them as anti-
national.
 Democratic politics also means that regional issues and problems will receive adequate
attention and accommodation in the policy making process.
 Soon after Independence, Jammu and Kashmir and some parts of North-East faced mass
agitations in many parts for separation from India.
 These events were followed by mass movement in many parts for the formation of
linguistic states, such as Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

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 In some parts of Southern India, there were protests against making Hindi the official
language of the country.
 With the passage of time the challenge of diversity was met by redrawing the internal
boundaries of the country.
Jammu and Kashmir
 The ‘Kashmir issue’ is always seen as a major issue between India and Pakistan.
 Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions. Jammu-a mix of
foothills and plains, Kashmir- heart of Kashmir region; Ladakh-mountainous region with
very little population which is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.
 Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a Princely State. The state was having majority
population of Muslims but Hari Singh was a Hindu ruler of the state.
 In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. This
forced Hari Singh to ask for Indian military help.
 Indian Army successfully drove out infiltrators from Kashmir valley and Hari Singh signed
an Instrument of Accession1 with the Government of India.
 It was agreed that once the situation will be normalised, the views of the people of
Jammu and Kashmir will be ascertained about their future and India agreed to maintain
the autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir.
External and Internal Disputes
 Externally, Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan.
 Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of
the State of 1947 and consequence of it, a part of the state came under Pakistani
control.
 India claims this area under illegal occupation whereas Pakistan describes this area as
‘Azad Kashmir.’
 Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir within the Indian Union.

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 Article 370 gives greater autonomy to J&K compared to other state of India. State has
its own Constitution.
 The special attention provokes two opposite reactions.
 A section of people outside J&K feels that Article 370 should therefore be revoked and
J&K should be like any other state in India.
 Another section, mostly Kashmiries, believe that autonomy conferred by Article 370 is
not enough.
Politics Since 1948
 Between 1953 and 1974, the Congress Party exercised a lot of influence on the politics
of the state.
 National Conference remained in power with the active support of Congress for some
time but later it merged with the Congress. Thus, Congress gained direct control over
the government of the state.
 In 1974, Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the
Chief Minister of the State.
 Farooq Abdullah succeeded after death of his father as Chief Minister in 1982.
 Farooq Abdullah was soon dismissed by the Governor, his dismissal due to the
intervention of the centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir.
 Ups and down in state politics continued till 1986 when National Conference agreed to
have an
electoral alliance with the Congress.
Insurgency and Effect
 In 1987 assembly election the National Conference-Congress alliance gained a massive
victory and Farooq Abdullah returned as Chief Minister.
 By 1989, the state had come in grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause
of a separate Kashmir nation.

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 Throughout the period from 1990, J&K experienced violence at the hands of the
insurgents and through army action.
 In 2002 J&K experienced a fair election in which National Conference was replaced by
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)-Congress coalition government.
Separatism
 Separatism surfaced in Kashmir ’rom 1989 and is made up of various strands.
 One strand of separatists wanted a separate Kashmir nation, independent of India and
Pakistan.
 Jammu and Kashmir is one of th; living examples of plural society and politics.
 Despite diversities and divergence on the one hand and the continued situation of
conflict on the other, the plural and secular culture of the state has remained largely
intact.
Punjab
 The decade of 1980s witnessed major developments in the State of Punjab.
 Social composition of the state was changed first with partition and later-after the
carving out of Haryam and Himachal Pradesh.
 The Akali Dal, which was formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, had led the
movement for the formation of a ‘Punjabi Suba.’
 Punjab had to wait till 1966 to be reorganised on linguistic lines for the creation of a
Punjabi speaking state.
Political Context
 After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in 1977.
 During the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the region.
This was reflected in a resolution passed in a conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973.
Cycle of Violence

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 The militants made their headquarters inside the Sikh holy shrine, the Golden Temple in
Amritsar and turned it into an armed fortress.
 In June 1984, the Government of India carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’ code name for
army action in the Golden temple in which the government could successfully flush out
the militants.
 In this operation temple was damaged, which hurt the Sikh sentiments and their faith
was betrayed.
 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31st October, 1984 outside her
residence by her Sikh bodyguards as a revenge of ‘Operation Blue Star.’
 In many parts of Northern India violence broke give space out against Sikh community
and continued for almost a week which results in the killings of more than two thousand
Sikhs.
Road to Peace
 In 1984, The new Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali
leaders and in July 1985 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and
Harchand Singh Longowal (the President of Akali Dal).
 The agreement known as Rajiv Gandhi- Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord.
 The cycle of violence continued nearly for a decade and peace returned to Punjab by the
middle of 1990s. The alliance of Akali Dal (Badal) and the BJP scored a major victory in
1997, in the first normal elections in the state in the post militancy era.
The North-East
 The North-East region of the country now consists of seven states, also referred to as
the ‘seven sister.’
 The region witnessed a lot of change in 1947. The
entire region of North-East has undergone considerable political reorganistation.
 The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the
rest of India have added to the delicate nature of politics there.

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 Three issues dominate the politics of North¬East: demands for autonomy, movements
for secession and opposition to ‘outsiders,’
Demands for Autonomy
 At the time of independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised
the State of Assam.
 There were opposition and protest riots throughout the state on various issues.
 At different points of time the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram
and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam.
 The reorganisation of the North-East was completed by 1972.
Secessionist Movements
 For autonomy there were secessionist movements in North-East region like Mizoram
and Nagaland etc.
 After independence, the Mizo hills area was made an autonomous district within Assam.
 Movement for secession gained popular support after the Assam Government ‘failed to
respond adequately to great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills.’
 Mizo’s anger led to formation of Mizo National Front (MNF) under the leadership of
Laldenga.
 MNF fought guerilla war, got support from Pakistani Government and secured shelter in
East Pakistan.
 In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga.
 This accord granted Mizoram as full fledged statehood with special powers, and MNF
agreed to give up secessionist struggle.
 Thus, the accord turn Mizoram as one of the most peaceful places in the region.
 The story of Nagaland is similar to Mizoram except that started much earlier and had
not yet such a happy ending.

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 After a section of violent insurgency a section of the Nagas signed an agreement with
the Government of India but it was not acceptable to other rebels.
Movements Against Outsiders
 The large scale migration into the North-East gave rise to a special kind of problem that
pitted the ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants.
 The issue has taken political and sometimes violent form in many states of North- East.
 The Assam movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of such movements
against ‘outsiders’.
 In 1979, the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), a students’ group not affiliated to any
party, led an anti-foreigner movement. Movement demanded, outsiders who had
entered the state after 1951 should be sent back.
 With the successful completion of the movement, the AASU and the Asom Gana
Sangram Parishad organised themselves as a regional political party called Asom Gana
Parishad (AGP), which came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign
national problem as well as to build a ‘Golden Assam.’
Sikkim’s Merger
 At the time of independence Sikkim was a ‘protectorate (A state that is controlled and
protected by other) of India. Chogyal was its monarch.
 In 1975, Sikkim was merged with India and it became the 22nd State of the Indian
Union.
Accommodation and National Integration
 Regional aspirations are very much a part of democratic politics. Expression of regional
issues is not an aberration or an abnormal phenomenon.
 The best way to respond to regional aspirations is through democratic negotiations
rather than through suppression.
 Regional imbalance in economic development contributes to the feeling of regional
discrimination.

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Goa’s Liberation
 After independence 1947, British withdrew but Portuguese who were ruling since 16th
century in Goa, Daman and Diu refused to withdraw themselves.
 Goa was liberated in 1961 from Portuguese by an army operation. Goa, Daman and Diu
was declared an Union Territories.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. 1980s may be seen as a period of rising regional aspirations creating various regional
movements which conclude in a negotiated settlement or accords between the government’s
groups. Indian approach maintained a balance in the principles of unity and diversity even by
redrawing the internal boundaries of country in response to preserve the culture of different
regions and linguistic groups.
2. Immediately after independence, India had to cope up with the issues of partition,
displacement, integration of princely states and reorganisation of states i.e. Jammu and
Kashmir issues political aspiration, North-East had no consensus to be a part of India and
Dravidian movement briefly toyed with the idea of separate country.
3. Jammu and Kashmir comprised of three social and political regions namely Kashmir, Jammu
and Ladakh region. On the issue of regional autonomy, Accession was promised on reference
of people. Special federal status guaranteed by Article 370, to protect regional autonomy.
4. During most of the period between 1953 to 1974, Congress exercised a lot of influence on
the politics of Jammu and Kashmir. Finally, in 1974, Sheikh became Chief Minister of the state.
Except it, from 1989, separatist politics was also surfaced in Kashmir with the stronger demand
for intrastate autonomy rather than state autonomy. In present scenario, most of separatist in
dialogue are trying to re-negotiate a relationship of the state with India.
5. In Punjab, Anandpur Sahib Resolution was passed at the conference of Akali Dal at
Anandpur Sahib in 1973 to ascertain regional autonomy and to redefine centre-state
relationship. It had a limited appeal and Akali government was dismissed in 1980. Afterwards,
the movement launched by Akali Dal took the form of armed insurgency and resolution
became controversial.
6. In 1985, Punjab accord was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Harchand Singh Longowal,
President of Akali Dal to transfer Chandigarh, appointment of a commission to resolve border
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dispute and agreement for compensation to better treatment. But peace did not come easily,
violence led many excesses and fragmentation of Akali Dal. Hence, it led to president’s rule in
the state. In 1997, first normal elections in Punjab were held in post militancy era and alliance
of Akali Dal and BJP scored a major victory.
7. The North-East region consisted of seven states referred to as ‘Seven Sisters’. The
reorganisation of North-East was complete by 1972 but did not end the autonomy demands
i.e. Bodos, Karbis, Dimasas demanded separate state in Assam and issues were resolved with
the grant of some autonomy to these issues. Even ‘Assam Accord’ was signed over the issue
of‘Outsiders’ in Assam in 1985.
8. The Assam movement was combination of cultural pride and economic backwardness as it
was against outsiders to maintain cultural integration and poverty, unemployment also existed
despite natural resources like oil, tea and coal.
9. Regional aspirations range from demands of statehood and economic development to
autonomy and separation were coming up which taught many lessons to us i.e. expression of
regional issues is not abnormal phenomenon, to respond through democratic negotiations,
power sharing among groups and parties, economic development of region and flexible
federal system.
10. Goa was under the Portuguese along with Daman and Diu, which expected freedom in
1947 but Portuguese refused. Goa wanted to be merged with motherland and suppressed
from religious conversions and civil rights known as ‘Goa Problem’. In 1961, Government of
India sent army under ‘Operation Vijay’ and liberated Goa from Portugal rule and in 1987, Goa
attained the status of ‘State’ position.

WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Instrument of Accession: An accord signed between Maharaja of Kashmir and
government of India on the accession of state.
2. Insurgency: An affair to be directed against one’s own constitutional government within
national boundary with the support of local people.
3. Khalistan: A separate state of Sikh community to maintain the autonomous Sikh
identity.

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4. Operation Blue Star: A code name for army action in Golden Temple in June 1984 by
Government of India when Sikh militants made their headquarters inside Golden
Temple.
5. Seven Sisters: It is referred to seven states of North East region to be referred as Seven
Sisters.
6. Mizo National Front (MNF): It was formed in 1959 by the groups of Mizo under the
leadership of Laldenga for autonomous States of Mizos.

Chapter 9- Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Context of the 1990s
 After the assassination of Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister and he
led the Congress to a massive victory in the Lok Sabha elections held in 1984.
 The decade of the eighties witnessed five developments that left a long-lasting impact
on our politics. These were:
 The defeat of the Congress party in the elections held in 1989.
 Rise of the ‘Mandal Issue’ in national politics.
 The economic policy (also known as new economic policy) followed by various
governments.
 A number of events culminated in the demolition of the disputed structure at
Ayodhya (known as BabriMasjid) in December, 1992.
 The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a change in leadership of the
Congress party.
Decline of Congress
 During late sixties, the dominance of the Congress party was challenged, but the
Congress under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, managed to re-establish its
predominant position.

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 After elections of 1989 political development in India initiated an era of coalition

governments at the centre in which regional parties played a crucial role in forming
ruling alliances.
Alliance Politics
 Elections in 1989 led to the new development in Indian politics and era of coalition
government started.
 Regional parties played an important role in the United Front government that came to
power in 1996.
 The BJP continued to consolidate its position in the elections of 1991 and 1996 and it
emerged as the largest party in the 1996 election and was invited to form government.
 With the elections of 1989, a long phase of coalition politics began in India. Since then,
there have been nine governments at the centre, all of which have either been coalition
governments or minority governments supported by other parties.
Political Rise of Other Backward Classes
 When the support for the Congress among many sections of the ‘backward castes’ had
declined, this created a space for non-Congress parties to get their support.
 Many of the constituents of the Janata party, like the Bhartiya Kranti Dal and the
Samyukta party, had a powerful rural base among some sections of the OBC.
‘Mandal’ Implemented
 The period of 1980s-90s saw the emergence of many parties that sought better
opportunities for OBCs in education and employment and also raised the question of
the share of power enjoyed by the OBCs.
 The mandal commission was set-up to investigate the extent of educational and social
backwardness among various sections of Indian society.
 After investigation the commission recommended reserving 27 per cent of seats in
educational institutions and government jobs for these groups.
 In August 1990, the national front government implemented the recommendations of
the commission.
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Political Fallouts
1980 onwards the caste based politics dominated Indian politics. In 1989 and 1991, this was
the first time in independent India that a political party (BSP) supported by Dalit voters had
achieved a landmark political success.
In Many Parts of India, Dalit politics and OBC politics have developed independently and often
in competition with each other.
Communalism, Secularism, Democracy
 During 1990s the politics based on religious identity emerged in India and debate about
secularism and democracy came in currency. After Shah Bano case of 1985 BJP emerged
as a ‘Hindutva Party’.
 The Babri Masjid was a 16th century mosque in Ayodhya and was built by Mir Baqi -
Mughal emperor Babur’s General.
 Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple for Lord Rama.
 The dispute took the form of a court case and has continued for many decades.
 The Babri Masjid was demolished on 6th December,
1992. After demolition, the news led to clashes between the Hindus and Muslims in
many parts of the country.
 In February-March, 2002, large-scale violence against Muslims took place in Gujarat. The
violence began from Godhra.
 This incident alert us to the dangers involved in using religious sentiments for political
purposes.
Emergence of a New Consensus
 Analysis shows that since 1989 election, the votes polled by the two parties-Congress
and BJP do not add upto more than 50 per cent.
 The political competition during the nineties is divided between the coalition led by BJP
and the coalition led by the Congress.

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Lok Sabha Elections 2004

In 2004 elections, the coalition led by BJP National Democratic Alliance was defeated and new
coalition led by the Congress, known as the United Progressive Alliance came to power.
Growing Consensus
 After 1990 a consensus appears to have emerged among most parties which consists of
following elements
 Agreement on new economic policies.
 Acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes.
 Acceptance of the role of state level parties in governance of the country.
 Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and
political alliances without ideological agreement.
 They also work as a pressure groups in Indian politics.
 Sometimes regional parties influence the Central Government to divert more
annual budget funds to their states at the expense of other states.
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. During the decade of eighties, five developments took place in country with long lasting
impact i.e. End of Congress system in 1980, Mandal Issues in 1990, New Economic Reforms in
1991, Ayodhya dispute in 1992 and Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.
2. Elections in 1989 led an era of coalitions with the defeat of Congress Party and it emerged
several parties when no single party secured a clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha election
held since 1989 and in this era, regional parties played a crucial role in forming ruling alliances.
3. The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements to represent the
Dalits and backward castes as well as regional assertions. Now, there have been nine
governments at the centre which have either been coalition government or minority
governments supported by other parties or regional parties only.
4. The Mandal Issue started with the national front government’s decision to implement the
recommendation of Mandal Commission that jobs in central government should be reserved

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for other backward classes leading to violent anti-mandal protest in country between
supporters and opponents of OBC reservations.
5. The constituents of Janata Party like Bharatiya Kranti Dal and the ‘Samyukt Socialist Party’
had a powerful rural base among some sections of the OBCs as well as BAMCEF, i.e. Backward
and Minority Classes Employees Federation was formed in 1978 taking strong position in
favour of political power to Bahujan—the SC, ST, OBCs and minorities. It resulted the rise of
the (BSP) Bahujan Samaj Party under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
6. Hindutva literally means Hinduism defined by its originator V.D. Savarkar as basis of Indian
nationhood to be members of Indian nation everyone must not only accept India as their
fatherland ‘Pitrubhu’ but also as their hold land ‘Punyabhu’.
7. Ayodhya Issue was started with the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in December
1992 to symbolise various changes in politics and debates about Indian nationalism and
secularism. These developments are associated with the rise of BJP and Politics of‘Hindutva’.
8. The Political processes after the 1990s showed the emergence of broadly four groups of
parties i.e. parties in coalition with Congress, parties in alliance with BJP, left front parties,
others who are not part of the rest to make political competition multi-concerned.
9. The Anti-Muslim Riots took place in the form of violence against Muslims through an
incident at a station called Godhra 2002 when a bogey, full of Karsevaks was set on fire and
suspected the hand of Muslims in it. Human Rights Commission criticised Gujarat
government’s role in failing to control violence and showed that government machinery also
becomes susceptible to passion and alert us to dangers involved in using religious sentiments
for political purposes.
10. In the midst of severe competition and many conflicts, a consensus appears to have
emerged among most parties consisting of main four elements, i.e. Agreement or new
economic policies, acceptance of political and social claims of backward classes, acceptance of
role of state level Parties in governance of country and emphasis on pragmatic considerations
rather than ideological positions and political alliances without ideological agreement.
11. In coalition government, several political parties cooperate reducing the dominance of any
one party within that coalition. In it, government is formed on the basis of common minimum
programme. The main reason behind this arrangement is that no party gets majority on its
own in the Parliament. Coalition government is also created in the time of national crisis such
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as wartime or economic crisis. If a coalition collapses, confidence vote is held or a motion of

no-confidence is taken.
Coalition government in context of India from 2004-2009 and 2009-2014 respectively: After
the parliamentary elections in May 2014, National Democratic Alliance (NDA) came into power
with Mr. Narendra Modi as the Prime Minister. Although the BJP had got full majority on its
own. At the national level, the first coalition government of India was formed under the Prime
Ministership of Morarji Desai that existed from 24 March, 1977 to 15 July 1979 headed by the
Janta party. This government could not complete its tenure. The first coalition government in
India which successfully completed its 5 year term was the Bharatiya Janata Party-led National
Democratic Alliance with Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee as Prime Minister from 1999-2004. The
other coalition, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) consisted of thirteen separate parties
from all over the country ruled for two terms successfully.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. OBC: It signifies other Backward classes other than SC, ST to be suffered from educational,
social and economic backwardness.
2. BAMCEF: It refers to Backward and Minority Classes’ Employees Federation to be formed in
1978 to mark the rise of political organisation of Dalits.
3. Karseva: Voluntary service by devotees for building Ram Temple in Ayodhya.
4. Mandal Commission: It was set up in 1978 to investigate the extent of educational and
social backwardness among various section of society and recommend various ways to identify
these ‘backward classes’.

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