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Bostwick & Weber Medical Terminology 2E Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Word Roots and Combining Forms

Overview
The word root is the foundation or base for each medical term. It is the basis for what
a person is trying to relate in this new language.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
2.1 Describe how word roots and combining forms are put together to form medical terms.
2.2 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to body parts or elements.
2.3 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to sensations or feelings.
2.4 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to factor and quality.
2.5 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to condition or condition-related.
2.6 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to position or location.
2.7 Recognize and use common medical word roots related to body processes.
2.8 Interpret and use common miscellaneous word roots and combining forms.

Lecture Outline
Case Study (LO 2.1)
o The student is reviewing the patient’s medical record and which states the
patient has cardiomyopathy. The student recognizes cardio- as heart, but does
not understand what the term is.
LO 2.1
The word root is the foundation or base for each medical term. When constructing
medical terms, the word root is commonly the focus and the first part of the word to
begin building with.
The word root can also be the first place to start when trying to deconstruct an unfamiliar
word to figure out its definition

LO 2.2
Overview of basic word roots and combining forms related to body parts or elements
of the body structure.
LO 2.3
 Word roots/combining forms are used to describe a patient's sensation or feelings he or
she is experiencing.
LO 2.4
Medical terms related to factor or quality of a specific foundation word root/combining
form.

LO 2.5
Basic word roots and combining forms related to a condition or condition-related
disease processes.

LO 2.6

1
Bostwick & Weber Medical Terminology 2E Chapter 2

Basic word roots/combining forms related to position or location on the body.

LO 2.7
Word roots/combining forms for the student to start becoming familiar with basic body
processes.

LO 2.8
Miscellaneous word roots/combining forms

Lesson Plan

Time Activity and Materials Learning

Instruction Outcomes
Introduction 5 minutes Discuss tips for 2.1
learning
combining terms
with students

Introduce the
topics for chapter
2.
Lecture 40 minutes Forming 2.1-2.8
Medical Terms
1. Discuss word
building rules

2. Emphasize the
importance of
learning the basic
rules and how
that will enable
the students to
understand many
more terms than
they actually
learn.
3. This section
includes many
basic medical
combining
forms. Identify
combining terms
with students
Active Learning 10 minutes Any activity
and Practice below

2
Bostwick & Weber Medical Terminology 2E Chapter 2

Review 5 minutes Review terms

Assignment Complete
questions within
and end of
chapter

Discussion Topics
Remind students on the importance of learning medical terminology.
Emphasize importance of learning basic rules to as it will assist with understanding.

Written Assignments
Have students create flash cards for all combing terms
Have students spell selected words that you read aloud to them

Group Activities
Have students practice with flash cards in small groups
Using a student’s set of flash cards, quiz students on combing terms.

Internet Activity
Using the Internet, have students identify how medical terminology will be used in
their future discipline.

Exercises

Chapter 2: Combing Terms

Identify the combining forms that best fits the definition .
1. Sugars
2. Fat
3. Immature cells
4. Iron
5. Tube
6. Cold
7. Sound
8. Light
9. Masculine
10. Hidden
11. Blue
12. White
13. Black
14. Hard, hardening
15. Yellow
16. Fever, fire, heat
17. Cancer
18. Disease

3
Bostwick & Weber Medical Terminology 2E Chapter 2

19. Back
20. Straight, normal

Answer Key

Chapter 2: Combing Terms

1. Gluc(o)
2. Lip(o)
3. Blast(o)
4. Sider(o)
5. Syring(o)
6. Cry(o)
7. Son(o)
8. Phot(o)
9. Andr(o)
10. Crypt(o)
11. Cyan(o)
12. Leuk(o)
13. Melan(o)
14. Scler(o)
15. Xanth(o)
16. Pyr(o)
17. Carcin(o)
18. Path(o)
19. Dors(o)
20. Orth(o)

Critical Thinking
1. The word root contains the basic meaning of the word.
2. The prefix attaches to the beginning of the combining form.
3. The suffix attaches to the end of the combing form.

Clinical Applications
1. Understanding combing forms will allow the health care provider to
understand documentation in the medical record.
2. The learning the word roots will assist the health care provider to understand diseases,
procedures and care being provided to the patient.

4
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
completion of buildings, and in reducing a part of the indebtedness. The
Endowment Fund received $38,848.93 last year.
“In order that the accounts of the School should be kept on a strictly
business basis, the Trustees, in 1897, appointed an Auditor, a Certified
Public Accountant of New York, to direct and supervise all the accounts.
The Trustees are in position to assure you that any contributions made, are
properly and rigidly accounted for; and furthermore, that all expenditures
are made with great economy and wise discretion.
“In short, Tuskegee has a good business organization, and warrants the
entire confidence of its friends. Its Endowment Fund will be strictly
preserved. Special contributions for buildings or other specific purposes,
will be kept separate for their particular uses, and the contributions for
current expenses will be expended economically and effectively.
“Though the School is still in need of simple buildings for dormitories,
classrooms and shops, the Trustees determined in 1898 that a point of
development had been reached when the Institute should not go into debt
for any new buildings, and that in future no buildings should be erected
until all the necessary funds are guaranteed for the purpose.
“There are two interests to be served by the upbuilding and
strengthening of Tuskegee—the whole Negro race, and the country as a
whole. The industrial education of the Negro—the education from the
foundation up, as practiced at Tuskegee, is of vast business importance to
all of us. The difference between ten million ignorant Blacks and ten
million reasonably educated industrial workers, means more than sympathy,
more than sentiment, more than our duty—it means wealth to the
community.
“There is no longer the old problem of what to do with the Negro. That
question has been settled. The problem now is one of co-operation and help
and work.
“Booker Washington represents the evolution of this problem. His
untiring devotion to the cause of the Blacks, his modesty, integrity, ability,
in short, his greatness in dealing with this question, has brought about such
a complete change in the understanding of the problem within the last few
years that we can hardly repay the debt.
“Can we stand by and see a man who has such power to lead and educate
his people, begging from door to door for the funds necessary to carry on
his work? Is it not our duty to raise such a fund as will enable him to spend
most of his time in the South, where he is needed, and where he can serve
his people, and all of us, as no other man can do?
“Now is the time and the opportunity to show our recognition of the
wonderful service he has done his people and his country, and to make the
opportunity for him to be free to work to the best advantage. He asks an
Endowment Fund of $500,000—a very modest request. Now that the White
and the Negro of both the North and the South, and the authorities of the
State of Alabama, and the President and Congress of the United States, have
all agreed that Tuskegee and Booker Washington show the true way, we feel
confident that there will be a quick response to the appeal to place Tuskegee
on a firm financial standing.
“The friends of Tuskegee, in the past, have contributed generously to
work out a problem. The problem is now solved—and it should be a
privilege to us all to aid in this work, with the full knowledge that every
dollar expended by Tuskegee will aid the Negro race in the only effective
way, and that our whole country will profit by the investment.”
At the conclusion of Mr. Baldwin’s address I was introduced to the
audience by the Presiding Officer. In my speech I told the audience, among
other things, that the White people North and South, and the Negroes as
well, had practically agreed that the methods of Tuskegee and Hampton
offered the best solution of the perplexing Negro problem that had been put
forth. In other words, that the whole country had agreed upon this solution
of so important an economic, political and social problem. It was the duty,
therefore, of those who could to supply the means for an effective solution
in this way. I will not burden the reader with extracts from that speech.
After I had concluded, Rev. Dr. W. S. Rainsford, Rector of St. George’s
Church, New York, made a few extemporaneous remarks, which were
regarded as a strong appeal in behalf of the purpose of the meeting. I only
wish I could lay before the reader the remarks of this gentleman in full. He
said, among other things, that Tuskegee was doing a work for humanity—
not only for the “Black Belt,” but for the whole country. Pointing to me, he
said, “It is our duty to do for that man, engaged in that noble work, what we
failed to do for General Armstrong. We allowed General Armstrong to go
around begging, begging from door to door, to carry on the work at
Hampton, until it killed him. It is our duty to save Mr. Washington from an
untimely death, brought on in this way. It is our duty to save him for useful
service by endowing Tuskegee.”
As may be partly gleaned from Mr. Cleveland’s letter, the results of this
meeting began to be felt immediately.
A few days after the lady in the West, mentioned in Mr. Cleveland’s
letter, gave notice that she would give us $25,000 on condition that the
whole amount sought for was raised, we were very pleasantly surprised to
receive her check for the $25,000, she having decided to remove the
condition. Counting this $25,000 with the $50,000 given by Mr. Huntington
and $10,000 by Mr. John D. Rockefeller, the result of the meeting was
$85,000; Mr. Rockefeller’s $10,000, however, being given for current
expenses. Adding what was received as a result of this meeting to our
previous Endowment Fund, we have now in the hands of our Endowment
Committee about $150,000 from which the school is receiving interest.

A VIEW OF MACHINE SHOP. STUDENTS AT WORK. TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND

INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE.
HARNESS MAKING AND CARRIAGE DRESSING AT TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE.
 CHAPTER XXI.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK OF THE TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE.

The reader has doubtless noted that much space has been occupied in
this volume in detailing the history of the Tuskegee Institute, and to the
casual reader this may have appeared out of place in an autobiography.
When it is borne in mind, however, that the whole of my time, thought and
energy, for the past eighteen years, have been devoted to the building up of
this Institute, it will be conceded that in any autobiography of mine, a
history of the Tuskegee Institute is unavoidable and necessary. When the
history of Tuskegee Institute, since its founding until now, shall be
completely written, you will have also a history of my life for the same
space of time. It shall be my purpose in this chapter, therefore, to give some
definite idea of the extent to which the Institute has grown, and also to
describe with some degree of accuracy the work that is being accomplished
there in its various departments, viz: Agricultural, mechanical, domestic
science, nurse training, musical, Bible training, and academical
departments.
As has been said many times before, the school began in 1881 with only
the State appropriation of $2,000 per annum, specifically for the payment of
teachers’ salaries and for no other purpose. The method by which we have
succeeded in securing the 2,267 acres of land which the school now owns
has heretofore been described. These 2,267 acres of land are mainly
comprised in two tracts. The tract that forms the site of the Institute is
composed of 835 acres, and is known as the “home farm.” The other large
tract, which is about four miles southeast of the Institute, composed of 800
acres, is known as “Marshall farm.”
Upon the home farm is located the 42 buildings, counting large and
small, which make up the Tuskegee Institute. Of these 42 buildings,
Alabama, Davidson, Huntington, Cassidy and Science, Halls, the
Agricultural Trades and Laundry Buildings, and the Chapel are built of
brick. There are also two large frame halls—Porter Hall, which was the first
building built of the Tuskegee group, and Phelps Hall, a commodious and
well appointed structure dedicated to the Bible Training department. The
other buildings are smaller frame buildings and various cottages used for
commissary, store rooms, recitation rooms, dormitories and teachers’
residences. There are also the Shop and Saw Mill, with Engine Rooms and
Dynamo in conjunction. The brickyard, where all the bricks that have been
used in building our brick buildings were made, is also situated near the
school. Last year alone the brickyard made 1,500,000 bricks. It is equipped
with excellent and improved machinery for brickmaking, and is under the
immediate supervision of Mr. William Gregory, a graduate of Tuskegee.
The total valuation of the property, including the yards and all buildings, the
home and the Marshall farms is placed at $300,000. This does not include
the endowment fund.
The Agricultural Department of the school has at its head Prof. G. W.
Carver, a graduate of the Iowa State University, and a man of experience as
a scientific farmer and a scientist of no mean acquirements. He has 8
assistants who help in looking after the divisions of dairying, stockraising,
horticulture and truck farming embraced in this department. The State of
Alabama appropriates annually the sum of $1,500 for the maintenance of an
agricultural experiment station in connection with our agricultural
department. Some of the experiments of Prof. Carver have attracted much
attention, and it is recognized that his conduct of the station is doing much
to show what improvements upon the old methods of farming may be
wrought by scientific agriculture. This department is well housed in a
beautiful brick building, containing a well equipped chemical laboratory,
erected at a cost of $10,000, adapted to the purposes of agricultural
experiment, and other apparatus necessary for the dairy and other divisions.
It is through the direction of the Agricultural department that the vast
amount of farm and garden products, used by the 1,200 people constituting
the population of the school when in session, is grown. About 135 acres of
the home farm are devoted to the raising of vegetables, strawberries, grapes,
and other fruits. The Marshall farm, with 350 acres in cultivation, is utilized
for the growing of corn, sugar cane (from which syrup is made), potatoes,
grain, hay and other farm products.
Mr. J. N. Calloway is the manager of the Marshall farm. It is worked by
student labor, keeping from thirty to forty-five boys on it constantly. There
is also a night school upon this farm, for the accommodation of students
who work there, which is a branch of the main night school at the Institute.
At present the farm night school requires the services of two teachers.
The Marshall farm not only produces a large amount of the farm
products that are used by the school and its 800 head of live stock, counting
horses, mules, cows, oxen, sheep and hogs, but also furnishes opportunity
for students to learn the art and science of farming, at the same time
attending night school and making something above expenses to be used
when the student enters day school.
A large portion of the Marshall farm, about 400 acres, is utilized as
pasture for the dry cows and beef cattle. Everything grown upon the farm is
sold to the school at market prices. The expenses of running the farm are
also accurately kept. At the end of the year a balance is struck. Last year the
Marshall farm come out over $500 ahead, including in the expense account
the salary of the manager.
The mechanical department of the institution is now housed in the well
equipped trades building, recently completed at a cost of $36,000. It is
known as the Slater-Armstrong Memorial Trades Building. It was dedicated
and formally opened on Wednesday, January 10, 1900, and is the largest
building on the Tuskegee Institute grounds, and stands between the
Agricultural Building and the new chapel. The shape is that of a double
Greek cross, having an open court 85x112 feet in the center. When
completed, it will measure 283x300 feet, the main or central portion being
two stories high, the wings one story. This measurement does not include a
room for the sawmill, which is to come at the extreme rear end. Owing to
the fact that sufficient money has not yet been obtained, the rear portion of
the building, consisting of seven rooms, has not been completed. It is built
entirely of brick, and contains twenty-seven rooms. In round numbers, it
took ten hundred thousand bricks to construct the building thus far, and
every one of these bricks was made by students under the instructor in
brickmaking, and laid in the wall by students under the instructor of
bricklaying. The plans and specifications of the building were drawn by Mr.
R. R. Taylor, formerly in charge of the architectural and mechanical
drawing department of the Institute. The general oversight of both the
planning and construction was, of course, exercised by Mr. J. H.
Washington, Director of Industries.
 The interior arrangements of the building are splendidly suited to the
teaching of the trades. The rooms, while varying in size from 37x42, the
smallest, to 37x85, the largest, will average 37x55, the ceiling being 13 feet
high. On the first floor there are the Director’s office, reading room, exhibit
room, wheelwright shop, blacksmith shop, tin shop, printing office,
carpenter shop, repair shop, woodworking machine room, ironworking
machine room, foundry, brickmaking and plastering rooms, general stock
and supply room, and a boiler and engine room. The second floor contains
the mechanical drawing room, harness shop, paint shop, tailor shop, shoe
shop, and electrical laboratory, and a room for carriage trimming and
upholstering. Each shop has a cloak and tool room connected with it. Better
lighted rooms could scarcely be found in any building. Each shop receives
light from two sides and end. The office, reading room, and exhibit room
are finished with wainscoting to window sills, and plastered from there up
and overhead. In the drawing rooms the walls are plastered, but overhead
the ceiling of this room is of yellow pine, panelled so as to show design.
This ceiling is painted white. The other rooms are not plastered or sealed,
but have what is called a yellow ochre finish on the walls. The machinery in
the building is run by a 125-horse power engine and 75-horse power boiler,
both donated by Mr. C. P. Huntington, of New York.
Each division is well supplied with all of the tools, appliances and
machinery necessary to its successful working and to the accurate teaching
of the trades. The director of this large and important department is Mr. J.
H. Washington, who has under him twenty-two instructors for the various
divisions.
The department for the teaching of the Domestic Sciences has for its
directress Mrs. Booker T. Washington. This department embraces
laundering, cooking, dressmaking, plain sewing, millinery and mattress
making. It is at present housed in several small frame buildings, except the
laundry, which is located in a brick building. Friends have already given
money for the erection and equipment of a building for this department. The
foundation of this building has already been laid and within a year we hope
to have the divisions of this department permanently located in it. Not only
are the trades above named taught in this department, but the young
women, under the motherly direction of Mrs. Booker T. Washington, are
taught the duties of systematic and orderly housekeeping and duties
pertaining thereto.
 The nurse training department is run in connection with the school
hospital and has for its instructors our resident physician and a competent
trained nurse. It has not constituted a separate department, but has formed
one of the divisions under the Director of the Mechanical Department. The
increasing demand for trained nurses in the South has necessitated the
establishment of a regular Training School for Nurses in connection with
the school hospital.
A complete course of three years has been adopted of practical and
theoretical work in the wards of the hospital; two years of which consist of
daily work and instruction in the hospital, and the third year of lectures and
bedside instructions,

THE NEW CHAPEL, BUILT BY STUDENTS.

 ALABAMA HALL. TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE.

FLOAT—REPRESENTING TINNING DEPARTMENT PASSED IN PARADE ON OCCASION OF

PRES. McKINLEY’S VISIT TO TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE, DECEMBER 16, 1898.
BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF SOME OF THE FLOATS AT TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE, DECEMBER 16,
1898.

while one or two days of each week are devoted to hospital work. There are
special provisions for those who apply for this department only. The school
is open also to those who do not wish to follow the work as a profession,
but desire to know how to intelligently care for the sick.
The division of music is under the supervision of the Director of the
Academic Department, and like the nurse training department, it has not
constituted an independent department. While the study of music has
always been encouraged at Tuskegee, and considerable work has been done,
we have been able only within the last few years to furnish a systematic and
thorough course of study. The course in pianoforte embraces four years. The
institution owns eight pianos, two cabinet organs and a library of music.
Vocal music is taught to the classes in the academic department throughout
the entire course.
Tuskegee students are famous for their fine singing of plantation
melodies, and it is the object of the Institute to make these old, sweet, slave
songs a source of pride and pleasure to the students.
There are at Tuskegee the following musical organizations: A choir,
consisting of seventy-five voices; a choral society, consisting of one
hundred and fifty voices, organized for the study of music from the masters;
glee club, consisting of forty male voices; glee club, consisting of twenty
female voices; male quartette, whose work is to travel in the North. The
institution maintains a splendid brass band of thirty pieces, which is
instructed by a competent director, employed by the school. Any student,
possessing knowledge of wind instruments, will be given a chance to enter
the band; but this knowledge is not essential to membership. The band plays
every school day morning for inspection and drill.
One of the most important branches of the Music Department is the
Orchestra, which consists of fourteen pieces. The same rule regarding
membership in the band holds good for the Orchestra. The Orchestra plays
every week night at evening devotions. Many students who have played in
the Orchestra have developed into competent musicians. The director of the
band has charge of the Orchestra. All students belonging to the Orchestra
are subject to certain rules governing this organization.
The Bible Training Department was established in 1893. The desire for
increased opportunities for those who wish to fit themselves for the
ministry, or other forms of Christian work in the South, had been long felt.
To meet this need, a generous lady in New York erected at Tuskegee a
building called Phelps Hall, a picture of which is herewith given, containing
a chapel, library, reading room, office, three recitation rooms and forty
sleeping rooms, to be used as a Bible School. The donor of this building
furnished each room in the most comfortable and convenient manner,
making it one of the most beautiful and desirable buildings on the school
grounds. The instruction is wholly undenominational. It is the aim of this
new department to help all denominations, and not to antagonize any. The
Bible School is not in opposition to any other theological work now being
done, but it is simply a means of helping. The faculty is composed of some
of the strongest men in the country. Rev. Edgar J. Penney is in charge of the
work, assisted by Rev. B. H. Peterson. Rt. Rev. B. T. Tanner, Rev. C. O.
Boothe, D. D., and Rt. Rev. George W. Clinton have been engaged to give a
regular course of lectures during each term.
The members of the Bible School are required to do mission work on the
Sabbath in the neighboring churches—preaching and teaching in the
Sunday Schools whenever their services are needed—and to make weekly
reports in writing of the work done.
It is not necessary to have a special call to the ministry to enter the Bible
School at Tuskegee. Many who desire to do only missionary work or
become intelligent teachers of the Bible in the Sunday Schools, will be
greatly benefited and helped; indeed, quite a few of those who are now
members of this department are fitting themselves for this kind of work.
The demand for an educated ministry is growing throughout the South,
and those who expect to preach must prepare themselves for the work.
This department was established for the express purpose of giving
colored men and women a knowledge of the English Bible; implanting in
their hearts a noble ambition to go out into the dark and benighted districts
of the South and give their lives for the elevation and Christianizing of the
South. Last year eighty-three students attended this department. This was
the largest attendance since the department was founded.
Last, but not least, I mention the Academic Department, which offers a
thorough course of instruction, nearly, if not quite, equal to the high school
courses of the Northern and Western States. No language, however, except
English, is taught. It is our aim to correlate the work of the Academic
Department with the Industrial Departments, and it is the policy of the
school not to give any student a diploma of graduation who has not
completed the course in at least one division of one or another of the
industrial departments.
Last year, of the 1,164 students who attended the Institute, except a part
of those in the Bible Training School, all were taking studies in this
department, either in the night or day school, they being about equally
divided between the night and the day school.
The night school course is so arranged that a student is enabled to do just
half the amount of work in night school as in day school. A student in night
school will therefore cover a year’s work, as laid out for day school
students, in two years.
Last year there were 77 graduates from all of the departments.
I cannot close this chapter without making some special reference to the
chapel at Tuskegee, which is regarded as the architectural gem of the
Tuskegee group. It was planned by Mr. R. R. Taylor, who was then our
teacher in architecture and mechanical drawing. The work of construction,
even to the making of the bricks, was done wholly by students. The cost of
erection of the building was valued at $30,000.00.
The following is a description of the building, a cut of which is also
given in this volume: The plan of the chapel is that of a Greek cross, the
main axis extending from northeast to southwest. The extreme dimensions
from northeast to southwest, extending through nave and choir, is 154 feet 6
inches. The dimensions from northwest to southeast, through transepts, is
106 feet. The roof is of the hammer beam construction. The clear span of
the main trusses is 63 feet, which is the width of the nave and transept. The
angle trusses have a clear span of 87 feet, projections from the walls under
trusses slightly decreasing the span. The gallery on back is 30 feet wide,
extending over girls’ cloak room and 12 feet into main auditorium.
In the rear are choir room, study for minister, and two small vestibules,
one on either side of chapel, giving entrance to choir room, study and main
auditorium. A large basement is provided and in this the steam heating plant
is located. At the northeast end of the auditorium is the pulpit platform,
which is large enough to seat the entire faculty of eighty-eight members.
This platform is 2 feet 6 inches above the main floor. Immediately behind
this and elevated 3 feet above it, is the choir stand, with seating capacity for
150 persons. The chapel is sufficiently supplied with windows to give
abundant light and ventilation, a very pretty effect being secured by the use
of delicately tinted colored glass.
The woodwork is all of yellow pine and hard oil finish, except the floor
which is of oak. The seating capacity of the auditorium is 2,400. One
million two hundred thousand bricks were used in the construction, all
made and laid by students. All the mouldings, casings and caps used were
made by students. The floor is bowled. The height of the walls from top of
floor is 24 feet 6 inches; from floor line to highest point of ceiling, 48 feet 6
inches. The height of tower from line of ground to top of cross which
terminates it, is 105 feet. The electric lighting is from three main
chandeliers, with thirty lights each, ten of two lights each, twelve of one
light each, and from a reflecting disc of forty lights over the choir stand.
Gradually, by patience and hard work, we have brought order out of
chaos, just as will be true of any problem if we stick to it with patience and
wisdom and earnest effort.
As I look back now over our struggle, I am glad that we had it. I am glad
that we endured all those discomforts and inconveniences. I am glad that
our students had to dig out the place for their kitchen and dining-room. I am
glad that our first boarding place was in that dismal, ill-lighted, and damp
basement. Had we started in a fine, attractive, convenient room, I fear we
would have “lost our heads” and become “stuck up.” It means a great deal, I
think, to build on a foundation which one has made for himself.
When our students return to Tuskegee now, as they often do, and go into
our large, beautiful, well ventilated, and well lighted dining-room and see
tempting, well-cooked food—largely grown by the students themselves—
and see tables, neat tablecloths and napkins, and vases of flowers upon the
tables, and hear singing birds, and note that each meal is served exactly
upon the minute, with no disorder and with almost no complaint coming
from the hundreds that now fill our dining-room, they, too, often say to me
that they are glad that we started as we did, and built ourselves up, year by
year, by a slow and natural process of growth.
 CHAPTER XXII.

LOOKING BACKWARD.

My work at Tuskegee has always been of a three fold nature. First, the
executive work of the institution proper; second, the securing of money
with which to carry on the institution; and, third, the education through the
public press and through public addresses of the white people North and
South as to the condition and needs of the race. On the grounds, in addition
to the ordinary task involved in educating and disciplining over a thousand
students, is added the responsibility of training them in parental directions,
involving systematic regulations for bathing, eating, sleeping, the use of the
tooth brush and care of health. In performing these duties, especially in
collecting money in the early years, I have often met with many
discouragements, but I early resolved to let nothing cause me to despair
completely.
The first time I went North to secure money for the Tuskegee Institute I
remember that on my way I called to see one of the secretaries of an
organization which for years had been deeply interested in the education of
our people in the South. I supposed, of course, that I should receive a most
cordial and encouraging reception at his hands. To my surprise he received
me most coldly and proceeded to tell me in the most discouraging tones
possible that I had made a mistake by coming North to secure aid for our
school, and he advised me to take the first train South. He said that I could
not possibly succeed in securing any funds for Tuskegee. In fact, he told me
very frankly that I would not secure enough money to pay my traveling
expenses. I confess that this bucket of cold water thrown upon me at a time
when I needed encouraging and sympathetic words more than anything
else, rather tended to take the heart out of me, but I determined not to give
up, but to keep pressing forward, until I had thoroughly demonstrated
whether or not it was possible for me to secure funds in the North. I will not
prolong this story except to say that within a period of four years after I was
so coldly received by this secretary, he introduced me where I was to speak
at a large public meeting in New York City in the interest of Tuskegee; and,
in introducing me to the large audience, he used the most flattering
language and praised me without stint for the successful work that I was
engaged in doing. I do not know whether he remembered, while he was
introducing me, that I was the young man he had discouraged only four
years before.
I shall never forget my first experience in speaking before a Northern
audience. Before I went North Gen. Armstrong had talked to me a good
deal about what to say and how to say it. I shall always remember one of his
injunctions, which was, “Give them an idea for every word.” When I first
went into the North to get money I began work in one or two of the small
towns in the Western part of Massachusetts. As I remember it, the first town
that I reached was Northampton. As I expected to remain in the town
several days, my first effort was to find a colored family with whom I could
board, but as very few colored families lived in that town I found this not an
easy job. It did not once occur to me that I could find accommodation at
any of the hotels in Northampton.
As an indication of Gen. Armstrong’s deep interest and helpful influence
in the establishment and progress of this institution, I insert a letter of
recommendation he gave me to be used among people in the North. These
letters were always given most freely and the General was constantly in
search of opportunities to serve the school:

“Hampton, Va., Oct. 26, 1891.

“This is to introduce Mr. Booker T. Washington, the head of the
Tuskegee, Alabama, Colored Normal and Industrial School.
“It is a noble, notable work; the best product of Negro enterprise of the
century. I make this statement advisedly. I beg a hearing for Mr.
Washington, he is a true ‘Moses.’
“As much as any man in the land, he is securing to the whole country the
moral results which the Civil War meant to produce.
“Tuskegee is the bright spot in the Black Belt of the South. It is a proof
that the Negro can raise the Negro.
“S. C. Armstrong.”
On the day before Gen. Armstrong was stricken with the paralysis which
finally resulted in his death, I remember that I met him on Beacon Street, in
Boston, and told him that some ladies in New York were discussing the
matter of giving us a new building, but seemed somewhat undecided as to
the wisdom of doing so. I was talking to the General about interceding in
order to get these friends to decide to furnish the building. He seemed
greatly interested in the matter and promised to either see or communicate
with these New York ladies. Before we finished our conversation, however,
we were interrupted by some one and we did not finish the talk about the
building. The next day Gen. Armstrong was stricken with paralysis, and no
one was permitted to see him for several days. After several days had
passed by, the doctors seemed to be convinced that he could not live but for
a few hours, and I, in company with several other persons, was allowed to
see him in his room at the Parker House. To my surprise, the minute I
entered the room, he took up the thread of our conversation concerning the
building where it was broken off several days previously on Beacon Street,
and began at once advising how to secure the building. The General did not
recover from this stroke of paralysis, but lived about eight months after it.
In January, 1893, that is, about four months before he died, he came to
Tuskegee, or rather was brought to Tuskegee, because he was too weak to
travel alone, and remained a guest at my home for three weeks. During
these weeks he suffered intensely at times, but was always in good spirits
and cheerful. His heart was so wrapped up in the elevation of the Negro that
it seemed impossible to induce him to take any rest. Most of the time when
he was not asleep he was planning or advising concerning the interest of the
black man, and spent much time in writing articles for newspapers and to
friends in the North. He was present during the session of our Negro
Conference in February, 1893, and it was a memorable sight to see him
carried by the strong arms of four students up the stairs of the chapel and to
the presence of the Conference. The impression that the sight of Gen.
Armstrong made upon the members of the Conference is almost
indescribable. All felt as though he was their most strong and helpful friend,
and they had a confidence in him that they had in no other being on earth. It
was at this Conference that Gen. Armstrong made his first attempt to speak
in public after he was stricken with paralysis, and his success in being heard
and understood was so encouraging that he spoke to audiences on several
other occasions.
I must not neglect to mention the manner in which Gen. Armstrong and
Mr. Howe, the farm manager at Hampton, were received at the school on
the occasion of this visit, for this was the second visit that the General had
made to the school. Both students and teachers were most anxious to do
him all the honor possible, and for several weeks previous to his coming we
were quite busily engaged in devising some plan to receive the General in a
proper manner. At last it was decided to ask the authorities of the Tuskegee
Railroad to run a special train from Tuskegee to Chehaw to meet the
General. This request the railroad authorities very kindly granted. He
arrived upon the school grounds at about nine o’clock at night. Each student
and teacher had supplied himself with a long piece of light wood, or
“litted,” as the colored people are in the habit of calling it. A long line was
formed, and when he came upon the school grounds, the General was
driven between two rows of students, each one holding one of these lighted
torches. The effect was most interesting and gratifying. I think I never saw
anything done for the General which seemed to make him so happy and
give him such satisfaction as this reception.
The first public address that I delivered in the North was in Chicopee, a
town not far from Springfield. I spoke in the Congregational Church in the
morning, but was careful to commit my entire address to memory. I was a
little embarrassed after the morning meeting was over when several of the
members of the congregation, in congratulating me over my success, stated
that they had enjoyed my morning address so much that they had planned to
go to Chicopee Falls, an adjoining town, to hear me speak in the evening.
As I had only the one address to deliver one can easily see that I was in
rather an embarrassing position.
While the greater portion of my speaking has been before Northern
white audiences, I also improved every opportunity to speak to my own
people, both in the North and in the South. In fact, during the earlier years
of the institution I carried on a regular campaign of speaking among the
colored people in the South, going to their churches, Sunday-schools,
associations, institutes, camp-meetings, conferences, etc. They did not, as I
have stated, take kindly to the idea of industrial education at first, and it was
largely by reason of my efforts in these public meetings that I succeeded in
converting them to the idea of favoring industrial education. At one time I
hired a team and took one of the older students with me, and we drove for
many miles, stopping at the homes of individuals and at churches to explain
to them the work of the school.
 The first opportunity I had to speak to a Southern white audience was on
the occasion of the gathering of the Christian Worker’s Convention, which
was held in Atlanta, in 1893. It seems that it was largely because of the
impression that I made upon this audience in Atlanta that the authorities of
the Atlanta Exposition were led to extend me an invitation to deliver an
address at the opening of that exposition. I shall let an account given in the
Christian World, published in New Haven, Conn., take the place of my own
words in regard to this address before the Christian Worker’s Convention:

Principal Washington. Gov. Johnson. Pres. McKinley.

PRESIDENT MCKINLEY AND PARTY WATCHING THE PARADE.
 SCIENCE HALL, ERECTED BY STUDENTS AT TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL
INSTITUTE.

“Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee, Ala., Normal and

Industrial Institute, was given a place on the program at the Convention of
Christian Workers held at Atlanta, Ga., in 1893, for a five minutes report of
progress, the time being thus brief on account of the fact that a full report
with questions and answers covering three-quarters of an hour had been
given at the Convention the year previous, held in Tremont Temple, Boston.
When he made the engagement he doubtless expected to be either at
Tuskegee, which is not far from Atlanta, or spending the Convention days
with other Christian Workers in Atlanta. It came about, however, that he
found it necessary to make engagements in the North immediately before
and after the date on which he was announced to speak at Atlanta. To keep
his Atlanta engagement it was necessary that he should leave Boston for
that city, reaching there on the last train arriving before he was announced
to speak, and to return North on the first train leaving Atlanta after his brief
address. It was a great sacrifice for a five minutes’ address. Mr. Washington
said simply that it was his duty to keep his appointment. It does not appear
that the fact that he would be compelled to travel about 500 miles for every
minute of his address, had much weight or even consideration. To do his
duty was not small or unimportant. The results of this address were great,
great beyond all human thought. Mr. Washington has since stated that he
had never before made an address to the white people of the South. His
audience of over 2,000 leading Christian people, ministers, business men,
legislators, law makers, judges, officials, representatives of the press, from
Atlanta, from Georgia and from other states of the South, were charmed by
his personality and the passionate earnestness with which he set forth the
magnificent scheme of Christian effort at Tuskegee, and pleaded for the
upbuilding of his race under Southern skies. This representative audience
saw before them a representative of his race such as they had not been wont
to see. His address was flashed over the wires by sympathetic press agents
through the South, and he probably never before spoke to a larger and more
influential audience. But in the providence of God there were still greater
results.”
I have always made it a rule to keep engagements of a public nature
when I have once made a promise to do so. On one occasion I had an
appointment to speak in a small country church not far from Boston. Just
before night a severe snow storm came up, and although I knew this storm
would keep every one from the meeting, I made it a point to be present.
When I got to the church there was no one present except the sexton. The
minister himself did not come, and when I saw him later he was surprised to
find that I had been at the church on the night appointed, and told me he felt
sure I would not be present on account of the storm.
In the earlier days of the institution, of course, it was a difficult task to
secure interviews with persons of prominence and wealth in the North, but
Gen. Armstrong’s recommendations, which he was always willing to give,
in most cases served to secure me a hearing. It was equally difficult in our
early history to secure opportunities from ministers and others to speak
before their congregations. Such calls on ministers were, of course, very
numerous, and one can hardly blame them for shutting out those with whom
they were not well acquainted. I have been often surprised to note the
number of irresponsible and unworthy colored men and women who spend
their time in the North attempting to secure money for institutions that in
many cases have no existence; or when they exist at all, are in such a feeble
and unorganized condition as in no way to have a claim upon the generosity
of the public. Many of these schools, of course, within a radius of a mile or
two, do reasonably good work, but I am quite sure the time has come when
the North should confine its gifts wholly to the larger and well organized
institutions which are able to train teachers or industrial leaders who will go
out and show these local communities how to build up schools for
themselves. Three or four hundred dollars given to one local community
may serve to help it for a time, but there are a hundred thousand other
communities that need help just as much; scattering a few hundred dollars
here and there among local communities amounts to little in putting the
people upon their feet, but putting it into a teacher who will show the
community how to help itself means much in the way of the solution of our
problem.
The constant work of appealing to individuals, speaking before churches,
Sunday-schools, etc., gradually served to make the institution known in
most parts of the country. This was true to such an extent that in 1883 we
received our first legacy of $500 through the will of Mr. Frederick
Marquand of Southport, Conn. This was a most pleasant and gratifying
surprise to us, as we had no thought of any one’s remembering us in this
way. Since then, however, hardly a year has passed that we have not been
remembered by a legacy. The largest sum that we have received in this
manner has been $30,000 through the will of Mr. Edward Austin, of Boston.
Mr. Austin’s case is another one which shows, as I have already mentioned,
that one should try to cultivate the habit of doing his duty to the full extent
each day and not worry over results.
I remember that the first time I saw Mr. Austin was about the year 1885
when the late Dr. W. I. Bowditch, of Boston, gave me a letter to him. At that
time Mr. Austin gave me his check for $50, but gave nothing between 1885
and 1896 and seemed to take little interest in the school, in fact I had
supposed that he had forgotten all about us. I tried on several occasions to
get another audience with him but did not succeed. In 1896, while in
Boston, I was very much surprised to receive an invitation from Mr. Austin
to call at his home. He was then very feeble, being over ninety years of age,
but he told me that he had remembered us in his will, and that as it would
not be possible for him to live much longer, we would likely come into
possession of the money within a reasonably short time, which proved to be
true.
On another occasion, I walked a long distance out into the country
during a cold winter day, to see a gentleman who lived near Stamford,
Conn. (More than once, I was rather inclined to blame myself for exposing
my body to the cold on what might prove a fruitless journey.) When I
arrived at the gentleman’s house rather late in the evening, he gave me, after
considerable hesitation, a small check, but did not seem to take a great deal
of interest in the school. The following year, however, I succeeded in
obtaining from him a check for a somewhat larger amount. His interest,
however, continued to grow from year to year, so that in 1891 he surprised
us all by sending a check for $10,000. Up to that time this was the largest
single gift in cash that the institution had ever received, and my readers can
well imagine that the receipt of this large sum caused a day of general
rejoicing on the grounds at Tuskegee.
I have referred already to the gift of $400 from a friend who helped us
when we were in an embarrassing position. I might add that the following
year this same friend sent us a check for $3,000, and since that time she and
her sister have given regularly to us $3,000 each year. These two friends
have done as much, if not more, to keep the institution on a firm footing
than any one else that I know of.
I have had, in my eighteen years of experience in collecting money for
the Tuskegee Institute, some very interesting episodes. On the whole,
collecting money is hard, disagreeable, wearing work, but there are some
compensations that come from it. In the first place, it brings one into
contact with some of the best people in the world, as well as some of the
meanest and most narrow ones. Very often, when I have been in the North
seeking money, I have found myself completely without cash. I remember
one time while in Providence, R. I., that when I had spent all the money I
had and was still without breakfast, in crossing the streets I found twenty-
five cents near the sidewalk. With this I bought my breakfast, and with the
added strength and courage which that breakfast gave me, I went in quest of
donations for Tuskegee, and was soon rewarded by several large gifts.
As an example of the way in which I have used my time from year to
year, there have been many occasions when I have slept in three different
beds in one night, while traveling through different portions of the country.
I give here a portion of a schedule which I followed on a recent lecture tour
in the West. This will enable my readers to judge whether or not to speak
from night to night is the easy job that many people take it to be:
I spoke at Mt. Vernon, Iowa, January 19, 1900, 8 P.M., then took the 11
o’clock train for Cedar Rapids, where I arrived in about twenty-five
minutes. Laid over in Cedar Rapids until 3:15 o’clock, A.M., then took the
Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern railway for Columbus Junction,
where I arrived about 5 o’clock in the morning, remaining in Columbus
Junction until about 8 o’clock, when I took the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific railway for Centerville, Iowa where I arrived at 12:37, January 20,
much fatigued and worn out from the long journey over three different
railroads. At 8 o’clock I again spoke, and at 12:18 A.M. again took the train
for Chicago, where I was billed to speak twice the same day, and on the
following morning I took the train for a long journey westward, finally
ending in Denver, and in returning stopped off at Omaha and other places,
and I then discovered that another month had come.
During 1892 I was asked by Rev. Lyman Abbott, D. D., editor of the
Outlook, to write an article for his paper which would let the country know
the exact condition and needs of the Negro ministry in the South. In this
article I told as fully and frankly as I could just what the condition of the
ministry was mentally, morally and religiously. A very large proportion of
the colored ministers throughout the country became greatly incensed at
what I said, feeling that I had injured the Negro ministry very materially by
my plain language. For almost a year after this article was written scarcely a
Negro conference or association assembled in any part of the country that
did not proceed to pass resolutions condemning me and the article which I
had written. This went on for some time but I was determined not to in any
way yield the position which I had taken, for the reason that I knew that I
was right and had spoken the truth. At the time when the discussion and
condemnation of myself were at the highest pitch, the late Bishop D. A.
Payne, of the A. M. E. Church, wrote a letter endorsing all the statements
which I had made, and adding on his own account that I had not told the
whole truth. This of course added fresh fuel to the flames and the Bishop
for several months came in for his share of the condemnation.
At the present time, after the lapse of eight years, I feel that the
institution at Tuskegee and myself personally have no warmer friends than
we have in the Negro ministers. Almost without exception at the present
time they acknowledge that the article which I wrote has done the whole
body of ministers a great deal of good; that bishops and other church
officers were made to realize the importance of not only purifying the
ministry as far as possible but demanding a higher standard in the pulpit so
far as mental education was concerned. I scarcely ever go anywhere without
receiving the thanks of ministers for my plain talk. They feel that they are
greatly indebted to me for much of the improvement that has taken place
within recent years. Of course when it is considered that at the time I wrote
this article a very small proportion of the colored ministers had had an
opportunity to secure systematic training that would give them mental
strength, moral and religious stamina, it could not have been expected that
any large proportion would have been fitted in the highest degree for the
office of ministers. The improvement at the present time is constantly going
on, and within a few years I believe that the Negro church is going to be
quite a different thing from what it has had the reputation of being in the
past.
At all times during the discussion and condemnation of myself there was
not wanting strong and prominent people in different parts of the country
among our own race who stood valiantly and bravely by the position which
I had taken. Among them, as leader, was Mr. T. Thomas Fortune, the editor
of the New York Age. Mr. Fortune in this matter, as in all other matters
where he has considered my position the correct one, has defended and
supported me without regard to his personal popularity or unpopularity.
While he and I differ and have differed on many important public questions,
we have never allowed our differences to mar our personal friendship. In all
matters pertaining to the welfare of our race in the South I have always
consulted him most freely and frankly. For example, in the preparation of
the open letter to the Louisiana State Constitutional Convention, Mr.
Fortune and myself sat up nearly one whole night at Tuskegee preparing
this letter. I have seldom ever given any public utterances to the country
that have not had his criticism and approval. His help and friendship to me
in many directions have been most potent in enabling me to accomplish
whatever I have been able to do.
In the same class with Mr. Fortune I would put my private secretary, Mr.
Emmet J. Scott, who, for a number of years, has been in the closest and
most helpful relations to me in all my work. Without his constant and
painstaking care it would be impossible for me to perform even a very small
part of the labor that I now do. Mr. Scott understands so thoroughly my
motives, plans and ambitions that he puts himself into my own position as
nearly as it is possible for one individual to put himself into the place of
another, and in this way makes himself invaluable not only to me personally
but to the institution. Such a man as Mr. Scott I have found exceedingly
rare, only once or twice in a lifetime are such people discovered.
There is only one way for an individual to collect money for a worthy
institution, as there is only one way for him to succeed in any line of work,
and that is to make up his mind to do his duty to the fullest extent and let
results take care of themselves.
In the earlier years of the institution I called to see a rich gentleman in
New York, who did not even ask me to take a seat, but in a gruff and cold
manner handed me two dollars, as if to say, I give you this to get rid of you.
Since that time this same individual has given to Tuskegee as much as ten
thousand dollars in cash, at one time. In other cases, where I found it
impossible to secure an audience, in the early days of this work, I have
since been sent for by these same individuals and asked to accept money for
the institution. In many cases I have gone to individuals and presented our
cause only to receive an insult or the coldest and most discouraging
reception. Perhaps the next individual on whom I called would politely and
earnestly thank me for calling and giving him an opportunity to make a gift
to Tuskegee.
During the early struggles of our work, in many instances, I went to
ministers in the North to secure opportunity to speak in their churches, but
received “No” for my answer. Often where I have received such answers, I
have since received letters from these same ministers urging that I would
deliver lectures in their churches and naming large sums of money as
compensation for my lectures.
The institution has now reached a point where it conducts all of its
affairs on a more strictly cash basis than in its earlier years; in fact, the
general policy of the school at present is to undertake no enterprise in the
way of improvements until it has the money in hand for such
improvements. This policy could not be carried out very well in the early
years of the school, when we were so hard pressed for buildings. One thing
which I have always thought has helped us a great deal is that we have
always made it a point to have the strictest and most approved system of
book-keeping in connection with all of our financial transactions. Our
books have been at all times open to the inspection of the public. In
accounting for our income and expenditures Mr. Logan, our Treasurer, from
the first has been of the highest service to the institution. We have never
allowed any carelessness in the matter of book-keeping.
I have been often asked by young men how they can succeed in this or
that direction. My advice to them is to make up their minds carefully, in the
first place, as to what they want to do and then persistently devote
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