LECTURE MATERIAL ON URP 209

(ENERGY PLANNING AND CONSERVATION)

 INTRODUCTION
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of
the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever
increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them. Energy is the ability to do
work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another. In practical terms, energy is
what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by exciting our muscles, by using
electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as automobiles. Energy comes in different forms
- heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear
energy.

Types of Energy
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following
criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary
energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in
earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity.
Secondary energy are energy that are produced as a result of transformation process, either from
a primary or from secondary energy products. Examples of secondary energy are electricity and
motor gasoline. Gasoline as an example of secondary energy is made from crude oil through
distillation processes. Gasoline found in crude oil must be separated out in order to put the
hydrocarbon in most useful form.

Commercial and Non-Commercial Energy

Commercial energy is the energy source that are used to generate electricity and that are
available in the marketplace with a specific price. Examples are electricity, coal and advanced
petroleum products.
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Non commercial are the energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a
price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels
such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not
bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting. Example: Firewood, agro waste in
rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits;
animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind
energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable Energy: Renewable energy are the energy derived from resources that can renew
themselves or can be renewed or reformed or reprocessed in a relative short time. Renewable
energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of renewable
resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric
power. The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the
release of harmful pollutants.
Non Renewable Energy: Non-renewable energy emanated from non-renewable resources that
are defined as materials that are concentrated or created at rate that are very much slower than
the rate of consumption. Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and gas, which are likely to exhaust with time. This includes:
Crude Oil: The global proven crude oil reserve was estimated to be 1687 billion barrels by the
end of 2013. But by the end of 2003, it was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels. Almost 48% of
proven oil reserves are in the Middle East countries. Saudi Arabia has the largest share of the
reserve with 15.8% followed by Russia and USA.

Natural Gas: Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but also
includes small quantities of ethane, propane, butane and pentane. Before natural gas can be used
as a fuel, it undergoes extensive processing for removing almost all constituents except methane.
Natural gas resources are large but they are highly concentrated in few countries. Iran has largest
share (18.2%) followed by Russia (16.8%) and Qatar (13.3%). India has only about 0.7% of
global natural reserves. The global proven natural gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion

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cubic meters by the end of 2003. But by the end of 2013, it was estimated to be 186 trillion cubic
meters.
Environmental Damages Associated with energy utilization
The usage of energy resources in industry leads to environmental damages by polluting the
atmosphere. Few of examples of air pollution are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide (NOX)
and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from boilers and furnaces, chloro-fluro carbons (CFC)
emissions from refrigerants use, etc. In chemical and fertilizers industries, toxic gases are
released. Cement plants and power plants spew out particulate matter.

Air Pollution: In both developed and rapidly industrializing countries, the major historic air
pollution problem has typically been high levels of smoke and SO2 arising from the combustion
of sulphur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial purposes. In both
developed and developing countries, the major threat to clean air is now posed by traffic
emissions. Petrol- and diesel-engined motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants,
principally carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and particulates, which have an increasing impact on urban air quality. In addition,
photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on NO2 and VOCs from vehicles
leads to the formation of ozone, a secondary long-range pollutant, which impacts in rural areas
often far from the original emission site. Acid rain is another long-range pollutant influenced by
vehicle NOx emissions. The principle pollutants produced by industrial, domestic and traffic
sources are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone,
hydrocarbons, benzene, butadiene, toxic organic micro pollutants, lead and heavy metals

Climate Change : Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, have made the
blanket of The effects of increase in the earth's temperature are as follows:
 Severe Storms and Flooding
 Food Shortages
 Reduced Freshwater supply
 Loss of Biodiversity
 Increased Diseases

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Acid Rain: Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically
the inconsistent levels of sulphur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing processes. It is
often called acid rain as this concept contains many types of acidic precipitation.

The acidic deposition takes place in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of
precipitation which removes acids from the atmosphere and places them on the surface of the
earth. In the absence of precipitation, dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to the
ground through dust

The effects of acid rain are as follows:

•Acidification of lakes, streams, and soils
• Direct and indirect effects (release of metals, For example: Aluminum which washes
away plant nutrients)
• Killing of wildlife (trees, crops, aquatic plants, and animals)
• Decay of building materials and paints, statues, and
sculptures
• Health problems (respiratory, burning- skin and eyes)

ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy is something that all living organisms need or rely upon, including human beings and
animals. Most of this energy is absorbed by plants in the form of photosynthesis, which produces
our food. The sun provides energy directly or indirectly to all living things, including plants and
animals. Continue reading to know more about different ways of conserving energy and the need
for energy conservation.

Energy comes in many forms, but only electrical energy and thermal energy (fuel) can be saved.
It results in pollution and eradication of natural resources if these types of energy are used in
excess. To conserve energy, one uses less of it. There are many ways to conserve energy – such
as turning off the lights when you leave a room, removing plugged-in appliances when not in
use, and walking rather than driving. The purpose of this article is to introduce you to the
principle of energy conservation.

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What Is Energy Conservation?

Energy conservation is the practice of reducing the consumption of energy by living organisms.
Energy is conserved to reduce the cost of consumption and to preserve the limited existing
resources of energy. Energy can be conserved by using energy-efficient devices and other
methods to consume energy and reduce the use of energy when there is no requirement. We
know that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form
to another. So, it is important to conserve energy.

There are two types of sources of energy, namely renewable sources of energy and non-
renewable sources of energy. Non-renewable sources of energy include fossil fuels like coal and
petroleum. Many electric power plants use fossil fuels to generate electricity. These are
exhaustible sources of energy that cannot be produced at a faster rate as we need them. They
cannot be used endlessly. The formation of fossil fuels takes millions of years. So we should
conserve these energy sources for our present and future generations.

Need of Energy Conservation

Energy conservation is an idea and practice that focuses on saving our natural resources,
especially those resources which are available in a limited amount. Non-renewable sources of
energy are those that are consumed at a rate faster than that at which they are replenished.

These resources are widely used in the production of electricity by many electric power plants
and in automobiles. Their availability is limited because they take millions of years to form. If
we do not conserve energy and their resources, then soon they will get depleted. Therefore, it is
advisable to use alternative sources of energy to save non-renewable energy sources and reduce
the consumption of energy if possible. The following are the importance of energy conservation:

 Energy conservation is necessary because it reduces the cost of consumption of energy.

For example, when we reduce the use of electricity when not in use, then the cost per unit
of energy also reduces. By using less electricity at home and using more energy-efficient
appliances, we can reduce our electricity bills. That is how the conservation of electricity
works.

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  Energy conservation helps in reducing the use of natural resources of energy like fossil
fuels. For example, more amount of coal and petroleum is used to heat water and
generate electricity in thermal power plants. If we save electrical energy, we save our
natural resources, which are consumed in producing electrical energy.
 Energy conservation reduces the waste which is released into the environment. It reduces
unwanted carbon emissions into the atmosphere. For example, the burning of fossil fuels
produces energy, and in this process, a lot of harmful gases are emitted into the air. It
causes air pollution. Burning less amount of fuel reduces the unwanted contamination of
the air.
 Energy conservation helps in improving the quality of life. It also helps in reducing
global warming and other pollutants.

December 14, is celebrated as energy conservation day. It focuses on making people aware of
the importance of energy conservation. Energy conservation act, 2021 promotes the efficient use
of energy and its conservation. It plans to reduce the production of energy in order to decrease
greenhouse emissions.

We hope that these energy conservation examples have been helpful to you in finding detailed
insights into how energy conservation works.

Ways of Energy Conservation

The primary way of energy conservation is to use clean and alternative sources of energy like
wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy, and biomass energy. We can reduce the use of fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas by switching to these energy sources. These energy
sources are abundant in nature and can be harnessed at any time in any amount. Moreover,
they are cheaper than fossil fuels. Some other ways of energy conservation are as follows:

 We should use CFL bulbs and LEDs instead of regular incandescent bulbs. Using CFLs
will reduce the cost per unit of energy consumed. On the other hand, LEDs consume less
energy than a regular incandescent bulb
 We should buy star-rated electrical appliances. An electrical device with a higher number
of stars will consume less energy and reduces the cost per unit of energy.

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  We should use sunlight in our homes, schools, and workplaces during the daytime. This
will reduce our electricity bills.
 We should switch off fans, lights, and other electronic devices when not in use or before
going out of the room.
 We should reduce the use of vehicles for going to places that are within walking distance,
and we can increase the use of bicycles. This will reduce the unnecessary consumption of
fuels like petroleum and CNG. It also helps in reducing air pollution.
 We must keep the windows and doors of our rooms open to ventilate them with natural
air instead of using exhaust fans.
 We must use devices that work with the thermostat. It will automatically turn off devices
when the desired temperature level is achieved. For example, it is used in geysers. This
will reduce electricity consumption by devices when not required.

From this article, we can conclude that we cannot create or destroy energy. But we can transform
one form of energy into another form. There are some limited resources of energy that must be
conserved for present and future generations. We should use energy-efficient devices and
minimize the use of non-renewable resources in order to achieve a good quality of life and a
clean environment.

WASTE

Waste is any plastics, paper, glass, metal, foods, chemicals, wood, oil, soil, effluents, liquids that
have been discarded. How the waste gets generated is from commercial, household and industrial
sources. Sewage sludge is another source. Domestic and municipal waste is generated by the
consumption of goods, manufacturing, sewage treatment, agriculture, the production & disposal
of hazardous substances and construction. They are essential parts of the process of production
as the emission of carbon dioxide by human is part of breathing process. From time immemorial,
waste disposal has been a problem, and after industrialization the problem has only compounded.
In the past, trash was carried to the outskirts of cities and discarded in the open, but now that can
no longer be done. Over time, various waste disposal methods have been devised, like compost,
burning, landfill, biological reprocessing, etc. However, before going to these details, we need to
understand the different kinds of wastes.

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Types of Wastes
There are basically three types of wastes generated and they are classified based on their
chemical, biological and physical characteristics viz:
a) Solid wastes include materials like mining wastes and industrial wastes besides household
garbage.
b) Liquid wastes are those in which the composition of solids is less than 1% and there is a high
concentration of metals and salts.
c) Sludge contains a mixture of solid and water
d) Gaseous Waste: This are the waste that are release in the form of gasses from automobiles,
factories, or burning of fossil fuel like petroleum. They get mixed in the other gasses atmosphere
and occasionally cause events such as smog and acid rain.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES

Based on the source, origin and type of waste a comprehensive classification is described below:
(i) Domestic/Residential Waste: This category of waste comprises the solid wastes that
originate from single and multi-family household units. These wastes are generated as a
consequence of household activities such as cooking, cleaning, repairs, hobbies, redecoration,
empty containers, packaging, clothing, old books, writing/new paper, and old furnishings.
Households also discard bulky wastes such as furniture and largeappliances which cannot be
repaired and used.
(ii) Municipal Waste: Municipal waste include wastes resulting from municipal activities and
services such as street waste, dead animals, market waste and abandoned vehicles. However, the
term is commonly applied in a wider sense to incorporate domestic wastes, institutional wastes
and commercial wastes.
(iii) Commercial Waste: Included in this category are solid wastes that originate in offices,
wholesale and retail stores, restaurants, hotels, markets, warehouses and other commercial
establishments. Some of these wastes are further classified as garbage and others as rubbish.
(iv) Institutional Waste: Institutional wastes are those arising from institutions such as schools,
universities, hospitals and research institutes. It includes wastes which are classified as garbage
and rubbish as well as wastes which are considered to be hazardous to public health and to the

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environment.
(v) Garbage: Garbage is the term applied to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the
handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking and serving of food. Such wastes contain
putrescible organic matter, which produces strong odours and therefore attracts rats, flies and
other vermin. It requires immediate attention in its storage, handling and disposal.
(vi) Rubbish: Rubbish is a general term applied to solid wastes originating in households,
commercial establishments and institutions, excluding garbage and ashes.
(vii) Ashes: Ashes are the residues from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal, coke and other
combustible materials, for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small industrial
establishments. When produced in large quantities at power generating plants and factories these
wastes are classified as industrial wastes. Ashes consist of a fine powdery residue, cinders and
clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass
(viii) Bulky Wastes: In this category are bulky household wastes which cannot be
accommodated in the normal storage containers of households. For this reason they require
special collection. In developed countries bulky wastes are large household appliances such as
cookers, refrigerators and washing machines as well as furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres,
wood, trees and branches. Metallic bulky wastes are sold as scrap metal but some portion is
disposed of at sanitary landfills.
(ix) Street Sweeping: This term applies to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways,
alleys, parks and vacant lots. In the more affluent countries manual street sweeping has virtually
disappeared but it still commonly takes place in developing countries, where littering of public
places is a far more widespread and acute problem. Mechanised street sweeping is the dominant
practice in the developed countries. Street wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic, dirt, dust,
leaves and other vegetable matter.
(x) Dead Animals: This is a term applied to dead animals that die naturally or accidentally killed.
This category does not include carcass and animal parts from slaughterhouses which are
regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided into two groups, large and small. Among
the large animals are horses, cows, goats, sheep, hogs and the like. Small animals include dogs,
cats, rabbits and rats. The reason for this differentiation is that large animals require special
equipment for lifting and handling during their removal. If not collected promptly, dead animals
are a threat to public health because they attract flies and other vermin as they putrefy. Their

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presence in public places is particularly offensive and emits foul smell from the aesthetic point of
view.
(xi) Construction and Demolition Wastes: Construction and demolition wastes are the waste
materials generated by the construction, refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses,
commercial buildings and other structures. It mainly consists of earth, stones, concrete, bricks,
lumber, roofing materials, plumbing materials, heating systems and electrical wires and parts of
the general municipal waste stream, but when generated in large amounts at building and
demolition sites, it is generally removed by contractors for filling low lying areas and by urban
local bodies for disposal at landfills.
(xii) Industrial Wastes: In the category are the discarded solid material of manufacturing
processes and industrial operations. They cover a vast range of substances which are unique to
each industry. For this reason they are considered separately from municipal wastes. It should be
noted, however, that solid wastes from small industrial plants and ash from power plants are
frequently disposed of at municipal landfills.
(xiii) Hazardous Wastes: Hazardous wastes may be defined as wastes of industrial, institutional
or consumer origin which, because of their physical, chemical or biological characteristics are
potentially dangerous to human and the environment. In some cases although the active agents
may be liquid or gaseous, they are classified as solid wastes because they are confined in solid
containers. Typical examples are: solvents, paints and pesticides whose spent containers are
frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part of the urban waste stream. Certain
hazardous wastes cause explosions in incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others, such as
pathological wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes, require special handling at all time.
Good management practice should ensure that hazardous wastes are stored, collected,
transported and disposed off separately, preferably after suitable treatment to render them
innocuous. For details please refer to
(xiv) Sewage Wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage
wastes. They are mostly organic and derive from the treatment of organic sludge from both the
raw and treated sewage. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit is separated at the
preliminary stage of treatment, but because it entrains putrescible organic matter which may
contain pathogens, must be buried/disposed off without delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered
sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but invariably its use for this purpose is uneconomical. The

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solid sludge therefore enters the stream of municipal wastes unless special arrangements are
made for its disposal.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Every unwanted or non-useful solid substance generated in any human population is referred to
as solid waste. United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines solid waste as
any useless, unwanted or discarded material with insufficient liquid content to be free flowing.
solid waste is the generation of undesirable solid substances which is left after they are used
once. Other authors define solid waste as non-liquid and non-gaseous products of human
activities, regarded as being useless. It consists of discarded solid materials resulting from
domestic and community activities and from industrial, commercial and agricultural operation.
It could take the forms of refuse, garbage and sludge. Also included are by – products of process
materials that may be required by law to be disposed of (Okecha, 2000). It thus suggests that
such materials may be of value to others like scavengers. Solid waste is therefore those organic
and inorganic waste materials produced by various activities of the society, which have lost their
value to the first user and therefore disposed as waste. Solid waste contains less than 70 percent
water (Orajekwe, 2011). It can therefore be stated that, solid waste is any solid material which
comes from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources arising from human activities.

Solid Waste Management (SWM) and its Related Activities

The term solid waste management (SWM) has been variously defined. Rick (2017) defines it as
all activities that seek to minimize the health, environmental and aesthetic impacts of solid waste.
Solid waste management is the control of activities such as generation, sorting, storage,
collection, treatment, transportation and disposal of generated solid waste in such a way that they
are harmless to humans, plants, animals, the ecology and the environment generally. Solid waste
management is not only a comprehensively integrated system, but also a rational approach aimed
at achieving and maintaining an acceptable quality of the environment. Gilpin (1996) observed
that, SWM is the effective practice and systematic control of the solid waste generation, storage,
collection, transportation and eventual disposal. In addition White, Franke and Hindle (1997)
opined that these activities must be operated at a cost acceptable to the community, which may
include private citizens, business and government. Managing solid waste must not only be
environment-friendly, but must also be economically feasible or affordable.

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Clark (2002) perceived SWM as the branch of solid waste engineering associated with control of
generation, storage, collection and transfer, transportation, processing and disposal of solid waste
in a manner that is in accordance with the best principle of public health, economics, engineering
conservation, aesthetics and other environmental consideration. Management of solid waste has
become a major challenge in most cities in developing countries (Lade et al., 2012). It is believed
that if solid waste is properly managed, it can be a valuable resource, but if not effectively
managed, it can become a source of environmental and human hazards (Tasantab, 2012).
Solid waste management provide an opportunity, not only to prevent the harmful impacts
associated with waste, but also to recuperate resources, understand environmental, economic and
social benefits and to take a stride on the road to a sustainable prospect (UNEP, 2013).
Stakeholders, responsible for planning and policy making, need to be well educated in order to
develop integrated waste-management strategies tailored to the needs of citizens (Guerrero et al.,
2013). When information about waste management are made and applied to the prevailing
situation, waste can even provide economic value.

Waste to Energy
Waste to Energy (WTE), is a term that is used to describe various technologies that convert non-
recyclable waste into usable forms of energy including heat, fuels and electricity. WTE can
occur through a number of processes such as incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic
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digestion, and landfill gas recovery .
The term WTE is commonly used in specific reference to incineration which burns completely
combusted waste at ultra-high temperatures allowing for energy recovery. Modern incineration
facilities use pollution control equipment to prevent the release of emissions into the
environment. Currently incineration is the only WTE technology that is economically viable and
operationally feasible at commercial scale.
Another example of WTE is anaerobic digestion (AD), an old but effective technology that
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biologically converts organic material into compost/manure as well as biogas for energy . AD
systems have large potential and can range from low to high tech, therefore they can service
communities of all income levels. Another process, called pyrolysis, can thermo-chemically
convert waste products into clean liquid fuels.

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Finally, landfill gas recovery refers to the process of capturing the gases emitted from municipal
landfills and converting it for energy. The most common form of collection occurs by drilling
horizontal or vertical wells into the landfill and uses blowers and vacuums to collect the gas for
treatment.
Waste Management Hierarchy
Waste management hierarchy is currently the best globally recommended management option
aside disposal. This is is regarded as the most important way of preserving the environment. This
method includes waste reduction; waste reuse and waste recycling. Combination of the three is
referred to as 3R. The 3R Mean reduce, reuse and recycling.
(i) Reduce
The concept of waste reduction involves redesigning products or varying societal patterns of
consumption, use and waste generation to prevent the creation of waste and minimize the
toxicity of waste that is produced (United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA,
1995). Common example include using a reusable tea mug instead of a disposable one, reducing
product packaging and buying durable products which can be repaired rather than replaced.
Reduction can also be achieved in many ways through reducing consumption of products, goods
and services. The most effective way to reduce waste is by not creating it in the first place and
reduction is placed at the top of waste hierarchy (USEPA, 2010). The usual way of achieving
waste reducing is through the reuse of products. Adoption of this concept of waste reduction
could assist in reducing the cost of solid waste management.
(ii) Reuse
The reuse of waste is the next most desirable option. Reusing waste often requires collection but
relatively little or no processing (Hansen et al., 2002). Reuse refers to materials that can be used
again in their original form USEPA (2017). It is sometime possible to use a product more than
once in its same form for the same purpose. This is known as reuse (USEPA, 2010). Example is
the use of a single water plastic bottle for other liquid after its first use, reusing disposable
polythene bags, or using carton as storage containers. Reusing products displaces the need to buy
other products and thereby preventing the generation of waste. Minimizing waste through
reduction and reuse offers several advantages. Some of these advantages include: saving the use
of natural resources to form new products; reducing waste generated from product disposal; and

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reducing costs associated with waste disposal. Applying this solid waste management practices
is more beneficial to both the environment and the space users.
(iii) Recycle
Recycling is one such activity, which can involve various acts such as, collection of those items
which would be considered as waste, sorting them according to their use, they can be used,
reused, or unused, and then processing them into a raw material, out of which something new is
manufactured. Composting of food scraps and other organic material can also lead to recycling.
Plastic, paper and glass products are commonly collected and reformed into new materials and
products. The main benefits of recycling according to USEPA (2017) are: energy saving
management, supplying raw materials to industries, preventing the emission of greenhouse gas,
and some other natural pollutants, and even creation of jobs. However, recycling requires energy
and the input of some new materials, thus placing it lower on the waste hierarchy than reduce
and reuse (USEPA, 2010). For most developing countries, recycling rates are low and dominated
by the uncontrolled salvaging of inorganic materials by the non-formalized sector made up of
scavengers (UNEP, 2005).

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development is broadly defined as: ‘development which meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.
The drive for economic growth has resulted in problems such as environmental degradation and
social disparities. Sustainable development prescribes for a more balanced approach to growth
that progresses development across three underlying pillars: social inclusion, environmental
sustainability and economic prosperity.
Quality of life assessments based on economic growth does not equate to happiness or a sense of
well-being. As the global population increases so too does the pressure on our biosystem and
social equity. Sustainable development calls for the adoption of more responsible consumption
and production patterns.
The industrial revolution brought about unprecedented economic growth and many advances
such as electricity. Coal has generally been an affordable source of energy for much of the
world, but it has come at a huge cost to the environment and society. Coal is a finite resource,
which produces harmful greenhouse gases that have largely contributed to climate change.

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A more sustainable approach is to adopt energy efficient technologies and diversify our energy
supply. Renewable energy, such as wind, solar and biomass, is an alternative energy source,
which doesn’t pose harmful effects to our health and our environment. New renewable energy
technologies can also represent new economic opportunities.
In recognition of the need for a more sustainable approach to development, a report was
published called: Our Common Future (also known as the Brundtland Report). The report was
released in 1987 by the United Nations Commission on Environment and Development and set
out the concept of sustainable development for the first time along with its guiding principles.
Sustainable development can be achieved through localised initiatives. In 1992 the Rio Earth
Summit resulted in Agenda 21, Think Globally, Act Locally. Local initiatives can support access
to clean water through sanitation programs, address hunger through community food banks and
community gardens, promote local recycling initiatives and ensure that all children have access
to a quality education through tailored support for girls, vulnerable children and those with
disabilities.
In 2015 the United Nations and its 193 member countries adopted the ambitious Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) – a 15-year plan that addresses 17 global and interconnected issues,
including the reduction in poverty and hunger, putting an end to discrimination and preventing
the long-term consequences of climate change. The Goals and targets to stimulate action to
achieve a better and more sustainable future for all are set out in Transforming our world: the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .

Types of Sustainable Development

Sustainable Economic Development – An integrated and comprehensive approach to the

development of the economy. It aims to attain sustainable and equitable economic development,
with a view to improving the quality of life for present and future generations. Sustainable
economic development is about finding the right balance between satisfying the needs of the
present and those of the future.
Sustainable Social Development – A more inclusive and participatory approach to
development. It aims to attain sustainable and equitable social development, with a view to
enhancing people’s participation in decision-making and their capacity to develop a sense of
community.

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Sustainable Environmental Development – A more integrative and precautionary approach to
the use of natural resources. It aims to attain sustainable and resilient environmental
development, with a view to protecting the environment and natural resources for future
generations.
Sustainable Livelihoods Development – A combination of economic development and social
development with a view to improving the livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable populations.
Challenges of Sustainable Development
The challenges of sustainable development in cities include a lack of focus on urbanization,
inadequate coordination among policymakers, insufficient attention to urban governance, and
insufficient physical planning. These challenges are interconnected and interdependent, and
success will require the adoption of a combined approach. However, progress can be made in
addressing some of them.
Global Urbanization – While urbanization has become an inevitable and even desirable
phenomenon, the challenges associated with global urbanization (e.g., lack of efficient and
equitable infrastructure, rising populations, environmental impacts, and limited governance) are
often underappreciated or ignored. Urbanization is often perceived as a phenomenon that is only
taking place in rural areas—as it is here and there—where it is perceived as a threat rather than
an opportunity.
Coordination among Policy Makers – Policymakers often fail to reach an agreement on
addressing urban challenges, which greatly limits the effectiveness of policies. For example,
many of the challenges identified above require a systemic and cross-sectoral approach, but
policies are often only focused on one sector or the other.
Governance of Cities – Governance is an important aspect of urban development, and there is a
lack of clarity and consensus among stakeholders on what governance should entail. There is
also a lack of coordination between urban local governments and the national and/or regional
governments.
Physical Planning – Physical planning is crucial for the successful implementation of
sustainable development in cities. However, many cities do not have a clear plan for future
growth and face a rapid decline in the quality of their environment.
Opportunities for Sustainable Development

17
The opportunities for sustainable development in cities include the integration of clean
technology, the development of smart cities, and the implementation of climate change resilience
plans.
Integration of Clean Technology – The integration of clean technology offers new opportunities
for sustainable development in cities. A number of cities are working to expand the use of clean
technology, which can be divided into two categories—green technology and renewable
energy—with the aim of developing sustainable alternatives to fossil-based power production.
Development of Smart Cities – The future of cities will be influenced by the development of
smart cities, which can be defined as cities that are more efficient, responsive, and sustainable.
Such cities can help achieve sustainable development by addressing challenges and
opportunities.
Resilience Plans for Climate Change – The impacts of climate change are likely to affect almost
every city on the planet. To address the challenges posed by climate change, cities will require a
greater degree of self-reliance, which can be achieved through the implementation of climate
change resilience plans.
Environmental sustainability is the result of human activity which requires society to meet
human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. Activities that lead to
environmental sustainability include using water sustainably, using renewable energy, and using
sustainable material supplies.
Some forms of capital are more fragile or less stable than others. For example, if the biomass of
forests were to be extracted faster than it can be replenished, this is an unsustainable situation. It
may be possible to preserve the forests by conserving the biodiversity of the species there.
Sustainable development involves using resources in a way that allows the resources to be
replaced and replenished as needed. This is often done by limiting the use of available resources.
In the long-term, if you damage the environment you’ll be unable to support human life.
Sustainable development is based on two main principles: renewable resources should provide a
sustainable yield, and for non-renewable resources, there should be equivalent development of
renewable substitutes.

Sustainable Development Goals

 End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

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  End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture.
 Ensuring all people of all ages live healthy lives and promote well-being.
 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
 Achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls.
 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
 Ensure that every country is able to provide access to affordable, reliable, sustainable,
and modern energy for its people. It’s also about making sure that countries are
prosperous, full, productive, and work, and providing decent work for all.
 If you are living in a disaster area, this book will provide the resources to build a resilient
infrastructure that will help your community recover from a natural disaster. You’ll also
learn about the different ways in which we can prevent disasters.
 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Take urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and
marine resources for sustainable development.
 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity
loss.
 We must strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development. We should acknowledge that the UN Framework Convention
on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating
the global response to climate change.
Urban greening
Urban greening is the design and implementation of greenery in cities. Urban greening helps
cities to increase ecological resilience and live up to their potential as catalysts of sustainable
development. Urban greening can be implemented in many different ways. For example, it can
be implemented through the creation of public parks, storm water management systems, or urban
forests. Urban greening may sound like a simple idea, but implementing it successfully is a
complex task. It involves many different stakeholders, and it often faces a number of challenges.
Designing and implementing urban greening effectively is a challenge in itself, but it also faces

19
another challenge: being underutilized. The benefits of urban greening are numerous. Among
other things, it helps cities to reduce the heat island effect, makes cities more resilient to storm
water overflow and flooding, protects biodiversity and reduces carbon emissions.
Urban resilience and adaptation
Urban resilience refers to the ability of a city to bounce back after a disruption or shock, such as
a natural disaster or a political crisis. In other words, it is the ability of a city to adapt to new or
different conditions. Urban resilience is a key factor in sustainable development, and it requires
adequate levels of both ecological and economic development. The more resilient a city is, the
less it will depend on external factors for its development. This can help to prevent the impacts
of climate change and to reduce inequality in cities, as well as to create more equitable cities.
Adaptation is the process of adjusting to new conditions or new situations. When it comes to
sustainable development, adaptation refers to how cities cope with changes in their environment,
such as changes in climate, natural hazards, or their socio-economic context. When it comes to
sustainable development, cities can adapt to new conditions or new situations by implementing
climate change adaptation plans, by making infrastructure and building materials more resilient,
promoting urban resilience and self-reliance, and by encouraging and facilitating the adoption of
greener urban lifestyles.
Urban resilience and adaptation refer to the ability of cities to withstand, recover, and adapt to
various shocks and stresses, such as:

Types of shocks and stresses:

1. Natural disasters e.g., earthquakes, hurricanes, floods
2. Climate change e.g., sea-level rise, heatwaves, droughts
3. Economic crises e.g., recession, inflation
4. Social unrest e.g., protests, conflicts
5. Infrastructure failures e.g., power outages, transportation disruptions)
6. Pandemics and health crises
7. Cyberattacks and data breaches

Key components of urban resilience:

1. Institutional resilience: Effective governance, policies, and institutions.

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2. Infrastructure resilience: Robust and adaptable physical infrastructure e.g., buildings,
transportation systems.
3. Social resilience: Strong social networks, community cohesion, and social support.
4. Economic resilience: Diversified economy, innovative industries, and adaptive businesses.
5. Environmental resilience: Sustainable natural systems, green infrastructure, and ecosystem
services.

Urban adaptation strategies:

1. Climate-resilient infrastructure: Designing infrastructure to withstand climate-related shocks.
2. Green infrastructure: Implementing green spaces, parks, and gardens to mitigate urban heat
island effects and manage stormwater runoff.
3. Disaster risk reduction: Implementing measures to prevent or mitigate disaster impacts (e.g.,
flood protection, earthquake-resistant construction.
4. Sustainable urban planning: Designing cities with sustainability, resilience, and adaptability in
mind.
5. Community engagement and participation: Fostering community involvement in urban
planning and decision-making processes.
6. Innovative technologies_: Leveraging technologies like smart grids, green roofs, and urban
agriculture to enhance urban resilience.
7. Collaboration and partnerships: Building partnerships among government, private sector, and
civil society to support urban resilience efforts.

Benefits of urban resilience and adaptation:

1. Reduced risk and vulnerability to shocks and stresses
2. Improved quality of life for citizens
3. Enhanced economic competitiveness and sustainability
4. Better environmental management and conservation
5. Increased community cohesion and social resilience

Challenges and limitations:

1. Limited financial resources
2. Institutional and governance barriers
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3. Lack of data and information
4. Limited public awareness and engagement
5. Competing priorities and interests

Tools and frameworks for urban resilience and adaptation:

1. United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
2. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
3. Urban Resilience Framework (World Bank)
4. City Resilience Index (Arup)
5. Resilience Assessment Framework (100 Resilient Cities)

Green infrastructure
Green infrastructure refers to the design and implementation of a variety of sustainable urban
services, such as parks, energy-saving lighting and ventilation systems, stormwater management
systems, trees, and public transport. Green infrastructure is one of the most important types of
sustainable development in urban areas and can bring many benefits, such as increased
ecological resilience, improved public health, and greater social inclusion. When it comes to
sustainable development, one of the most important things cities can do is to implement urban
greening. Urban greening is the design and implementation of greenery in cities. Urban greening
helps cities to increase ecological resilience and live up to their potential as catalysts of
sustainable development. Urban greening can be implemented in many different ways. For
example, it can be implemented through the creation of public parks, storm water management
systems, or urban forests. Urban greening may sound like a simple idea, but implementing it
successfully is a complex task. It involves many different stakeholders, and it often faces

22
number of challenges. Designing and implementing urban greening effectively is a challenge in
itself, but it also faces another challenge: being underutilized.

Green infrastructure refers to the use of natural or semi-natural systems to manage environmental
challenges, such as stormwater runoff, air pollution, and urban heat islands. It involves designing
and implementing green spaces, such as parks, gardens, and green roofs, to provide ecosystem
services and mitigate the impacts of urbanization.

Types of Green Infrastructure

1. Green Roofs: Vegetated roofs that provide insulation, reduce stormwater runoff, and create
habitats for wildlife.

2. Rain Gardens: Shallow depressions that collect and filter stormwater runoff, reducing the
burden on urban drainage systems.

3. Green Walls: Vegetated walls that provide insulation, improve air quality, and create habitats
for wildlife.

4. Urban Parks: Public green spaces that provide recreational areas, mitigate the urban heat island
effect, and support biodiversity.

5. Green Alleys: Narrow, vegetated passageways that provide stormwater management, improve
air quality, and enhance urban aesthetics.

6. Bioswales: Vegetated channels that capture and filter stormwater runoff, reducing the burden on
urban drainage systems.

7. Permeable Pavements: Porous surfaces that allow stormwater to infiltrate the ground, reducing
runoff and filtering pollutants.

Benefits of Green Infrastructure

1. Stormwater Management: Reduces stormwater runoff, alleviating pressure on urban drainage

systems.

2. Air Quality Improvement: Removes pollutants and particulate matter from the air, improving
urban air quality.

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3. Urban Heat Island Mitigation: Provides shading, evaporative cooling, and insulation, reducing
the urban heat island effect.

4. Biodiversity Conservation: Supports urban biodiversity by providing habitats for wildlife and
promoting ecosystem services.

5. Climate Change Resilience: Enhances urban resilience to climate-related shocks and stresses,
such as extreme weather events.

6. Aesthetic and Recreational Benefits: Provides recreational areas, improves urban aesthetics, and
enhances quality of life.

Challenges and Limitations

1. High Upfront Costs Initial investment costs for green infrastructure can be high.

2. Maintenance and Upkeep: Requires regular maintenance and upkeep to ensure effectiveness.

3. Space Constraints: Limited urban space can make it challenging to implement green
infrastructure.

4. Regulatory Frameworks: Lack of supportive regulatory frameworks can hinder the adoption of
green infrastructure.

SMART CITY DEVELOPMENT

World population has increased significantly in the last decades and so has the expectation of
living standards. It is predicted that around 70% of the world population will live in urban areas
by the year 2050. At present cities consume 75% of the world’s resources and energy which
leads to the generation of 80% of greenhouse gases. Thus, in the next few decades there can be
severe negative impact on the environment. This makes the concept of smart cities a necessity.
The creation of smart cities is a natural strategy to mitigate the problems emerging by rapid
urbanization and urban population growth. Smart cities, in spite of the costs associated, once
implemented can reduce energy consumption, water consumption, carbon emissions,
transportion requirements, and city waste.
Smart cities around the globe are quite diverse in terms of their characteristics, requirements, and
components. In general, standards established by organizations such as the International

24
Organization for Standardization (ISO), provide globally understood specifications to drive
growth while ensuring quality, efficiency, and safety. Standards can play an important role in the
development and construction of the smart city. Standards can also provide requirements for
monitoring the technical and functional performance of the smart cities. Standards can also help
tackle climate change, address security and transportation issues, while ensuring the quality of
water services. Standards take into account various factors such as business practices and
resource management, while helping to monitor the smart city’s performance and thus reduce its
environmental impact. IEEE has been developing standards for smart cities for its different
components including smart grids, IoT, eHealth, and intelligent transportation systems (ITS). A
specific example of such a standard is ISO 37120 which defines 100 city performance indicators
which include 46 core and 54 supporting indicators. Some selected indicators are the following:
economy, education, energy, and environment, which can be used by city civic bodies to
benchmark their service performance, learn best practices from other cities as well as compare
their city against other cities.

MEANING OF SMART CITY

The concept of the ‘smart city’ highlights the importance of ICT for enhancing the profile of a
city. A city may be called ‘smart’ when investments in human and social capital and traditional
and modern communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality
of life, with a wise management of natural resources through participatory governance (Caragliu,
2011). A smart city is also defined as a city connecting the physical infrastructure, the ICT
infrastructure, the social infrastructure and the business infrastructure to leverage the collective
intelligence of the city (Harrison, 2010).

A Smart City places people at the center of development, incorporates Information and
Communication Technologies into urban management, and uses these elements as tools to
stimulate the design of an effective government that includes collaborative planning and citizen
participation. By promoting integrated and sustainable development, Smart Cities become more
innovative, competitive, attractive, and resilient, thus improving lives.”[1]

25
“A smart sustainable city is an innovative city that uses information and communication
technologies (ICTs) and other means to improve quality of life, efficiency of urban operation and
services, and competitiveness, while ensuring that it meets the needs of present

SMART CITY APPLICATIONS

This section offers examples of smart city applications for smart transport, smart energy, smart
health, ambient-assisted living, crime prevention and community safety, governance, condition
monitoring and maintenance of infrastructure, disaster management and emergency, smart
homes, tourism and recreation and environmental management.

Smart transport
An integrated transport system would need a single ticket in the form of a smart card which can
be loaded with money and is swiped at any point of entry into a transport system using Near
Field Communication (NFC) technology to transmit information from the card to the reading
machine and back. Payment is deducted accordingly from the card for the trips made. At each
parking bay is a meter that detects the presence a car parked through a tag on the number plates
as soon as the car enters the bay and starts calculating the charges for the parking as they
accumulate. Motorists register etoll accounts with the roads agency and are issued with radio-
frequency identifier (RFID)-enabled etoll cards which are attached to the cars. As the car drives

26
under an etoll gate the driver’s details and the details of the distance they have travelled are read
by the card reader on the etoll gate, and relayed to a server at the roads agency.

Smart tourism
A museum has augmented reality systems with QR codes placed at strategic points in the
museum. Visitors use smart phones to takes a picture of QR codes. Each QR code connects the
phone to a URL which gives details on the section of the museum they are in.

Smart health
Mobile applications, body area network sensors and personal health management ecosystems
have been recognised as essential components of the technological platforms of the next
generation of healthcare for their potential to allow citizens to play an active role in the
management of their health (Nollo, 2014). Mobile health applications (smartphone and tablet)
can connect to medical devices or sensors (e.g. bracelets, smartwatches, patches, etc.) and
provide personal assistance and reminders. Through the use of sensors directly connected to
mobile devices, it is now possible to gather a considerable amount of data.

Ambient assisted living

To encourage the elderly to stay in their homes for longer and not in nursing homes, they wear
body sensors to detect body parameters. These sensors connect to their caregivers wirelessly.
Should any of the parameters go out of range, an alarm to the caregiver is triggered.

Crime prevention and community safety

Identification of criminals has been made easier through mobile biometric detection machines.
Fingerprints of a suspect are captured to a police mobile biometric machine. This data is sent via
a network to a fingerprint database located at the Department of Home Affairs for comparison
and it returns the identity of the suspect.

Governance
The number of available online services, their effectiveness and usage level and their level of
interaction are important indicators of the ‘smartness levels” of e-government. Water, sewage,
electricity and rates bills each have an ID tag which is read by the tag reader at the counter and
automatically matched against user details in the database and update with payment is made.
Condition monitoring and maintenance of infrastructure

27
Heavy load trucks carrying cargo across a bridge which is their regular route tend to strain the
bridge due to their weight. Sensors that detect structural integrity of the bridges report to the

Benefits of Smart Cities:

1. Improved Quality of Life: Enhanced public services, reduced congestion, and increased safety.
2. Increased Efficiency: Streamlined processes, reduced energy consumption, and optimized
resource allocation.
3. Economic Growth: Attraction of businesses, creation of jobs, and increased competitiveness.
4. Environmental Sustainability: Reduced carbon footprint, increased use of renewable energy
sources, and improved waste management.
Challenges and Limitations
1. High Upfront Costs: Significant investment required for infrastructure development and
technology implementation.
2. Data Privacy and Security: Concerns about data protection, cybersecurity, and potential misuse
of data.
3. Digital Divide: Risk of exacerbating existing social and economic inequalities through unequal
access to technology and digital services.
4. Complexity and Interoperability: Challenges in integrating different systems, technologies, and
data formats.
Examples of Smart Cities are: (i) Singapore. (ii) Copenhagen (iii) Barcelona (iv) New
York City
(v) Tokyo (vi) London (vii) Vancouver (viii) Melbourne
Players and Stakeholders
1. City Governments: Municipal authorities responsible for planning, implementing, and
managing smart city initiatives.
2. Technology Companies: Private sector firms providing smart city solutions, such as sensors,
data analytics, and IoT platforms.
3. Citizens and Communities: Residents, businesses, and community organizations that benefit
from and contribute to smart city development.
4. Academia and Research Institutions: Universities and research centers providing expertise,
research, and innovation in smart city technologies and strategies.

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roads agency via a private network on the structural soundness of the bridges when
trucks pass over them.

Disaster management and Emergency

Satellites detect heat signatures of a fire that has just started in an area. The satellites
relay the information to a control centre that registers the fire in their systems and
dispatches fire trucks. The same control centre triggers fire sirens that are placed at
strategic points in the area to alert the inhabitants.

Environmental Management
The city engineers install sensors across the city which measure temperature, relative
humidity, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, noise and particles. If any of the
parameters go above a set threshold, the GPS-enabled sensors send an alarm to a central
node. The node in turn sends the information to the cell phones of the habitants.

Refuse collection and sewer management

The municipality has sensors placed in the septic tanks so as to raise an alarm when
the septic tank reaches a preset level. Trucks are then dispatched to remove the waste
from the septic tanks. The municipality places bins at strategic positions in the city. The
bins have sensors which raise alarms when the bin is full and a refuse collection
truck is dispatched to collect the waste (Dlodlo, 2012).

Smart Home
The houses we live in can be configured to identify individuals, whether they are
the usual family members, guests, or unauthorised people. Individuals are identified
by means of what they have on person, for example, a smart phone that is identified
through radio waves. If an individual inside the house has no such ID then they are
identified as unauthorised and an alarm signal is routed to the relevant external body or
to the house owners.

Smart Energy
An application running on a mobile phone enables individuals to remotely control their
home electrical devices. Users select an appliance from the application and switch it off.
The request to switch off traverses the GSM network to the IP address of the home
appliance.
Smart City Components

The components of a smart city can be categorized into several key areas:

A. Infrastructure Components

1. Smart Grids: Advanced energy management systems that optimize energy

distribution and consumption.

2. Smart Transportation: Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) that integrate

public, private, and shared transportation modes.

3. Smart Buildings: Energy-efficient buildings with automated systems for

lighting, heating, and cooling.

4. Smart Water Management: Advanced systems for water supply, treatment, and
distribution.

B. Technology Components

1. Internet of Things (IoT): Network of physical devices, vehicles, and buildings

embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity.

2. Data Analytics: Advanced data analysis and visualization tools to support

decision-making.

3. Cloud Computing: Scalable, on-demand computing resources for data storage,

processing, and analysis.

4. Cybersecurity: Advanced security measures to protect against cyber threats

and data breaches.

C. Citizen-Centric Components

1. Citizen Engagement: Digital platforms for citizens to participate in decision-

making, report issues, and access city services.

2. Smart Healthcare: Integrated healthcare systems with telemedicine, electronic

health records, and personalized health services.

3. Smart Education: Digital learning platforms, online resources, and innovative

educational programs.
4. Smart Public Safety: Advanced emergency response systems, crime analytics,
and community policing initiatives.

D. Sustainability Components

1. Renewable Energy: Integration of solar, wind, and other renewable energy

sources into the energy mix.

2. Green Infrastructure: Urban parks, gardens, and green spaces that mitigate the
urban heat island effect and manage stormwater runoff.

3. Sustainable Transportation: Electric or hybrid vehicles, pedestrian-friendly

and bike-friendly infrastructure, and efficient public transportation systems.

4. Waste Management*: Advanced waste collection, recycling, and disposal

systems that minimize waste and promote sustainability.

E. Governance Components

1. Smart Governance: Data-driven decision-making, transparency, and

accountability in government operations.

2. Participatory Budgeting: Citizen involvement in budgeting and decision-

making processes.

3. Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborations between government, private

sector, and civil society to deliver public services and infrastructure.

4. Regulatory Frameworks: Policies, laws, and regulations that support the

development of smart cities.

These components are interconnected and interdependent, requiring a holistic

approach to planning, designing, and managing smart cities.

Components and characteristics of the smart city are summarized in Fig. 2. There are
many components of a smart city and 8 different components have been presented in
the figure. The components of a smart cities include the following: smart infrastructure,
smart buildings, smart transportation, smart energy, smart healthcare, smart technology,
smart governance, smart education, and smart citizens. A brief discussion of these
components will be presented in the subsequent sections. Different smart cities have
different levels of these smart components, depending on their focus.
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