1.Explain the natural source the theory of origin of the language.

Language is which is used to communicate through bodylanguage and

emotions, feeling ,is called language, which sets us apart from other creatures,
helps us respond to our environment and above all, enables us to reflect on the
very essence of our being Language is that system by which sounds and meanings
are related. Language communication and human needs are unquestionably
linked. Human beings have various needs individual, social, emotional, economic,
political and cultural and it is to fulfill these that human beings need language. As
the infant grows and his/her needs become more complex, so does its language.
the individual reaches the stage where she/he starts reflecting on his/her needs.
Language does not exist in a vacuum. It serves and is moulded by other systems in
the human mind. Since language is used to convey ideas, its structure and
function must reflect these ideas. Besides, since it exists within a complex social
and cultural system, it is moulded by these aspects as well. Language pervades
and is pervaded by all aspects of our lives. There are more formal features like
phonology, grammar and semantic.

Language seems to be a highly developed form of animal signaling.

Numerous philosophers have speculated on the origin of language, resulting in
the extensive collection of theories that we have with us. It is a question which
even today attracts much attention. In the early part of the eighteenth century,
theories of the origin of language proposed that language was of Divine Origin.
According to them man was created and at the moment of his creation, speech
was provided to him as a divine gift. God created Adam and speech
simultaneously, for God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him.

there is only a difference of degree between the language of man and the
cries of animals. According to him, human language came from a more primitive
form, probably expressions of emotions. In the latter part of the eighteenth
century, the origin of language moved from the realm of divine origin and fancy to
what is called the “organic phase” with the publication of Johann Gottfried von
Herder’s ‘On the Origin of Language.
When we say we know a language, we imply that we know the sounds which are
a part of that language, and by default which sounds are not. This fact becomes
quite clear when speakers of a particular language pronounce words from
another language. For example, a speaker of Bengali, Assamese or Oriya is not
able to articulate the distinction between the sounds ‘b’ and ‘v’. When they say
the word ‘Vivek’ it comes out as ‘bibek’. The very fact that they mispronounce it
reveals they are unconscious of this fact. They are able to distinguish it when they
encounter it in the written form or when another person is speaking those words,
but are unable to articulate the distinction properly themselves. It is not enough
that speakers of a language know only the permissible sounds of their language “
they also possess an unconscious knowledge of the permissible sound
combinations and also the position in which these sounds can occur in a word.
When a speaker of one language encounters a word which has a different sound
combination than that which is permissible in his/her language, s/he will in all
probability mispronounce that word.

There are five most importants theory of origin of language.

The Bow-Wow Theory

According to this theory, language began when our ancestors started the natural
sounds around them. The first speech was onomatopoeic—marked by echoic
words such as moo, meow, splash, cuckoo, and bang.

The Ding-Dong Theory

This theory, favored by Plato and Pythagoras, maintains that speech arose in
response to the essential qualities of objects in the environment. The original
sounds people made were supposedly in harmony with the world around
them.Apart from some rare instances of sound symbolism, there is no persuasive
evidence, in any language, of an innate connection between sound and meaning.

The La-La Theory

The Danish linguist Otto Jespersen suggested that language may have developed
from sounds associated with love, play, and (especially) song.
The Pooh-Pooh Theory

This theory holds that speech began with interjections—spontaneous cries of pain
("Ouch!"), surprise ("Oh!"), and other emotions ("Yabba dabba do!").No language
contains very many interjections, and, Crystal points out, "the clicks, intakes of
breath, and other noises which are used in this way bear little relationship to
the vowels and consonants found in phonology."

The Yo-He-Ho Theory

According to this theory, language evolved from the grunts, groans, and snorts
evoked by heavy physical labor.

2.what is the ding dong theory of the origin of language?

Language is which is used to communicate through bodylanguage and emotions,

feeling ,is called language, which sets us apart from other creatures, helps us
respond to our environment and above all, enables us to reflect on the very
essence of our being Language is that system by which sounds and meanings are
related. Language communication and human needs are unquestionably linked.
Human beings have various needs individual, social, emotional, economic,
political and cultural and it is to fulfill these that human beings need language. As
the infant grows and his/her needs become more complex, so does its language.
the individual reaches the stage where she/he starts reflecting on his/her needs.
Language does not exist in a vacuum. It serves and is moulded by other systems in
the human mind. Since language is used to convey ideas, its structure and
function must reflect these ideas. Besides, since it exists within a complex social
and cultural system, it is moulded by these aspects as well. Language pervades
and is pervaded by all aspects of our lives. There are more formal features like
phonology, grammar and semantic.

Language seems to be a highly developed form of animal signaling.

Numerous philosophers have speculated on the origin of language, resulting in
the extensive collection of theories that we have with us. It is a question which
even today attracts much attention. In the early part of the eighteenth century,
theories of the origin of language proposed that language was of Divine Origin.
According to them man was created and at the moment of his creation, speech
was provided to him as a divine gift. God created Adam and speech
simultaneously, for God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him.

there is only a difference of degree between the language of man and the
cries of animals. According to him, human language came from a more primitive
form, probably expressions of emotions. In the latter part of the eighteenth
century, the origin of language moved from the realm of divine origin and fancy to
what is called the “organic phase” with the publication of Johann Gottfried von
Herder’s ‘On the Origin of Language.

The Ding-Dong Theory was proposed by Dutch linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay
in 1913. This theory suggests that early human languages developed from
onomatopoeia - words that imitate or suggest natural sounds - and were used to
describe events or objects. For example, words like “boom” or “meow” might
have been used by early humans when they heard trees falling or cats meowing.
This theory has since been largely rejected due to its lack of scientific evidence
and its reliance on speculation rather than data-driven analysis

theory that language originated out of a natural correspondence between

objects of sense perception and the vocal noises which were part of early
humans' reaction to them. Language originated not through imitation of but
through response to the sounds and other stimuli from the environment. What
has the science of comparative and historical to say about this issue As noted in
the preceeding chapter, we've succeeded in identifying a number of language
families; we've succeeded in affiliating most of the languages of the world with at
least some others. We have quite reliable ideas as to what has happened during
most the history of this very large family of languages. Establishing when these
various events took place is a different story altogether. In some cases, where
there are written records to go by, we can estimate the dates of language
changes on the basis of those written records.

3.explain diachronic and synchronic linguistic.

Linguistics is often called "the science of language," the study of the human
capacity to communicate and organize thought using different tools the vocal
tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages, Saussure defines linguistics
as the study of language, and as the study of the manifestations of human speech.
He says that linguistics is also concerned with the history of languages, and with
the social or cultural influences that shape the development of language.
Linguistics includes such fields of study as: phonology -the study of the sound
patterns of language, phonetics (the study of the production and perception of
the sounds of speech, morphology , syntax -the study of grammar and sentence
structure, semantics -the study of meaning, pragmatics -the study of the purposes
and effects of uses of language-, and language acquisition. Language is a link
between thought and sound, and is a means for thought to be expressed as
sound. Thoughts have to become ordered, and sounds have to be articulated, for
language to occur. Saussure says that language is really a borderland between
thought and sound, where thought and sound combine to provide
communication. Saussure says that linguistic signs are by nature linear, because
they represent a span in a single dimension. Auditory signifiers are linear, because
they succeed each other or form a chain. Visual signifiers, in contrast, may be
grouped simultaneously in several dimensions. Saussure defines semiology as the
study of signs, and says that linguistics is a part of semiology. He maintains that
written language exists for the purpose of representing spoken language. A
written word is an image of a vocal sign. Saussure distinguishes
between synchronic (static) linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics.
Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at a particular point in time.
Diachronic linguistics is the study of the history or evolution of language.

According to Saussure, diachronic change originates in the social activity of

speech. Changes occur in individual patterns of speaking before becoming more
widely accepted as a part of language. Speaking is an activity which involves oral
and auditory communication between individuals. Language is the set of rules by
which individuals are able to understand each other. there is only a difference of
degree between the language of man and the cries of animals. According to him,
human language came from a more primitive form, probably expressions of
emotions. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, the origin of language
moved from the realm of divine origin and fancy to what is called the “organic
phase” with the publication of Johann Gottfried von Herder’s ‘On the Origin of
Language.
Synchronic:- Synchronic linguistics, also known as descriptive linguistics, is the
study of language at any given point in time, usually at present. However, this
point in time can also be a specific point in the past. Thus, this branch of
linguistics attempts to study the function of language without reference to earlier
or later stages. This field analyzes and describes how language is actually used by
a group of people in a speech community. Thus, involves analyzing
grammar, classification, and arrangement of the features of a language.it does
not focus on the historical development of language or language evolution.
Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the concept of synchronic linguistics at the
beginning of the twentieth century.
The key difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics lies in the
viewpoint used to analyze these two branches of linguistics. Synchronic
linguistics, also known as descriptive linguistics, is the study of language at any
given point in time while diachronic linguistics is the study of language through
different periods in history.

Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics are two main divisions of

linguistics. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure introduced these two
branches of linguistics in his Course in General Linguistics (1916). Overall,
synchrony and diachrony refer to a language state and to an evolutionary phase
of language.

Diachronic :-
Diachronic linguistics basically refers to the study of language through different
periods in history. Thus, it studies the historical development of language through
different periods of time. This branch of linguistics is the diachronic linguistics.
Main concerns of diachronic linguistics are as follows:Describing and accounting
for observed changes in particular languages.Reconstructing the pre-history of
languages and determining their connection, grouping them into language
families Developing general theories about how and why language
changes.Describing the history of speech communities.Studying the history of
words.Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at any given point in time
while diachronic linguistics is the study of language through different periods in
history. Thus, the main difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is
their focus or viewpoint of study. Diachronic linguistics is concerned with
language evolution while synchronic linguistics is not. Moreover, the latter
focuses on subjects such as comparative linguistics, etymology and language
evolution while the former focuses on grammar, classification, and arrangement
of the features of a language.

4.explain syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationship.

Linguistics is often called "the science of language," the study of the human
capacity to communicate and organize thought using different tools the vocal
tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages, Saussure defines linguistics
as the study of language, and as the study of the manifestations of human speech.
He says that linguistics is also concerned with the history of languages, and with
the social or cultural influences that shape the development of language.
Linguistics includes such fields of study as: phonology -the study of the sound
patterns of language, phonetics (the study of the production and perception of
the sounds of speech, morphology , syntax -the study of grammar and sentence
structure, semantics -the study of meaning, pragmatics -the study of the purposes
and effects of uses of language-, and language acquisition. Language is a link
between thought and sound, and is a means for thought to be expressed as
sound. Thoughts have to become ordered, and sounds have to be articulated, for
language to occur. Saussure says that language is really a borderland between
thought and sound, where thought and sound combine to provide
communication. Saussure says that linguistic signs are by nature linear, because
they represent a span in a single dimension. Auditory signifiers are linear, because
they succeed each other or form a chain. Visual signifiers, in contrast, may be
grouped simultaneously in several dimensions. Saussure defines semiology as the
study of signs, and says that linguistics is a part of semiology. He maintains that
written language exists for the purpose of representing spoken language. A
written word is an image of a vocal sign. Saussure distinguishes
between synchronic (static) linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics.
Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at a particular point in time.
Diachronic linguistics is the study of the history or evolution of language.

According to Saussure, diachronic change originates in the social activity of

speech. Changes occur in individual patterns of speaking before becoming more
widely accepted as a part of language. Speaking is an activity which involves oral
and auditory communication between individuals. Language is the set of rules by
which individuals are able to understand each other. there is only a difference of
degree between the language of man and the cries of animals. According to him,
human language came from a more primitive form, probably expressions of
emotions. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, the origin of language
moved from the realm of divine origin and fancy to what is called the “organic
phase” with the publication of Johann Gottfried von Herder’s ‘On the Origin of
Language.

Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation are introduced by Saussure (1974)

to distinguish two kinds of signifiers: one concerns positioning and the other
concerns substitution. Paradigmatic relations are widely used in thesauri and
other knowledge organization systems, while syntagmatic relations are generally
related to co-occurrences in some context. Researchers have mainly focused on
how these two relations are applied in different information systems. For
example, part-of-speech tagging and how these information systems work. Aside
from disambiguation, to our knowledge, few studies have focused on how these
two relations relate to each other in detail. Understanding the relationship
between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations is beneficial for applications
based on them, such as ontology construction, information retrieval, knowledge
finding, and text summarization. The study aims to address the following research
questions: Syntagmatic relation is a type of sematic relations between words that
co-occur in the same sentence or text(Asher, 1994). Paradigmatic relation is a
different type of sematic relations between words that can be substituted with
another word in the same categories (Hj⊘rland, 2014). Thesauri and ontologies
are generally built based on paradigmatic relations. Although many researches
have focused on the word dimension.There has been an agreement that
syntagmatic relation concerns positioning and paradigmatic relation concerns
substitution. The routes can be separated into two types. One is that all nodes on
a route are separately distributed on two intersecting branches. In this case, there
exists a turning point where two branches meet. n order to analyze the
paradigmatic relations of the assigned MeSH, the length and depth of the
connected routes are calculated. The length of the routes reflects the strength of
the relations, and the depth of the routes reflects the specificity of the involved
descriptors. The length is determined by the number of steps on the route.

The relationship between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations inspires the

discussion on whether one is transformable to the other. Gardin (1965) suggested
that paradigmatic data should be derived from accumulated syntagmatic data. If
two concepts were assigned to the same documents for many times, they
definitely have a strong relation, which could be paradigmatic relation. This
situation can be classified in two types: One is that the two concepts have
syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation at the same time. In this case, two
concepts are strongly related to each other. The other one is that two concepts
have syntagmatic relation but no paradigmatic relation. Because paradigmatic
relation is not static, it expands when there are new knowledge in the field .This
may due to the lack of human knowledge in the field which the paradigmatic
relation of these two concepts are not recognized yet. Therefore, this kind of
syntagmatic relations may suggest certain paradigmatic relations and serve for
the knowledge discovery purposes.

The study investigates the relationship between paradigmatic and syntagmatic

using assigned MeSH concepts of documents. We tried to discover the possible
paradigmatic relation between these syntagmatically related pairs of descriptors
by locating these MeSH concepts on the MeSH tree structure.

5.what are the five criteria for determining syntactic

constituency?
According to Saussure, diachronic change originates in the social activity of
speech. Changes occur in individual patterns of speaking before becoming more
widely accepted as a part of language. Speaking is an activity which involves oral
and auditory communication between individuals. Language is the set of rules by
which individuals are able to understand each other. there is only a difference of
degree between the language of man and the cries of animals. According to him,
human language came from a more primitive form, probably expressions of
emotions. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, the origin of language
moved from the realm of divine origin and fancy to what is called the “organic
phase” with the publication of Johann Gottfried von Herder’s ‘On the Origin of
Language.

Linguistics is often called "the science of language," the study of the human
capacity to communicate and organize thought using different tools the vocal
tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages, Saussure defines linguistics
as the study of language, and as the study of the manifestations of human speech.
He says that linguistics is also concerned with the history of languages, and with
the social or cultural influences that shape the development of language.
Linguistics includes such fields of study as: phonology -the study of the sound
patterns of language, phonetics (the study of the production and perception of
the sounds of speech, morphology , syntax -the study of grammar and sentence
structure, semantics -the study of meaning, pragmatics -the study of the purposes
and effects of uses of language-, and language acquisition. Language is a link
between thought and sound, and is a means for thought to be expressed as
sound. Thoughts have to become ordered, and sounds have to be articulated, for
language to occur. Saussure says that language is really a borderland between
thought and sound, where thought and sound combine to provide
communication. Saussure says that linguistic signs are by nature linear, because
they represent a span in a single dimension. Auditory signifiers are linear, because
they succeed each other or form a chain. Visual signifiers, in contrast, may be
grouped simultaneously in several dimensions. Saussure defines semiology as the
study of signs, and says that linguistics is a part of semiology. He maintains that
written language exists for the purpose of representing spoken language. A
written word is an image of a vocal sign. Saussure distinguishes
between synchronic (static) linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics.
Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at a particular point in time.
Diachronic linguistics is the study of the history or evolution of language.

Criteria:- In traditional grammar, word is the basic unit of language. Words can be
classified according to their action and meaning, but it is challenging to
define. A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech
sounds in both written and verbal form of language. A word works as a symbol to
represent/refer to something/someone in language to communicate a
specific meaning.
Syntactic Constituency:- we know that ‘Harriet’ can stand alone as a simple
subject. A constituent is a word or group of words that form a unit built around
a head. They can be made up of words, phrases, and even entire clauses.
A syntactic category is a syntactic unit that theories of syntax assume. The third
criterion is also known as distribution. The distribution of a given syntactic unit
determines the syntactic category to which it belongs. The distributional
behavior of syntactic units is identified by substitution.