TOPIC 3

Saturday, July 5, 2025 8:16 PM

POLITICS OF Introduction
REPRESENTATION Role of political parties are considered essential for democratic system. Effective functioning of democracy
will not be possible without political parties. Political parties are an integral part of democracy and there is
AND PARTICIPATION:
no alternative of party system except dictatorship. Parties perform a number of functions in democracy
POLITICAL PARTIES, specially third world countries. Those functions are-
PRESSURE  Role of interest aggregation,
GROUPSAND SOCIAL  Role of interest articulation,
MOVEMENTS IN  Political parties they put up candidates and support them,
 If they are voted to power then they also govern the state for specific period.
ADVANCED
INDUSTRIAL AND Different opinions about political parties
DEVELOPING
SOCIETIES  Normative approach - Edmund Burke provided the normative approach to study political parties.
Parties work for the promotion of national interest
 Gandhian approach - Party less democracy should be promoted. Gandhi was a critique of political
parties. Generally, the nature of poorly system is shaped by the nature of political system, nature of
society and historical experiences of the nation.
 Behavioural scholars- show political parties as powerhouse, meaning the purpose of the formation of
political parties is to come to power.
 Lenin’s Theory of Political Party:-Lenin introduced the theory of the communist party in “What is to be
Done?” which Marx didn’t agree with due to its hierarchical nature. Lenin argued that workers couldn’t
achieve revolutionary consciousness independently, so the communist party would serve as the
‘vanguard’ of the revolution. He differentiated between the communist party and trade unions, viewing
trade unions as part of the bourgeoisie system that could only secure minor concessions for workers.
The communist party aims to empower workers and overthrow the state, operating as a secretive,
pyramidical structure with local cells. The leadership of the party is determined by the base, following a
bottom-up approach. The party functions on the principle of democratic centralism: people
communicate their demands to the top leadership, which then formulates a cohesive action plan. Once
decisions are made at the top level, they are implemented uniformly across all levels, maintaining
centralization.
 Behavioural Theory of Political Party :-
1. Maurice Duverger’s Theory: In his 1951 book “The Political Parties” he propounded that ‘on studying the
electoral system of a particular society one can conclude the type of party system acquired there.’ For
example, if a country has simple majoritarian type electoral system, it will have two party system. If
country has proportional representation, it will have multi-party system. But India is an exception to the
Duverger’s law, where multi party system exists with simple majoritarian type.
2. Robert Michels Theory: He analyzed the internal functioning of socialist parties of Germany and came to
the conclusion that unlike Marxist’s understanding, there is no difference between principles and
international functioning of socialists parties and liberal democratic parties. In his famous book “Political
parties” published in 1911, he propounded “Iron Law of Oligarchy” while describing the nature of political
parties. Law says Power in a party is controlled by only a few members. Irrespective of any party there is
always an ‘Oligarchy’ that has all power and that can not be changed. That is ‘Power always remains in the
hands of elites.’
3. Sigmund Neumann’s Theory: According to him the success of democracy depends on the efficient
working of parties. Whether the government is a parliamentary or presidential democracy, it cannot
succeed in the absence of parties. He said an unorganized mob of people cannot govern the state. Its
organized form is a political party. A political party is representative of social interests which act as a
bridge, a link, between the individual and the society.

Definition of political parties

Ostro Gorski was the first person to study political parties in systematic manner. Study of political parties is
known as stasiology.
Edmund Burke gave the definition of a political party in the last quarter of 18th century: “Party is a body of
men united, for promoting by their joint endeavours, the national interest, upon some particular principle
in which they all agreed.” Thus, Political parties can be defined as an organised group of people having a
clear ideology based on well-defined policies and having clear objectives.
Political parties are informal organisations for representing the aims and interests of different socio-
economic forces in the political sphere.
Political Parties are the organisational means by which candidates for office are recruited and ideologies
are propagated. Political parties seek to organize and dominate the organs of government and to provide
national leadership.
No country has been without a party system and representative government cannot work without Political
parties and party system.

Classification of political parties

 Elitist parties These parties are not having their support base among masses and are caucus based
political parties. Membership to these parties are highly restricted. They are very selective in admitting
new members among to their party, for e.g.-
a. European type
b. American type

American Type - US parties are different from British political parties. Those differences are Following:-
 USA has a Presidential system in a federal set up as against British Parliamentary democracy,
 USA's political parties restrict their membership to elites and not to the commoners,
 US political parties are led by professionals and US parties are election-oriented parties.
 At local level USA's political parties are very powerful whereas of state level and at National level US
political parties are almost non- existent.

European type Most of the political parties are elitist parties. These parties are liberal, conservative and
progressive. European political parties are confined to elites and seek support of influential and wealthy
persons.

 Mass Parties These type of political parties seek support from Common people. They do not remain
confined to elites of the society, for e.g., political parties in India are mass parties.

Almond's Classification of political parties

a. Authoritarian Parties
 Dictatorships  communist Party of China,  Hitler's Germany
b. Dominant non-Authoritarian Parties
 It exists in democratic system, e.g., Congress System that existed in India from 1952 till 1967.
c. Competitive Two-Party System- that exists in USA.
d. Competitive Multiparty System- that exist in India

Duverger's classification
He has divided all party system into broadly two types: -
a. Pluralist Party System
b. One Party System

Pluralist party system can be further divided into two types:-.

 Two Party System – USA
 Multi-party system -India and UK
 One party system-China

Myron Weiner and Joseph La Palombara have explained the type of party systems on the basis of the
nature of electoral systems.

Multi-party system in India:- India has the distinction of having such a large number of parties that, for
some time now, it is impossible for any single party to be able to win a majority on its own. For almost 40
years after independence (with the exception of 1977-79 period), Congress Party dominated the Indian
political scene. Since the early 1990s the position has changed. Several parties formed the United Front
Governments in 1996 and 1997, with outside support of Congress and the CPIM. The elections held in
1998, and again in 1999 threw up hung Parliament, and BJP led several party coalitions came to power.
The 24-party National Democratic Alliance Government led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee provided unique
stability for over 5 years, which is very uncommon for a coalition of so many parties.

Critics of Party System

❖ Scholars like Mahatma Gandhi, J.P. Narayan and M.N. Roy suggested partyless democracy.
❖ Founding father of the US, George Washington believe that political parties are threat for national
unity.

Characteristics of Party System in Developed World

❖ Democracy is well institutionalised.
❖ Executive branch of government becomes more influential in directing, controlling and organizing party.
❖ Relationship of political parties to the government has grown closer.
❖ Strong intra-party traditions.
❖ The party system tends to be stable, with established parties that have a long history and consistent
support.

Characteristics of Party System in Developing World

❖ Democracy is not well institutionalised due to society being traditional.
❖ Prevalence of hegemonic parties like CPC of China.
❖ One-party dominant system.
❖ Lack of intra-party democracy.
❖ Formation of coalition governments.
❖ Dominance of primordial loyalties becomes basis of electoral mobilisation.
❖ The party system can be characterized by frequent changes in government, instability, and political
unrest.
❖ Despite significant political engagement, voter turnout may be lower due to disillusionment with the
political process or barriers to participation.

Therefore, can be said that political parties are inherent part of democracy because people’s grievances
and their aspirations is reflected through the political parties. The role of political party increases even
more in third world countries like India because in third world countries like India institutional structure to
redress grievances of people are missing that is why political parties perform an important role of interest
articulation and interest aggregation in third world countries like india whereas in developed countries like
USA and Europe the role of political party very less because people are not dependent on political parties
for interest articulation and grievances redressal. As institutional structure to redress grievances are
present that is why the role of political party in these countries is not much as compare to a third world
county like India.

Roles of Political Parties

● Representation and Formation of Government : Parties represent diverse societal interests and, upon
winning, form the government, with the head of the winning party typically becoming the head of the
government.
● Policy Formulation and Legislation : Parties articulate political ideologies, present policy platforms, and
actively contribute to the development and passage of legislation.
● Political Education and Campaigning : Parties educate the public on political issues through campaigns,
debates, and communication, informing citizens about policies and government actions.
● Check and Balance and Opposition Role : Opposition parties scrutinize government policies, provide
alternative viewpoints, and hold the ruling party accountable, ensuring a system of checks and balances. ●
Social Integration and Recruitment of Leaders : Parties unite individuals with similar political beliefs,
fostering social cohesion, and serve as platforms for identifying, nurturing, and promoting political leaders.
● Representation of Minorities and Civil Society Engagement : Parties may advocate for minority rights and
interests and engage with civil society organizations, acting as a bridge between citizens and the political
system.
● Government Stability and International Relations : In multi-party systems, parties form coalitions for
stable governance, influencing foreign policy and representing the nation’s interests globally.
● Political Socialization : Parties shape citizens’ understanding of political processes and values,
contributing to political socialization.

Impact of Participation of Underprivileged in Developing Societies

● Strengthening Democracy : Advocates, including Carole Pateman, argue for underprivileged participation
for a truly representative democracy. Participatory democracy theories emphasize diverse engagement for
equitable policies. Reservations in Indian local governance, studied by Christophe Jaffrelot, illustrate
inclusive governance efforts.
● Political Mobilization and Empowerment : Political mobilization of underprivileged groups, per Amartya
Sen, leads to empowerment and social awareness. Indigenous movements in Latin America highlight the
impact on indigenous rights and environmental issues.
● Potential for Conflict : Increased underprivileged participation can lead to conflict, especially in deeply
unequal societies. Samuel Huntington’s theory warns of instability without proper institutional capacity.
● Polarization and Populism : Underprivileged participation may contribute to polarization, with leaders
mobilizing identity politics. Rise of populist leaders in developing countries can lead to divisive politics,
challenging democratic norms.
● Economic Empowerment: Participation of underprivileged groups through welfare schemes like
MGNREGA in India fosters economic inclusion, enhancing their political agency.

Party System in India

● Divergence from Western Models : Despite adopting a ‘first-past-the-post’ electoral system similar to
many Western democracies, India’s political landscape significantly diverges in its development of a robust
multi-party system. This deviation can be primarily attributed to the diverse and pluralistic nature of Indian
society. Factors such as regional, linguistic, caste, and religious identities play a pivotal role in shaping
political dynamics, a phenomenon extensively analyzed by Rajni Kothari in Politics in India .
● Colonial Legacy and Democratic Evolution : The Indian party system’s historical evolution is deeply
rooted in its colonial past and the trajectory of democratic development post-independence. The
transformation of the Indian National Congress from an elite dialogue platform to a mass political
movement epitomizes this evolution. This transition, as detailed by Ramachandra Guha, marked the
beginning of a new era in Indian politics. The post-independence era, particularly the dominance of the
Congress Party, represented a unique system within a democratic framework that allowed for opposition
and dissent, often termed the ‘Congress System.’
● Rise of Regional Parties and Coalition Politics : The recent political landscape in India has been
characterized by the rise of regional parties and coalition politics, signifying a shift away from single-party
dominance. This current scenario, where national parties like the BJP and Congress coexist with a
multitude of regional and caste-based parties, reflects the intricate socio-political diversity of India. This
aspect has been explored by scholars such as Yogendra Yadav and Suhas Palshikar, highlighting the multi-
layered nature of Indian politics.
● A Hybrid Political System : India’s party system represents a unique hybrid model, not entirely aligning
with Western political structures or indigenous forms. It is a blend shaped by the country’s diverse socio-
political fabric and historical influences. Operating within a democratic framework, it is distinguished by its
Indian plurality and regional diversity, creating a political environment that is uniquely Indian in its essence
and operation.
● Coalition Dynamics: India’s coalition politics has evolved with the National Democratic Alliance (NDA)
and United Progressive Alliance (UPA) dominating national politics, reflecting strategic alliances to
accommodate diverse regional interests.
● Cultural Nationalism: The BJP’s emphasis on cultural nationalism, rooted in Hindutva, has reshaped
India’s party system, influencing voter mobilization and policy priorities.
INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS

 Interest Groups are those groups in which people having common interest Organise themselves to
protect and promote their interest, for e.g., Confederation of Indian Industries (CII)., FICCI
 Pressure groups and interest groups are different.
 Interest groups are those groups which make demands upon the policy makers i.e., interest
articulation. These demands may be temporary in nature or based on long term interest. In an interest
group people are connected with each other’s because of common concern on advantage. Thus interest
group is an association of people to achieve certain objectives.
 Pressure groups can be defined as those groups which pressurises the government to achieve their
objectives. Pressure groups are having negative connotations whereas interest groups not having
negative connotations. So both Pressure groups and Interest groups are not the same. There are
differences between the two.

 In general way behaviouralists thinkers calls these groups as ‘Interest groups’ and others called them as
‘Pressure groups.’
 J.D. Reynaud, while explaining the difference between both, says, “when interest groups act at the
political level and create pressure on the government they are called as Pressure groups.” That is, When
interest groups endeavor to influence the political process, and thereby get favourable decisions in
matters such as enactment of legislation, imposition of taxes and duties, framing of rules and issuance
of licenses, etc. then these interest groups transform themselves into pressure groups.
 Gabriel Almond in his structural-functional approach puts pressure groups as inputs.
 For defining Interest groups Almond and Powell say, “by interest group we mean a group of individuals
who are linked by particular bonds of concern or advantage and to achieve their objectives by
articulating the interest among society.”
 Scholars like Alex De Tocqueville and J.S. Mill consider pressure groups important for representative
democracies.
 Pressure groups or interest groups come under the field of Pluralist Democracy. Robert Dahl on the
basis of the role of pressure groups in liberal democracies preferred to call these democracies as
‘polyarchies’.
 Pressure Groups are different from political parties as these aims for gaining power, position and
political offices whereas Pressure Groups aim to fulfill the interest of their members without contesting
for the political offices.

According to Morris Duverger, Pressure groups are not political organizations but rather non-political
organizations and pressure groups employs pressure politics which is their secondary activity. These
groups are considered as an important part of democratic system and have become very powerful in 21st
century.
Today modern nation states have taken upon itself a number of non-traditional responsibilities. So it is
important for these pressure groups and interest groups to make government aware about the aspirations
of people.

Essential features of pressure groups

 Pressure groups are part of political process of the country.
 They attempt either to strengthen or change the direction of government policies.
 They do not directly seek to capture political power and run the government.

Pressure groups and Political Parties

a. Pressure groups do not try to capture power and run the government. They only act to influence
decision making process of the government. They only try to influence those who weild power whereas
political parties try to acquire and exercise power.
b. Pressure groups are a group of people having similar interests whereas political parties seek power and
consist of heterogenous people.
c. Political parties are directly engaged in political activities but pressure groups or interest groups are
essentially non-political institutions in nature and its primary functions may be social, economic, religious,
etc.

Classification of Interest Groups/Pressure Groups

According to Almond there can be 4 different types of interest groups: -

 Institutional pressure groups or interest groups - These pressure groups or interest groups are closely
connected with various institutions and even political parties. These groups also exist within legislature,
bureaucracy, corporations and even armed forces. They formed highly organized structure. These groups
do not need any other organization to articulate their demands. Such groups are very influential and
powerful force. These emerges out of institutional structure. Whenever such an association raises a
protest it does so by constitutional means and regulations. Dominant in developed and especially
developing countries because of their nature of being overdeveloped states. Examples – IAS Association,
State Civil Services Association, etc.

 Anomic pressure groups or interest groups- They are more or less spontaneous groups. They appear to
express dissatisfaction. They are generally characterised by their violent means. Such groups may influence
political system in their own unconventional ways. Example – People protesting against the road accident
can be called as anomic pressure groups, terrorist organisations.

 Associational pressure groups or interest groups- They are specialised groups formed for purpose of
interest articulation but to pursue limited goals. These includes trade unions,organization of business man.
They are closely associated with formally organized institutions. They are functionally specialized and they
articulate the interest of specific groups such as labour, management, business and agriculture etc.
Examples – FICCI, BKU, SEWA, etc.

 Non-Associational pressure groups or interest groups - These groups are based on factors like-religion,
kinship, ethnicity, etc. They articulate the interest informally and irregularly. They do not have permanent
organization. These groups have informal structure. These include caste groups, language groups, etc.
These types of groups are dominant features of developing countries. Examples – Jat Mahasabha,
Kshatriya Mahasabha, etc.

Example of pressure groups in India-

a. Professional groups
b. Bar council of India
c. Indian medical associations
d. Agriculture related groups - Bhartiya kisan union
e. Student re - ABVP and NSUI
f. Business groups - FICCI,CII
g. Enomic groups - Babbar Khalsa organization, Jammu & Kashmir liberation front

Functions of pressure Groups

 They are agents of political socialization.
 They act as a vital link between government and people.
 They also play a vital role in process of administration for example-they tried influenced policy
formulation and policy implementation.
 Interest articulation-They make the demands of people into the notice of policy makers.

Jean Blondel’s Dynamic Model of Pressure Groups

❖ His work is an improvement over the work of Gabriel Almond. He presents a model that is dynamic.
According to his theory, the nature of pressure groups changes with change in the political system. When
societies are traditional, there is dominance of communal groups and when democracy gets strengthened,
associational pressure groups gain prominence. Similarly, initially pressure group politics is protective and
gradually it became promotional and developmental.
Pressure groups and interest groups are considered as indispensable part of democracy. They help in
making democracy robust and people centric through interest articulation. Today pressure groups play an
important role in formulating policies and implementations of various policies. They have become and
inseparable part of modern day democracy.

Pressure groups have become an integral and beneficial part of the democratic system due to the
increasing complexity of society. Individuals often require collective support to effectively pursue their
interests and influence the government.
Similarly, Hannah Arendt’s theory emphasizes the importance of people engaging in political action. She
believes that through political action, individuals attain the essence of the ‘human condition’. Democratic
politics has to be politics through consultation, through negotiation and some amount of bargaining is also
involved. Thus, it is very essential for the government to consult these organized groups at the time of
policy formulation and implementation.

Social Movements

 Social Movement is a type of collective behavior. The International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
(1972) defines a social movement as a variety of collective attempts to bring about change.
 John McCarthy and Mayer Zald : "A social movement is a set of opinions and beliefs in a population
which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and/or reward
distribution of a society." McCarthy and Zald focused on the underlying ideologies and goals that drive
social movements, emphasizing their desire to bring about social change.
 In liberal discourse, scholars do not prefer to use the term social movements. They prefer to use the
term ‘resource mobilization’.
 Social movements have their ideology, leadership, life cycle. Social movement is primarily a feature of
left-politics.
 Pressure groups, political parties, and social movements can transition between roles. For instance, the
Indian National Congress began as a social movement, evolved into a pressure group, and eventually
became a political party. Similarly, the AAP started as a social movement before becoming a political
party.

Why do we need social movements to express demands when we have pressure groups and political
parties?

 Unlike pressure groups and political parties, which come with limitations, formalities, and restrictions,
social movements are less institutionalized, informal, and accessible for anyone to join and voice their
concerns.
 Social movements can also exert significant pressure, as seen in movements like Chipko and Anna
Andolan. However, it’s important to note that terrorist activities do not fall under social movements.
 Social movements, by definition, operate within the bounds of a country’s constitution, focusing on
peaceful demonstrations to convey demands.

History of Social Movements

 Modern social movements originated in the West as responses to the exploitation faced by the working
classes, with worker movements being among the earliest forms of social or left movements, now
referred to as old social movements.
 Throughout the twentieth century, many social movements were rooted in class struggles, such as
those of the working class and peasants, as well as anti-colonial movements.
 While anti-colonial movements rallied entire populations for national liberation, class based
 movements united different classes to advocate for their rights.
 The most impactful social movements of the past century were either class-based or centered on
national liberation struggles.
 These old social movements operated within the framework of political parties; for instance, the Indian
National Congress led the Indian National Movement, while the Communist Party of China spearheaded
the Chinese Revolution.
 Thus, the primary aim of these old social movements was to reshape power dynamics.
 New Social Movements - Herbert Marcuse is known as the father of the New Left or New Social
Movements.
 New social movements emerged in the West during the 1960s, focusing on developmental and quality-
of-life issues rather than redistributing power.
 Examples include environmental movements, human rights campaigns, civil rights movements, and
peace movements.
 Unlike old social movements that aimed to change power structures, these ‘new’ social movements
prioritize issues like environmental preservation and improving quality of life.
 New Social Movements (NSMs) emerged in the latter 20th century, shifting focus from class-based to
identity and quality-of-life concerns. They emphasize:
Difference between Old and New Social Movements

Concluding Remarks
 The politics of representation and participation play a pivotal role in shaping democratic societies.
 Political parties, pressure groups, and social movements each offer distinct avenues for citizens to
engage with the political process and advocate for their interests.
 While political parties provide structured platforms for policy formulation and governance, pressure
groups offer specialized advocacy on specific issues, and social movements mobilize collective action
around broader societal concerns.
 Understanding the interplay between these entities is crucial for grasping the dynamics of political
participation and representation. It reveals the multifaceted nature of democratic engagement,
highlighting the importance of both institutionalized and grassroots approaches to effecting change. As
societies evolve, so too do the strategies and tactics employed by these groups, reflecting the changing
nature of political discourse and the complexities of contemporary challenges.
 Ultimately, a vibrant and inclusive political landscape is characterized by the active participation of its
citizens across these various platforms. By recognizing the strengths and limitations of political parties,
pressure groups, and social movements, we can foster a more responsive and accountable democratic
system that better serves the diverse needs and aspirations of its people.

Questions asked:

1. Discuss the role of social movements in strengthening the democratic processes in developing societies.
(2022)
2. Political Parties and pressure groups are sine qua non of democracy. Comment. (2021)
3. Has the increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of developing societies
strengthened democracy or created political chaos and conflict? Comment. (2020)
4. Write an essay on New Social Movements in developing countries.
5. Do interest groups help to promote democracy or to undermine it? Give your opinion. (2019) (2016)
6. What is the difference between Interest Groups and Pressure Groups? Are the pressure groups in India
in a position to fully protect the interests of their members? (2015)
7. Party system in India is neither Western not indigenous. Explain.
8. In what respect is the new social movement new in nature? Discuss. (2014) (2014)
9. Is the rise of social movements a sign of opening up of popular space in the political process or decline
of representative politics? Examine. (2013)