Challenges Facing Development and Management of groundwater

Resources in Developing Countries

In developing countries there are both serious overexploitation and underutilization of
groundwater resources. It is widely predicted that problems of groundwater overexploitation will
become more acute and widespread. Countries with severe groundwater depletion still remain
hampered however by lack of information. Not only is there no systematic monitoring of
groundwater occurrence, but management of such resources has for long remained in private
informal channels, with public agencies playing only an indirect. In other countries privatization
has been embraced but facing many challenges. The following are some of the challenges facing
groundwater development and management in developing countries:

1.1. POVERTY

The average poverty rate for developing countries stands at about 41 percent, and of the world's
28 poorest countries, 27 are in sub-Sahara Africa all with a poverty rate above 30 percent. The
poor have limited access to clean water and sanitation for domestic use, as well as for use in crop
production. Most poor people live in rural areas. Making rural households secure regarding food,
water, and energy is a key strategic element in reducing poverty. In agriculture, low-income
producers can increase food production significantly by having reliable access to water and
through improved groundwater harvesting techniques and water and soil conservation practices.
Also, providing the urban and peri-urban poor access to clean water and sanitation at affordable
prices will contribute significantly to the health and economic well-being of many people living
in towns and cities. But most poor people are not able to afford the capital to purchase and install
pumps and also the fuel/power to operate the pumps.

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1.2. WATER RESOURCES AND WATER DEMAND

Inter-sectoral Management.
As in many, if not most parts of the world, most developing countries assign responsibility for
each category of water use to a different ministry or agency which can make water resources
development decisions without coordinating its actions with others. The hydrological cycle both
water quantity and quality is then affected, which inextricably impacts other users and uses. This
sectoral and fragmented approach is at the core of the problem of groundwater resources
management. That does not mean that individual sectors should not continue to be free-standing
users of water resources; they should and they will. It means that use needs to be planned,
coordinated, and managed through an appropriate mix of institutional, policy, economic, and
regulatory instruments. The sectoral demand for water highlights the need for an inter-sectoral
approach since individual sectoral objectives are often in conflict with those of another sector.
For example, calculations of irrigation potential often assume exclusive use of available water
resources.

Population and Urbanization: impact on Water Use.

The two most important factors influencing groundwater demand in developing countries are
rising population and expanding urbanization. Population growth in the region is the world's
highest, and by 2030, the population is expected to more than double the current population.
While urban growth is a phenomenon of all developing countries, Africa for example, the
world's least urbanized region, is now experiencing the world's most rapid rate of urbanization.
These trends will take dramatic shape at the country level. Nairobi for example has a population
of 4.3 million people. This trend has implications since large cities are major points of demand
which can strain groundwater resources even in well-endowed countries. In addition, these cities
are major point sources of waste water and solid waste, creating great environmental risks
especially to groundwater. Both these factors imply rapidly rising marginal costs of supply as
more distant water sources are exploited due to the depletion and pollution of nearby sources.
Compounding this demand is the likely rapid expansion of industrial demand in large cities as
economic growth takes hold and market and investment opportunities grow.

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Agriculture and Irrigation:
Agriculture is the main consumer of the region's water resources, accounting for over 80 percent
of total water use. It is also the mainstay of most of the economies of the region, the primary
source of income of the region's poorest people, and key to reducing poverty. At the same time,
it is a potential threat to groundwater, with an increasing number of people needing to make an
income out of shrinking land and water resources, leading to heavy use of fertilizers and
pesticides that leach to the ground and eventually a downward spiral of increasing poverty and
resource degradation.

The Infrastructure Gap and Rising Costs

In most instances easily accessible surface and ground water resources have already been
exploited in developing countries. Exploiting water from new sources and transferring of water
over vast areas and distances increases costs significantly.

Rising Costs for Water Supply and Sanitation.

The investment needed to ensure full coverage in water and sanitation services, even at a basic
level, are enormous since many people do not have access to clean water and sanitation. Among
the most prominent reasons for these cost increases are more distant sources, more complex
source works and treatments (e.g. desalinization), and the lack of flexibility in reallocation of
lower cost water from other users. Another reason for increased cost of water delivered to users
is the absence of incentives for supply organizations to hold down investment costs and the
amount of water which is not accounted for in sales. This has led to larger investments in supply
capacity than are justified in terms of demand growth at the water prices charged.

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1.3. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Impacts of poor cultivation.

In much of the region productive arable land is a scarce resource. Population pressures and
agriculture policies have often resulted in small farmers abandoning their traditional patterns of
cultivation and adopting unsustainable practices, such as using shorter fallow periods in areas
where shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn are practiced. This does not allow regeneration of
the necessary nutrients, thereby diminishing the productivity of the soil. Areas with steep slopes
(greater than 15 degrees) or marginal areas receiving little rain or which were previously used for
dry season grazing are now being cultivated. Such shifts in land use have caused serious land
degradation in highlands and dryland areas and made soil erosion a major problem. Water no
longer infiltrates at the initial rates to recharge groundwater. A lot of run off is experienced and
aquifers are barely recharged.

Impacts of deforestation.
Deforestation for cultivation, construction timber, and woodfuel can also accelerate run-off.
When cutting rates exceed replanting rates, soils in cleared areas become unstable and
susceptible to erosion, particularly so in vulnerable areas, such as on steep slope or in arid or
semi-arid regions. Madagascar, for example, is very vulnerable to soil erosion because about
two-thirds of the country has steep slopes, much of which is very fragile and erosive soil.
Deforestation, through the annual conversion of more than 100,000 hectares of forested areas of
the eastern highlands for agricultural use, has significantly reduced the vegetative cover and
increased the potential for soil degradation. In many watersheds, soil erosion rates of around 25-
40 t/ha/yr. are typical, with highland areas having rates as high as 300 t/ ha/yr. Forests and good
soils serve as favorable groundwater recharge conditions and deforestation is greatly hurting the
recharge of developing countries recharge.

Impacts of overgrazing.
Livestock rearing can also contribute to hardening of ground and soil erosion. This has a paving
effect on the ground making infiltration of water a tall order. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs
supply nutritional needs, generate foreign exchange, and in some societies, have important

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 cultural significance as units of exchange. High livestock densities (exceeding the land's carrying
capacity) can cause losses in top soil and vegetative cover. Overgrazing and repeated trampling
by animals destabilize the soil structure. In arid or semi-arid areas such consequences are
magnified because the soil structures are weaker and more vulnerable to damage from the outset.
Prior to the current unrest, Somalia used to derive almost 80 percent of its export earning from
livestock products. The pastoralist practice of bringing animals down to the coastal areas from
upland areas during the rainy season, in order to escape tsetse flies, has destabilized coastal sand
dunes, enhancing the process of desertification and affecting more than 500,000 hectares of land
subject to active dune movement. Overgrazing in the middle and lower sections of the Tana
Basin in Kenya is also contributing to enormous top soil losses, increasing run off and sediment
loads carried into the ocean.

Degradation of irrigated land.

All irrigation carries the risk of soil degradation, with the degree of risk depending on soil
composition, quality of irrigation water, water management, and natural drainage. Poor irrigation
practices cause the water table to rise, leading to secondary salinization through capillary rise
and evaporation of the ground water. This risk of salinization and sodication can be reduced
through improving irrigation practices, construction of field drainage, and leaching of excess
salts. Measures then must be taken for proper disposal of drainage water. With the concentration
of salt often increasing downstream in rivers due to drainage inflows, special outfalls to the sea
or evaporation ponds are needed.

1.4. CAPACITY ISSUES: AWARENESS, HUMAN RESOURCES, AND INSTITUTIONS

Lack of Awareness.
One factor impeding sustainable groundwater resources management and stakeholder
participation in developing countries is the lack of awareness of the state of groundwater
resources in terms of availability and demand, as well as the economic, social, environmental,
and management aspects relating to water use. People need to be aware that water is no longer a
free good. It is a finite resource with supply constraints; it has a scarcity value, and there is a cost
to using it. Similarly, people must be made aware that water quality should not be degraded;

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water contamination leads to water-borne diseases, impacting human health and productivity.
People also need to understand the consequences of deforestation and land degradation on the
quantity and quality of groundwater resources.
Thus, the challenge is to build awareness at the individual and national level, among all
stakeholders. National policies need to focus on an integrated approach to groundwater
management, and a 'water culture ' needs to be promoted that emphasizes conservation practices
and better stewardship of this scarce resource.

Centralized Management and Low Capacity.

The public sector plays a dominant role in the management of water resources. However,
management is fragmented and involves multiple agencies. These agencies are involved in
allocating water resources for different uses, investing in infrastructure, and providing services to
the people.
Developing countries have continued to rely on technical assistance without adequately
transferring know-how to local stakeholders, using indigenous knowledge and institutions, or
creating a sense of ownership among the intended beneficiaries. This undermines project
sustainability. Insufficient consideration to providing consumers with the services they demand
and are willing to pay for, together with the failure to treat water as a scarce resource and
economic good, has led to a vicious spiral of deteriorating service provision and infrastructure.
Incentives based on political loyalties, which neither reward nor hold parties accountable for
performance, have contributed to the erosion of the civil service, an undermining of
professionalism, and the departure of qualified people to opportunities overseas. Policy
frameworks too have been weak: budgetary and funding decisions have not been routinely linked
to policies; policy objectives have not been well-articulated, and policies and plans have been
overly ambitious, setting unattainable goals and inflexible service standards with 'blueprint'
master planning.
Factors which have undermined capacity-building efforts also originate from the donor side,
including a host of uncoordinated donor programs which lack coherency consistency, and a
results-orientation as well as projects and programs more in tune with donor objectives than with
country needs, priorities, and capacities. There has also been little focus on creating sustainable,
self-reliant national institutions.

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 The challenge facing developing countries is to move toward an integrated, multi-sectoral
approach to groundwater management. This will require these countries to utilize existing
capacity effectively, build capacity in priority areas of institutional building and manpower
development, and sustain improved capacity over time.

1.5. POLICIES AND REGULATION ISSUES:

Few countries have adequate national water policy statements, national groundwater plans,
legislative and regulatory frameworks, or mechanisms for inter-sectoral coordination. Even if
countries have been involved in the process of water policy reform, the implementation and
long-term viability of these reforms have often been undermined by financial constraints and
political instabilities.

Policy Failures.
Developing countries have made some progress in formulating and implementing groundwater
policy and water laws. However, there are a number of countries that need to adopt a
comprehensive groundwater policy based on sound water assessments, establish an effective
regulatory framework, and develop capacity for enforcement of approved laws, and legislation.
Countries like Madagascar have laws still based on the French colonial system.
It is important for developing countries to link policies to people. Policy formulation and the
setting of national priorities should occur with the involvement of all major water stakeholders
(both users and managers). Stakeholders can be linked to policymakers through existing
organizations and forums community-based organizations in rural areas, neighborhood groups in
urban areas, village councils, district governments, and elected officials in local, district, and
national offices.) As popular participation increases with an effective, two-way flow of
information, existing policies may need to be revisited.

Perverse Pricing Policy.

As a consequence of excessive central government control, current water prices are too low, not
reflecting true scarcity value. Throughout Developing countries, water use is highly subsidized
as water tariffs are set below the supply costs and often below the operation and maintenance

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costs. This is particularly true for irrigation water and domestic uses, in both rural and urban
areas.
Pricing decisions are generally influenced by political considerations, preferred priority users,
and equity reasons. However, the benefits (or subsidies) do not necessarily, or usually, go to the
low-income groups. Commercial farmers engaged in irrigated agriculture and well-to-do
domestic consumers capture a high proportion of those subsidies. Further, the absence of
revenues undermines investments for expansion of services to those who need it most
considering that pumping costs are quite high.

The Regulation Gap.

The regulatory framework in many of the developing countries is inadequate and often weakly
enforced due to overlapping institutional responsibilities and governance problems (as is true in
some industrial countries). In most developing countries, written water law is based on the
groundwater laws of colonizing/ administering European powers. Responsibilities of key
agencies are not clearly defined.
Most regulatory and enforcement agencies do not have the adequate technical and financial
capacity to develop a system of monitoring the quantity and quality of sewage effluents
discharged into waterways by treatment facilities. Without the implementation of such a system,
such agencies cannot determine whether or not the treatment plants are in compliance with water
pollution effluent standards. It therefore also difficult to know whether the effluents are
contaminating groundwater.
Besides, political, technical, financial, and managerial problems have thwarted the regulatory
and enforcement process. In particular, such problems have militated against the formulation and
rigorous enforcement of standards (safe drinking water and clean water) and quality control
requirements.

The Water and Wastewater Utility Issue,

Most countries in the region have local or national government-run or semi-autonomous public
sector utilities. In many cases, such utilities are heavily under-investing and are saddled with
many of the inefficiencies of the public sector overstaffed and underpaid, central treasury

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 control, and political interference. Full private ownership has been attempted in very few
countries in the world.
Privatization across developing countries requires a sophisticated legal framework and a role for
government in regulation and the monitoring of compliance, requiring experienced and
accountable public sector staff. Levels of governance needed for effective privatization are high.
In addition, the political problems associated with privatization of public services can be severe,
particularly where there is an informed public.
Building and Broadening the Skills Base.
Effective groundwater resources management requires many skills, a network of capable
institutions and significant analytical capacity. Cross sectoral management introduces new
complexities, as does the interdisciplinary analysis needed. Developing, maintaining, and
retaining these skills are costly and pose a problem in the region, as in many parts of the world.
Much of the developing countries’ groundwater resources management is being undertaken by
the hydrologists, hydrogeologists, and engineers of public sector water institutions, who are
monitoring, archiving, assessing, planning, regulating, and developing water resources for the
many uses for which they are needed. Similarly, much of the groundwater development is in the
hands of the engineers of water utilities and irrigation agencies. Frequently well-trained, these
professionals are often over-burdened, under-resourced, and poorly paid. They often have limited
access to professional associations and peer review, mid-career training, books and journals, and
other professional incentives. Limited capacity in the private consulting industry leads to the
extensive use of international consultants and advisers, who rarely face these constraints. This
may yield short-term solutions, but it also leads to long-term problems, through dependency and
frustration. The problem is a serious one, widely recognized in other sectors and addressed, in
part, in the developing countries.

1.6. DATA AND INFORMATION GAP

Data and information systems (physical, technical, socioeconomic, etc.) relating to groundwater
resources in terms of quantity, quality, accessibility, and use are generally inadequate throughout
the region. Some developing countries have, to some extent, established data and information

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 systems relating to climate, rainfall, hydrology, geology and soil. However, in most cases these
systems need further improvements through better technology, trained human resources
strengthened capacity, and capital. Surface and ground water quality networks are not well-
developed in developing countries due to budgetary constraints, lack of analytical equipment,
logistical limitations, as well a lack of appreciation of the importance of water monitoring. In
some cases, historical data is completely lacking.
Monitoring of water quality for inland water resources should be closely linked to hydrological
and hydrogeological services and recorded with reference to a river flow or water level in an
aquifer. Furthermore, there is a need to monitor water quality and quantity at the pollution
sources from major polluters not only the piped discharges, but also from the diffuse sources,
such as agriculture and forestry. The challenge for the future is to reconsider how water quality
data are to be collected and used, and to take advantage of new developments within monitoring
and information technology. There needs to be a strong link between the information base and
the decision-making process.
Developing countries will need to improve their knowledge and data about management of
groundwater resources including protection of water ecosystems, the interaction of humans with
water systems, the inter-relationships between water, land, and forest variables in a natural
resource management framework, multi-sectoral considerations in water use, and the
international characteristics of river basins and consequent implications for management.
Without this base, groundwater resources cannot be sustainably developed and managed. The
generation of data should be demand-driven, reflecting the needs of the various stakeholders.
Similarly, the agencies or firms that produce hydrological and hydrogeological data should have
the financial autonomy to market the information as a product. While data and knowledge have
public good characteristics, some stakeholders (utilities, industries, commercial entrepreneurs)
should contribute to costs of generating, processing, and disseminating data.

1.7. CORRUPTION

Corruption is one of the causes of water supply problems in urban areas of developing countries.
This problem is more prevalent in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. In
Kenya, this problem has persisted even with the current World Bank driven policy of

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privatization of water supply and management to autonomous legal entities, separate from local
authorities. In the Daily Nation of 31st January, 2005, Mr. Kingori the Chairman of Nairobi
Water Services Board stated that “ we have established that a substantial amount of revenue get
lost through illegal water connections, faulted meters and diversion of money payable to the
company— This happens with the collusion of the NCWSC e mployees. Such practices deny the
utility company much needed revenue in form of user charges which can be used to develop and
maintain groundwater.

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