CHAPTER 1

Understanding Learning

Module 1. Learner- Centered Theories of Learning

1. Module Overview
This module covers discussion on the study and understanding of learning. The topics present
relevant ideas on learner-centered theories of learning and the types of learning.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that comes to our mind is studying subjects or courses like
mathematics, science, and languages in school. In a broader sense though, learning extends much more beyond the
confines of the classroom or the school. People learn every day of their lives in various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major part of the experiences for you
who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you
play a major role in the student’s learning. Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will enable you to
better develop teaching methodologies and other interventions meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at large. Learning connotes
observed changes in a person as a result of environmental events and interventions. The process of education is a
deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up the educational ladder, developmental changes in their personality are
affected. This has to do with improved and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and
other personality behaviors.
Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The Nature of Learning
For a start, learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner. The change can be
deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect and conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and
Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for learning, the change should be brought about by experience or by
interaction of the person with the environment. It is not learning if the change is brought about by maturation like getting
taller or hair turning gray. Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as examples of
learning.
While the definition may generally connote change either in the direction of the positive or negative, it should
be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it means a conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral
changes among learners in the positive direction. Thus, we should be thinking about improving and enhancing learners’
knowledge, abilities, skills and values, quantitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end, we should look to the
goals and objectives of education as our guide to successfully effect the desired learning outcomes.
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring,
enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views (‘Education,”n.d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with behavior including both
observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions.
Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and
thinking skills that comes about through experience. It is a long-term change in mental representations or associations as
a result of experience. Santrock goes further to say that it is a long-term change in mental representations or associations
as a result of experience. For example, as a result of experience, children will change from being unable to operate a
computer into individuals who can. However, not everything that an individual knows or is able to do is the result of
experience. There are some things an individual can do due to inherited capacities. An example of this is swallowing or
blinking of the eyes. If, however, an individual develops new methods of study, works harder to solve problems, asks
better questions, then these are learning as a result of experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever)
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue, hunger or the
like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basics in the brain.
Woolfolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a relatively
permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior or potential for behavior.” For Ormrod (2015), “learning is a
long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience.”

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 Types of Learning
a. Motor Learning – form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily life activities which
includes motor coordination. Ex. walking, running, driving, climbing and the like.
b. Verbal Learning – involves the use of spoken language as well as the communication devices used.
Ex. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds.
c. Concept Learning - form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning - learning to differentiate between stimuli and responding appropriately to
these stimuli. Ex. being able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and
ambulance.
e. Learning of Principles – learning principles related to science, mathematics, grammar and the like.
Principles show the relationship between two or more concepts. Ex. Formulas, laws, associations,
correlations etc.
f. Problem Solving – a higher-order thinking process. Requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as
thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning – attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts behavior.
Learning Theory
- An organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge.

Learner-centered

- The perspective that focuses on individual learners-their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds,
talents, interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning-the best available knowledge about
learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest
levels of motivation, learning and achievement for all learners.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the Learning Process – learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process – the successful learner, over time, with support and guidance can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge – the learner can relate new information in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking – the learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex goals.
5. Thinking about Thinking – higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning – learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning – what and how much is learned is influenced by the
learner’s level of motivation. Motivation to learn is in turn influenced by the learner’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests, goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn – learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort – acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice. Without this motivation, willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental Influences on Learning – as individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and
experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social Influences on Learning – learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning – learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity – learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, social, and cultural
backgrounds are taken into account.

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 14. Standards and Assessment – setting appropriate high and challenging standards and assessing the learner and
learning progress – including diagnostic and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process.
Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which address leaner’s needs.
1. Problem-Based Learning
- emphasizes real-life problem solving
- exposes learners to authentic life problems that they meet in their daily lives
- involves small-group efforts to identify problems and issues they wish to tackle and explore, then identify
materials and resources to solve problem
- teacher guides and monitors the learner’s problem solving efforts
2. Essential Questions
- asked of learners which perplex them
- followed by other questions which motivate the students to explore the questions and look for answers
3. Discovery Learning
- in contrast to direct-instruction approach
- teachers create the situation where students explore and figure out things for themselves
Theories of Learning
1. Behaviorism
- Learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli
- Emerged in the early 1900s through Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike
- Learner starts with a clean slate
- Behavior is learned through positive reinforcement
- World view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R)
Areas of Application Under Behaviorism (Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September, 2012)
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcers
l. Negative reinforcement

2. Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

- Replaced behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for learning
- Human mind is seen as a “black box”
- Mental processes such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning need to be explored
- Requires active participation

Areas of Application (Kelly, September 2012)

a. Classifying/chunking information
b. Linking concepts
c. Providing structure
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery
i. Mnemonics
3. Social Constructivism
- Posits that learning is an active constructive process
- Learner constructs knowledge
- New information is linked to prior knowledge
- Person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a situation

Areas of Application

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 a. Case studies
b. Research projects
c. Problem solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
The table below presents some salient points about the above-mentioned theories of learning considered as
basic to the further study of learning.
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism
View of Knowledge Knowledge is a repertoire Knowledge systems of Knowledge is constructed
of behavioral responses to cognitive structures are within social contexts
environmental stimuli. actively constructed by through interactions with a
learners based on cognitve knowledge community.
structures.
View of Learning Passive absoprtion of a Active assimilation and Integration of students into
predefined body of accommodation of new a knowledge community.
knowledge by the learner. information to existing Collaborative assimilation
Promoted by repetition and cognitive structures. and accommodation of new
positive reinforcement. Discovery by learners. information.
View of Motivation Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and extrinsic.
positive and negative own goals and motivate Learning goals and motives
reinforcement. themselves to learn. are determined both by
learners and extrinsic
rewards provided by the
knowledge community.
Implications for Correct behavioral Teacher facilitates learning by Collaborative learning is
Teaching responses are transmitted providing an environment that facilitated and guided by
by teachers and absorbed promotes discovery and the teacher. Group work.
by students. assimilation.accommodation.

Theories of Learning Following the Basic Theories

1. Social Learning Theory
- espoused by Albert Bandura
- suggests that people learn within a social context and learning is facilitated through modeling, observational
learning and imitation
- Bandura put forward “reciprocal determinism”
Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education
a. students learn a great deal simply by observing people
b. describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate ones
c. modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors
d. teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors
e. teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break down traditional stereotypes

2. Socio-constructivism
- emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction in learning
- knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context, and culture
Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or cooperative learning
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make sure that each learner is able to make his contribution to
accomplish the task.
c. The topics should contain local instructional materials which are familiar to the learners.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group discussions and problem solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning
- build on social and constructivist theories
- situate experience at the core of the learning process
- aim to understand the manner in which experiences motivate learners and promote their learning

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Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the learners
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the students
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide student’s learning

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

- Howard Gardner argues that intelligence consists of many distinct intelligences: logico-mathematical,
linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

- recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated
- emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature
of learning activity
- it is within the community that learning occurs most effectively
According to McCarthy (1981-1987) the concept of communities of practice is based on the following assumptions:
a. Learning is fu ndamentally a social phenomenon.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, language and ways of doing things.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice are inseparable.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice.
e. Empowerment creates the potential for learning.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

- skills necessary for students to master for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly
digital and connected age. Current discussions about 21 st century skills lead classrooms and other
environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical
and systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry-based collaborative
work that addresses world issues support the learning of the 21 st Century Skills. (Source:
http://unesco.org/new/en)

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Copy this activity in a short bond paper and pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 1)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

1. Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the classroom.
2. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you think so.
3. Write your answers on the space provided. Use separate sheet of paper if necessary.

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize
the multiplication table.

2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about an

effective teacher to a group of teacher-trainees.

3. The teacher gave five algebra problems for

students to solve.

4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on

Philippine history, after which he asked the
students to answer recall questions.

5. The teacher asked the students to memorize and

recite Jose Rizal’s “My Last Farewell.”

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6. The teacher invited one resource person to give
a lecture on developing habits of cleanliness
and hygiene. After the lecture, the students
were encouraged to ask questions to the
resource speaker.

7. In a science class, the teacher asked the

students to do an experiment and answer the
questions based on the results of the
experiment.

8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil who gave

correct answers to her questions.

9. In a statistics class, the students were asked to

interpret the data illustrated in graphs.

10. The teacher asked the students to do interviews

with local officials. The purpose was to identify
who among the local officials are “good” and
“effective” leaders based on a set of criteria.

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11. The teacher asked the students to observe a
chef on the correct way of cooking a recipe.

12. In a coconut-growing locality, many of the

topics in the course had to do with coconuts. In
TLE, lessons are on cooking using coconut
recipes. In science, lessons are on how to
improve the by-products of coconuts.

13. On a lesson on environmental conservation,

students climbed a mountain to study the kinds
of topographical changes taking place.

14. In an English (literature) class, the topic was

Joyce Kilmer’s poem, “Trees”. The teacher
asked two students to write two paragraphs of
their interpretation of the poem from a science
perspective. Two students were also asked to
interpret the poem in music form.

15. The topic under study is to study the use of

computer programs needed for different tasks
in the workplace.

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Module 2. Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions on cognitive development. The topics present relevant details
on child, adolescent, and adult learning development.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Compare child, adolescent, and adult learning.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
Several factors both internal and external to the individual relate to the kind, or even rate of learning. One of
these factors is age, which in fact is tied to developmental levels. Human development goes through stages, each
having unique characteristics. As such, it is expected that patterns of growth and development differ from one
developmental stage to the other. Hence, there are differences in learning among individuals across developmental
stages. These differences may either be in rate of learning, quality of knowledge or skills acquired, approach to
learning or perspective to learning, to name some.
It is important for teachers to be aware of and know patterns of behavior that characterize developmental levels.
Knowing this will enable teachers to decide what and how to teach students, as well as the kind of instructional
materials, activities and opportunities to be given in the classroom, as well as the teaching methodologies to be used.
Principles of Cognitive Development
1. Development proceeds in an orderly and predictable pattern. Development occurs through developmental
milestones, defined as the appearance of developmentally more advanced behavior, which appear in a
predictable manner. Thus for example, a child babbles before he learns to talk using one-syllable words. Or he
rolls over before he learns to crawl.
2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of slower growth. It means development is
not constant. For example, a learner might proceed through a rapid growth at early childhood, but slower
cognitive growth in adolescence.
3. Different individuals develop at different rates. Most often, average age for the entire development period is
used to describe learners. This is simply an approximation due to individual differences. Still some learners
reach developmental milestones early, some later, even if they are within the same developmental period.
4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture (environment). (Hurst, n.d.)
The above-mentioned principles of growth and development are necessary for teachers to know, so they could
better address the learning needs, abilities, and expectations from learners. Hence, if a teacher, for example, knows that
his kindergarten pupils are on the average, 5 years old, he can say they are still at an early stage of cognitive
development. To maximize the development of cognition at this level, he develops and approaches his lessons starting
from the concrete level, and proceeding to increasing levels of abstraction. For example, in developing the concept of the
number 4, the teacher can introduce the pupils to this concept, first by using objects to illustrate the concept.
Young Learners (Children)
Characteristics
1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families, and their lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see, hear and interact to learn.
5. Their attention span is very short.
6. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. They need to work with their students individually because they need to be guided. (“Differences of Young,
Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018)

Given the characteristics of young learners, teachers should be innovative in coming up with varied tasks and
experiences for young learners. Since they like to work in groups, use this as an avenue for socialization. The approach to
teaching should be more of cooperative learning where young learners are able to learn from each other.
Adolescent Learning
Characteristics
1. They are in search for personal identity.
2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs and learning expectations.
3. They become disruptive when they lost interest in the lesson or if they feel bored.
4. They need help and support from the teacher and to be provided with constructive feedback.

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 5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment including personal experience, the local
community, and the internet.
6. They need teachers to build bridges between the syllabus and their world of interests and experiences.
7. They can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities.
8. Their personal initiative and energy are moved into action through meaningful involvement with relevant and
current content. (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).
Adult Learning
Malcolm Knowles is a theorist on adult learning who popularized the concept of andragogy. This term means
the art and science of helping adults learn, contrasting it with pedagogy which is the art and science of teaching
children. He did research on adult learning. Based on his findings, following are posited about adult learners’
characteristics.
Five Areas of Adult Learner’s Characteristics
1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to increasing self-directedness as they mature. They can direct
their own learning, meaning they can initiate their learning even without the help of others in planning, carrying
out, and evaluating their learning activities.
2. Adult learner experience. They draw on their accumulated experiences as their resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they assume new social or life roles.
4. Orientation to learning. They are problem-centered and they want to apply new learnings immediately. They
are interested in subjects that have immediate relevance and impact into their job or personal life.
5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors (“Teaching Excellence
in Adult Literacy,” 2011)
Difference of Adult Learners to Young Learners
1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.
2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come to the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations, and experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. They learn at various rates and in different ways according to their intellectual ability, educational level,
personality and cognitive learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts, and beliefs which needs to be
respected (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).
The following table shows the differences between adult and adolescent learning in terms of characteristics of the
learning experiences.
Pedagogy (Adolescent) Andragogy (Adult)
Teacher-structured Learner-structured
Minimal control by the learner Minimal control by the teacher
Focus on training for events to come Focus on assimilation of learning from past experiences
Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking
Focus on memory Focus on thinking/doing
Content supplied by teacher/class materials Content supplied partially by students
Based on specific content standards Outcomes evolve as learning progresses

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some implications for teaching this group of learners,
and suggestions given by Malcolm Knowles.
a. Set a cooperative climate for learning in the classroom.
b. Assess the learner’s specific needs and interests because these are the more important things he wants to learn.
c. Develop learning objectives based on the learner’s needs, interests and skill levels.
d. Design sequential activities to achieve the objectives.
e. Work collaboratively with the learner to select methods, materials and resources for instruction.
f. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience and make adjustments as needed, while assessing needs for
further learning.
g. The experiences provided for them should be problem-centered rather than content oriented (Kearsley, 2010;
Knowles, n.d.).
h. They have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
The physiological changes being experienced by adolescents at that stage, influence their emotional, cognitive,
social and even physical development. The growth spurt occurs at this developmental stage. Because the influence of
peers is very strong at this time, expectedly, they are confronted with many distractions and other concerns that veer
their attention away from their school activities and experiences. Thus, it is important for teachers to be visibly
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supportive of the challenges confronting the adolescent students. It is also important that teachers guide and support
them, so that they are able to reach their highest and proximal level of development. Adolescents also tend to be
impulsive and they have their own unique interests, as well.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 2)

4.1
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

1. Conduct a simple interview with a child, adolescent, and an adult inside your
household/neighborhood.
2. Write your answers on the space provided. Use separate sheet of paper if necessary.

Question to be asked:
1. “Where do you want to live, in the city? Or in the barrio? State your reasons for your answer.”
Child

Adolescent

Adult

4.2

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Below is a list of classroom activities. Identify whose needs will be addressed by each activity. Write Young,
Adolescents or Adults. Write your answer on the space provided.
__________1. Students go to the seashore to study different kinds of shells.
__________2. Students name and identify real fruits shown by the teacher.
__________3. Students are given ingredients and were asked to cook these using their own
method.
__________4. Students were grouped into three and were given two problems to solve.
__________5. Students were doing an experiment and the teacher was present to guide them.
__________6. The students were asked to tell stories about their family using pictures.
__________7. Students were asked to interpret a poem.
__________8. Students were asked to interview five leaders in the community, from which
they were to make an assessment of how effective or ineffective the leaders are.
__________9. Students were asked to make a table in two hours.
__________10. Students were asked to observe the leaves of plants in the garden.

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Module 3. Declarative, Procedural, and Functional Knowledge
1. Module Overview
This module covers the categories and classifications of knowledge. The topics present
relevant details on ways of classifying knowledge and its educational implications.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge.
3. Content Focus
Categories of Knowledge
1. Declarative Knowledge
- information acquired that one can speak about
- it is what we know
- information that one can declare
- facts and events that can be explicitly stored and consciously recalled or declared
- product of declarative learning
- skill that we use to acquire new information
- associated with tasks that require greater amount of attention as what happens in school
- declarative learning occurs most often through memorization
- language based and dependent on memory
- means through which much new information is acquired, both in education and for personal improvement.
Example: the capital of a country
2. Procedural Knowledge
- what one can do and what one is able to do.
- related to motor learning
- may not have a language component
- can be performed without conscious thought or attention
- sometimes learned implicitly rather than explicitly
- often less conscious than declarative learning
Example: knowing how to ride a bike
Declarative learning can eventually become procedural learning.
Example: In teaching a child to cross the street, first the mother recites the phrase every time they cross the
street, “Look left, look right; if free, cross the street. This can go on and on, until such time, that the child can cross the
street, without reciting the phrases learned from his mother.
3. Functional Knowledge
- any piece of stored information that can be adapted and applied to different circumstances or are
transferable to different settings.
- how people acquire and categorize data often referred to as “schema” by cognitive theorists
- if information is acquired through several circumstances and is recalled through different situations, that
knowledge becomes functional
Other Ways of Classifying Knowledge
1. Episodic Knowledge
- biological memory reflecting not only what happened but also where and when it happened
- examples are memories of childhood days or a girl’s first day in school
2. Semantic Knowledge
- deals with memories and information but not tied to personal biographies
- organized knowledge about facts, concepts, generalizations and their associations

Three Subtypes of Semantic Knowledge according to Anderson & Krathwohl (2001)

a. Declarative. Statement of truth that deals with what we know about the world.
b. Procedural. Knowledge about how things are done.
c. Conditional. If declarative knowledge accounts for what, if procedural knowledge accounts for how,
conditional knowledge accounts for knowing when.
Dimensions of Knowledge
a. Conceptual Knowledge. Knowledge of classification, principles, generalizations, theories, models, situations
pertinent to discipline. One may be able to know and explain the theory of multiple intelligences.
b. Metacognitive Knowledge. Awareness of one’s own cognition and particular cognitive process.
c. Factual. Knowledge basic to specific disciplines like science or math.

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 Educational Implications of Knowledge Acquisition
As earlier mentioned, appropriate interventions or activities given to students, as well as appropriate
methodologies will help improve the quality of the knowledge acquired by students. Santrock (2011) claimed that mental
processes of experts can help the teachers guide the students into becoming more effective learners. The question is,
“What is it exactly that the experts do?” Studies have shown that experts are better than novices along the following.
a. Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information
b. Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that indicates understanding of the
topic
c. Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort
d. Adapting an approach to new situations
e. Using effective strategies
Knowing the above approaches that experts use in dealing with knowledge or information, teachers would be
able to determine appropriate strategies to help students also apply these approaches that experts use.
a. Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of Organization. Experts are better able to detect important
features of problems and context not noticed by novices. When confronted with information or data, experts
engage in chunking of information where, they deduce hierarchical structures, making them recall the more
important information therein.
b. Organization and Depth of Information. Experts’ knowledge is organized around the important ideas or
concepts. Thus they have a deeper understanding of knowledge than novices. Usually, experts have more
elaborate networks of information about an era. As such the curriculum should be designed in a way that it
is easy for the students to organize information.
c. Fluent Retrieval. Experts along a certain era, are able to retrieve information fluently or without much
effort. The advantage of effortless retrieval is that it places less burden on the conscious effort of retrieving
the information. For example, expert readers can readily read the written word with less effort than novices,
thus, making them pay attention as well to comprehending and deriving meaning from the written word.,
thus there is less time spent given to comprehension.
d. Adaptive Expertise. Experts are able to approach unique or new situations in a flexible manner and are not
limited to the “old” approach they usually use. They are flexible and can adapt equally well, even to new
situations, rather than always responding in a rigid or fixed way.
e. Strategies. Experts use effective strategies in understanding information in their area of expertise and in
advancing it. Acclimation is the initial stage of expertise in a particular domain (science, mathematics). At
this stage, students have limited and fragmented knowledge that limits their ability to differentiate between
accurate and inaccurate information, or between relevant and irrelevant information. Teachers should help
students go beyond the acclimation stage, by guiding them into differentiating between important and non-
important, or what is accurate from inaccurate. Teachers should also teach students strategies and practice
them in relevant situations.
f. Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning. Teachers should always talk to students on the importance
of reviewing and monitoring regularly what they have learned; and that it is better to distribute their
learning over a period of time, rather than cramming at the last minute for review.
g. Asking Themselves Questions. Teachers should encourage students to ask themselves questions. When
students do this, they expand the number of associations with the information they need to retrieve.
Teachers should also encourage the students to periodically ask questions, as for example, while listening to
a lecture, watching a video, or even while reading. They can also be encouraged to generate questions about
their experiences, and this way, they can better remember such experiences.
h. Taking Good Notes. This refers to taking good notes while reading a text or from a lecture. However, in
taking down notes, they should be taught strategies to organize their notes, so that they can get the bigger
picture of the material they are dealing with.

 Summarizing: Have children listen first, then deduce the main idea.
 Outlining: this requires writing down the main topic and then the sub-topics.
 Using concept maps: they visually portray information in spider-like format.

i. Using a Study System. This refers to a system that students should adapt for studying. An established
study system will help learners for more meaningful learning.
Certain types of teaching methods or techniques are appropriate to best develop particular types of knowledge
and outcomes. It therefore requires the teacher to know exactly what kind of learning students need to develop.
a. For developing declarative knowledge, the appropriate methods would be to provide activities on
organizing, listing, and elaborating to facilitate learning. This calls for rehearsals, use of fact sheets, graphic
organizers, use of thinking maps, recall and remembrance strategies, and organizational concepts.

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b. For developing concept learning, applications of learning is the most appropriate. This does not involve
memory or recall as in declarative learning but the use of inquiry or expository approach is the more
appropriate to use.
c. For learning procedures, the application of procedural methods to reach the final product is a good
approach. This entails the following: recognition, recall, application, analysis and completion of steps.
Simple procedures should be demonstrated and practiced one at a time.
d. For learning of principles, cause and effect strategies are effective to teach principles.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 3)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

There are ways or strategies by which students can improve the quality of knowledge they have developed and
acquired. Can you suggest one strategy or one method (apart from those mentioned in this chapter) to improve
the quality of the knowledge that you have acquired? Write your answer on the space provided.
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4.2.

Identify if the knowledge is declarative, procedural or functional. Write your answer on the space provided.
_____________1. Putting together the parts of a microscope earlier demonstrated by the
teacher.
_____________2. Reciting a poem earlier memorized.
_____________3. Naming the parts of a flower correctly as read from a science book.
_____________4. Reciting the table of multiplication.
_____________5. Knowing how to ride a bicycle.
_____________6. Knowing how to drive.
_____________7. Applying first-aid procedure to a person who drowned.
_____________8. The teacher gave different types of rewards to his students who scored high.
_____________9. Knowing how to bake a chocolate cake.
____________10. With knowledge of simple machines, Mario was able to move a load in a
cylindrical container.

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 CHAPTER 2

Dimensions of Learner-Centered Learning

Module 4. Dimensions of Learner-Centered Learning

1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions on social constructivism. The topics present relevant details
on socio-constructivist view of learning and its general implications on educational practice.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Relate the dimensions of learning in selecting effective strategies and methodologies.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the earlier chapters, the basic theories of learning have been discussed. One view is that learning is explained
by outside processes, where learning is thought to have occurred because of what the individual shows in his
external behavior. Another school of thought also posits that learning happens because of internal cognitive
processes. In addition, there is another thinking which tries to explain that learning occurs because of the ability of
the individual to construct his own learning using as his base, the socio-cultural context upon which he exists or
operates. This school of thought argues that learning is socially constructed. It keeps to the idea that learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. This is because human
beings are social creatures and that much of learning involves interacting with people, as well as acquiring
knowledge and skills from them. It should be mentioned again that theorists try to explain from a particular
perspective why and how learning occurs and in this case, the socio-cultural perspective.

Defining Key Terms Related to Social Constructivism

This chapter deals with the views on learning as explained by socio-cultural factors. This perspective argues that
learning is a result of the socio-cultural context in which it occurs-social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others. How we develop, particularly how we learn and think is primarily a function of the socio-
cultural environment in which we are reared. Socio-cultural theorists see cognitive development in a different light, i.e.,
cognitive development is inseparable from culture. This means that while socio-cultural factors do not explain everything
about learning, nevertheless, they interact with cognitive factors to influence learning.
To better understand the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, it would be good to define and understand first
the related key terms which you may come across later in the chapter.
a. Context. The surrounding circumstances upon which learning occurs.
b. Community of practice. Group of people who share common interests and regularly interact and coordinate
their efforts, in pursuit of their interests and goals, and regularly interact and coordinate their efforts, in pursuit
of their interests and goals. Communities of practice tend to adhere to certain standards of actions and
interactions (Ormrod, 2015). (The school is an example of a community of practice).
c. Authenticity. Closeness to real-life situations and real-world tasks and problems; close resemblance of an
activity or a task to what one will most likely encounter in the outside world.
d. Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to a person or student while in the process of
learning.
e. Culture. Characteristics of the individual or society. Includes values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and
unacceptable behavior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the group are taught as “true”.
f. Social Constructivism. Emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually
built and constructed. That involvement with others creates opportunities for students to evaluate and refine
their understanding as they are exposed to the thinking of others an as they participate in creating shared
understanding. Social contexts, provide an important mechanism for developing students’ thinking (Santrock,
2011).
The Socio-Constructivist View of Learning
Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist has laid some of the groundwork for contextual theories by
espousing that society and culture provide many concepts and strategies that children can use in thinking about and
solving everyday problems. Other psychologists also believe that learning and development are inextricably dependent
on and bound to various physical, social, and cultural contexts. The different theories developed along this thinking,
however, differ in the contexts which they focus on, but they can all be considered as contextual theories in learning.
Vygotsky’s theory later came to be known as socio-cultural theory of learning.
Following are the key ideas and concepts in Vygotsky’s theory (Ormrod, 2015).
1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of species, but some are unique to human beings. Lower species
exhibit lower mental functions like knowing what to eat, and how best to get food from various locations. But

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 humans use their higher mental functions: deliberate, focused cognitive processes that enhance learning,
memory and logical reasoning.
2. Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to children the ways in which the
culture interprets and responds to the world. Through these kinds of interactions, children learn from adults the
kind of behavior they are expected to exhibit within their own culture.
3. Every culture not only teaches its members how to interpret their experiences, but also passes along the physical
and cognitive tools that make daily living more effective and efficient. Physical tools like sewing machines,
drills, simple machines make work easier and more efficient, but cognitive tools like use of symbols, or
strategies for doing things like reviewing for an exam, or reading maps, which are symbolic and mental in
nature greatly enhance children’s thinking skills.
4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the first few years of life. For adults, thought and
language are closely interconnected. For infants and young toddlers, thought and language are two different
functions.
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as children develop, they gradually internalize the
processes they use in social contexts and begin to use them independently. It is advanced that higher mental
functions have their foundations in social activities, as children learn new things and develop higher cognitive
skills as a result of their verbal exchanges with other children or other people.
6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own idiosyncratic manner. Children do not necessarily
internalize what they see or hear in a social context, but transform these ideas, strategies and other cognitive
tools to suit their own needs and purposes. This point of view has a constructivist basis.
7. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks if they are assisted by people more advanced and competent than
they are.
8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) identifies the
range of tasks that children cannot yet perform independently but can perform to the maximum, if there is help,
support and guidance of others. The process of helping and supporting learners perform to the maximum is
called “scaffolding”.
9. Play allows children to cognitively “stretch” themselves. Play serves as the children’s training ground for
adulthood. This is where they learn rules and standards in acting out their adult roles. Playing house for
example, is where children try their hand at exercising their future roles as father or mother through play
activities like cooking, taking care of their children and the like.
Analyzing Vygotsky’s theory, focus is more on the processes through which children develop their social and
cognitive skills for learning, as opposed to what developmental theorists claim (one of whom is Jean Piaget) that children
develop the characteristics that they are most likely to exhibit at the appropriate developmental stages. To digress a bit,
developmental theories advance the view that humans go through developmental stages, characterized by the appearance
of certain characteristics.
Comparatively though, Vygotsky’s concept of learning from a developmental point of view, is often unclear and
speculative, making it more difficult to test, verify or prove, than that of Piaget’s theory (Gauvain, 2001, as cited in
Ormrod, 2015). But even while there is this limitation in Vygotsky’s perspective, it has general implications for
educational practice on the following: social reconstruction of meaning, scaffolding, participation in adult activities,
apprenticeships, acquisition of teaching skills, and dynamic assessment. Think of a classroom situation. In some
instances, students prefer to work alone, but sometimes they are asked to work together to solve a problem, a situation
from which they can learn from each other, and subsequently create new knowledge. This is social constructivism.
 Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world through discussion of a phenomenon or
event which both of them are experiencing. This encourages the child to think about the particular phenomenon,
attach labels to it, or even recall the principles underlying it. This type of learning is mediated learning
experience. For example, a teacher and his class visit the museum, and they discuss the implements used by
farmers 500 years ago. In addition to the question-and –answer between teacher and students, they (students)
also discuss among themselves what could be inferred about these farm implements. The discussion between
teacher and students may help the latter make inferences about the kind of vegetables and cereals grown and
raised by the farmers at that time. This example illustrates the social construction of meaning.
 Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or competent people which helps students of any
age to perform and accomplish challenging tasks even if at that time, they cannot yet perform these tasks
independently- in Vygotsky’s terms, even if such tasks are within their zone of proximal development.
Following are some forms of scaffolding (Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling the correct way of performing as task.

b. Dividing a complex task into smaller and simpler activities.
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task.
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier.
e. Keeping student’s attention focused on critical aspects of the task.

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 f. Asking questions that get the students focus on task.
g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing.

 Participation and gradual entry into adult activities Increase the probability that children will engage in
behaviors and thinking skills within their zone of proximal development. In such a situation, the children’s
involvement should be mediated, supervised, and scaffolded by more competent adults.
 Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice works with an expert mentor for a certain
period to learn how to perform complex tasks in a particular domain. The mentor provides structure and
guidance throughout the whole process, gradually weaning off the learner from the help and support
(scaffolding), and giving him more responsibility as his competence increases. Apprenticeship can show novices
how experts typically think about a task or activity. This is known as cognitive apprenticeship. Cognitive
apprenticeships are important in the classroom. Researchers found that students’ learning benefits from teachers
who think of their relationship with a student as cognitive apprenticeship using scaffolding, guided participation
or tutoring to help the student learn. All kinds of apprenticeships have the following features: (Collins, 2006 &
1989; in Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or talking about the process while
the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and feedback as learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the learner, like simplifying the task,
breaking a task into smaller and more manageable units, or providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The learner explains what he is doing and why, allowing the mentor to examine or analyze the
learner’s knowledge, reasoning and problem-solving strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance with that of experts, or with a model of
how the task should be done.
f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. With increasing learner’s proficiency, the mentor presents
more complex, challenging and varied tasks to accomplish.
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and problems on his own and in doing
so refine and expand his acquired skills.

 Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use of socio-constructivist approach to
learning. As children acquire and gain new and first-hand information and skills from experienced members of
the community, they can, in turn, teach their new knowledge to others.
 Dynamic assessment often reveal more objective evaluation of children’s cognitive capabilities, than general
assessments do. Dynamic assessment requires first the identification of tasks that children cannot do
independently, then provide in-depth instruction, and practice in developing cognitive behaviors along these
tasks; and finally determine the extent to which the learner benefited from the intervention. More objective
evaluation of children’s cognitive capabilities.
There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches and techniques that the teacher can use-methods that are
in keeping Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist view of learning.
a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutees. Time should be spent on training
tutors.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to work in small groups and help each other
learn. Groups may vary in size, as in dyad or groups of four.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a group, and the group can develop its own
structure on how to go about solving the problem.
The Situated Learning Theory
The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the view that learning is a product of the cultural
context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or situated learning is a theory that suggests learning is “naturally
tied to authentic activity, context and culture” (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It means that most learning occurs
naturally through social activities, contexts, and the culture which learners are exposed to.
This theory suggests that it is more difficult to learn from unnatural activities. For example, in a science class,
changes in the earth’s surface could be learned and understood better if students are allowed to go out of the classroom,
say, go to the mountains, and make lengthy observations, rather than by reading books or looking at pictures, to study
these changes.
Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real activities of daily living where learning occurs
in a pro-social but informal setting. It suggests that learning takes place through social relationships, within a cultural
milieu. The concept of communities of practice assumes that learning should not be viewed as a mere transmission of
knowledge but as a distinctly embedded and active social process. Such type of learning is stimulated by specific
contexts (where learning is socially-situated) and within authentic, social and physical environments. This is saying that

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the learning experiences in school, should not “unsituate” learning materials. Instead, these materials should be
meaningful and within the experiential reach of the students.
A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of the notable proponents of situated
learning theory. Following are the highlights or the main ideas of the situated learning theory that she advanced (Brown,
Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp. 32-42)
Highlights of the Situated Learning Theory
a. Knowledge is socially-constructed.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and negotiating their way through
new situations.
c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is supposed to develop.
f. Learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes place in and through common practices
among a group of people within similar goals and interests.
h. Learning is in part about increased participation.
i. Cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a community.
j. Designing learning experiences from situated learning perspectives start with some assumptions.
- Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations.
- Social processes influence the way people think, perceive, solve problems, perform procedures, build
declarative knowledge and interact.
- Learning is enmeshed in participation in complex social environments where there are people, situations and
activities.
k. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through continuous use.
Importance of authenticity in Situated Learning
1. Knowledge is a product of making and creating meanings, and cannot be separated from its context.
2. Learning is a continuous, life-long process from acting within and reacting to situations.
3. The tools of learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated insights of communities of
practice.
4. Learning is a process of enculturation.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 4)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

A. Assume you are a teacher. Write an essay on the topic: “What teaching methodologies can I use to improve the
performance of my students.” Apply the ideas and concepts about the socio-cultural dimensions of learning.
Write your answer on the space provide. Use separate sheet of paper if necessary.

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4.2.
Expound two of the main ideas of Jean Lave’s situated learning theory.

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Module 5. Social Interactions, Interpersonal Relations, and Communication in the Learning
Process
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions on how specific relationships have a hand on learning. The
topics also present relevant details on the consequences of social interaction behaviors in the
classroom.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication in the learning
process.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the earlier chapter, you have been introduced to how and why learning occurs as explained by the social
dimensions of learning. This view further asserts that learning takes place in a social context, and that learning is
basically a social phenomenon. It means further that socio-cultural factors play an important role in learning. Given these
views, it means that the philosophical and methodological approaches to teaching and learning, should capitalize on
techniques that consider situations which are social in nature.
This chapter looks into how specific relationships have a hand on learning. It also looks into the consequences of social
interaction behaviors on socio-emotional climate in the classroom.
Meanings of Social Interactions, Interpersonal Relations, and Communication
The earlier chapters point to the view that learning takes place in a social context. It should be borne in mind
though, that socio-cultural factors do not totally explain and influence learning; but nevertheless, they are very important.
It is because people are social creatures; and everyone lives within a social context. The basic and key words related to
social dimensions of learning will first have to be defined and understood. These are social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication. All of these connote "exchange" and "relationship" Learning can be enhanced when the
learner has the opportunity to interact and collaborate with others, especially on instructional tasks, in school.
Social Interaction
Social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals. By interacting with one another, people
design rules, systems, and institutions. It is a dynamic changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups.
Social interactions provide the foundation or bases for social cultures and structures. Social interactions refer to how
people act, and how they react to people around them. It includes those acts which people perform and the ways other
people react or respond to these. Ervin Goffman, a sociologist, identified five types of social interaction namely:
exchange, competition, cooperation, conflict, and coercion ("Social Interactions," n. d.). Exchange is the most basic
type of social interaction. It is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged for some type of reward of equal or
greater value. Competition is a social process by which two or more people attempt to attain a goal, which only one can.
Cooperation is a process by which people work together to attain a common goal. Conflict happens when there is
disagreement or dissent on certain points among group members. Coercion is the process of persuading someone to do
something or to cooperate, using force, threat, or intimidation.
Positive or negative consequences of these types of social interaction could either be positive or negative
depending on how these interactions are managed or handled. For example, the use of teaching techniques that harness
cooperation among students to work on problem-solving tasks, where they work together and contribute to the solution of
problems may create in them a feeling of success and satisfaction. On the other hand, the use of force or intimidation on
students for them to finish and complete assigned tasks can leave negative feelings of dislike, anxiety, or indifference.
Interpersonal Relation
Interpersonal relation has something to do with close, deep or strong association or acquaintance between two
or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring; a bond or close association that exists between two or
more people who may share common interests or goals (Juneja, n. a.) the types or interpersonal relationships, are
friendship, love, platonic relationship, family relationship, and work relationship. Friendship is an unconditional
interpersonal relationship which individuals enter into by their own choice and will; love is a relationship characterized
by love, Intimacy, trust and respect between individuals and might end up in marriage; platonic is a relationship between
individuals but without feelings of desire for each other; family refers to relationship of individuals related to each other
by blood or marriage; and work relationship refers to the kind of relationship, of individuals who work for the same
organization (Juneja, n. d.).
Communication
Communication refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through a common system of symbols,
signs, behavior. It is a two-way process of reaching understanding in which participants not only exchange information,
news, ideas or feelings but also create and share meaning. Communication is a means to connect people and places.
As deduced from the above definitions, there are elements common among these three key terms. The
commonalities have to do with the concepts of "exchange" "relationship and "bond”. Going further, there is a socio-

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emotional component involved when these interactions happen. This socio-emotional component has implications for the
kind of climate there is in the classroom, which consequently, will bear on students’ learning.
The School/Classroom as a Social Entity
The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and groups, mainly, students and teachers. In the
classroom, teaching - learning activities, as well as those outside of it, are all social events because many exchanges
happen in these activities. The direction of the exchanges can either be between student and teacher; or between student
and other students. The classroom or the school is an important institution from which the child learns his first lessons in
socialization.
The socio-emotional climate in the classroom brought about by the kind of social interactions and relationships
existing therein, should be one where students experience social acceptance. The students should be made to feel that
they are accepted by their peers and teachers. Social approval inside the classroom should also be felt by all students. The
absence of approval and acceptance may result in serious negative implications on the socio-emotional climate of the
school. A social climate in the classroom that is negative can bring about fear, anxiety, restlessness. It can also result in
disinterest in the lessons, or decrease in motivation levels.
Children's relationship with their parents, peers, and friends have a tremendous impact in their lives. Their
interactions with teachers, mentors and others also can profoundly affect their achievement and social motivation
(Santrock, 2011).
Children's social concerns influence their lives in school (Anderman & Anderman, 2010, in Santrock, 2011).
Teachers play an important role in students' achievement. It was found that effective, engaging teachers not only provide
support for students to make good progress, but also encourages students to become self-regulated learners (Pressly, in
Santrock, 2011). Wentzel (2o09, in Santrock, 2011) found that students' motivation is optimized when teachers provide
them with challenging tasks in a mastery-oriented environment that includes good emotional and cognitive support,
meaningful and interesting material to learn and master, and sufficient support for autonomy and initiative. Moreover,
researchers have also found that students who feel that they have supportive and caring teachers are better motivated to
do school work than those who feel their teachers are uncaring and unsupportive. Higher levels of motivation are related
to higher performance or achievement. It was also found that children who do not do well in school have negative
interactions with teachers. Negative interactions may be due to the kind of communication taking place between teachers
and students. Inappropriate language or that which conveys negative feelings can in turn bring about negative feelings
among students during interaction.
The kind of interaction with peers (they can either be classmates or friends) is also a factor to students'
motivation, which is important for learning to happen. Higher motivation levels is associated with better learning or
performance. It is thus important that the social climate of the classroom or the school be characterized by warmth
brought about by positive interactions, good communication, and good relationships between and among students and
teachers.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 5)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Below are critical incidents that would most likely occur inside the classroom. As a future teacher, indicate what you are
going to do, if the situations below happen in your classroom.
1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the student cannot answer the question. Answer
in a maximum of six sentences only.
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1. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer the teacher's questions nor participate in
class activities. Answer in a maximum of six sentences only.
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2. The teacher noticed that three of his students were "isolates" and wouldn't want to participate in problem-
solving task. Answer in a maximum of six sentences only.
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4.2.
Connect the given situations to the concepts listed below. Write the letter of your answer in the space provided.
a. Platonic relationship
b. Coercion
c. Negative socio-emotional classroom climate
d. Cooperation
e. Social interaction
f. Friendship
g. Communication
_____1. Two students, both girls enjoy swimming and biking during weekends.
_____2. A group of five students work together, each one having his own assigned task to work and finish a class project.
_____3. The teacher told his students that they will receive a failing grade if they do not submit their term papers on
time.
_____4. About 90% of the students in the class feel anxious every time they enter the science class. The teacher is known
to be a "terror".
_____5. The teacher gives real-life examples as a way to explain clearly the concepts she is teaching.
_____6. In a certain barangay, people plan together, and contribute their ideas on how to celebrate the fiesta.
_____7. When two professionals, a man and a woman meet together, they like to share and discuss the findings of the
studies they are doing,
_____8. The students volunteer to participate in the feeding program for malnourished children. They plan and discuss
how to attain the goals of the program.

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_____9. The teacher likes to teach but talks at the top of her voice. The students feel afraid the teacher might ask them
questions.
____10. The teacher encourages students to ask questions, in case they do not understand some things being taught.
When this happens, the teacher tries her best to clarify the students' misconceptions or mistakes.

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Module 6. Research Findings on the Influences of Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of
Learning)

1. Module Overview
This module covers topics on researches done on the developmental and socio-cultural
dimensions of learning.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Analyze research findings on the influences of developmental and socio-cultural
dimensions of learning.
3. Content Focus

Importance of Research Findings on Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning

Research is a systematic and an orderly way of studying and looking for new information meant to add to and
build up existing knowledge. People do research in various fields of study and for different purposes and reasons. In the
same manner, research has been and is being done to gather more data on the developmental and socio-cultural
dimensions of learning. This will enable especially the practitioners to analyze and evaluate for themselves what best
practices to adopt and apply in their teaching tasks. And more importantly, armed with evidence and outputs of scientific
study, practitioners would be in a better position to develop and apply learner-centered methodologies and approaches to
teaching. Hopefully, too, research findings would lead practitioners to modify their views perspectives and philosophy of
education considering the realities happening in classrooms and in the educational system.
Research Findings on The Influences of Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning
Parental Involvement
In a study by Schneider and Coleman (1993, in Santrock, 2011) they found that parents with higher education
are more likely to think and believe that their involvement in their children's education is very important than parents of
lower education - to be active participants in their children's education and to provide for their children intellectually
stimulating materials at home. This may mean that those parents with higher education are more aware or conscious of
the importance of their participation and involvement in their children's education, because it affects their achievement.
The same goes for the importance of providing their children with highly intellectually-stimulating materials at home.
Most likely, parents with higher education levels have the technical knowledge to understand the importance of actively
getting involved in their children's activities, and interacting actively with their children about school matters and
activities. This may also be explained by the fact that as children grow older and develop more complex thought process,
parents with higher education would most likely be able to address and respond better to such complex processes.
An analysis of the various studies on parental involvement in its many forms, done by Cotton and Wikelund
overwhelmingly point to parental involvement and engagement as positively related to student achievement. This means
that the more parental engagement and involvement there is, the higher is the children's achievement and performance in
school. Further, the more intensively parents are involved in their children's learning the more beneficial are the
achievement effects. This was true for all kinds and forms of parental involvement, and for all ages and sexes. It was also
found in this review and analysis that parental engagement did not only benefit the students, but also the parents the
teachers, and the school itself ("Parent Involvement in Education" n. d.).
Vinograd-Bausell & Bausell (1987) wanted to determine the effects of home-teaching on achievement. They
involved 195 parent-participants to determine the effects of teaching word-recognition skills to their children at home
using materials provided by the school. After the home-tutoring program, measures of word-recognition skills were
taken. The students taught by parents at home significantly performed better in word-recognition than those who did not
go through this home-tutoring program (Vinograd-Bausell & Bausell, 1987, pp. 57-65). The interaction between parent
and child occurring during the home teaching period could have created a good and satisfying climate for learning, which
motivated these children to perform better.
Parenting Style and Child-rearing
The effects of child-rearing practices which involve interaction behaviors between parents and children, to
learning have also been studied. Wigfield et. al (2006, in Santrock, 2011, p. 459) found the following parenting services
to result in improved motivation and achievement.
a. Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and the right amount of support.
b. Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to internalize their parents' values and goals.
c. Modeling motivated achievement behavior - working hard and persisting with effort at challenging tasks.
Parenting style is also related to achievement and certain social behaviors as found in the research by Diana
Baumrind, an expert in developmental psychology and parenting. She identified four parenting styles and the outcomes
of each of these styles. She found that authoritative parents tend to have children who are high-achievers and who
interact with peers using competent social skills. While authoritative parents set rules and boundaries, they encourage
open discussion and reasoning. This could be the reason why their children achieve highly and are socially competent.

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On the other hand, children of authoritarian parents perform worse academically, are less independent and are generally
unhappy. Children of indulgent parents encounter more problems in relationships and interactions. On the other hand,
children of uninvolved or neglectful parents tend to be more impulsive and cannot regulate their emotions. In the absence
of contradicting data, the results show a trend where authoritative parenting style, is the best. ("4 Parenting Styles," n. d.).
Similar results have been obtained in the study of Munyi (2013) and Kingsley Nyarko where they found that
adolescents who were raised under authoritative parents were performing well, academically. The opposite was found
among adolescents raised by parents\ who were either indulgent or uninvolved.
Provision for Specific Experiences at Home
The kind of experiences and resources, made available to the children by their parents at home are also found to
influence students’ interest and motivation to pursue various activities. For example, reading to one's preschool child
was found to be positively related to the child's later reading achievement and motivation (Wigheld & Asher, 1984, in
Santrock 2011). Also it was found that work habits and skills of children when they enter kindergarten best predict
academic motivation and performance in elementary and high school (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993 in Santrock, 2011).
The extent to which parents emphasize academic achievement or sports and provide opportunities and resources for their
children to participate in these activities in the elementary school years influence whether the children are likely to
continue to choose course work and extracurricular activities consistent with these activities in adolescence (Santrock,
2011).
Mariah Evans and associates did a study on the importance of providing resources such as books at home. They
found that having books at home is twice as important as parental education in determining children's academic and
education level. The findings are the same for both Chinese and American parents. This suggests that having educational
resources at home is a better predictor of achievement than ethnic.
Peer Influence
Peer influence was also found to affect a students' motivation in many ways. It was found that students who are
more accepted by their peers and who have good social skills often do better in school and have positive academic
achievement motivation. In contrast, students who were rejected, especially those who are aggressive are at risk for
problems in achievement including low grades and dropping out of school. A recent study revealed that having disruptive
friends in adolescence was linked to lower likelihood of graduation from high school. In the same manner, having friends
who are academically oriented is linked to higher achievement (Dodge, 2010; Croesno et.al. 2008 in Santrock, 2011).
Kirk Johnson made an analysis of data on peer influences and social interaction and other factors linked to
academic achievement, taken from the 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). From his analysis, he
came up with the following findings:
a. The peer effect is particularly a strong effect on achievement especially among fourth graders.
b. The peer effect is independent of other variables like ethnicity, gender, income, and other background variables.
c. Family background factors such as household environment and parental education also play a big hand in
explaining achievement and this was true to both 4th and 8th graders.
It is worth noting that the basic social unit, which is the family, has been found across researches to be linked to
achievement and performance.
Similar results regarding the link between peer influence and achievement were obtained from the research of
Liu (2010) where she found that peer influence and academic outcomes in reading and mathematics were strongly
related.
Teachers
Teachers are significant persons to students. Teachers carry with them a big amount of influence on the learners.
A study by Perry, Donahue, and Weinstein, (2007 in Santrock, 2011) found that instructional and socio-emotional
support were linked to first grade students' achievement. Also, the study examined students' views on the qualities of
good relationships with the teacher by asking them how they knew if their teacher cared for them. Results showed that
students had favorable impressions of teachers who were attentive to them as human beings. Students also considered
teachers' instructional behaviors in evaluating how much their teachers cared for them (Wentzel, 1997 in Santrock, 2011)
These results show that students’ motivation is optimized when teachers provide them with emotional and intellectual
support.
Muntner (2o08) identified ten important factors that should be considered in classrooms to improve and increase
student-teacher interaction, which they believe should subsequently improve social development and learning The ten
factors have been classified and lumped into three, namely; emotional support, classroom organization, and
instructional support.
Thus far, the different findings of research suggest the links between selected factors with socio-cultural
dimensions and learning. These studies have shown that parenting style, child-rearing practices, provision of materials at
home, parental involvement in school, peers, all of which carry a socio-cultural character are related to achievement or
performance in school.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 6)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Conduct a simple survey by interviewing five grade 6 students. Ask each one the following questions: Draw a table for
each student.
Example:
Student No. 1 Response
Questions:
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

1. When you talk with your parents, what topics do you usually talk about? Do they ask questions about how you
are doing in school, or say what score you got in the exam? Underline one. (All the time - Sometimes - Never)
2. Do your parents come to school and talk to your teacher about how you are doing? Underline one. (Always,
When needed Sometimes - Never)
3. Do your parents attend meetings called by your teacher or the principal? Underline one. (Always, Everytime -
Sometimes - Never)
4.2.
Compare the responses of the students on the three questions. Determine whose parents are highly involved in the studies
of their children. Whose parents are least involved? Make a table of comparison and use the back portion of this paper for
your answer.
Reference
Textbook: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Module 7. Significance of Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning in

Selecting Strategies and Methodologies
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions on the presentation of ideas on methodologies and educational
perspectives relevant in the classroom setting.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Determine the significance of developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning in
selecting strategies and methodologies.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the previous chapters, the learner-centered theories as well as results of research along the socio-cultural
dimensions of learning were presented. Though highly conceptual, these theories serve as a base or jump-off point which
researchers can use, to help them explain behaviors, and in this case, why and how learning occurs. Findings of research
are empirical bases that lend proof to the veracity or accuracy of a theory. Empirical findings, provide the test of how
close the ideas and concepts advanced by the theories are, to reality
More importantly, for educational practitioners, both theories and findings of research serve as sources of ideas
on the applications of the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, to classroom teaching. These applications have to do
with methodologies, approaches and techniques to teaching; knowing what best practices in teaching to adopt; and being
discriminating of the various choices of methodologies and instructional materials available for use. It should be recalled
again, that educational efforts, advancement of ideas, applications of methodologies as a result of theory development
and research should have the welfare of the student in mind. This is what makes the teaching-learning process, learner-
centered.
This chapter deals with the presentation and discussion of ideas on methodologies and educational perspectives
that can be deduced from the socio-cultural theories of learning and the concomitant research findings, which teachers
and other practitioners can adopt in their respective classrooms.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND OTHER CONTEXTUAL
THEORIES

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 Ormrod (2015) listed down some educational implications of Vygotsky's theory and other contextual
perspectives:
a. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic cognitive tools of various activities
and academic disciplines. The implication of this perspective lies in the importance of developing first among learners,
the basic thinking tools that will enable them to solve problems or answer questions that they will eventually meet. In
science or mathematics, children are basically taught the meaning of key concepts, basic symbols and principles that will
help children interpret, organize, and successfully deal with the social and physical world.
b. Children learn and remember more when they talk about their experiences. Children almost always talk
about their experiences as soon as they begin to speak. The significant adults should join in the process. Talking about
their experiences helps children interpret their experiences in culturally approved and appropriate ways.
c. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely resemble those that they will
later encounter in the adult world. These activities are called authentic activities, and teachers are encouraged to make
use of authentic activities and instructional materials. Since authentic activities resemble real-world tasks and problems,
students are able to derive meaning from these because they can make connections between what they learn in school and
what they experience outside of school. Some authentic activities may be writing an editorial, designing an electric
circuit, planning a family budget, developing an internet page and the like.
d. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate or work with adults on complex tasks.
Working with adults will enable them to learn developmentally advanced strategies.
e. Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffolded tend to hasten cognitive development. This
means that the teacher should provide as many support and aids. Opportunities that children can perform successfully
should be made available to them.
f. Technology-based software and applications can effectively scaffold many challenging tasks, and
occasionally offer good alternatives to real-world activities and problems. If real-life experiences and problems could not
be made possible and available, technology can be a good substitute for these. There are computerized instructional
materials and applications which can approximate real experiences and problems.
g. Children's abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions. Assessment gives the teacher
a good understanding of the developmental levels of the children; and know under what conditions they are most likely
to accomplish or not to accomplish tasks. By knowing these, appropriate interventions to address gaps in the students’
abilities can be properly done.
h. Group learning activities can help children internalize cognitive strategies. Group learning activities
like group study sessions, class discussions, debates about controversial issues, collaborative problem-solving help the
learners develop and acquire more sophisticated strategies, than what they would have learned in early interaction.
Peer Interactive Instructional Strategies
There is now a growing recognition of the value of having students work together for them to construct their
own meaning about the subject matter. In so doing, they can explore, explain, discuss and debate certain topics either in
small or big groups. When students work together, in essence they are engaged in distributed cognition. It means that
learning is spread across many minds, from which the learners can draw multiple ideas.
Peer interactive strategies enable the learners or students to do the following and therefore benefit from these in
many ways.
a. They can clarify and organize their ideas and justify their ideas.
b. They tend to elaborate on what they learned.
c. They are exposed to others' views, widening their knowledge and perspectives.
d. They may discover flaws or inconsistencies in their thinking and do self-correction.
e. They can gain more complex and sophisticated thinking and reasoning skills.
f. They can also practice their argumentation skills-skills which experts use to advance knowledge.
g. They can acquire a more sophisticated view of the nature of knowledge and learning.
Important features of peer-interactive strategies lie on developing oral skills, convergent and divergent thinking
skills, organizational skills, and argumentation skills.
1. Class Discussion
Class discussion could be used in a variety of courses and disciplines. The members usually engage in
discussions where sometimes there may not really be a correct answer as in interpreting classic works in literature. More
importantly, the students may take interest in or make sense of what they are reading. Following are guidelines to
promote effective discussions:
a. Class discussion should focus on the topics that lend themselves to multiple perspectives, explanations,
or approaches.
b. Make sure that students have prior knowledge about the topic for discussion.
c. See to it that the classroom has an atmosphere conducive to open debate and constructive evaluation of
ideas.
d. Class discussion should be structured in some way.
e. At the end of the discussion, some closure should be provided.

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 2. Reciprocal Teaching
This involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussion and asking questions. For the first minutes,
the teacher leads the discussion, and asks questions in the process. After sometime, the teacher turns over her role to a
student, who will then take over to lead the discussion and asks questions that the teacher has modeled. Eventually, the
students are on their own, able to derive meanings out of the discussion.
3. Cooperative Learning
Students work together in small groups to achieve a common goal. However, cooperative learning is not just
about grouping. For cooperative learning to be successful, some structure must be in place such that cooperation is not
just helpful, but is necessary for academic success. Following are the features of cooperative learning (Ormrod, 2015,
and Woolfolk, 2013).
a. Students work in small teacher-assigned groups
b. Groups have one or more common goals toward which to achieve
c. Students have clear guidance on how to behave
• Listening to others politely and attentively
• Making sure everyone has equal chance to participate, eventually everyone understands the material
• Asking clear and precise questions when one doesn't understand
• Giving encouragement to others and offering assistance when needed
• Offering feedback that is specific, kind and constructive
• Addressing differences of opinion, amicably, and constructively
d. Group members must depend on one another for their success
e. A structure is provided to encourage productive learning behaviors
f. The teacher serves primarily as resource person and monitor
g Students are accountable for their achievement
h. Students are rewarded for group success
i. At the completion of an activity, each group evaluates its effectiveness
A look at the features of cooperative learning as a strategy, shows that there are opportunities for constructing
meaning out of the learning material. The interactions that take place during discussions allow students to develop their
organizing and thinking skills.
4. Peer Tutoring
In this strategy, students who have mastered the topic and know it by heart teaches those who haven't. Under
this structure, students with achievement difficulties can questions more easily, and get immediate feedback, not readily
available in a regular classroom.
Following are the guidelines to teachers for peer-teaching to be effective.
a. Teachers should make sure that tutors have mastered the material being taught and use sound
instructional techniques.
b. Structured interactions can improve the effectiveness of peer teaching.
c. Teachers can use peer tutoring for kids with special needs.
d. Tutoring does not have to be limited to same-age peers.
5. Communities of Learners
For peer interactive methods, a sense of community is needed. This means teacher and students have shared
goals, respect and support of one's efforts, and that each one makes an important contribution to classroom learning
(Hom& Battistich, 1995, in Ormrod, 2015). Transforming a classroom into a community of learners is a way to create a
sense of community. Teacher and students collaborate to build a body of knowledge about a topic and help one another
to learn more about it. Following are the characteristics of a classroom that is a community of learners.
a. All students are active participants in classroom activities.
b. The primary goal is to acquire a body of knowledge on a specific topic.
c. Students draw from many resources - books, internet, film to learn more about the topic.
d. Discussion and collaboration among students occur regularly.
e. Variations in students’ interests and rates of learning are respected.
f. Everyone is a potential resource for others.
g. Teacher provides some guidance and directions for classroom activities; students may also contribute.
h. Mechanisms for sharing what was learned are in place.
i. Constructive questioning and critiquing are commonplace.
j. The process of learning is emphasized sometimes more than the product.

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Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 7)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Identify which of the following situations or practices reflects implications derived from socio-cultural
dimensions of learning. Encircle the letter of your answer.

a. In Ms. Cruz's class, the students are given an assignment to work on at home.
b. In Mr. Fernandezs class, the four groups of students solve together a problem.
c. Ms. Santos tells her students to read the selection silently.
d. In Ms. Estrella's class, the students work independently on their science experiment.
e. Mr. Bonifacio has asked three students to help Albert solve a problem.
f. Mrs. Almera joined a group of students in a group discussion.
g. The teacher asked the brightest student to teach another student.
h. The teacher and the students take turns in leading the group discussion of a topic.
i. The teacher encouraged the students to ask questions about the contents of the presentation.
j. Ms. Silverio came up with a topic which the whole class can research on, so they can build knowledge
about it.

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 CHAPTER 3

Individual Differences in Learning

Module 8. Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning

1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions related to individual differences as well as intelligence aspect.
The topics present theories on the role of intelligence in students’ academic performance.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning according to different theories of
intelligence: structural and process.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
This chapter presents the various definitions and concepts related to intelligence and to individual differences. It
also tries to explain what intelligence is all about, using the theories advanced by the experts in this area. Hence, you will
also get to know the different theories covering intelligence, and in the ways they are similar or different. As you will see
later the different theories of intelligence are further classified according to how they are viewed and studied by their
proponents. The theories will also give you an idea on the role of intelligence in students' academic performance.
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)
Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning according to different theories of intelligence: structural and
process.
 ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
People belong to a group called human beings. Be as it may, each person has his own unique characteristics,
different from others. Each person has his own individuality contributing to variations or differences within and among
individuals. These are called individual differences. They are the variations and differences among individuals in regard
to one characteristic or on a number of characteristics. Individuals may have differences along the following:
physiological, psychological or intellectual differences, differences in motor ability, academic performance, emotional
differences, temperament, aptitudes and interests, self-concept, learning styles, study habits, social and moral
development, and many more. Heredity and environment are the two main factors that explain individual differences.
Intelligence is a significant source of variation among individuals. Individual differences in intelligence bear on
differences in other areas, like emotional intelligence, academic performance, learning styles and the like. For example,
one's level of academic performance can be explained by one's level of intelligence. Thus, in a class, students may have
differences in academic performance because of differences in their intelligence levels.
Individual differences provide the rationale why we study behavior, and why the study of learning is challenging
and interesting. As would-be teachers, this means that individual differences in learning could be better understood by
the study of intelligence.
LEARNING POINT: CONCEPTS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
Understanding the nature of intelligence is a complex endeavor. The study of intelligence has been done by
various researchers and psychologists for a long time now, dating as far back as Plato. The earlier theories about the
nature of intelligence involved any or more of the following themes: (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 19).
a. the capacity to learn
b. the total knowledge a person has acquired
c. ability to adapt to new situations and the environment in general
Intelligence is such a complex concept and there has been much argument and debate about it. To this date,
there is no single definition as to what makes for intelligence. Research findings show that there are moderate to high
correlations among different mental tests and because of this, some psychologists believe that intelligence is a basic
ability that affects performance in all cognitively-oriented tasks (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 119). There is no clear agreement as
to what constitutes intelligence, nor a consensus on how to measure it. There are as many definitions of intelligence as
there are theories that attempt to explain its nature.
Be as it may, there are certain behaviors which will indicate and lead one to believe that a person is "intelligent."
And based on studies, following are the components of what many experts and theorists understand intelligence to be
(Ormrod, 2015).
a. It is adaptive. It involves modifying and adjusting one's behaviors to accomplish new tasks carefully.
b. It is related to learning ability. Intelligent people learn information more quickly and easily than the less intelligent
ones.
C. It involves use of prior knowledge to understand and analyze new situations effectively.

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d. It involves the complex interaction and coordination of many different mental processes.
e. It may be seen in different arenas -for example, on academic tasks or in social situations.
f. It is "culture-specific." What is intelligent behavior in one culture, may not necessarily be intelligent behavior in
another culture.
Sternberg (1986) contends that there are two general classifications of the definition of intelligence - the
operational and the "real" definition. Operational definition defines what intelligence is through the measure or the test
that was used. There are tools or tests that attempt to measure this characteristic. Real intelligence looks into the "true"
nature of the characteristic being defined. Some define intelligence as a general characteristic, while others define the
term in specific and situational terms. For example one can be very good in mathematics, but cannot hit one musical note
accurately
Let us further examine how different experts and authors try to define and concretize the concept of intelligence
("Theories of Intelligence”, n. d.). According to them, intelligence is the combination of the ability to:
a. Learn. This includes all kinds of formal and informal ways of learning through experience, training, and
education. It 1s the acquisition, retention, and the use of knowledge.
b. Recognize Problems. This includes recognizing a problem situation and transforming it into more defined
problems that need to be addressed.
c. Solve Problems. This includes the use of knowledge in solving problems, accomplishing tasks, fashioning
products, and doing complex projects.
Thus far, the nature of intelligence has been discussed. There are certain elements common to the different
views put forward by researchers and experts in the area of intelligence and learning. First, intelligence has to do with
ability to solve problems. Second, one's intelligence is also the product of experience and culture. Different individual
exhibit their own unique ways of approaching solutions to problems - dependent on their intelligence levels.
Recently, the most widely accepted view about intelligence is that it has many faces at and is a hierarchy of
abilities, with general ability at the top and more specific abilities at the lower levels. The theories on intelligence will
further clarify what theorists and experts believe intelligence to be as a characteristic.
The role of intelligence in learning, cannot be more than emphasized. Intelligence has always been related to
learning either in the formal or informal settings. If for example intelligence is the result of culture or experience, then
the implications on the kind of experiences the teacher provides to students in the classroom are many.
LEARNING POINT: THEORIES ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
As mentioned earlier, the definition of intelligence draws from the different theories of intelligence. To digress,
a theory is a tentative statement that tries to explain a phenomenon, which in this case, is the nature of intelligence.
Additionally, data or evidence are needed to lend credence or proof to the veracity of that theory. Thus, one should
expect a lot of research and data-gathering processes, to build up evidence in support of that theory. Gathering evidence
to prove or disprove a theory therefore is the rationale for research studies and other scientific efforts.
A study of the different theories of intelligence will help you better understand its nature. While the debate on
the nature of intelligence is still ongoing, it would help to know the different theories that attempt to explain the nature of
intelligence (Pal, Pal, & Tourani, 2004). Let us examine each of them.
Faculty Theory
It is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence. It espouses that the mind is made up of different
faculties, like reasoning, memory, discrimination, imagination, and the likes. These faculties are independent of each
other, and can be developed by training However; many psychologists have maintained that independent faculties in the
brain do not exist.
One-factor or Uni-factor Theory
This theory asserts that all abilities are reduced to a single capacity of general intelligence or "common sense.”
It assumes that the different abilities are correlated and that they share many things in common. It does not recognize
differences among people. It does not recognize that an individual possesses different abilities of different levels.
Charles Spearman's Two-factor Theory
This theory asserts that intellectual abilities comprise two factors - one general ability or the g factor; and the
specific abilities; also known as the s factor. The g factor is a universal inborn ability, while the s factor is acquired
from the environment.
Edward Thorndike's Multi-factor Theory
This theory asserts that there is no such thing as general ability. It says that each mental ability requires an
aggregate of different sets of abilities. Following are the attributes of intelligence:
a. Level - It is the level of difficulty of the task that can be solved.
b. Range - Refers to a number of tasks at any given degree or level of difficulty.
c. Area -The total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to respond.
d. Speed- The rapidity at which the individual responds to the situation or stimulus.
Louis L. Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities/Group Factor Theory
This theory asserts that intelligent activities are not an expression of many highly specific factors as espoused by
Thorndike nor is it the expression of a general factor that pervades all mental abilities as asserted by Spearman.

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 Thurstone's theory claims that certain mental operations have in common a "primary factor" that gives them functional
unity and that differentiates them from other mental operations. A second group of mental operations has its own
unifying factor. There are other groups of mental operations each having its own unifying primary factor. The seven
primary factors are:
1. Number Factor (N) - Ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and accurately/ ability to solve mathematical
problems.
2. Verbal Factor (V) - Ability to do tasks involving verbal comprehension/ability to define and understand words.
3. Space Factor (S) - Ability to manipulate imaginary objects in space (spatial visualization) /ability to visualize
relationships.
4. Memory Factor (M) - Ability to memorize material quickly and recall (associative memory).
5. Word Fluency Factor - Ability to think or 1solated words at a rapid rate/to produce words correctly.
6. Reasoning Factor (F) - Ability to discover or find a rule or principle series or group of materials.
7. Perception - Ability to see differences and similarities among objects.
Joy Paul Guilford's Model of the Structure of Intellect
Guilford proposed a 3-dimensional structure of intellect. According to Guilford, every intellectual task can be
classified according to a combination of any of the following:
a. Content - content has five categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral.
b. Mental operations has six categories namely cognition, memory (retention and memory recording),
divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
c. Products resulting from operations- the six categories are units, classes, relations, systems,
transformations, and implications.
Take an example of an intellectual task which is to add five 4-digit numbers in mathematics. To apply Guilford's
model of intellect, the content of the material is symbolic in nature; operations needed to carry out the task is convergent
production because the individual has to put together the different data or information given and add these to be able to
solve the problem; and product would be units.
Philip E. Vernon's Hierarchical Theory
This theory tries to bridge the gap between Spearman's and Thurstone's theories which view intelligence as
occurring on the extremes. For example, Spearman asserts that there are just two abilities, the general ability and the
specific abilities; while Thurstone claims that mental operations can be grouped and are bound by a common primary
factor. On the other hand, Vernon contends that intelligence can be described as comprising abilities at varying levels of
generality, as follows:
a. the highest level: "g" (general intelligence) factor with the largest source of variance between individuals
(Spearman)
b. the next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational ability
c. the next level: the minor group factors are deduced from major group factors
d. the bottom level: "s" (specific) factor of Spearman
Cattell-Horn Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory
The fluid aspect asserts that intelligence is a basic capacity due to inherited genes and the crystallized theory is
the capacity resulting from experiences, learning, and environment.
Hunt (1995, in Theories of Intelligence, n. d.) contends that human intellectual competence is divided into three
dimensions which he derived from the works of Cattell in 1971 and Horn. They are:
a. Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability associated with brain development. It has
neurophysiological underpinnings related to changes in volume of the brain. Fluid intelligence increases until
late adolescence and declines gradually with age.
b. Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often culturally- defined problem solving methods
to bear on the current problem. It is the ability to apply problem-solving methods appropriate in the cultural
context. In there, the problem solver knows the method and recognizes they are relevant to the current situation.
Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout the life span.
c. Visual-Spatial Reasoning. A somewhat specialized ability to use visual images and visual relationships in
problem-solving.
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory
Gardner identified eight components of intelligence (Chapman, 1996 & Lazier, 2000). He asserts that we are all
born with the potential to develop a multiplicity of intelligences. He argues that these intelligences are distinct from each
other, and that each person has some level of each of these intelligences. He asserts that these intelligences are most often
overlooked and not tested by researchers and psychologists, like those skills and abilities valued in different cultures.
Intelligence Component Description of that Intelligence Examples of Occupations Using that
Intelligence
Bodily/Kinesthetic The ability to use one's physical body well Dancers, athletes, acrobats

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Interpersonal The ability to sense other people's feelings Salespersons, PR persons, politicians
and be in tune with them
Intrapersonal The ability to know and have a deep Psychologists, therapists,
understanding of one's own mind and body, counselors/wise elders monks/
and be aware of one's own desires, feelings
and motives
Verbal/Linguistic The ability to communicate well, orally and Poets, writers, orators
in writing, perhaps in many languages
Logical/Mathematical The ability to learn science and Mathematicians, engineers
mathematics; the ability to handle complex,
logical arguments
Musical/Rhythmic The ability to learn, perform and compose Musicians, composers
music
Naturalistic The ability to know and understand Biologists, naturalists
different species (recognize patterns in
nature)
Visual/Spatial Ability The ability to know where one is relative to Surgeons, sailors and fishermen charting
fixed locations; ability to accomplish tasks the sea without navigational aids
requiring3-dimensional visualization;
ability to imagine and manipulate visual
objects in one's mind

The theory of Gardner has implications for teaching using project-based approach. For example in creating
teams to do a project, a teacher may select the team whose members comprise the "highest" or the biggest pool of talents
or abilities as identified, and thereafter encourage dividing specific tasks in line with specific high levels of talents found
in the group. That way, each member of the group will have a specific contribution to the accomplishment of the project.
Another strategy would be to allow those with highest levels of intelligence in a certain component to work in another
area, to encourage development of knowledge and skills in other areas.
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg considers intelligence as a mental activity directed towards purposive adaptation to selection, and
shaping of real world environment relevant to one's life. He thinks Gardner's multiple intelligences are better viewed as
individual talents (Ormrod, 2015). Sternberg asserts that intelligent behavior is an interplay of three factors, namely
a. environmental context in which the behavior occurs
b. the way in which previous experiences are brought to bear on a particular class
c. Cognitive processes required by the task
While other researchers have identified different components of intelligence, Sternberg focused only on three,
domains, namely: ("Theories of Intelligence" n. d., Ormrod, 2015)
1. Practical Intelligence. Ability to do well in formal and informal educational settings, adapting to and shaping
one's environment; street smarts
2. Experiential Intelligence. Ability to deal with novel situations, ability to think in novel ways, ability to
effectively automate ways of dealing with novel situations so these are easily handled in the future.
3. Componential Intelligence. Ability to process information effectively. Metacognitive, executive, performance,
and knowledge acquisition components that help steer the thought processes.
In a sense, Sternbergs approach to the field of intelligence is similar to that of Gardner However, the focus of
Gardner lies in identifying specific intelligences aligned with academic disciplines or occupations, while Sternberg
focuses on helping people develop components of intelligence that will help them perform best in whatever they do.
Sternberg believes that intelligence can be improved with study and practice. Some of his work focuses on
"street smarts" versus "school smarts'. He believes people are good and talented in one of these areas, but not on the
other. This has to do with the idea that the type of learning acquired out of school is different from that acquired in
school. Hence, teachers who are skilful in using project-based approach to teaching and learning can help students design
projects consistent with their learning abilities and interests.

David Perkins’ Analysis of Research Studies on the Measurement of IQ and Programs for Developing Better IQ
Perkins (1995, in "Theories of Intelligence" n. d.) strongly supports Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
He came up with the assertion that intelligence has three major components or dimensions.
1. Neural Intelligence. This is attributed to the efficiency and precision of one's neurological system. A high level
of neural efficiency and precision can be achieved if at the time of pregnancy, the mother was on vitamins and
other nutrition supplements or did not use drugs, alcohol, or was not exposed to dangerous or toxic chemicals
and substances.

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 2. Experiential Intelligence. Refers to one's accumulated knowledge and experience in different areas. It is
thought of as the accumulation of one's expertise. People who live in rich or stimulating environments
comparatively have an intellectual advantage over those who live in less stimulating environments.
3. Reflective Intelligence. Refers to one's broad-based strategies for learning, for attacking problems, and for
approaching intellectually-challenging tasks. This is the ability for reflective persistence, systematization, and
imagination, self-monitoring self-regulation, and self-management.
In the book, Smart Schools that Perkins wrote in 1992, he pointed out research evidence that education can be
considerably improved by more appropriate teaching focusing on higher-order-cognitive skills and the use of project-
based learning, Again this suggests the importance of practice, training, and experience in improving intelligence
(Moursund, 1999).
Jean Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development
This theory asserts that the developing child builds intellectual structures or schemas, mental maps of networked
concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences in the environment. A child's cognitive structures
grow in sophistication as he grows older and as he gains experience with his environment. Following are Piaget's stages
of intellectual development:
1. Sensorimotor Stage (approx. o to 2 years): The child learns through reflexes, senses and movement. The child's
thinking involves, seeing, hearing, smelling, moving, touching, tasting, and the like. Through constant
interaction with the environment, the child builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. The child
does not know that physical objects exist even if they are not seen. (object permanence).
2. Preoperational Stage (approx. 2-7 years): At this stage, the child begins to develop language and begins to use
symbols to represent objects. Generally, he thinks in the present and has difficulty with the past and the future.
Cannot yet conceptualize in abstract terms, and needs concrete physical situations to understand. Has difficulty
understanding the point of view of another person.
3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11): As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to build logical
structures that explain his physical experiences. Starts to solve problems not only with concrete objects, but with
abstract ideas as well. Understands, past, present, and future. Can think logically about concrete problems.
4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15): By this time, the individual has developed mental structures that enable him
to do abstract reasoning. Can think hypothetically and deductively. Can solve problems in logical fashion.
Thinking approximates that of an adult and includes conceptual reasoning.
As a way of understanding better the theories that explain the nature of intelligence, an attempt has been made to
categorize and come up with a system and put in proper perspective what intelligence is all about,. This categorizing
process looks at theories of intelligence as belonging to two groups: factor theories and cognitive theories of
intelligence.
Cognitive Theories Factor Theories
Faculty Theories Uni-factor Theory
Spearman's Two-factor Theory
Thorndike's Multi-factor Theory
Thurstone's Primary Abilities/Group Factor Theory
Guilford's Model of the Structure of Intellect Vernon's Hierarchical Theory

Cattell-Horn's Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Theory
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

Thus far, what have been presented are definitions and theories of intelligence. At best, they are abstract ideas,
which mean that the concept of intelligence needs to be further studied. However, Gardner made an attempt to define
intelligence and its components in terms of behavioral indicators. These are behaviors presumed to indicate nor suggest
the presence or absence of that intelligence characteristic, and which are observable. However, the study of intelligence
has reached a more advanced stage, than reliance on behavioral indicators by the development of tests or tools that
measure it. Thus, intelligence tests, whose validity have been established by their developers, should be a more reliable
and scientific way of measuring intelligence. However, such tools or tests are not readily available in schools. So in the
absence of these tools, the teacher can use behavioral indicators of intelligence to get a feel as to where their students are,
since these indicators are grounded on the corresponding theories developed.
In many ways, intelligence provides the "foundation for the thinking processes in learning like, thinking,
knowing, and problem-solving. It defines what one can or cannot learn. In other words, how learners approach and deal
with various learning materials depends to a certain extent on their level of intelligence. These make up for individual
differences in how learners learn. To emphasize a point, all these theories of intelligence attempt to explain the nature of
intelligence, and its importance should not be overlooked because it impacts on the teaching learning process. A teacher
should be able to consider the abilities of his students when planning for instructional materials and experiences; and in
implementing them in the classroom. Knowing that there is such a concept as individual differences, teachers would be
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
37
 able to adjust, and address different needs and abilities of students with appropriate classroom experiences, and learning
materials.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 8)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Activity 1
1. You may wish to do an introspection. Go through all the eight intelligences by Gardner. Try to know, feel, and
determine how much you have of each of the eight intelligences. Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 7 on each of
Gardner's eight intelligences, to wit:
None/nothing of this ability____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Much of this ability
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Intelligence Component Description Self-rating (number only)
Bodily/Kinesthetic Ability to use one's body and physical aspects well.
Interpersonal Ability to sense other people's feelings; Ability to
put oneself on other people's shoes.
Linguistic Ability to communicate well, orally or in writing.
Intrapersonal Ability to know one's own mind and body; and be
aware of one's own desires, feelings, motives
Logical-mathematical Ability to do science and mathematics. Ability to
handle complex problems and discussions.

Musical Ability to learn, perform, and compose music.

Naturalistic Ability to know and understand different species,

recognize patterns in nature and life forms.

Visual/Spatial Ability to one's location relative to fixed locations.

Ability to accomplish tasks requiring 3-dimensional
visualization.

4.2.
Determine if there is an area where you are good at, that makes full or substantial use of that intelligence. For example,
you may be good at dancing. Is this your basis for wanting to become a P. E. teacher? Answer in a maximum of 10
sentences.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Module 9. Different Styles of Learning
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions related to learning styles and its meanings as well as the
impact of the study of learning styles in education. Moreover, the lesson presents various learning
styles categories which are relevant in the teaching-learning process.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Distinguish the different styles of learning.
3. Content Focus

Introduction

In the preceding module, you have learned about intelligence as a source of differences among individuals. This
module is about learning styles, also a source and factor that makes individuals different from each other. A simplistic
way to put it is that given the same learning stimulus, students may not necessarily react to or deal with that stimulus in
the same way. As future teachers, you should not lose sight of the fact that you try your best to address the needs of your
students brought about by differences in intelligence, the same way if these individual differences are brought about by
differences in learning style.

This chapter tries to expound on the concept of learning style. It also presents the different categories or types of
learning style as studied and espoused by experts and notable educators in this area. As you will see later, there are
several ways of identifying and categorizing learning styles which may depend on the orientation and results of studies
conducted by several proponents. You will also come across descriptions of the learning styles, which, hopefully, will
enable you to identify the prevailing learning styles students have. Knowing what learning styles students adapt, you will
be able to choose and apply the most appropriate instructional materials and techniques that affect students' better
understanding and appreciation of the subject matter. More importantly, knowing your students' learning styles will
enable you to guide and teach them how to effectively treat and process information and other learning materials that
come their way, using the best approach they are comfortable with.

What is expected of you to do after going through this module is specified below.

LEARNING POINT: LEARNING STYLE AND MEANINGS

Following are descriptions and meanings of learning style:

a. Keefe and Monk (1986) view Learning styles as the characteristic, cognitive, affective and psychological
behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learner, perceive, interact with and respond to the
learning environment ("Creating an Enhanced Learning," 2001).

b. Dunn and Dunn (2001, p. 1) define learning style as the way in which the learner begins to concentrate, process,
and retain new and difficult information ("Creating an Enhanced Learning," 2001).

c. Schmeck defines learning style as a predisposition on the part of some learners to adv a particular learning
strategy regardless of the specific demands of the learning task ("Creating an Enhanced Learning," 2001).

d. Learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs, processes comprehends, and retains
information. For example, when learning to build a bicycle some students understand the process by reading and
following the manual of instructions first, while some students, readily and immediately get hold of the bicycle
parts and proceed to put them together. Cognitive, emotional, environmental and prior experience factors relate
to one's learning style ("What Teacher Teach," n. d.).

e. Learning style refers to the unique or particular way a person approaches learning and studying.

You may have noticed the prevailing concepts relating to learning styles. The key concepts in learning styles
are: predisposition to learn using a particular approach preference for a certain modality to process new information and

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learn something; and predisposition to respond to a certain situation using one or a combination of modalities Basically,
learning style is a specific process or strategy that a learner adapts to learn a material, easily and meaningfully.

There are many models of learning styles and all of them acknowledge and recognize the diversity of
individuals. Most of the models strongly suggest that the teacher should adapt instruction to the ways in which
individuals, rather than groups, learn. Some belie* in matching teaching techniques to learning style characteristics all
the time, for others some of the time.

More recently though, there has been some skepticism as to what was previously believe and thought of as to
the effect of appropriate techniques to the learning styles of students. Results of mote recent studies show that matching
learning with teaching techniques and styles did not improve learning as was found in the study of Kratzig and
Artbuthnott(2006,in Woolfolk, 2013). Hence practitioners are being cautioned into making conclusions as to the practical
utility of a knowledge of learning styles in facilitating learning(Pashler et. al as cited in Woofolk, 2013).

The value of considering learning styles, however, finds support in a study of Meyer and Massa (2003 as in
Woolfolk, 2013) where they made a distinction between visual and verbal learners using computer-based multimedia
learning experience. They found that there is a visualize-verbalizer dimension and that it has three facets: cognitive-
spatial ability (low or high), cognitive (visualizer versus verbalizer) and learner preference (visual earner versus verbal
learner).

Thus, before teachers try to accommodate students' learning styles, they should bear in mind that students may
not be the best judges of how they should learn. Preference for a learning does not guarantee that its use will be effective.
Sometimes, students the low performers prefer what is easy and comfortable. Sometimes, too, students prefer to learn in
a certain way because there are no alternatives. Learning style may only be a minor factor in learning; teaching strategies
and social connections are likely to play a more role (Kratzig and Arbuthnott, 2006, in Woolfolk, 2013). In other words,
the role of learning styles in effective learning is made stronger if its interplay with other factors is considered.

The criticisms about learning styles, however, should not discourage teachers from factoring in learning styles in
their task of determining the best or the most appropriate methodologies that will enhance student learning. This is so
because they are better able other specific conditions which bring about student learning.

LEARNING POINT: THE FLUID NATURE OF LEARNING STYLES

Let us take a look at the nature of learning styles which teachers should have knowledge of because of their
implications on teaching and learning.

The nature of learning styles: ("Overview of Learning Styles," 2018)

a. Each person prefers different learning styles and techniques.

b. Learning styles group common ways that people learn.
c. Everyone has a mix of learning styles.
d. One may use different styles in different circumstances.
e. There is no right mix of learning styles, nor is there a fixed learning style.
f. There is no "best" learning style, nor is there a "bad" learning style.

A look at these features, shows the fluidity of learning styles. It means that change in learning style can occur
even within the individual at different times. Learning style adopted by an individual is not fixed; one may change
learning styles across time and conditions.
Learning style is best defined as an approach to studying, understanding and eventually, learning a material.
The study of learning styles reveals that individuals perceive and process information in very different ways. Variations
in approach to learning may vary among individuals, or even within the individual. This may be explained by certain
factors associated with individual differences that come into play. These factors have to do with heredity (intellectual
level), upbringing (child-rearing) and environmental demands (school lessons). With these factors, it is expected that
different individuals tend to perceive and process information differently.

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 1. Concrete vs Abstract Perceivers. Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience by doing,
acting, sensing, and feeling. On the Other hand, abstract perceivers process information though analysis,
observation, and thinking.

2. Active vs Reflective Processors. Active processors make sense of an experience by immediately using the new
information; while reflective processors make sense of the new information by reflecting on it and by thinking
about it.

From the dichotomy above, any learning style, involves two processes: perceiving and processing the information,
each of which is unique to the individual. Hence for a particular learning style, it could be a combination of one approach
in perceiving and another approach in processing the information.

How does the study of learning styles impact on education?

a. Educators must not only focus on the traditional skills of analysis, reasoning, and problem solving. But they
should also allow opportunity for intuition, feeling, sensing and imagination when the students are confronted
with instructional materials.

b. Teaching methods should be such that they "connect" to the identified learning styles, using various
combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. A wide variety of experiential
elements into the classroom such as music, visuals, movement, and experience should be introduced in the
classroom. This will ensure a higher chance of addressing all the learning styles of the students.

c. Teachers should develop and possess a good feel and knowledge of the learning styles of their students so that
they could better guide them on the best or most effective ways of responding to and dealing with learning
materials. This should enable the students to have a better control of their learning.

It would be good to know the concern of experts regarding developments in the study of learning styles. More
recently, the claims regarding this concern are the following ("No Evidence to Back Idea of Learning Styles," 2017).

a. There is no coherent framework of preferred learning styles. In fact other studies found much more than the
three learning styles.

b. Categorizing individuals can lead to assumption of fixed or rigid learning style which can impair motivation to
apply oneself to adapt.

c. Systematic studies on effectiveness of learning styles found either very weak or no evidence to support the
hypothesis that meshing material to learning style is more effective for educational attainment. Students will
improve if they think about how they learn but not because the material is matched to their supposed learning
style.

d. Everyone has a mix of learning styles. Some people may find that they have a dominant style of learning, with
less use of the other styles. Some may use a particular learning style for different circumstances. There is no
right mix. Nor are learning styles fixed.

There is also the thinking that differences in cognitive performance play a big role in learning preferences. For
example, someone with strong auditory processing and word attack skills may perform very well in reading, but not as
much in mathematics.

Notwithstanding the criticism and the debate on learning styles, it is difficult to identify, in fact, what exactly makes
for individual styles. Questions are being asked on its nature if the driving factor is biological, psychological or a habit.
As earlier mentioned the debate on the nature of learning styles draws from results of studies showing that there is no real
evidence showing learning outcomes as improved when learning styles are accommodated in the classroom ("Types of
Learning Styles," n. d.).

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41
 However, the importance of studying learning style lies in making the students aware or know what their learning
style is. The advantage of the students knowing and being aware of their learning style is that they are better able to know
how to organize stimulating environment to learning. Learners are also able to discover wide range of interesting and
effective approaches to learning. Learners are better able to enjoy feeling of success, quality of work is raised, results
improved, and homework stress reduced. Thus, knowing one's learning style enables one to maximize learning out of
what is available in the environment, be it at home or in school.

LEARNING POINT: CATEGORIES OR TYPES OF LEARNING STYLE VARK Model of Learning

The VARK model of learning according to Neil Fleming proposes four modalities of learning ("Learning Style,"
n. d.).

1. Visual. Preference for the use of maps, images and graphic organizers to access and understand new
information.

2. Auditory. Preference for listening and speaking situations, such as lectures and discussion, to understand new
information.

3. Reading/Writing. Preference for reading and writing to learn new information. These learners learn best
through words. They are fast note-takers or avid readers.

4. Kinesthetic. Preference for tactile representation of information. These students learn better through hands-on
activities or figuring out things using the hand.

Seven Learning Styles

Following are seven major learning styles according to Ferriman (Ferriman, May 17, 2013).

1. Visual (spatial) - Preference for using pictures, images, diagrams, colors, mind maps to understand material, to
organize information and communicate with others. There is ease of visualizing objects, plans and outcomes in
one's mind. One has a good sense of direction, and finds way around using maps.

The teacher should bear in mind that visual learners like to use images, pictures color and other visual media to help
them learn. Some techniques appropriate for visual learners would be the use of color to illustrate concepts, mind maps,
system diagrams to explain the major and minor links of the different parts of a system using different colors.

2. Aural (auditory-musical)- Preference for using sound, rhythm, music, recording clever rhymes to learn new
information. The aural learner likes to work with sounds and music.

Specific techniques for teaching aural learners include use of sound, rhyme and music in the lessons. The use of
sound recordings to provide background and help one to go into visualization is recommended. In training exercises for
example, sounds of wind and water can be used when visualizing sailing or the sound of a car engine, when practicing
driving

3. Verbal (linguistic) - Preference for using words, both in speech and in writing to assist in their learning. They
make the most of word-based techniques, scripting and reading content aloud. Verbal learners, find it easy to
express themselves both in written and oral language. They like to go into reading and writing activities like
public speaking debating, politics, journalism, story-telling and the like.

The teacher can help the verbal learners improve their skills, through the use of mnemonics to recall information,
read scripts aloud, and dramatically, do role playing to learn verbal exchanges like negotiations, sales or radio calls.

4. Physical (kinesthetic) - Preference for using hands, body and sense of touch, to learn about the world. The
activities most likely one likes to engage in are sports, exercise, gardening or woodworking. While doing these
activities, the learner may think about a solution to a problem. One would rather run or go for a walk rather than
sitting down at home if faced with a concern or problem.

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 The teacher can help students with physical learning style with techniques predominantly using touch, action,
movement, and hands-on work in learning activities. As much as possible, the teacher should use physical objects. Also
writing and drawing diagrams, drawing using big sheets of paper and large color markers.

5. Logical (mathematical) - Preference to use logic, reasoning and systems to understand concepts. One with
logical mathematical learning style can easily recognize patterns, even in seemingly meaningless and
disconnected materials.

The teacher can help the learners by not encouraging rote learning Students should be taught to extract key points
from a material. They should also be encouraged to use statistics and other forms of analyzing materials. Teacher should
concentrate on teaching and giving opportunities for them to apply higher-order thinking skills.

6. Solitary (intrapersonal) -Preference to work alone and use self study and analysis. These learners tend to be
private, introspective and independent. Thus the ability to concentrate well on particular topics.

The teacher should give opportunities for these students to learn alone using self- study because they are not very
comfortable learning in groups. They should also be encouraged to have a personal hobby.

7. Social (interpersonal) - Preference to learn in groups, and as much as possible, with other people. These learners
tend to communicate well with other people, verbally or non-verbally. They like to stay around after class, and
talk to people,

The teacher should give these learners opportunities to work in groups, as well as opportunity for leadership. They
learn better if learning is done in a social situation, like cooperative learning, sharing one's views and materials, and
working in group projects.

Kolb's Basic Learning Styles

Kolb (1979) proposed four basic learning styles based on his four-stage learning cycle. From his previous
studies, about theories of learning, Kolb was able to infer that learning occurs in four stages. Kolb further asserts that
people learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode of learning better than the other. The four stages
are (in Dunn, 2000).

a. through concrete experience - putting learned material into practice

b. through reflective observation - analyzing objectively the outcome

c. through abstract conceptualization and generalization - reviewing conceptual understanding

d. through active experimentation - experimenting to find solutions to a problem

The process is cyclic and depends on the person's needs and goals. When one does not find something relevant to his
needs he will not be able to learn completely. Thus learning style becomes individualized through constant trying out and
experimenting on certain methods and approaches by the learner to suit his needs and goals. This led to Kolb's concept of
the following learning styles ("Creating an Enhanced Learning," 2001).

a. Converger. This person relies mainly on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. He excels best
in the practical application of ideas, as well as in situations that require only one best or correct answer or
solution to a problem. This learning style is most common characteristic of engineers and those who specialize
in physical sciences. Their strength lies in abstraction of ideas.

b. Diverger. This person is best at reflective and concrete experience. He has an imaginative ability to view
concrete situations from many perspectives. He excels in generating ideas and in brainstorming. This learning

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43
 style is commonly held among those in the liberal arts, counseling, and management. Strength is along concrete
experience and reflective observation, and imaginative ability.

c. Assimilator. This person predominantly uses abstract conceptualization and reflection. He likes to create
theoretical models. He is successful in inductive reasoning and in assimilating disparate observations into an
integrative explanation. He is less interested in people and is not concerned with practical applications of
theories. Adults with this learning style are usually in the areas of mathematics, science, research and planning.
Strength lies in the ability to create theoretical models.
d. Accommodator. This person uses concrete experience and active experimentation. He is best at carrying out
plans and experiments. He takes risks and is adaptable to specific and immediate circumstances. He uses his
instincts to solve problems in trial and error manner. Relies more on others for information rather than on
himself. This is a common learning style among those in the technological field or practical fields, business and
marketing. Strength lies in actually doing things, carrying out plans and experiments, and involving themselves
in new experiences.
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles
Honey and Mumford (1986 cited in McGill & Beaty, 1995) identified four learning styles based on Kolb's work.
They are:
a. Activist. Enjoys the experience itself
b. Reflector. Spends a great deal of time and effort reflecting
c. Theorist. Good at making connections and abstracting ideas from experience
d. Pragmatist. Enjoys the planning stage
Li-Fang Zhang and Sternberg (n. d., in Woolfolk, 2013) organized previous work on learning styles into three
traditions or groups:
a. Cognitive-centered styles. They assess the ways people process information as for example a reflective or an
impulsive way of responding to the information (Kaaga, 1976).
b. Personality-centered styles. They asses more stable personality traits as either being extroverted or introverted
or relying on thinking versus feeling (Myers & McCaulley, 1988).
c. Activity-centered styles. They assess a combination of cognition and personality traits that affect how people
approach activities, and as such, this may be of more interest to teachers.
One theme in the activity-centered approaches is the differences between surface and deep approaches to
learning. Students who take on the surface approach focus more on memorizing materials, not understanding them. They
are more motivated by grades, rewards, and other external incentives. On the other hand, those who are into deep
approaches to learning, see learning activities for their meaning and understanding underlying concepts and principles.
They tend to learn for the sake of learning and are not much concerned with grades or rewards.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 9)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Assume that these activities are what the students use to accomplish a task. Identify the learning style of each
student response, by putting a check on the corresponding learning style.

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 V A R K

1. Mario uses his maps to reply to the question on the location of Baguio City with Manila as reference point.

2. Melanie prefers to read aloud a literary piece to have a feel of its rhythm.

3. Joey looks up in the dictionary the terms contained in the word problem which he cannot understand,
before he starts to solve the word problem.

4. Before doing the science experiment, Peter goes around the shelves in the laboratory, picks up the lab
instruments and examines each of them with his hands.

5. The teacher asked the students to memorize "My Last Farewell" by Dr. Jose Rizal, after which they were
to deliver this poem in class. Ellen, first listened to a voice recording of the poem, five times before starting
to memorize it.

6. A teacher asked his students to write an essay entitled, "My Contribution to World Peace." Before writing
the essay, Marie first read news clippings related to world peace.

7. A teacher gave an assignment for the students to trace the flow of blood from the heart to the other parts of
the body, after which relates it to blood pressure readings. Manny gets a model of a heart and studies it first
before tracing the blood flow of the body.

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Module 10. Children with Special Needs
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about the nature of special needs, it also discusses about the
various learning disabilities. Moreover, the lesson presents social and behavioral problems and
behavioral indicators.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Compare the characteristics of children with special needs.
3. Content Focus

LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF SPECIAL NEEDS

In one or perhaps, even in many occasions, you may have noticed children who acted, behaved or talked in a
manner that is distinctly different from the way other children do. These actions or behaviors that you have observed may
be remarkable enough to make you think that they are indeed different from the other children you usually encounter.
They are children (or students) with special needs. These children have special challenges, that a "normal" individual (or
student) would not face. The special needs of these children fall along a continuum such that some children can stay in
regular classrooms, but some require special care and intervention at home or in school. This is explained by variations in
the severity of their needs. Dealing with and teaching children with special needs are a challenge for teachers. This
means that teachers have to be extra flexible and creative in coming up with teaching techniques that will enhance the
academic, and personal development of students who are quite different in many ways from the majority of the student
population. A teacher, however, will find difficulty in developing creativity and flexibility in dealing with and teaching
children with special needs, unless he/she possesses at least the basic academic orientation and knowledge covering
special needs, special children, and special education.

It is important for teachers, school officials, caregivers, and other school personnel to know the characteristics of
the special children. It is equally important not to stereotype children with special needs.

Following are the general and specific categories of students with special needs, as found by different
researchers and which have been summarized (Ormrod, 2003 and Nielsen 2oo2):

1. Those with specific cognitive or academic difficulties

2. Those with social or behavioral problems

3. Those with general delays in cognitive and social functioning

4. Those with physical or sensory challenges

5 Those with advanced cognitive development

LEARNING POINT: SPECIFIC COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES AND INDICATIVE

BEHAVIORS

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are difficulties in the cognitive processes (e.-8 perception. language, memory) but are not
attributed or caused by other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders etc. and the like.

Characteristics of Children with Cognitive and Academic Difficulties

a. Perceptual difficulty. Difficulty in understanding or remembering information through any of the sense
modalities or sense organs. For example, there is a difficulty in distinguishing differences between similar
sounds in speech or remembering the correct order of the letters in a word (difficulty in memory for a visual
sequence).

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 b. Memory difficulty. Less capacity for remembering information received either short or long-term.

c. Metacognitive difficulty. Difficulty in using effective learning strategies, monitoring the progress of their
learning goals and other ways of directing their own learning.

d. Difficulty in processing oral language. Difficulty in understanding spoken language and remembering what has
been told or spoken.

e. Reading difficulty. Trouble in recognizing printed words or comprehending what was read. An extreme form of
reading difficulty is dyslexia.

f. Written language difficulty. Problems in handwriting, spelling, or expressing oneself coherently in paper. An
extreme form of this difficulty is dysgraphia.

g. Mathematical difficulty. Trouble thinking about or remembering information involving numbers. It is associated
with a poor sense of time or direction as well as difficulty learning basic number facts. An extreme form of this
difficulty is dyscalculia.

h. Difficulty with social perception. Difficulty interpreting social cues and signals from other people. It is a
difficulty perceiving or interpreting other people's feelings or reactions and may result to inappropriate
responses in social situations.

Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

With ADHD, there is difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention, and in many cases characterized by
hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. It is possible that this difficulty has biological and genetic bases.

Common Characteristics of Children with ADHD

a. Often inattentive: Difficulty focusing and maintaining attention and following directions; often make careless
mistakes; have a very short attention span and cannot focus; easily fail in tasks requiring sustained mental effort
and are distracted by highly appealing alternatives.

b. Hyperactive: Seem to have extra and high levels of energy, and move around much of the time; have difficulty
working or playing quietly.

c. Impulsive: Often display inappropriate behaviors; blurt out answers or interrupt others without being asked;
begin doing something without waiting for instructions; have trouble waiting their turn; engage in risky or
destructive behaviors without thinking of consequences

d. Difficulty in cognitive processing

e. Lagging behind in academic achievement

f. Exceptional imagination and creativity

g. Classroom behavior problems (disruptiveness, noncompliance with rules)

h. Difficulty interpreting and reasoning about social situations

i. Greater emotional reactivity (excitability, hostility) in interacting with peers

j. Few friendships; in some cases, rejected by peers

k. Poor memory

l. Disorganized

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 m. Restlessness, incessant talking and incessant activity

Speech and Communication Disorders

These are impairments in spoken language or communication (e.g. stuttering, mispronunciation) and
comprehension. The difficulties are articulation problems, stuttering, abnormal syntactic patterns, and difficulty
understanding the speech of others, all of which are likely to interfere with academic performance.

Characteristics of Children with Speech and Communication Disorders

a. Usually, these children have difficulties in reading and writing

b. Are self-conscious

c. Are embarrassed when talking

d. Are reluctant to speak

In dealing with these children, teachers should encourage regular oral communication, because they need
practice. Since these children have this difficulty, the teacher should listen patiently and allow them to speak out their
thoughts and finish their sentences, even if it takes long for them to do so. Other children should be trained not to tease or
ridicule them

LEARNING POINT: SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS AND BEHAVIORAL INDICATORS

Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

These are emotional states that are present and which persist for a long time and which affect learning and
academic performance and social behavior.

A symptom of this disorder can be seen in external behaviors that have direct or indirect effect on other people,
like defiance, aggression, lying, stealing, disobedience, or lack of self-control or impulsiveness. On the other hand,
internalized behaviors affect the person himself, and subsequently develops anxiety, depression, eating disorders, social
withdrawal, or suicidal tendencies.

The following behaviors may indicate a social or behavioral disorder among students.

a. Difficulty in interacting with others in socially acceptable manner

b. Difficulty in establishing satisfactory interpersonal relationships
c. Poor self-concept
d. Frequently absent from school
e. Deteriorating academic performance with increasing age
f. Unable to learn but cannot be explained by 1Q, sensory or health factors
g. Showing inappropriate types of behavior or feelings even under normal circumstances
h. Developing physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems
Autism

According to experts, it is a condition that is caused by a brain abnormality. This is a disability marked by
impairment in social interaction. Individuals with autism prefer to be alone and form weak emotional attachments, if at
all. In some cases, they exhibit savant syndrome, where they have extraordinary ability in one function (like exceptional
musical ability) which is in contrast to their other mental functions. Autism falls on a continuum from the least severe to
the most severe symptoms.

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 Children with autism have not developed the basic social skills. Their social cognition impaired, thus they are
not able to interpret social situations accurately. Thus, the tendency to behave inappropriately. However, they have strong
attachments to inanimate objects. Physically, they have abnormal movements like awkward way of walking, repetitive
gestures like wringing of the hands. They also exhibit echolalia which is repeating a part of what has been said. In many
cases too, their language skills are wanting. On the other hand, they have strong, visual-spatial thinking skills.

Characteristics of Children with Autism

a. They engage in obsessively repetitive movement activities like rocking back and forth; wringing of the hands
and other stereotyped movements.

b. They can be self-abusive, as for example, banging their heads, slapping or biting themselves.

c. They have unusual responses to sensory inputs as for example exaggerated response to sound.

d. They are withdrawn and do not communicate at all.

e. They exhibit periodic emotional outbursts.

f. May exhibit abnormal responses to objects.

LEARNING POINT: DELAYS IN COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONING AND BEHAVIORAL

INDICATORS

Mental Retardation

Condition of significantly below average general intelligence as well as deficits in social and practical
intelligence and adaptive behavior. This is often caused by genetic conditions. For example, most children with Down
syndrome have delayed cognitive development. Or in non-inherited cases, malnutrition of the mother during pregnancy,
or oxygen deprivation during birth. Or in some cases, environmental factors like parental neglect or extremely
impoverished and unstimulating home environments could also be a cause. It is not necessarily a life-long disability
especially if caused by environmental factors.

Common Characteristics of Students with Developmental Delays

a. They have a desire to belong and fit in at school.

b. They have less general knowledge about the world.

c. They have poor reading and language skills.

LEARNING POINT: PHYSICAL AND SENSORY CHALLENGES AND BEHAVIORAL INDICATORS

Physical and Health Impairments

These are general physical and medical conditions (usually long-term) that interfere with school performance.
Students in this category have limited energy and strength, mental alertness or little muscle control. Examples of specific
conditions under this category include traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy,
epilepsy, cystic fibrosis, asthma, heart problems, arthritis, cancer or leukemia

Common Characteristics or Indicators of Physical and Sensory Challenges

a. Learning ability similar to that of nondisabled students.

b. Fewer opportunities to experience and interact with outside world in educationally important ways as for
example fewer opportunities to ride in a bus or public transport, or visit museums, thus making knowledge more
limited.

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 c. Low stamina and tendency to tire easily.

d. Possible low esteem, insecurity, embarrassment due to their physical limitations

Visual Impairments

Malfunction of the eyes or optic nerve that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses. Some are totally
blind; others have tunnel vision, some with limited sensitivity to light. The causes of visual impairments may be any
congenital abnormalities in either eye or in the visual pathway to the brain.

Common Characteristics of Children with Visual Impairments

a. Normal functioning of the other senses (hearing, smelling etc).

b. General learning ability similar to that of nondisabled children.
c. Fewer opportunities to experience and interact with the outside world (less exposure to visual materials), thus
more limited vocabulary and general knowledge about the world.
d. Reduced capability to imitate others.
e. Inability to observe body language and other nonverbal cues of people, leading to misperceptions of intended
meanings.
f. Occasional confusion particularly in chaotic situations like playground, canteen etc.
g. A general feeling of uncertainty and anxiety because of no visual knowledge of events in the classroom.
h. Less knowledge about the conventions of written language.
Hearing Loss

Malfunction of the ear or associated nerves that interfere with the perception of sounds. They have insufficient
sensation to understand spoken language even with hearing aid.

Common Characteristics

a. Delayed language development especially if the impairment was present at birth

b. Less oral language than hearing classmates
c. Some ability to read lips
d. Proficiency in sign language
e. Less developed reading skills
f. Less general knowledge about the world than their peers
g. More limited social skills due to reduced ability to communication, leading to social isolation
Severe and Multiple Disabilities

Having two or more of the disabilities described earlier and most probably require highly specialized services.

Common Characteristics of Children with Severe and Multiple Disabilities

a. They have varying degrees of intellectual functioning

b. Limited awareness of surrounding stimuli and events
c. Limited communication skills often consisting of gestures, facial expressions, but can be facilitated by
technology
d. Significant delays in motor development

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 e. Mild or sensory impairments
f. Extensive medical needs

LEARNING POINT: CHILDREN WITH ADVANCED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL

INDICATORS

Giftedness

Unusually high ability or aptitude in any or more of the following areas. Intellectual ability, aptitude in a
specific academic field, creativity, visual or performing arts, or leadership.

Characteristics of Gifted Children

a. More advanced vocabulary, language and reading skills than the rest of their classmates.

b. Able to learn more quickly, easily and independently than their peers.

c. More advanced and effective cognitive processing and metacognitive skills.

d. Greater flexibility in ideas and approaches to tasks

e. Able to do formal operational tasks.

f. They have high standards regarding their performance.

g. They are highly motivated to achieve challenging tasks.

h. Positive self-concept especially academic endeavors.

i. Above average social development and emotional adjustment.

It is expected that there are students with special needs even in regular classrooms. This becomes a challenge to
the patience, resourcefulness, and creativity of the teacher in developing appropriate methodologies and instructional
materials needed to realize the potential of these students. It is a challenge because the approach at present is to
mainstream children with special needs in the regular classroom. At certain times, they may be pulled out for special
training and experience if the regular classroom environment and methods are not able to address that special need.

The teacher can look at differentiated teaching techniques and instructional materials in dealing with children
with special needs. These children have to be taught differently. They have to be extended a lot of accommodation. All
the more this should be so, since the classroom is now a big mix of regular students and those with special needs. In this
instance, variations among students in behavior and other characteristics are big. Lf conditions warrant, the teacher
should look into acquiring more technical knowledge on how to deal with children with special needs.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 10)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

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Instruction: Following are behaviors exhibited by children with special needs. Identify what might be the disability or
special need associated with the behaviors.

1. Bursts into tears, without any reason _________________

2. Runs around the room and picks on classmates even teacher is talking______________.

3. Looks sullen all the time and keeps to himself. __________________

4. Always picks up a fight with classmates, approximately five times a day._____________

5. Cannot distinguish letter p from d.__________________

6. Does not have eye contact with classmates who want to play with him.________________

7. Does not pronounce the correct words when reading._________________

8. Can solve math problems much ahead than all the other members of the class.______________

9. Little muscle control when engaging in physical activity._____________

10. Cannot produce accurately words of the teacher. __________________

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Module 11. Diversity in Designing and Assessing Learning Activities
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about the rationale of learner-centered teaching. It also
discusses about how to create appropriate classroom environments for children with special needs.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Draw the implications of diversity in designing and assessing learning activities.
3. Content Focus

LEARNING POINT: FRAMEWORK/RATIONALE OF LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

There are many methodologies, approaches, and techniques that aim to maximize the potential and improve
academic performance of students. The challenge for the teacher is selecting and applying the most effective method of
teaching learners with diverse characteristics.

One can draw from Gardner's theory of multi-intelligences, and other theories that espouse on the multiplicity of
intelligence, as basis for selecting the "best" teaching methods and approaches. This means therefore that the teacher
should be keen on identifying behavioral indicators of talent, ability, or interest along a certain field, and once identified,
focus on developing those talents using appropriate methodologies. One can also draw from a knowledge of different
learning styles of students as bases for determining the "best” method of teaching. It is thus important for a teacher to
adopt a framework which will guide him in identifying what is best for his students, as well as in ensuring that the
diversity of students' needs are met and addressed.

Learner-centered teaching is claimed to be at the core of an effective classroom. In learner-centered teaching,

the thrust of planning, teaching and assessment is built around the needs and abilities of students. A significant idea of
this framework is that learning becomes more meaningful when topics are related to the students lives, experiences,
needs and interests; and when students are actively engaged in creating, understanding, and connecting to knowledge.
Students have a higher motivation to learn if they know and feel they have a stake and control over their learning. Instead
of the teacher, acting as the sole giver of information as it used to be, he shares control of the classroom, and allows the
students to be active, to explore, experiment, and discover on their own. Students do not simply memorize data, but are
allowed to work on the information alone, or with peers. The diverse ideas and perspectives are necessary inputs to
actions and decisions to be made. The focus of these classrooms is choices or options, rather than uniformity. Essentially,
learners are considered as co-creators in the learning process, as individuals with ideas and issues that deserve attention
and consideration.

Following are the benefits of implementing methodologies aligned with the important aspects of learner-
centered teaching:

1. Helps in designing effective instruction for every member of the classroom, irrespective of diverse learning
needs. The teacher must first think of the students, followed by content. This is to assure students’ needs are
being taken cared of.

2. Learner-centered teaching has been proven effective in teaching students the materials they need to know. It was
also found to increase student motivation, as well as learning and performance.

3. Learner-centered teaching makes the students feel good about themselves. Because students' discoveries,
personal experiences and other inputs relevant and meaningful to themselves are included as materials in the
teaching-learning process, their self-confidence is further developed.

For students to be active in the learning process, the teacher cannot simply give lectures and let the students take
the passive role of assimilating information. Teachers should design activities that allow students to take initiative, and
discover meaningful information. Teachers must know their students on an individual basis so that they can better
respond to and address their individual abilities, needs, and interests. Emphasis should be on how students learn, rather
than what there is to teach.

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 Following are approaches that promote a learner-centered environment. These approaches let the students' needs
and interests determine the kind of material to be learned. In addition, these approaches let the students themselves
determine how they will learn the material.

a. Cooperative Learning. Allows the students to work off on each other's abilities and knowledge. Emphasis is on
the students rather than on the teacher.

b. Active Learning. Hinges on student's active participation in the learning process, for learning to be effective.

c. Authentic Learning. Ensures that lessons are directly applicable to the students' lives needs and desires. Make
use of local or community resources as lesson content.

d. Cognitive Apprenticeship. Puts students in control of the direction of their learning. They are guided by a
coach or a tutor who will help them meet their own goals.

LEARNING POINT: CREATING APPROPRIATE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS FOR CHILDREN WITH

SPECIAL NEEDS

Diversity in needs and abilities among students is expectedly much bigger if there are students with special
needs. This is the picture of the composition of classrooms in the future- a classroom with a mix of students with and
without special needs, A teacher may not have the technical training and know-how on how to deal with children with
special needs. Be as it may, there are general guidelines or principles on how to make the classroom environment
conducive to learning for these students; as well as methodologies of teaching or interventions appropriate for the kind of
special needs they have.

For Children with Learning Disabilities

Children with learning disabilities have difficulty sustaining their attention, and that they easily get distracted
with different stimuli. As such, the teacher should exert effort to make the classroom simply arranged, uncluttered, and
quiet. The classroom should not be too bright nor too dark. It would do well to avoid or minimize the presence of
competing stimuli.

The use of varied modalities to present information at one time or at different times, is also recommended to
address different learning styles. The use of various modalities will ensure students' greater chances of learning a
material. For example, using visual, tactile, and auditory modalities in teaching how to read words, will facilitate the
learning of those words, in a more meaningful manner.

Analyzing students’ errors in a written or oral assessment, is helpful in determining their difficulties in
processing. Rather, than looking at answers, simply as wrong, teacher should look closely at errors for clues on the
student's processing difficulties. By analyzing students' errors, the teacher will be able to determine, the manner in which
the students approach a problem, or what steps were taken by the students to arrive at the solution of the problem.

For these students, it is important to provide them study aids, to lead and guide them to pay attention to the
important materials in the lesson. Study aids translate abstract ideas and concepts to something more concrete, that is
more understandable and meaningful to those unable to do abstract reasoning.

For Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A common attribute of individuals with ADHD is the inability to focus, to n Pay attention, and to keep still and
keep quiet. Generally, these students lag behind their classmates in academic performance, because of their lack of focus
and attention on their classroom activities.

It is important for the teacher to modify work schedules and work environments. The more difficult and
challenging tasks should be done in the morning. Usually these students are already tired in the afternoon, and when
fatigue sets in, they can hardly sustain their attention. Their chairs and desks should be positioned away from distraction

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and noise, as for example, near the door or passageway. These students often need help, thus they should be seated near
the teacher's table.

The teacher should also teach these students strategies for paying attention, like telling them to keep an eye on
the teacher when explaining or giving directions. Removing distracting stimuli in the room that may compete for their
attention may also be done.

These students are hyperactive. Especially in elementary school, teacher should intersperse quiet academic
work, with opportunities for physical exercise and activity. Assign these students tasks that require physical activity, like
closing the windows, or helping the teacher tidy up the classroom after class hours. These physical activities provide
outlets for excess energy.

Because of their lack of focus, these students do not achieve more tasks as they should. They need to be helped
in organizing and using their time effectively. The teacher should teach the children to come up with schedules of daily
routine, and "to do'" lists for them to become more organized and carry out more tasks.

Teach, encourage, and always remind pupils of appropriate classroom behavior. It is important to create a
structured environment with clear expectations of appropriate behavior. These pupils should also be reminded of the
consequences of inappropriate behavior. The corresponding reward for appropriate behavior and the punishment/penalty
for inappropriate behavior should be applied. This will help them clarify and differentiate appropriate from inappropriate
behavior.

For Children with Speech and Communication Disorders

Speech and communication disorders are impairments in the spoken language (e.g. stuttering, mispronunciation)
and comprehension. This interferes with academic performance. Because these children are self-conscious, feel
embarrassed, or are reluctant to speak, regular oral communication should be practiced to develop their self-confidence.
Since these children have difficulty with the spoken language, they should be encouraged to express themselves.
Patiently, allow them to speak out their thoughts, and finish their sentences. The teacher should also teach the other
children to be polite to their classmates with speech problems.

For those students with specific academic and cognitive difficulties, the school should provide them
opportunities for success in academic tasks. Providing individual instruction as well as guides on how to do specific tasks
is necessary for the children to build or increase their self-confidence. It is important, too, that expectations be
communicated clearly to the students. These expectations will serve as a guide toward achieving certain tasks.

Consider also reading skills of the students when giving them instructional materials. Other ways of presenting
material should be determined. For example, content should be translated into simpler and easier language for those at
the lower grade levels. Those with cognitive difficulties should be given opportunities for success, the reason being that
having had experienced failures in previous tasks, they are not as much confident and motivated to achieve. Added to
this, the teacher should set smaller and achievable objectives, which when achieved, gives the pupils feeling of success
and more motivation.

For Children with Emotional or Behavioral Problems

It would do well for the teachers to enhance their student's achievement and improve their social relationships.
Foremost, is for teachers to show interest in the well-being and welfare of these students. Showing concern, lending a
helping hand or an ear, if they are angry, depressed or worried would be an opportunity for them to share their feelings,
worries or problems. Teachers should also be keen on identifying the interests of these students because they tend to get
more involved in classroom activities that are along their line of interests. More importantly, these students should be
provided with a sense or feeling that they can exercise some control in their lives. Thus, the need to minimize or avoid
situations of power struggle

Given the emotional condition of these children, the teacher should be keen and alert On looking for signs of
neglect or abuse at home, like physical injuries, bruises, untreated medical needs and the likes. The teacher should be

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alert for warning signs that the student may be contemplating something serious like suicide or self-harm. Some of these
signs are withdrawal, sudden change in mood, or disregard for personal appearance. For technical expertise on how to
better address a serious situation like this, the teacher may consult, or refer the problem to the guidance counselor or
psychologist who can give professional advice on what steps to take.

For Children with Autism

Children with autism are characterized as having impaired social skills. They cannot interpret social clues, thus
the tendency to behave inappropriately. However, they have strong, visual-spatial skills. Thus, if possible, room
arrangement should only be changed once in a while, as they feel secured and comfortable in predictable environments.
Frequently changing the physical environment makes them uncomfortable or even stressed. Regularity of schedules
should also be observed. In teaching certain concepts, the use of visuals, like pictures, objects, photographs is highly
recommended.

For Children with Social and Behavioral Disorders

Children with social and behavioral disorders usually lack interpersonal social skills. They have difficulty
interpreting social clues. As such, they should be taught interpersonal skills. Techniques like group work, cooperative
learning, partnering with peers and adults for academic tasks are suggested to improve their interpersonal and social
skills.

It is also important to communicate to these students, expectations of behavior which should be done in simple
and precise language. Expectations should be on making them understand the difference between appropriate and
inappropriate behavior. For example, they should be taught when to talk, or walk around the room. Reasonable limits on
classroom behavior should be in place. It should also be made clear to them the consequences of inappropriate behavior,
and this should be followed through.

For Children with Mental Retardation

Those with mental retardation require pacing instruction slowly. In assigning tasks, teacher should give students
more time to think about it. This will allow them to experience success. Teacher should explain tasks concretely,
specifically and completely. In explaining too, start with easy material, progressing to more difficult ones. Think also
about including vocational and general life skills in the curriculum as some of these children can join the work force as
soon as they get out of school.

For Children with Physical and Sensory Impairments

Those with physical and sensory impairments like those with physical and health problems, experience
limitations in learning. Thus, the teacher should have a better appreciation of these limitations and if possible, know how
these students feel. It is also required from the teacher to know what to do in emergency situations.

For those with visual impairments, they should first be oriented with the layout of the classroom. They should
know where the important objects and parts are located, and what sounds like that of the bell mean. There is need to use
other modalities for learning like giving them objects which they can touch and feel. With their limitations, the teacher
should be patient with them, and should be allowed extra time for learning and performance.

For those with hearing impairment or hearing loss, auditory presentations should be supplemented with visual
materials. Occasionally, check comprehension and understanding by asking them to repeat what was said. Make it a point
to address deficiencies in reading and language skills. Others in the classroom should be taught different modes of
communicating to those with hearing impairment.

Students with severe and multiple abilities may require highly specialized services or teaching. Basically, the
teacher should have a mindset that all students can and should participate in class activities to the full extent possible.
Pair students with and without disability in same activity but with different objectives for each. Identify and teach those
behaviors and skills most important for a student's general welfare and successful integration in the regular classroom.

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 Recommendations for students with physical and sensory challenges are along providing access to the same
opportunities as that of other students. It is important to bear in mind that teachers should treat all students same way as
the others. Avoid developing overdependence by providing assistance only when students really need help. At this time,
the use of technology like computers, programs and applications, to facilitate student learning and performance is highly
recommended for them.

For the Intellectually Gifted Students

Gifted students or those with unusually high ability or aptitude serve as challenge in teaching. The teacher
should be able to keep in pace with the giftedness of these students. Given their high abilities, they should be provided
with individualized tasks and assignments which they can independently work on. The teacher should form study groups
with similar interests and abilities and teach complex cognitive skills within the context of specific subject areas. Seek
outside resources for a different view of the learning material on hand. Goal-setting should be made a regular activity for
these students and this should be encouraged.

It is expected that there are intellectually gifted students even in regular classrooms. This becomes a challenge
to the patience, resourcefulness and creativity of the teacher in developing appropriate methodologies and instructional
materials needed to realize the potential of these students. It is a challenge because at present, children with special needs
are mainstreamed in the regular classroom. They may be pulled out for special training and experience if the regular
classroom environment and teaching methods are not able to address that special need. All the more, the teacher should
expect a much wider diversity of student characteristics in the classroom, which calls for the application of
methodologies in line with the framework of learner-centered teaching.

The teacher can look at differentiated techniques and instructional materials in teaching students, whether they
are with or without special needs. Especially those with special needs, they have to be taught differently. They have to be
extended much more accommodation. All the more this should be so, if the class is a mix of students with and without
special needs. If conditions warrant, the teacher should consider acquiring more technical knowledge about pedagogies
on how to deal with students with special needs, and how to maximize the potential of students with diverse
characteristics.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 11)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Answer briefly the following questions.

1. Consider a situation where you are a teacher in basic education, and you have one student who has ADHD. Let
us assume, that he cannot keep till in his seat, bullies his seatmate, and runs around the room at any time. For two class
sessions, you plan on having a group work. How will you deal with this student with ADHD and make sure he
participates in the group activity?
2. In your class, you have two students who are poorly performing. They cannot read, much less comprehend what
they read. In what ways will you be able to improve their reading comprehension?

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Module 12. Relationship of Need and Motivation
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about what motivation is and perspectives of motivation. It
also discusses about factors that drives a person to achieve a goal as well as the benefits of motivation
to people. Moreover, it discusses the kinds and approaches of motivation.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Relate need and motivation.
3. Content Focus

LEARNING POINT: WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

Motivation is defined as an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior (Woolfolk, 2013; Ormrod,
2015). Defines motivation as something that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior; it gets students moving, points
them in a particular direction and keeps them going. The students' motivation is often reflected in personal investment
and cognitive engagement in an activity (Maehr & Meyer, Paris & Paris, Steinberg in Woolfolk, 2013). As deduced from
these definitions, motivation is an internal state that is reflected in observable and measurable behavior of pursuing one's
goals.

From these definitions, motivation represents a "force" or "energy that makes one move or behave toward a goal
and sustain it. It is thus important to consider students’ motivation as a factor to learning.

Perspectives of Motivation

Researchers and theorists have studied motivation from four perspectives (Ormrod, 2015).

1. Trait Perspective

According to the theorists who hold onto the trait perspective, motivation is an enduring personality
characteristic which people have at differing amounts – some people have it to a greater extent, and some, to a lesser
extent. One example of a much - studied trait is the need for achievement also known as achievement motivation. It is
the need to pursue excellence for its own sake, without regard for external rewards. This was initially thought of as a
general trait and is consistent across variety of tasks. However, more recently achievement motivation is now seen as
specific to certain tasks and occasions, and that it has a cognitive component. Thus, descriptions of achievement
motivation are veering away from the trait approach toward the cognitive approach.

2. Behaviorist Perspective

Those who take on the behaviorist perspective maintain that people behave to obtain reinforcing outcomes or to
avoid punishment. Thus, students might study hard if the teacher praises them for their efforts. Or they might misbehave
in class, if only to get the attention of the teacher. It used to be that behaviorists think specific consequences are
reinforcing only if they address a particular drive necessary for optimal functioning (e.g. food, water, etc.). This is the
drive-reduction theory. However, it was found that learning can occur even if a certain drive is not addressed or
reduced. As a result, these theorists now focus more on the purposes particular behaviors may serve for people, rather
than on physiological drives. However, whatever perspective one takes, theorists now recognize that the consequences of
behavior can certainly affect students’ motivation to exhibit those behaviors.

3. The Social Cognitive Perspective

This perspective places heavy emphasis on the goals people strive for, as seen in the choices they make and the
behaviors they show. Reinforcement and punishment that follow certain behaviors affect people's expectations of the
consequences of their future behaviors. People's beliefs about their capability to perform in an activity is a factor in their
decision to engage and persist in that activity. Thus, goals, expectations and efficacy are important cognitive factors in
motivation.

4. The Cognitive Perspective

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 This focuses on how mental processes affect motivation. They maintain that human beings are naturally inclined
to make sense of their world, that their curiosity is often aroused by new and puzzling events and are more motivated by
perceived discrepancies between new information and their existing beliefs. Hence, to motivate students, teachers should
capitalize on the curiosity of the students, by presenting challenging or even inconsistent and puzzling situations.

There is no single perspective that will fully explain human motivation and its underpinnings. However,
teachers should be able to selectively glean useful ideas from each perspective as to how students could be best
motivated in classroom settings.

Factors that Drive One to Achieve a Goal

Being motivated means moving energetically toward a goal, or to work hard in achieving a goal, even if the
tasks to achieve the goal are difficult. Following are some of the underlying reasons and factors that drive one to work
hard to achieve a goal (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 431).

a. Drives. To satisfy a physiological state like hunger

b. Basic Desires. Desire to be accepted and recognized
c. Incentives. Expected rewards after achieving the goal
d. Fears. Fear of censure or criticism
e. Goal. Is an important goal for the individual to achieve
f. Social Pressure. Pressure from family or social circle
g. Self-confidence. Desired bigger amount of self-confidence
h. Interests. High interest in meeting a goal
i. Curiosity. Curiosity about expected outcomes
j. Beliefs. One's beliefs about the goal
k. Values. If goal is related to one's values
l. Expectations. The expect outcomes of a goal
m. Cognitive Ability. A good grasp of one's goal will lead one to work hard for it.
Benefits of Motivation

Ormrod (2015) lists several effects or benefits of motivation on students learning and behavior.

1. It directs behavior toward particular goals. Social cognitive theorists propose that individuals set goals for
themselves and direct their behavior toward these goals. Motivation determines the specific goals which people
strive to reach or achieve (Maehr & Meyer, 1997 in Ormrod 2015). Thus, motivation bears on specific choices
that students make, as for example, whether to attend a photography class, or finish an assignment in math or
watch a basketball game on TV.

2. It leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation increases the amount of effort and energy that students
spend on activities especially if these are related to their needs and goals. Thus, motivation determines whether
the student will pursue an activity or a task, with much enthusiasm and energy; or with less enthusiasm.

3. It increases initiation of and persistence in doing activities. Students are more likely to begin a task that they
want and are interested to do, and are more likely to persist and finish the task, even if there are barriers,
hindrances, or interruptions while doing the task.

4. It enhances cognitive processing. Motivation affects what and how information is processed. Students who are
highly motivated at doing a task will pay more attention to the task, understand it more, and think more about

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 the details. They exert extra effort to deduce meaning out of the material, rather than go through the motions of
finishing the task in a superficial or haphazard manner.

5. It determines what consequences are reinforcing. The more students are motivated to achieve, the more
proud they feel of getting a high grade, or feel upset when they get only a passing mark. The more students feel
accepted and respected by peers, the more meaning they get out of their membership in that group. Thus, to a
student whose life and efforts revolve around science, winning or not winning in a prestigious science
competition may be a consequence of significant importance.

6. It leads to improved performance. Because of the above-mentioned effects of motivation on goal-directed

behavior, effort, initiation and persistence, cognitive processing and reinforcement, motivation necessarily leads
to improved performance. Students who are highly motivated, have better chances of better performance.

Knowing the effects of motivation on the learning of students has implications for teaching. It is a challenge to
determine what teaching techniques to use and what kind of teaching environment to create to engage students to set
goals for themselves, persist in achieving their goals, sharpen their cognitive skills in the process, and eventually improve
their performance.

A basic principle would be for the teacher to present and clarify to the students the goals or objectives of the
lesson or a classroom activity. Thus, the students are guided to set and direct their goals. This should be followed by the
teacher getting an idea of the level at which the students are motivated. Simply observing them for their attention or non-
attention can be a clue to the teacher on the extent to which students are motivated to do the task or the activity. It would
also be good to find out if the motivation comes from within as being "genuinely interested" in doing the activity; or if
the motivation comes from the outside, as wanting to get a high grade as reason for joining the activity. In the process,
giving feedback to the students and guiding them as to what they should do, or correcting them for errors is a plus. It is
also important for the teacher to give rewards and incentives for students’ performance and make sure that they exert
extra effort and persist in achieving the goal/s of the activity

LEARNING POINT: KINDS OF MOTIVATION

There are two primary kinds of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic

The natural tendency of an individual to seek out and conquer challenges as he pursues his personal interest and
exercise his capabilities. When intrinsically motivated, there is no need for incentives or rewards, because the activity
itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman & Anderman, Deci & Ryan, Reiss, in Woolfolk, 2013).

This is an internal stimulus to learning. Intrinsic motivation is based on motives that the individual is trying to
satisfy. Motive is a thought, feeling, or condition that causes one to act. Most common forms of intrinsic motivation are
the desire for knowledge, to explore and to construct. Intrinsic motivation is driven by three psychological needs : the
need for autonomy, the need to feel competent, the need for relatedness. All in all, the individual is intrinsically
motivated to pursue a goal because it makes him feel he has a handle or control of his life and that he can harmonize
himself with the world.

Extrinsic

Extrinsic is conquering a challenge for reasons like earning a high grade, avoiding punishment, please a teacher,
or some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself. There is really no interest in the task or activity itself,
but only the gains one expects to get out of the task (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 431).

This is an external stimulus to learning activity. Praise and blame, rivalry, rewards, and punishment are the more
common forms of extrinsic motivation. It is based on incentives. The student is encouraged to do good work by such
drives as high marks, honors, prizes, scholarships, and privileges.

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 It is rather difficult to determine whether a behavior is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated by just simply
looking at the behavior of the person. The difference lies in the student's reason for acting, whether the locus of causality
for the action is internal (inside) or external (outside) to the person. To cite an example, a student who may be practicing
to sing chooses to do so freely because it is a personal interest and enjoys doing it. This is a case of internal locus of
causality or intrinsic motivation. However, if the student is practicing to sing, because he is looking forward to get an
award in a musical competition, then he is extrinsically motivated.

The dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is not an all or nothing thing. There are two
explanations for this view.

a. Our activities fall along a continuum from fully self-determined (intrinsic motivation) to fully determined by others
(extrinsic motivation). For example, students may choose to work hard on an activity that is not particularly
enjoyable, but they know that working hard on an activity will make it easier for them to reach their goals. As an
example, those students taking up education may not find studying philosophy of education very enjoyable. But they
have to study this subject very well because they want to pass the licensure exam after graduation. Here is a case of a
motivation level which is in between intrinsic and extrinsic. Here, the student chooses freely outside causes as in
passing licensure exam and trying to get the best rewards or benefits from the requirement (Woolfolk, 2013).

b. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not two ends of a continuum. Rather, they are two independent possibilities,
and at any given time, we can be motivated by some aspects of each (Covington & Mueller in Woolfolk, 2013). For
example, teachers may realize that intrinsic motivation may not work all the time for students. There will be
situations where incentives and external supports are necessary.

LEARNING POINT: APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

Generally, there are five approaches to motivation which teachers can select from when they want the students
to get interested or focused on the lessons (Woolfolk, 2013).

1. Behavioral Approach

Student motivation starts with the teacher doing a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present and
available in the classroom. A reward Is an attractive object or event given as a result of a particular behavior. An
incentive is an object or event that encourages or discourages behavior. The promise of a high grade is an incentive.
Receiving the grade is the reward. Giving grades, stars, stickers and other reinforcers for learning, or demerits for
misbehavior are ways to motivate students by extrinsic means of incentives, rewards and punishment.

2. Humanistic Approach

Proponents of humanistic psychology like Carl Rogers argued that other schools of psychology are not adequate
to explain why people act and behave the way they do. This approach emphasizes intrinsic sources of motivation like
need for self- actualization, or the need for self-determination. From the humanistic view, to motivate is to encourage
people's inner resources, their sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy and self-actualization. It is thus important for
teachers to provide activities or opportunities that will develop students’ self-confidence and a sense of competence
inside the classroom.

3. Cognitive Approach

People are viewed as active and curious, searching for information, and solving problems. This approach
emphasizes intrinsic motivation, and believes that behavior is determined by our thinking, not because we were rewarded
or not punished for past behavior. Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, expectations and attributions. It is thus
important for teachers to provide activities to students that will challenge their thinking processes, and encourage
problem-solving and independent thinking.

4. Social Cognitive Approach

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 Motivation is seen as the result of two forces: the individual's expectation of reaching a goal, and the value of
that goal to the person. If these two forces are present, then motivation will be strong. However, if either one force is
zero, then there is no motivation to work toward a goal. For teachers, this means that to lead students to reach a goal,
(like completing a laboratory experiment), the expectations should be clear to the students and the value of attaining that
goal be emphasized, too.

5. Socio-cultural Approach

Emphasis is on participation in communities of practice. People engage in activities to maintain their identities
and their interpersonal relations in the community. Thus, students are motivated to learn if they belong to a classroom or
a group that values learning, and where they believe learning is important to their lives. Thus, we learn to dress, or speak
in a particular manner as we learn from the other or more capable members of the community. The values held by the
whole group or class should be clear to the students, from which they could identify with those values.

LEARNING POINT: THEORIES ON RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEED AND MOTIVATION

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (in Woolfolk, 2013) asserts that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower level needs for
survival and safety to higher levels needs for intellectual achievement and finally self-actualization, or self-fulfillment.

Self-actualization Needs (realizing one's full potential)

Self-esteem Needs (feeling good about oneself)

Social Needs (belonging, friendships, relationships)

Safety Needs (feeling safe and secure)

Physiological Needs (satisfying basic needs:

hunger and thirst.)

1. Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, sleep

2. Safety needs: security, protection from danger and freedom from pain
3. Social needs: love needs like friendship giving/receiving love, engaging in social activities, group membership
4. Esteem: need for self-respect and for others. The desire for self-confidence, achievement, recognition and appreciation;
feeling good about oneself
5. Self-actualization: to become everything one can be ("Maslow's Motivation Theory,” n. d.).
The theory further asserts that lower needs have to be met or satisfied first before the next higher needs could be
addressed, The four level lower-level needs - for survival, safety belonging and self-esteem are deficiency needs. When
these needs are satisfied or met the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. The three higher- level needs – intellectual
achievement, aesthetic appreciation and finally self-actualization needs. When such needs are met, a person's motivation
does not cease, but instead increases to seek further fulfillment. These needs can never be completely filled.

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 A criticism of Maslow's theory, however, is that people do not always behave in accordance with the hierarchy.
A person may pursue knowledge, understanding or self- esteem while denying himself friendship or social interaction.
Despite this criticism, Maslow's theory provides us a way of looking at the student who’s physical, emotional and
intellectual needs are interrelated. It also means that the teacher will be able to help his students on their journey to self-
actualization, by seeing to it that the lower level needs or the survival needs are first met and satisfied. The classroom
environment should also be such that the students feel accepted by their peers and teacher.

Self-determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness

Self-determination theory espouses that we all need to feel competent and capable in our interactions with
others, have choices, and a sense of control over our lives and to belong to a social group.

Need for autonomy is central to self-determination because it is the desire to have our own wishes, rather than
external rewards or pressures to determine our actionns. People strive to have authority in their lives and be in control
and in charge of their own behavior. Thus, when students in the classroom have the authority to make choices, they come
to believe that their work is important, even if it is not fun. Thus they tend to internalize educational goals as their own.
In contrast, controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote recall tasks. When there is pressure to
conform, students tend to look for the fastest, quickest and easiest solutions, without much thought of deducing meaning
and significance of the material.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 12)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

A. Choose the correct answer from among the choices given. Underline the correct word/s.
1. self-actualization: the need to: feel safe, be loved, be accepted, be self-fulfilled
2. physiological need: hunger, acceptance, self- esteem, to belong
3. intrinsic motivation: rewards, punishment, genuine interest, incentives
4. self-determination: exerting control of one's life; feeling self-fulfilled; pursuing one's goals
5. use of rewards and punishment: social cognitive approach; cognitive approach; behaviorist approach
6. social need: self-esteem, friendship, thirst
7. Maslow: trait theory, cognitive theory, hierarchy of needs
B. Select the statements that correctly describes the relationship between needs and motivation. Encircle the number of
the statement/s.
1. One has to always satisfy his basic needs (like physiological) first before he can work toward fulfilling his
higher-order needs.
2. The more a person works hard to achieve a goal, if that goal is very important to his existence.
3. Students learn better, if they are allowed to control over their choices in learning.
4. The teacher should see to it that his students are motivated for their performance to improve.
5. Punishment is a better way than rewards to motivate students to study their lessons.
6. Alma is studying hard to become the valedictorian of her class, because of her innate desire to excel.
7. Motivation is like a force that engages one to work hard in pursuing a goal.
8. Students need to be inspired to learn so that on their own they will strive to get good grades.
9. Students will be able to pursue their goals even without being motivated to do so.

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Module 13. Problems in Motivation
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about the problems in motivation particularly, the nature of
problems in motivation as well as identifying and understanding motivation problems.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Analyze problems in motivation.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the previous chapter you have been oriented on the basic concepts about motivation, including factors relating
to motivation. This chapter aims to familiarize you with the problems in motivation. It identifies and explains the causes
and sources of problems relating to it. It discusses different levels of motivation and what could explain that level of
motivation. Techniques and applications are also presented on how to enhance and sustain students' level of motivation to
learn.
For future teachers like you, it is important that you are able to pinpoint behavioral indicators of students'
motivational levels. This chapter teaches you certain processes on how to do systematic observations of behaviors to
determine your students motivational levels. By knowing this, you will be able to address this, toward enhancing and
promoting students' motivation levels.
The learning outcome written below, sets the expectation on the skill you are supposed to develop and the
knowledge you are to gain after going through this chapter
 ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF PROBLEMS IN MOTIVATION
As explained and defined in the previous chapter, motivation is an internal state which drives one to act, move
or engage in a task, and persist in achieving a certain goal. Motivation includes the amount and kind of effort or energy
one puts in engaging in a task, as well as the kind of satisfaction and meaning one derives out of the engagement.
Since motivation is an internal state, it is difficult to determine, what is going on in one's mind or in one's
feelings. Hence, one, has to rely on observations of outward behavioral manifestations. For example, a teacher can
observe the facial expression of students, when doing an experiment. Or how fast or slow the students respond to an
assigned task. These behaviors indicate the level of motivation of the students in pursuing a task.
The teacher should consider it important for his students to be highly motivated to learn. Motivation facilitates
meaningful student learning. It is expected that in a class, the students have differing levels of motivation. Some are
highly motivated to learn while others are not. The latter case presents more of a concern to the teacher. If students are
poorly motivated to learn, there might exist some problems that explain why this is so.
Woolfolk (2013, p. 431) suggests "problems" in the five areas of motivation, namely: a) choices, b) getting
started, c) intensity, d) persistence, and e) thoughts and feelings. The situations also show different motivational
challenges, and teachers should be able to know what these challenges are, so they can determine how to motivate these
students to learn.
Following are examples that explain and illustrate different levels of motivation among students to engage in an activity.
Let us assume that the English teacher has just finished giving instructions to his Grade 10 students to write a 300-word
news item. Take note of the behavioral reactions of the students to the task.
a. Robert just stares into space and hardly starts writing. He keeps saying, "It is difficult! " This is always his
reaction every time there is a class activity. He tries to catch up with his classmates, but still lags behind. (getting started)
b. Anna checks with the teacher every paragraph that she writes. She wants to make sure, there are no errors in her
output. She has earlier been praised by the teacher for good outputs. She does not want to get a grade lower than 90.
However, if it is not required, or if there is no test, she is not interested to engage in any class activity. (intensity)
c. Bobby is interested in writing fiction or non-fiction articles. He also spends much time reading essays and news
articles coming from good source materials. But his overall grade is 83 because he never turns in his assignments and his
outputs. He is satisfied with the grade of 8o. He does not study hard for tests. (persistence)
d. Amy came to class but without the news clippings the teacher earlier asked them to bring to class. So she asks
her classmates to share with her their materials, Then she pretends to be writing the news article, but does other things
the moment the teacher turns her back. She asks her classmates to help her with writing. She is afraid to try on her own,
because if she fails, she knows her classmates will think she is "dumb'. (thoughts and feelings)
e. Maridel performs very well in most subjects. However, she does not feel confident and comfortable in the area
of communication and languages. Her grades in these subjects are comparatively much lower than the other subjects. For
this task, she thinks she will not be able to come up with a well-written news article. Her parents are well-known
journalists and her parents expect her to follow in their footsteps, but prospects for this future are not bright. (choices)
As shown by the different examples, Robert has difficulty starting to do the task. His difficulty may be due to
reasons like, lack of ability for the written language, or he may not be confident in doing this task. Thus, Robert may not
be able to complete the task of writing the news article.

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 In the case of Anna, she had always been praised by the teacher for good work. Her behavior of always going to
consult the teacher during the writing activity to know if she is on the right track or not, may indicate to the teacher, that
she has a high level of motivation to finish the task. It seems though that Anna's behavior, which indicates high
motivation level, is explained more by the praises she has earlier received. But when it comes to other class activities, she
is not interested to do them, unless there is a test that follows. Annas high motivation level indicated by her behavior is
explained by "other" reasons, rather than the objective of improving her ability to write.
Bobby operates within a context conducive to develop further and maximize his writing skills. First, he has the
interest and the ability to write, and second, good resource materials are available to him. But despite these, he is satisfied
with the grade of 80, and he does not study his lessons. This observation may give the teacher the idea that Bobby has
low motivation level perform better. Lack of persistence may explain why Bobby does not show more effort to perform
better, even if he has the resources to do so. Perhaps, ne has never been rewarded or praised for good work at home or in
school. Or he hasn’t had the opportunity to think of his immediate goals.
In the case of Amy, she pretends to be actively engaged in writing the news article. By this alone, the teacher
may think that she has a high level of motivation to finish the task. However, she did not prepare the materials assigned
as needed to write the article. Nor was she serious in writing even when the teacher is not looking at her shoulder. She
asked help from classmates, and actually, was afraid to do things on her own, because she is afraid her classmates would
call her "dumb" There are other circumstances that indicate Amy in fact does not have the motivation to finish writing
the news article. Her pretensions in writing the article appear to be a defense mechanism or a front, for her not to be
labeled as "dumb.”
Maridel pertorms very well in all her subjects except in language and communication. She appears not to be
highly motivated in doing tasks in language and communication, like writing a news item, because at the outset she
already thinks she cannot come up with a well-written news item. The reason for the thinking that she cannot do as well
in news writing, may be due to pressure, since her parents are well-known journalists. Perhaps, too, she may have an
accurate concept of her abilities, where she is aware that she performs comparatively more poorly in language and
communication area.
Thus far, specific situations bear on the level of motivation individuals (or students) have.
LEARNING POINT: IDENTIFYING AND UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION PROBLEMS
As seen in the previous examples, identifying motivation problems requires the teacher to be keen in observing
students behavior. At the same time, he should also be able to anticipate or make good guesses on what could be
happening in the minds or feelings of the students, that may explain their actions or behavior. That way, the teacher is
able to help remedy motivational problems coming from unobservable thoughts and feelings, such as levels of self-
confidence, expectations of success, interest in academic work, feelings of autonomy, alienation, achievement, anxiety,
and fear of failure. Even if motivational problems are evident from overt behavior, remedies require accurate diagnosis to
identify the exact problem. In such a case, the teacher may need the help of people or other school staff like guidance
counselor, or psychologist who have the necessary expertise to deal with this problem.
Since motivation is an internal state, and is manifested only in outward behavior, following are some steps the
teachers can take to identify and understand better the students' problems in motivation.
a. Do careful and systematic observations of student behavior. Teachers should observe all students in different
subject areas, in a variety of contexts, and in a variety of tasks. For example, a student works hard in pursuing a task
when working in groups; but not as much as when he works by himself alone. Or a student works hard on an assigned
project when specific instructions on how to do it are given; but not as much as when no specific instructions are given.
These differences will not be identified if observation is done only in one context.
b. Observe students' emotional expressions and behaviors. Take a look at the amount of enthusiasm students
approach a task. Do they smile or get excited when doing the task? Do they look depressed or bored or anxious while
being engaged in the task? Do they show pride in what they have accomplished? Do they show embarrassment or
humiliation if something goes wrong with the task? Emotions are important indicators and can reveal many things about
a student's level of motivation.
c. Supplement observations with other strategies. Sometimes, observations of behavior may not accurately
determine what could be the problem with the amount of motivation the students have. For example, a student may seem
to be listening intently to what the teacher is presenting, but in fact is planning what movie to watch after class. Or a
student who pretends to be taking down notes, but instead is writing a letter to a friend. Discussions with older students
individually or in groups can reveal amount of motivation, especially if they are encouraged to be open and honest. As a
result of these discussions, the teacher might find out that his high-performing students in fact do not like school work,
but strive to get high grades because of pressure from parents. Or the low-performing students whom the teacher may
think as not being interested at all to learn, may reveal experiencing feelings of failure or disappointment if they are
unable to finish the task.
d. Some students may not feel comfortable when they are interviewed face-to-face by teachers, or if they are asked
what their problems are. Hence, questionnaires may be developed and administered to the students, on which they will
write their responses, helpful in identifying motivational problems.

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It is easier for teachers to recognize the motivational problems of the low achievers. In the same manner, motivation
problems of high-achieving students who are not realizing their full potential, often go unrecognized too. This is because
of a prevailing assumption of teachers that those who do well in school do not have motivation problems. Thus, teachers
always rate high achievers, as having high motivation. It is easy to overlook high-achieving students who are not
performing to their capacity. As long as students consistently finish their work and are not disruptive, they are usually not
considered as having motivation problems. As the specific examples have shown, the teacher should bear in mind, that
both high and low performing students can have problems in motivation.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 13)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Following is a classroom situation. First, identify what the problem in motivation is and second, give your suggestion on
how to address the problem.

The class which has been divided into four groups, A, B, C and D are getting ready to do an experiment in
science. Each group has been assigned a leader After giving the instructions, Group A and D, immediately started to
work. The members of Group B and C, just sat there and seemed not to know how to start the activity. Group B members
were pointing to each other as to who should start, but nobody wanted to. In Group C, only the leader was active, but the
other members were not doing anything to participate in the activity.

1. How do you characterize the motivation level of Group B members to do and finish the experiment? What could be
the "problem" as why they could not start the activity? Advance as many reasons as possible.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What could be the "problem" in Group C? What can be done in Group C so the members will help the group leader
with the activity?

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe the level of motivation of members of Groups A and D. It appears that the group members have a high
level of motivation. Think of factors that contribute to the level of motivation the groups exhibited.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. What can you suggest to be done so that Groups A and D will persist in finishing the activity?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Module 14. Comparison of Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about concepts and perspectives of cognition and
metacognition. Particularly, it discusses the factors associated with the development of cognition.
Moreover, it provides various strategies that will help develop students’ metacognitive skills.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Compare and contrast the perspectives and concepts related to cognition and metacognition.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the study of learning, one cannot do away with cognition as being associated with intellectual capacity.
Basically, it is a given, that intellectual capacity explains a big part for learning to occur.
This chapter seeks to present the different concepts related to cognition and metacognition. It also tries to draw
the line between these two concepts, and clarifies what delineates these two from each other.
More importantly, for future teachers, this chapter presents suggestions regarding teaching techniques that
facilitate the effective use of cognitive and metacognitive skills among our students. At the end of this chapter, you are
expected to carry out the task specified below.
 ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES ABOUT COGNITION AND METACOGNITION
One of the more important goals of the teaching-learning process is to develop successful and self-regulated
learners-learners who take charge and are in control of their learning. What are the characteristics of successful learners?
a. Can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge with support and guidance.
b. Can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
c. Can create a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
A look at the characteristics of successful learners imply that they possess the necessary cognitive skills to
achieve their goals. It would be good to know the ways by which such skills could be developed among students.
Initially, we have to examine and understand the concepts related to cognition and metacognition. Basically,
both of these are thinking processes. Thinking has to do with comprehension or understanding, memory, perceiving and
such other skills. Both have also to do with understanding, learning, or remembering. The distinction between the two
concepts, lies in how knowledge is used to further one's own learning.
Cognition refers to all the mental processes and abilities in which people use or engage on a daily basis.
Examples of such mental processes are memory learning, problem- solving, evaluation, reasoning and decision-making.
Cognition helps to generate new knowledge through these mental processes, and also helps to use the knowledge that
people have in their daily life.
On the other hand, metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. It allows an individual to complete a
task through planning, monitoring, evaluating, and comprehending Cognitive processes allow normal functioning of
individuals, but metacognition takes it to a higher level, making a person more aware of his cognitive processes. To
illustrate, a person may be able to solve a mathematical word problem using his cognitive processes. But metacognition
allows him to double check his output by monitoring and evaluating his answer. Metacognition exercises active control
over cognitive processes engaged in learning, also known as self-regulation. This is why metacognition helps successful
learning.
Metacognition refers both to the knowledge people have about their own cognitive processes and the intentional
use of certain cognitive processes to facilitate learning and memory (Ormrod, 2015). Other terms associated with or used
interchangeably with metacognition are self-regulation and executive control.
The knowledge people have about their own cognitive processes is referred to as metacognitive knowledge;
while the use of cognitive process to facilitate learning and memory is referred to as metacognitive regulation.
Metacognition refers to higher-order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning. Metacognition does not stop at acquiring knowledge, but more importantly using this knowledge to develop
higher-order and more complex thinking skills necessary for effective learning and living
Actually, there is a thin line between cognition and metacognition. Both of them involve cognition and skills but
conceptually distinct in one major way. According to Weinstein and Meyer, cognitive learning strategy is a plan for
orchestrating cognitive resources such as attention, and long term memory to help teach and achieve a learning goal.
There are several characteristics of cognitive learning strategies, such as being goal directed, deliberate, but situation
specific. Metacognitive strategies appear to share most of these characteristics but they involve more universal
applications through focus upon planning for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
Metacognition is the awareness of the self as the knower. It is a higher-order knowledge about your own
thinking as well as the ability to use this knowledge to manage one's cognitive processes, such as comprehension and
problem-solving (Bruning et.al, 2011 in Woolfolk, 2013).
Types of Knowledge Used in the Metacognition Process

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a. Declarative Knowledge. Knowledge about the self as learner, factors that influence the person's learning and
memory and the skills, strategies, and resources needed to perform a task. In other words, knowing what to do.
b. Procedural Knowledge. It is knowing how to use strategies in different occasions or conditions.
c. Self-regulating Knowledge. Knowing the conditions as to when to apply the procedures and strategies to ensure
completion of the task.
d. Metacognitive Knowledge. Refers to general knowledge about how human beings learn and process information
as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes. For example, a student may know that he will be more
productive if he studies in his room with piped-in music than when he studies in the library. Knowledge of the task
includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing skills required of the individual. Hence,
the individual may know that he is able read a novel faster and with understanding, than he would, a physics book.
Knowledge about strategies include knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and when and where it is
appropriate to use such strategies. Metacognitive strategies are sequential processes one uses to control cognitive
strategies and to ensure the cognitive goal has been met (Livingston, 1997).
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap such that in one strategy it could be regarded as either
cognitive or metacognitive strategy depending on the purpose of using that strategy. For example, one may use a self-
questioning strategy while reading simply as a means of obtaining knowledge (cognitive) or as a way of monitoring what
was read (metacognitive). Knowledge may be considered metacognitive as it is actively used in a strategic manner to
ensure that the goal is met (Livingston, 1997). To illustrate, a student may use knowledge in planning how to approach a
math exam. In the process, he knows he has difficulty with word problems, so he plans to deal with computational
problems first, and word problems, last. Simply possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and
the nature of the task without actively utilizing the information to oversee learning is not metacognitive.
Woolfolk (2013) contends that there are three essential skills in metacognition: planning, monitoring, and
evaluating. Planning involves deciding how much time to give a task, which strategies to use, how to start, order of
processes to follow, which resources to gather, what to skim, and what to give intense attention to. Monitoring is
following up one’s actions, like "How am I doing?" Evaluating, involves making judgments about the processes and
outcomes of thinking and learning as, "Do I need to change strategies?
To Summarize, metacognition is about using one's cognitive processes and skills toward developing more
complex skills, and eventually lead one to develop self-regulation and have control over one's learning.
LEARNING POINT: FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION
Metacognitive knowledge and skills improve with growth and development. As children grow and develop,
their metacognitive knowledge and skills improve in the following ways (Ormrod, 2015).
a. Children become more aware of the limitations of their memories. As they grow older, they realize that their
memories are not perfect.
b. Children become better able to identify the things they know and do not know As people grow and develop,
they are able to a certain point assess themselves in terms of what they know, and what they do not know.
c. As they grow older, children become more knowledgeable about effective learning strategies.
The development of metacognitive skills goes with age, experience and guidance. It means that younger
children may not be as skilled thinkers as the older ones. For teachers therefore, this has implications for starting the
development of metacognitive skills early, and seeing to it that applying the strategies for developing metacognition is
sustained across subjects and grade levels.
Theorists organize the skills of metacognition into two components:
a. Knowledge of cognition with three components: Knowledge of the factors that influence one's own
performance; knowing different strategies to use for learning; and knowing what strategy to use for a specific learning
situation.
b. Regulation of cognition, involves setting goals and planning, monitoring and controlling learning, and
evaluating one's own regulation (assessing results and strategies used).
Strategies to Develop Students' Metacognitive Skills
Metacognitive strategies facilitate learning. Teachers and trainers can apply the following suggested strategies to
develop metacognitive learning skills of their students.
a. Ask questions. During formal courses, ask questions that allow learners to reflect on their own learning
processes and strategies. In collaborative learning, ask them to reflect the role they play when engaged in problem-
solving as a group or team.
b. Foster self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and after learning experiences.
Encourage learners to critically analyze their own assumptions and how may have this influenced their learning.
c. Encourage self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to generate their own questions and
answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be related to their personal goals.
d. Teach strategies directly. Teach explicitly or implicitly appropriate metacognitive strategies as part of the
lesson, or as part of a training course.
e. Promote autonomous learning. When learners have some domain knowledge encourages participation in
challenging learning experiences. They, will then be forced to construct their own metacognitive strategies.

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f. Provide access to mentors. Students learn best by interacting with peers who are more slightly advanced. Allow
the experience where novices can observe the proficient use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies
of their "mentors." This can also be done in the classroom.
g. Solve problems with a team or group. Cooperative problem solving can enhance metacognitive strategies by
discussing possible approaches with team members and learning from each other.
h. Think aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while performing a difficult task. A
knowledgeable partner or the teacher can then point out errors in thinking or the individual can use this approach for
increased self- awareness during learning.
i. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve their comprehension of a
difficult subject.
j. Provide opportunities for making errors. Providing this opportunity to learners simulates reflections on the
causes of their errors.
Strategies that Develop Self-Regulation
The important strategies regarding the development of metacognition toward self- regulation is further emphasized. All
of these activities are cognitive in nature.
1. Teach students that the ability to learn is not a fixed quantity. The students should be taught that ability to learn
is a trait that is developed over time and that it is not a fixed trait.
2. Teach students how to set goals and plan to meet them.
3. Give students the opportunity for self-monitoring and adapting.
Paris and Winograd (1990; in Ee, 2009) claim that as students develop competencies for self-appraisal and self-
management, they become metacognitively alert. They also become more conscious of their own thinking state, the
demands of the task, and their own strategies for influencing their learning.
According to Ee (2009) teachers can develop their students' awareness of thinking using the following strategies:
1. Sharpening the students' alertness and observational skills.
• After a lesson, encourage learners to reflect and indicate what they have learned from the lesson.
• During question time, encourage students to elaborate on their answers.
• Always encourage further elaboration of their answers to assess maturity of their answers.
2. Provide explicit and clear instructions and modeling
• Explain with concrete examples, illustrations or model the skills and allow for practice or role play of the
situation. Example: how to show honesty in different situations.
3. Encourage peer evaluation. During question time, encourage evaluation on the given responses by peers.
4. Providing questions for enhancing reflection. Apply Socratic questioning. These are questions asked of students
to give the following kinds of responses: Clear, (Can you elaborate further?); Precise (Can you give me more details?);
Accurate (How can we verify or test that?); Relevant (How does that relate to the problem?); Deep (Which factors make
this a difficult problem?); Broad (Do we need to have another point of view?); Logical (How is it consistent with what
you explained earlier?)
Use also De Bono's Thinking Hats in processing students' responses or actions on tasks (Adapted from:
debonothingkingsystem.com).
• Yellow Hat: good points e.g. What are all the good points about?
• Black Hat: bad points e.g. What could have gone wrong?
• White Hat: information. e.g. what, when, who, why, how questions
• Red Hat: feelings. What do you feel about the result of this activity?
• Blue Hat: thinking about thinking. What did you learn from the story?
• Green Hat: creativity. What else could have been done?
In asking the questions and processing students' responses, the teacher can use the above classification of questions and
responses.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 14)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

1. Select the best practices that develop metacognition among students. Encircle the letter of your answer/s.

a. Ask "why" questions always.

b. Refrain from giving feedback for wrong answers.
c. Require answers that allow students to reflect on their answers.

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d. In clarifying a concept, you accept any kind of explanation.
e. In doing a class activity, tackle and go directly to the main part of the lesson.
f. Ask students to always elaborate on their answers.
g. In a group activity, encourage members to talk to each other.
h. Don't allow errors to be committed by the student.
i. Make effort to correct mistakes and explain in a clear manner.

2. For each of your answer in activity 1, give your reason/s why you think that practice is a good one. If you think it is
not a good one, how should that practice be done?

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Module 15.
1. Module Overview
This module covers discussions about factors in learning related to development of cognition
and metacognition. It also presents what are the suggested strategies to help students’ process
information. Moreover, it explains what are the implications of cognitive theories on teaching and
learning.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Analyze research findings to explain cognitive and metacognitive factors in learning.
3. Content Focus

Introduction
In the previous chapter, you learned the concepts related to cognition and metacognition and the differences
between these two abilities. You have also learned strategies and methodologies in teaching that will help students
develop their metacognitive abilities to become self-regulated learners.
In this chapter, you will learn about other factors of learning which you should be able to relate with the
concepts that you have learned previously. This chapter also gives you ideas on the ground in terms of a variety of
techniques and methodologies that develop students' cognitive and metacognitive faculties.
The learning expected of you after going through this chapter is mentioned in the ILO below.
 ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: FACTORS IN LEARNING RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION AND
METACOGNITION
1. Intelligence
Sternberg's "triarchic theory of intelligence asserts that the "metacomponents in his theory are the executive processes
that control other cognitive components as well as receive feedback from these components. The other two components
are practical and experiential intelligence. These executive processes involve planning, evaluating and monitoring
problem-solving activities. Sternberg further asserts that the ability to appropriately allocate cognitive resources such as
deciding how and when a given task should be accomplished is basic to intelligence.
2. Age
This is associated with stages of cognitive development. Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development asserts that
cognitive abilities for abstract thinking are higher during the formal operations period. In a foreign language study
determining the relationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies, age and level of education, Khezrlou (2012)
found that a moderate and positive but significant correlation was observed between metacognitive strategies and adult
learners' scores in the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
3. Level of Education
In the study conducted by Khezrlou (2012), there were differences in types of strategies according to level of education.
The university students employed more strategies in their reading of passages than the senior high school students.
4. Use of Cognitive Strategies for Instruction
There are specific strategies which when used will improve cognition and metacognition. Those with greater
metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their cognitive endeavors. However, individuals can learn how to
better regulate their cognitive activities. Cognitive strategy instruction is an instructional approach that emphasizes the
development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance learning, CSI assumes that there are identifiable
cognitive strategies previously believed to be utilized by the best and the brightest students, and which can be taught to
students. Using these strategies is associated with successful learning.
Other factors are study and practice, guidance or cognitive apprenticeship and experience.
Suggested Strategies to Help Students Process Information
1. Provide organized instruction. Make structure and relations of the material evident to learners thru concept maps
or other graphic representations. This is especially important when introducing a new topic or subject matter.
2. Use single coherent representations. Allows the learner to focus attention rather than split attention between two
stimuli, as for example the written material and the corresponding diagram.
3. Link new material with what is already known. Use mental scaffolding techniques for the new material.
4. Carefully analyze the attention demands of instruction. Count the number of elements in instructional messages.
Make sure the learner will not attend to too many different elements at the same time.
5. Recognize the limits of attention. Help learners focus their attention through the techniques such as identifying
the most important points to be learned in advance of studying new material. Also, separating the essential from the non-
essentials.
6. Recognize the limitations of short-term memory. Apply the concept of chunking. For example, do not present 25
separate items. Make them five groups of 5.
7. Match encoding strategies with the material to the learned. Do not encourage use of mnemonics unless it is very
necessary to memorize the material.

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8. Provide opportunities for both verbal and imaginal encoding.
9. Arrange a variety of practice opportunities. The goal is to help the learner generalize the concept, principle or
skill to be learned so that it could be applied outside of the original context of which it was taught.
10. Eliminate redundancy. Redundant information between text and diagram has been shown to decrease learning
11. Help learners become "self-regulated." Assist students in selecting and using strategies such as summarizing and
questioning
LEARNING POINT: IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
It is important for teachers to develop to the highest possible limit the cognitive and metacognitive abilities of students.
This could be best achieved by applying classroom techniques toward this objective
Basic Characteristics of a Classroom Instruction Based on Cognitive Theories
a. Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process (learner control).
b. Metacognitive training (self-planning, monitoring and revising techniques)
c. Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships (cognitive task analysis
procedures)
d. Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing (outlining,
summaries, advanced organizers)
e. Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections with previously
learned materials.
Teaching Methods Based on Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Cognitive Apprenticeship. A method of helping students grasps concepts and procedures under the guidance of
teacher or expert. Following are the phases off instruction.
a. Modeling. The teacher does the task or explains the process.
b. Coaching. The students do the same task and teacher observes the students, give feedback on how to do it.
c. Articulation. Students are asked to think out loud about how they performed the task and offers reasons for the
strategies. Teachers can give feedback and determines if there are misconception
d. Reflection. Students retrospectively think of their performance in completing the task.
e. Exploration. Teacher urges the students to identify the problem, formulate hypothesis and seek needed
information to solve it.
2. Reciprocal Teaching. An instructional activity in the form of dialogue or exchange between teachers and
students about certain parts of the lesson. The purpose is to derive meaning out of that part of the lesson to facilitate
understanding and learning. Four strategies to the dialogue include, summarizing, question-generating, clarifying and
predicting.
3. Anchored Instruction. Involves the use of anchors while doing instruction, like stories, cases or situations. It is
essentially problem-based.
4. Inquiry Learning. Resembles the scientific inquiry method. Helps the students develop their higher order
thinking skills by engaging them in investigating an issue or formulating hypothesis to find solutions to a problem.
5. Discovery Learning. An approach where students interact with their environment, manipulate things, explore, do
experiments for them to discover principles and important relationships.
6. Problem-based Learning. A real-life problem, or an ill-structured question is presented to the students, having
many possible solutions, and they are asked to find or come up with the most appropriate or best solution.

Copy this activity and answer in a short bond paper then pass it to your teacher.

4. Take Action (Module 15)

4.1.
Name: ____________________________________________ Score:__________________
Subject:_________________________ Course &Year:____________________________ Date:_________________

Answer the following questions in a minimum of 10 sentences.

1. Piaget's theory of intellectual development contends that cognitive skills grow and develop with age. Therefore
it is expected that concrete thinking characterizes early stages of development; while abstract thinking is associated with
later stage of development. What is the implication of this theory to the development of cognitive skills of students?
2. In a study by Khezrlou, he found that university students employed more strategies in reading than secondary
school students. From this finding, what do you draw to be the factor/s related to cognitive and metacognitive ability?

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