BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Art & Culture

BY – VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Concept based (Facts)

Social/ Cultural/Economic life based

Dimensions
in which Dynasties based

UPSC asks Ruler based

the
Temporal basis/ Ancient Vs Modern / Evolution
questions: of Art
Connection to other topics
Concept Pala period is the most significant
Based
phase in the history of Buddhism
in India. Enumerate. (2020)

Safeguarding Indian art heritage is

the need of the moment. (2018)

Buddhist Stupa art & Buddhist

Ideology (2016)
 Social/ Cultural/Economic life based --> Vedic religion & society + Today’s society (2023)

Dynasties based --> Chola + Temple Architecture (2013); Gupta + Chola to Indian heritage & culture
(2022)

Ruler Based --> KD Raya + Literature (2016)

Comparison/Temporal basis/ Ancient Vs Modern / Evolution of Art / Architecture / Literature --> IVC
inputs in modern Urbanisation (2014) ; Vedic religion & society + Today’s society (2023)
 Art
PYQ Analysis Probable Topics
Concept based (Facts) Tandava dance (2013) Dances
Buddhist stupa art + - Folk Vs Classical
Buddhist ideology (2016) - Traditional Vs Modern
- Reference of dance (architecture,
literature, paintings)
- Foreign & religious influences on Indian
dances.
Art & Information
- Paintings & information (stone age,
buddhism, Jainism)
Music
- Classical Vs Folk
- Traditional Vs modern Music
- Source of info on socio-economic
aspects of society.
 PYQ Analysis Probable Topics
Social/ Cultural/Economic life - Pottery & paintings
based informing on SCE
Dynasties + Art Gupta + Coins (2017) - Gupta period + golden age
Gandhara Art + Greco-roman - Foreign influences on art
(2019) (paintings/music/sculpting)
& culture
Rulers + Art
Temporal basis/ Ancient Vs Safeguarding Art & Heritage - Art/Heritage/Culture 
Modern / Evolution of Art (2018) challenges/ significance/
government steps in
preservation & promotion/
way forward.
Connection to other topics Indian philosophy + Art (2020) Indian philosophy
- Orthodox Vs heterodox
- How it provides info on SPEC
(Soc/Pol/Eco/Cultural)
 Architecture & Sculpture
PYQ Analysis Probable Topics
Concept based (Facts) Mesolithic rockcut architecture - Stone age socio-cultural &
+ Cultural life (2015) religious life Vs Modern
- Stone age paintings – source
of info of socio-cultural
traditions.
Social/ Cultural/Economic life -Comparing Ancient India with - Comparing ancient Indian
based Egypt, Meso & Greece (2015) architectures Vs foreign
-Vedic religion & society + architectures.
Today’s society (2023) - Shramanic traditions
evolution (reasons for the
evolution) Vs Vedic
- ancient Buddhism & Jainism
Vs Modern Budd & Jain.
- Vedic Gender & Education
Vs Modern
Dynasties + -Chola + Temple Architecture - Chola  Literature/ Sculptural
Architecture (2013) traditions/ socio-religious traditions/
-Romans & Greeks + constructions and it as source of
Gandhara Sculpture (2014) info.
-Gupta + Chola to indian - Temple arch – South Indian arch &
heritage & culture (2022) Dynasties etc.
- Comparing post Mauryan sculptural
traditions.
- Sculptural traditions & socio-cultural
life.
- Heritage & culture & UNESCO/ its
preservation in modern times/
Ancient & medieval India H&C.

Rulers + Architecture - Ashoka/ South Indian rulers/

medieval India rulers.
- Ruler & Religious / Educational
architectures.
Comparison/Temp -IVC inputs in modern - Continuation of arch. Traditions of Ancient &
oral basis/ Ancient Urbanisation (2014) Medieval in Modern times.
Vs Modern / -Rock cut archi + Early - Various Sources of info of early Indian art &
Evolution Indian art & history history.
of Architecture (2020) Architecture:
- Distinguish Pre-Independence arch. Vs Post
independence arch (modern India)
- Preservation of Arch in Ancient/ Medieval &
modern India
- Sustainable Arch. Tradition of Ancient/medieval
 adopted in modern times.
- Evolution of decorations on architecture.

Connection to - Architecture & Geography – different regions

other topics different arch. Styles and use of materials.
 Literature & Culture
PYQ Analysis Probable Topics
Social/ Cultural/Economic life Sangam Literature (2013)
based

Dynasties + Literature Pala + Buddhism (2020)

Personalities/Rulers + KD Raya + Literature (2016) - Bhakti & sufi

literature Arab + Chinese traveller
accounts (2018)
- Bhakti movement +
Personality (2018)
Types of literature / Concepts - Persian literary sources (2020) - Religious literatures
of literature (Factual) -Technological changes & - Language literatures
sultanate + Influence in society - Secular literatures
(2023) - Scientific literatures
-Bhakti literature (2021) - Foreign literature

Temporal basis/ Ancient Vs - Literature informing about

Modern / Evolution of Art National movement &
modern India.

Connection to other topics Geographical factors in

development of ancient India
(2023).
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Most Probable Questions:-

- IVC:
o The harappans were excellent artisans & craftsman. Examine the statement with suitable examples and comment on the
traditions that are followed in modern times.
- Vedic age:-
o Vedic architecture can be said to be the foundation of ancient Indian architecture. Elaborate on how the vedic architecture
acts as a source of information about vedic times.
o Examine the vedic society with respect to modern society with special reference to women, education and cultural systems.
o The ancient Indian philosophy can act as a panacea to the modern day societal ills. Critically examine.
- Mauryan Art & Architecture:
o The Mauryan A&A were greatly influence from the Aechmenid Empire, most importantly pillar. However the pillars also had
its own set of differences with aechmenidians.
- Buddhist/Jain Architecture
o Elaborate on the evolution of buddhist stupa and provide a description of how various parts of the stupa architecture is
associated with buddhism
o Discuss on how various ideas of buddhist/ Jain philosophy can be to adopted to solve the issues of modern day world.
o The ancient Indian buddhist educational architectures were massive in size and were artistic. Give special emphasis to
Nalanda university.
o The buddhist architecture provides a noteworthy information about the monks lifestyle. Elaborate.
o Early Buddhist stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals . elucidate.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
- Post Mauryan
o Discuss the post Mauryan sculptural art and comment on how it acts as a source of information about the society
and culture of that times.
o Examine how the rock cut architecture is a source of information about the ancient art & culture.
o Sculptural art is a source of information about the socio cultural aspect of ancient India. Examine the changes in
sculptural artforms in modern times as compared to ancient India.
- South India:
o The chola rule of south India can be considered to be the golden rule. Comment your views.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
- Miscellaneous:
o What were the various types of temple architectures of ancient India? Discuss the significance of temples in
India?
o Compare ancient Indian architecture and sculpture with that of it foreign counterparts.
o Adoptions of ancient and medieval Indian architecture features in modern times.
o Discuss how the decorations in ancient and medieval Indian architecture acts as a source of information about
those times.
o Distinguish the pre-independence and post independence architecture.
o Sustainable architecture is the norm of modern day architectural ethos. Comment with respect to sustainable
architectural practices present in ancient and medieval India that can be used today.
o Discuss how architecture was preserved in ancient times and which one can be adopted for preservation in
modern times.
o The diversified Indian art is a tale of evolution with a major influence from the Geographical aspect.
Comment.
o Temple architecture in India has been greatly influenced from the socio-cultural, economic and geographic
aspects prevailing in the Indian subcontinent. Discuss.
o India’s Performing arts play an important role in furthering the philosophy of vasudhaiva kutumbakam by
integrating the people at global level.
o Discuss the socio-economic and political impacts of bhakti and Sufi movement in the Indian subcontinent
after its emergence.
Evolution of Indian
Architecture:
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 “India is a geographical and economic entity,
a cultural unity amidst diversity, a bundle of
contradictions held together by strong but
invisible threads”. (The discovery of India –
by J.Nehru).
Indian Architecture Definition:-
 The story of Indian art and architecture is a
Introduction story of evolution. This can be understood
from the art and architecture that has
prevailed in the Indian subcontinent from
ancient times till modern. They depict the
stories about the life that has prevailed in
various intervals of time in the area.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Pre-historic culture:-
Stone Age Culture:-

Religious life of Paleolithic,

Cultural life:- Architecture:
Mesolithic and Neolithic ages.
• During L & M paleolithic there • It is depicted through the art of • Paleolithic period:
was little idea of religion in any the paintings that were conducted • Dint have any architectural
form. during this period. (Paintings form.
• The religious life generally section). • Mesolithic:
commenced during UPA. This • Constructed houses with the
was indicated by the use of burial use of Bamboos and grasses.
practice.
• Neolithic:
• The dead bodies were no
• Constructed houses near river
longer thrown away . they
banks mostly.
began to be buried under the
grave. • Material used was sun dried
bricks.
• Earliest graves – Kurnool (AP)
• Throughout the stone age, burials
are the only evidence of religion.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Their Cultural life:
They were religious people who venerated a
number of entities life animals and Mother
goddess. This can be understood from the
number of archaeological evidences of
terracotta that has been found.
 Art:
Chalcolithic They made Pottery (Black and red ware
pottery).
Age: oWheel based pottery.
oDifferent designs – lines on these pottery
indicate that they were artistic people and
looked at the aspect of beauty.
It can be interpreted that Art & craft prevailed
because of the excavations of Ornaments made
of beads, copper, carnelian and terracotta’s.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

• They lived near the rivers.

Architecture • Constructed houses with mud
bricks. They were not associated
of with the idea of Burnt Mud Bricks
Chalcolithic: which prevailed during the
Harappan Civilisation period.

How can the • The chalcolithic people lacked in:

chalcolithic • Knowledge of art of writings.
people be • Strong metal like bronze.
distinguished • Could not develop an urban
from culture.
Harappans? • The knowledge of burnt bricks.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Vedic Art & Architecture:-

∙ The Vedic Aryans did not settle into the well-
planned cities like those of the Harappan
civilisation, and instead preferred to clear
forests around the riverbanks.
• Reasons:
1) Pastrol nature.
2) The Architecture (IVC) they found in the
Indian subcontinent would have been alien
to them.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Characteristics:
∙ No architectural examples of this period are surviving. The Aryans built no
colossal monuments.
∙ So what is the importance of this period?
∙ But if there are no remaining specimens, what are the sources through which we
glean knowledge about the architecture?
Ancient texts like  vedas, Great epics like Mahabharata & Ramayana.
The stupas of Barhut and sanchi depict an Aryan village.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
∙ The Aryan hut, in its most basic shape, was
circular in plan, with a thatched roof ovér a
bamboo network of ribs.
1. This was later elongated to become
rectangular in plan, with roofing of
bamboo as well, only this time curved
Their in the shape of a barrel.

Architecture: ∙ For protection against wild animals, a

palisade fence of wood and bamboo
surrounded the whole settlement.
∙ In later ages timber construction
techniques were employed even though
the material of construction was radically
different ie. stone.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
oIn general, the cities of the Vedic period were rectangular in plan and divided
into four quarters by two main thoroughfares intersecting-at-right angles, each
feeding to a city gate.
One of these quarters contained the citadel
Second housed the residential area.
third quarter was reserved for the merchants
last for tradesmen who could display their wares.
oFrom these modest beginnings, early brahmanical architecture gradually
metamorphosed into the magnificent Buddhist stupas and the rock-cut caves at
Ajanta.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Considered that foundations for Indian art & architecture
were laid during this age.
o It has been argued that, Mauryan art can be said to be
evolved:
Initial:
 Continuation of pre-mauryan tradition (ex –
representation of vedic dieties i.e reliefs of Surya & Indra
at the Bhaja caves)
Mauryan Art & Later :
 The court art of Ashoka i.e monolithic columns on which
Architecture:- his edicts are inscribed.
Further:
 Promotion of brick & stone architecture
 Ex –
oOriginal stupa at sanchi
oSmall monolithic rail at sanchi
oLomas rishi cave (barabar hills) with its ornamented
façade, reproducing the forms of wooden structure.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Features:-
They are all monumental in conception & design, and, orderly,
thorough and precise in execution.
Architectural features:
Done in Hard Grey sandstone of more or less big dimensions.
Very finely chiseled
High polished to a glossiness (similar – iran)
Discarded Wood & Bamboo and Employed Stone in sculpture &
architecture. BUT, wood NOT discarded wholly till some time (ex –
lomas rishi cave)
Art of stone cutting & carving promoted.
Huge resources of state helped artists to do it on large scale.
 Palaces

pillars
Court Art
(court
initiative)
Mauryan art stupas

individual
initiative caves

pottery

sculptors
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Mauryan Palaces :-
Inspired from Achaemenid Palaces (Iran)

Principle material – wood

Palace walls were decorated with carvings and sculptors.

Chandragupta Maurya’s palace:

• Apparently made of wood at patliputra.
• Megastheses  says it as a wooden palace.
Ashoka:
• Appears that Palace was destroyed by fire, so he built it of STONE at the same site.
• Here, one 80 pillared hall is of great significance at Kumrahar (patliputra / patna)
• His palace was smooth, polished and there was usage of Chunnar Sandstone.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
When the Maurya's were ruling in India , Achaemenians were ruling
in Persia. Both the dynasties were known for making pillars.

Shape of pillars:
• Crowning animal
• Abacus

Mauryan • Capital
• Monolithic shaft

Pillars :- Features:
• The Ashokan pillars are quite similar to each other in form and dimensions.
• They are made of sandstone quarried at Chunar.
• They are considered to be monoliths, i.e., carved out of a single piece of stone.
• The pillars have a lustrous, polished surface.
• A cylindrical bolt joins the top of the shaft to the ‘capital’—a stone carved in the shape of
an inverted lotus (often referred to as the ‘bell capital’).
• On top of this is the abacus (platform) which supports the crowning animal or animals.
• The abacus is square and plain in earlier pillars, and circular and carved in later ones.
• All parts of the pillars are carved in the round, i.e., on all sides, and were clearly meant
to be viewed from all around.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Difference between Ashokan & Achaemenid
pillars o Basis o Ashokan o Achaeme
pillars nid pillars
Mauryan pillars reached to a o Composit o Shaft – o Made up
height of 12–14 m. (Maurya's ion monolithi of various
avg height – 40-45 ft total ) c i.e single pieces of
piece of sandstone
Achaemenians Avg height – sandstone cemented
15ft (chunnar together
Common factor was that sandstone)

Both of them were Highly o Location o Independ o Generally

ently attached
polished. erected to state
buildings.
- Also used for
decorative
purposes
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Before Kalinga war phase:-

• it was erected for celebrating the victory.

• Were used for – serving Imperial Sermons, orders
or commands.
• 40-50ft height bcz – people from far distance can
see and come near to the pillar were a rock
engraving was kept furnishing details about
Purpose of Mauryan sermons, and what the dynasty expects from the
pillars :- 2 phases . citizens – taxes , behaviours etc.

Post Kalinga war phase :-

• It was meant for spreading the message of

Dhamma (doctrine of Buddhism).
• To celebrate important life events of Buddha.
Pillars installed at locations associated with
Buddha.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Various Pillars:
sarnath pillar – Crowning Animal – 4
back to back lions.
 In this pillar’s abacus 4 animals
depicted representing 4 directions
West - A galloping horse (Kanthaka)
North - Lion (shows attainment of
enlightenment)
East - Bull (depicts zodiac sign of
taurus, the birth month of buddha)
South - Elephant (depicts the
dream of queen Maya, a white
elephant entering her womb)
∙ State Emblem.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

o Lauria Nandgarh pillar –

Bihar (champaran) –
crowning animal – single
animal i.e Lion
o Rampurva pillar – Bihar –
Bull
o Sankisa Pillar – UP –
Elephant.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Stupa:-
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Stupa:-
Means heap of sand.
This word has been originated from the Sanskrit word ‘stupah’ and Prakrit word ‘thup’ which means to
accumulate or to hoard. Thus, the huge mound of mud was termed as stupa.
However, the Pali word ‘thupa’ is quite similar to the term ‘Stupa’. Thupa means a conical heap, a pile or a
mound or a conical or bell-shaped shrine containing a relic
o Reference of “stupa” occurs in several ancient scripts.
 Rigveda - Stupa raised by the King Varuna above the forest in a place having no foundation
(Rigveda; verse 28).

• The Mahaparinibbana Sutta tells us that eight stupas were built over the cremated remains of
the Buddha and other stupas over the cremation vessel.
Original 8
Khushinagar ; Vaishali; Alakappa; Ramagrama; Vethapida; Rajgriha; Pava;
Kapilavastu;
• Others:
Pippalavina (this contained the wood ashes from the cremation pyre; other 8 had
original remains) (by the moriyas)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Stupa is a closed structure and one cannot enter inside the Medhi (permanently closed).
 People worship, pray, meditate etc from the pradikshana patha.
Core – made of Unburnt bricks
Outer surface – burnt bricks covered by thick layers of plaster.
 Symbolic meaning :-
Yasti- Axis of earth
Chattris : 3 jewels of buddhism
oBuddha – the awakened one
oDhamma – Doctrine of buddhism
oSangha – order of buddhism.
4 Toranas :-
oEast torana – birth (Lumbini)
oSouth torana– Nirvana (Bodhgaya)
oWest torana – dharmachakraparivartan (sarnath)
oNorth torana – Mahaparinirvana (kusinagar)
Vedika – boundary wall –
oon them various Jataka stories or Jataka-katha were engraved.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Types of Stupas
 According to A. Cunningham, Maisey and Foucher the Stupas can be classified into five
categories
 5.1. Relic stupas
 Relic stupas are those in which the relics of Buddha and other religious persons are
buried. - SANCHI.
o 5.2. Object stupas
 Object stupas are those in which the objects belonging to the Buddha or his disciples are
buried. - VAISHALI .
o 5.3. Commemorative stupas
 Commemorative stupas are those which are built to commemorate events in the life of
Buddha and his disciples. - ANURADHAPURA
o 5.4. Symbolic stupas
 Symbolic stupas are those which are built to symbolize various aspects of Buddhist
theology. - LEH
o 5.5. Votive stupas
∙ Votive stupas are constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual benefits. can be
made from metal, stone, glass, etc
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Mauryan caves :-
Reticular fabric (jaaliwork) -
o The Maurya period saw the beginning of rock-cut architecture. perforated
o The Barabar and Nagarjuni hills (north of Bodh Gaya) contain
several caves that were inhabited by ascetics in ancient times.
Three caves in the Barabar hills have dedicative inscriptions of
Ashoka &
Three in the Nagarjuni hills have inscriptions of his son
Dasharatha.
The caves are simple in plan, with plain but highly polished
interiors.
o Lomas Rishi caves:
The doorway is modelled after wooden ones.
Semi circular
Historians call the art at the entrance, chaitya or gavaksha façade
arch with a carved finial, in which are two bands of relief
carving.
The upper one has a latticework design;
 The lower one has a finely carved frieze showing elephants
approaching stupas.
 At both ends of the frieze is a makara (a mythical crocodile).
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

o The Mauryan caves were highly polished

from inside and a very beautiful semi-
circular façade shape was created on
the entrance.
Features of o Emergence of Rock-Cut cave (viharas)
(chaitya- post Mauryan)
Mauryan o Influence of Wooden architecture 
Lomas Rishi & Sudama Caves.
Caves: o Had highly polished finish of interior
walls & decorative gateways.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Mauryan sculpture :-
Used for Decoration of Stupas (toran &
medhi)

Also carved animal capitals was seen.

Art of Polish in Sculptors & caves reached its

climax.

Sculptors were also a form of religious

expression – Yaksha & Yakshini

It was associated with Proto- Hinduism,

Buddhism and Jainism. o Fig: Image of Yakshi
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Northern black polished ware. (NBPW)
o Use of black print
o Highly lustrous finish
o Used as luxury items.
 It was not very rare, but it was more
EXPENSIVE ware than other type of
Mauryan varieties.
Pottery :-  This ware was largely used for dishes and
small bowls.
 It was the climax of the pottery making
 they used very fine particles of clay and
pottery was created on a fast moving wheel
which resulted into shaped pottery, which
was coloured in black and highly POLISHED.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Increased patronage
Continuation of using
(state + social groups)
stone as a medium for
Art & to art activities made it
widespread all over
creative expression (i.e
art on stone ).
Architecture of india & beyond.

the Post
Mauryan period
:- There emerged various
schools of art. Most of
the art forms were
Increased interactions
inspired by Buddhism
with the Hellenistic
and Jainism and very
world.
few Brahmanical
monuments are to be
found.
Characteristics of P-M. A & Arch. :-BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
oArt associated with religions practiced during the period.
oMaking of images for worships started getting importance
(Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism).
Earlier representations – bodhi tree, stupa, foot prints etc.
oConstructions of stupas, chaityas and viharas became popular during
this period.
oInterminglation of religious artistic representations.
Ex – sanchi & barhut had scenes of buddha’s life + reliefs of Yaksha,
Yakshini, nagas & other deities.
Secular artistic representations.
∙ Foreign influence (gandhara, stupa decoration & enlargement etc).
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Classification of architecture in P-M period:
∙ The architecture of this period can be broadly divided in two categories:
• (i) Residential structures
• {ii} Religious monuments
∙ Residential structures:-
• Milinda Panho describes a city with moats, ramparts, gated houses, towers, well laid-out streets,
markets, parks, lakes and temples.
∙ Religious Monuments:
• Towers, Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas constitute the religious monuments of post-Mauryan period.
• Locations discovered – Indian Sub-Continent (Afghanistan till Orissa, western deccan).
• A shrine is basically a demarcated sacred space within which worship or veneration takes place.
• The earliest shrines in the subcontinent simply consisted of a fenced-in space or tree.
• Some of them were associated with the worship of yakshas and yakshis, and nagas and nagis.
• The Buddhist Mahaparinibbana Sutta refers to many chetiyas (chaityas) or shrines in the city of
Vaishali.
• During c. 200 BCE–300 CE, Most of the surviving sculpture and architecture of these centuries is in
fact religious in nature.
Temple structures: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
• For this period, we have very insufficient data on temple structures from excavations.
• The earliest known temples for this period are:
• The temple at Jhandial (Taxila)
• The Sankarshana temple at Nagari (Rajasthan)
• The temple at Besnagar {Madhya Pradesh)
• An apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh)
Caves:-
• Two distinct phases of Cave architectural activity—
• the first one belonging to c. 100 BCE–20 BCE
• sites: Bhaja, Ajanta, Nashik, Bedsa etc.
• the second one to c. 50–200 CE.
• Sites: Karle, Kanheri etc
• Cave architecture can be traced back to mauryans (lomas Rishi & Sudama caves in Barabar hills).
• Vihara Architecture:-
• The early viharas in the Western Ghats were simple, and usually consisted of cells arranged
around a central hall with an open verandah in front. A few were two-storeyed. Inside the
monastic cell, there was a rock-cut bed and sometimes a rock-cut pillow. Monks may have placed
a lamp in the small wall niches. A few caves give evidence of relief carving.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Caves on basis of purpose :-
∙ Vihara :-
• Viharas/monasteries were used by both Buddhists and Jaina’s for the use of monks.
• In the earlier examples of the western Indian caves the plan is irregular. In the latter ones a
regular plan was adopted.
• General Features:
• They have a square or oblong hall in the centre.
• The hall is preceded in front by a pillared veranda.
• A number of small square cells are provided.
• The cells and halls are usually provided with raised benches for the use of monks.
∙ The earliest of the Buddhist Viharas of western India are those at such sites as Bhaja, Bedsa,
Ajanta, Pitalkora, Nasik and Karle.
• Among the Jaina Viharas, those at Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Orissa)
∙ Chaitya:- BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
• It is a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the
center.
• General Features:
∙ They have a long rectangular hall ending in a
semi-circle at the rear end.
∙ This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an
apse and two side aisles.
∙ The aisles are separated from the nave by two
rows of pillars.
∙ The pillars come round the votive Stupa placed in
the Centre of the apsidal part of the hall
∙ The doorway is usually placed facing the votive
Stupa
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Became larger & more decorative
o Stone increasingly used. (prior – wood &
brick)
o Idea of beautifully decorated gateway,
intricately carved & larger --> Torans
done by the sungas
 Also made torans intricately carved
Stupa :- had an Hellenistic influence.
o Meaning of stupa parts:
 Harmika – Abode of the gods (here
the urn containing the remains of
buddha was kept)
 Yasti – axial tilt
 3 small umbrellas on the yasti
(chhatris) represents/symbolises:
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Post Mauryan stupa:
∙ Initially ONLY buddha relics, But now, relics of the Buddha’s disciples and companions were
similarly enshrined in stupa.
∙ Worship was soon transferred from the relics to the stupa itself.
• During c. 200 BCE–300 CE, stupas —with or without relics—became an important part of
Buddhist monasteries.
∙ The stupa-monastery complexes were located close to urban centres and along major trade and
pilgrimage routes.
• Ex –
• Mrigadava outside Kashi,
• Dharmarajika stupa outside Taxila
• Sanchi outside Vidisha
• Amaravati outside Dharanikota (the Satavahana capital)
• Nagarjunakonda outside Vijayapuri (the Ikshvaku capital).
Added features: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 In the 2nd century BCE, this stupa was encased in stone, using dark purple-grey sandstone which was available
locally.
 Many other stupas, shrines, and monasteries were built over the next few centuries.
 The stupas had a stone circumambulatory path (pradakshina-patha)
 two flights of stairs (sopanas) at the base;
 stone railings (vedikas) at the ground
 berm (the ledge located between the base and the dome) and summit level;
 and a stone umbrella (chhatra) on the summit
 Sculptural decoration—if any—was reserved for the railings and gateways.
 Traces of plaster and red paint at a few places.
 Manushi buddha
 Bcz 4th Buddhist council – Mahayana Buddhism – and Medhi was a closed structure so an image (idol
worship) was placed out the medhi inside the premises.
 Vedika (boundary wall)
 During Ashoka times, Vedika had wooden influence, whereas here, Stone influence increased.
 lower Pradikshnapatha & Upper Pradikshanapatha and Stairs.
 Chattris number increased
BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Gupta Period :-
 Gupta period is considered as Golden age of Indian art & Architecture. It was during this period
that there was an unprecedented artistic activity all over India.
o Mathura, Banaras & Patna were the centers of artistic activity during this period.
 There was holistic development in many fields for ex- Astrology, astronomy, Medicine, surgery,
metallurgy, mathematics, Sanskrit literature and temple architecture.
o Not only temples were created but also Manuscripts were written regarding How to
construct a temple.
 Scholars are of the opinion that the Gupta art represents ancient Indian art at its best.
 Gupta art did wonders both at home and abroad.
o Fresco paintings were particularly taken to Central Asia and China during Gupta period.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Features/characteristics of Gupta art:
o We find both refinement and restraint in that art.
o The Gupta artists relied more on elegance than on volume.
o Their art shows simplicity of expression and spiritual purpose.
o The Gupta artists seem to have been the masters of technique.
o The Gupta art is famous for Rupam or concept of beauty.
o The Gupta artists applied themselves to the worship of beautiful form in many ways.
They worshipped art in order to awaken a new sense of spiritual joy and nobility.
We find in Gupta art a profound religious and spiritual appeal.
o The painted forms of gods, sages, kings, queens and their attendants in the Ajanta caves give an
idea of good and evil.

Various Developments during the Gupta period:

• Temple architecture Development
• Cave architecture and paintings development.
• Sculpture art development.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Cave architecture during Gupta period :-
 During this period, architectural development of caves remained
nearly constant, but some finest developments were seen and caves
were created.
 The cave architecture of this period is almost entirely Buddhist.
There are, however, a few exceptions
o Brahmanical caves:
 The Brahmanical cave at Udayagiri has an inscription
belonging to the reign of Chandragupta II.
 Elephanta caves, the largest one of which, dedicated to
Shiva.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Some prominent caves during Gupta period.
o Ajanta Caves (Aurangabad district, MH)
 Rock-cut caves at Sahyadri hills, overlooking the Waghora river.
 Total 29 caves
 Chaityas – 4 caves
 Vihara – 25 caves
 Developed between – 200 BC to 650 AD.
 Theme – ONLY buddhism.
 5 caves – Hinayana phase
 24 caves – Mahayana phase
 These caves were inscribed by the buddhist monks, under the patronage of the Vakataka king – Harisena being the
most prominent one.
Fa Hien & Hieun Tsang give references to Ajanta caves.
Ajanta caves were created on the Steep side of the hill, that why there was NO scope creating courtyards.
Whereas Ellora caves were created on the slopes that made courtyard making possible.
Ajanta Is a Purely Buddhist Cave.
The speciality of ajanta caves is Fresco Mural Painting based on Buddhism.
Mural :- the painting that is created on the wall is mural paintings
Fresco Mural painting inside Ajanta:-
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Technique of paintng –  Examples –
o Padampani painting – Bodhisattva holding a
Cow dung + rice husk + lotus.
Select a wall for clay + water = applied to
painting  He is also seen as Avalokiteswara i.e the lord
the wall
who looks down with compassion. (as images
show him holding Lotues + looking down).
o Vajrapani – Bodhisattva holding a thunder bolt.
o Maitreya – Future Buddha
o Manjushri – Buddha of wisdom.
o Other paintings where no meaning are attaced:-
Create image & fill Apply Lime plaster  Flying apsara
(chunna) to the wall.  Dying princess (cave 16)
colours
 Ellora Caves : -
BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Aurangabad district of MH.
o Total 34 caves there
 17 – Hinduism
 12- Buddhism
 5 – Jainism
o Developed – 5th to 11th AD.
o Caves were created on the sloping side of the hill that’s why there was scope of creating courtyard.
o Some imp. Caves:
 Cave 12  A group of eight bodhisattvas are sometimes arranged together in a mandala formation.
 Cave 15 – Dashavatar temple
 Cave 16 – kailashanatha temple
 Contains Ravana shaking mount kailash.
 Two famous jain caves:
 Cave 32 – Indra sabha
 Cave 33 – jagannath sabha.
o Though the development of ellora caves started in the Gupta period But it reached its Climax in the Rashtrakuta period.
o The most important feature of Ellora is Cave premise number 16 which is known as Kailashnath Temple.
 A monolithic temple which was created by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna 1 (2nd ruler).
Located on the rocky hillside.
 The superstructure of the temple corresponds to the Dravida style.
 Presence of exceptionally fine sculptures.
 Most Shiva, but also vishnu’s present.
 Fig: Jain tirthankara
Fig: Goddess Ganga
Fig: Ellora: Kailashanatha temple, Ravana lifting mount
kailasha.
  Nashik Caves :- BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Sacred place hinduism – 4 kumbh mela – imp. Trimbak area i.e trimbak hill range – Godavari emergence –
makes it sacred.
o Has a Group of 24 buddhist caves.
o Aka “Pandav leni”
o Developed during 1st AD.
o Initially hinayana influence, later Mahayana.
 Hinayana:
 Buddhist presence indicated through motifs & symbols like throne & footprints.
 Mahayana:
 Idols were placed.
o These caves depict an excellent system of water management , this is indicated through the presence of
water tanks carved out of solid rocks.
o Nashik is a sacred place of Hindus, but the 23 sandstone caves of Nashik are dedicated to Hinayana
Buddhism (it means there would be no idols or sculptors in the caves).

 Stupas:
 There was a decline in the development of the stupas.
 Some exceptions:
o Dhamek stupa at Sarnath.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Sculpture:
 Sculpture developed under Gupta’s.
 Features:
o Buddha’ art/sculpture:
 Nudity, as a rule, was eliminated from the Gupta art (ex- artists draped buddha’s idol to
conceal the charms of the flesh).
 Buddha’s image contained his smile along with his serene contemplative mood.
 Buddha’s image had beautiful curly hair.
 Bands of graceful ornamentation of different kinds are introduced in the halo of the
figure of Buddha.
o Hindu:
 most beautiful Siva & Vishnu images belong to the Gupta period.
 Shiva:
 Worshipped – form of linga – Kushana period.
 Gupta – worshipped - Ekamukhi and Chaturmukhi Siva-Ling.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Gupta artists also created the Ardhanarisvara form.
 Vishnu:
 worship of Vishnu in his various incarnations.
 The great Varaha image at Udayagiri (c. 400 A.D.) has been
rightly regarded as a monument to the genius of the Gupta
sculptors
 They successfully handled the stories of the various
incarnations of Vishni and Siva in a masterly manner.
o Iron pillar (Mehrauli):
 example of Gupta craftsmanship
 total height inclusive of the capital is 23 feet 8 inches.
 entire weight exceeds 6 tons.
 The pillar consists of a square abacus.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Evolution of temple in North :-
o The period c. 300–600 CE represents an important
stage in the history of Indian temple architecture.
o We will discuss it in various stages.
o 1st Stage :-
 Flat roof temples which were Square in Design
were created on the grounded platform.
 The portico was constructed with shallow
pillars and was placed on a low platform.
 The structure was built entirely on low
platforms.
 Shallow pillars were used for increasing
aesthetic (beautiful) of temple.
 These pillars were used for beautification
of the temple and not for supporting the
structure.
 Example – temple number 17 of Sanchi (MP)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o 2nd stage :-
Most of the elements of the older temples
were carried over into this period.
Generally Flat roof
Double Storey Square temple
Now it was created on Upraised platform
(meaning stairs would be there).
Now indepth pillars were used to support the
structure.
Pradakshina patha present.
Ex – Parbati temple (Nachna Kuthara, MP)
o 3rd Stage :- BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 In this stage they continued Upraised platform and Indepth
Pillar approach from the 2nd stage , but, most important
development of this stage was introduction of A Curvilinear
tower known as Shikhara.
 The Panchayatan temple-building style was introduced.
 Along with the main deity's temple, the Panchayatan form
of temple construction included four minor shrines.
oThe main temple was square, but it had a rectangular
shape because of an extended mandap in front of it.
 The secondary shrines were situated on either side of the
mandap, creating a crucified form in the ground layout.
 This stage of Temple gave rise to Nagara style of temple
architecture in North India.
 Ex – Dashavatar temple (Vishnu) (deogarh, Jhansi
 Bhitargaon temple – Kanpur
 Bhitari temple – Ghazipur.
o 4th stage:
BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 This stage's temples were nearly the same,
with the exception that the main shrine
became more rectangular.
 Ter temple at Sholapur (Maharashtra) is an
example

o 5th stage:
 Circular temples with shallow rectangular
projections were established at this time. The
rest of the preceding phase's characteristics
were maintained.
 Maniyar Math in Rajgir is an example.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Nagara style of temple architecture :-
Features :-
o Temple is created on upraised platform known as Jagati.
o The peculiar feature of nagara temple, is presence of Curvilinear tower know as Shikhara.
o Amalak is a horizontal disc above which Finial is placed.
o The chamber is which deity is placed is known as Garbhagriha.
o It had a pillared approach.
o Panchayatan style of temple making
They follow Crucified ground plan.
Generally water tank is NOT created in Nagara temple.
Covered Pradakshina Patha.
The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls or entrances in general.
Early examples :-
oDasavatar temple (Deogarh, Jhansi)
oKashivishwanath (Varanasi)
oThe inside walls were divided into Rathas (triratha, pancharatha & Saptaratha)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Regional Variation in Nagara :- Odisha style:-
o Deul – in start it is straight line then it
become curvy.
o The external walls of the temple is Lavishly
decorated with Intricate carvings.
Interior walls – kept plain.
o Boundary wall is also created in odisha
style (Opposite to nagara).
o The tower on Garbhagriha is known as
Deul, which is almost vertical till it suddenly
starts to curve near the top.
o The prayer hall in Odisha style temple is
known as Jagmohan (nagara – mandap)
o In many of the odisha temples idols are
created from Neem wood.
o Ex – Jagganath temple (puri) (white pagoda)
(Anantvarma choda), Lingaraja temple
(bhubneshwar)
Chandella / Khajuraho style : - BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Popular in Bundelkhand of UP & MP.
o Chandella temples are considered as Climax of Nagara style.
o It is created on relatively very high upraised platform.
o Both the Exterior and Interior walls were Lavishly decorated with Intricate
carvings.
 The theme of sculptors is Erotic inspired from Kamasutra, written by
Vatsyayana.
o The peculiar feature of this style is Presence of Multiple Shikharas which
gives an impression like Mountain range.
 Generally, both the main shrine & the subsidiary shrines had Rekha-
Prasad shikharas.
o All the chambers are connected to each other in East to West direction.
 Stairs were facing in the east direction.
 ** Not only Hindu temples but also Jain temples were created in this
Style. **
o Ex –
Hindu:- Kandariya Mahadev temple (Khajuraho); Laxmana temple (Khajuraho)
Jain:- Parshvanath temple (Khajuraho); Ghainta temple (khajuraho)
Solanki style :- (also known as Maru-Gurjara style) BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Patronage of Solanki kings in North-Western India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan.
o There were no sculptures on the temple walls i.e devoid of any carvings, thus, Garbhagriha is kept
plain.
o Generally, temple is created facing east direction. It is done so because the morning sunlight should
enter inside the garbhagriha.
o The garbhagriha was connected to the mandapa both inside and externally.
o The porticos featured ornate arched entrances known as torans.
o the presence of a step-tank known as Surya Kund beside the temple.
o The steps of the step tank was full of small temples, and there were wooden carvings In these temples.

o The special feature of Solanki is Stepped water tank. On each and every step of tank small replica of
temple is created.
o Not only Hindu but also Jain temples are also created in this style.
o i.e in chandelle & Solanki – both jain and Hindu temples created in such styles.
o Ex –
o Hindu temples:-
 Sun temple (modhera) (water tank there)
 Somnath temple (No water tank as arabian sea is present).
o Jain temples:-
 Dilwara Jain temples(mount abu).
 Many temples of Palitana hills.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Evolution of south Indian Temple architecture:-
∙ 4 stages of evolution.
∙ Began under the pallava rulers, but reached its climax under chola ruler (main line chola).
∙ Initially , rock-cut cave architecture was created but later real structural temples were created.

Mahendravarman stage :- Hill or a

o In this stage, rock-cut cave hillock
architecture was created inside
which the deity was placed. This
structure was known as
Mandapa.
o Here no examples, because it was
refined and brought into 2nd Rock cut cave
stage.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Narsimhavarman stage :-
o In this stage, the rock cut cave architecture
was refined and Chiseled out from outside
to give it a proper shape.
o Intricate sculptures were carved within the
rock-cut temples to decorate it.
o The mandapas were now separated into
different rathas under Narasimhavarman.
o The largest was known as the Dharmaraja
ratha, while the smallest was known as the
Draupadi ratha.
 A successor of the Dharmaraja ratha is
the design of a temple in the Dravidian
style of architecture.
Now these structures came to known as
Ratha temples.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Rajsimhavarman stage :-
o At this stage, real structural temples were
created instead of rock-cut temples (i.e –
pillars, mandap, sanctum, vimana etc)
o Ex –
 Shore temple (Mahabalipuram)

Nandivarman stage :-
o The temples that were constructed were lesser in size.
o it lead to popularization of Dravida style of temple because we
can see that the characteristics were virtually identical to
those seen in temples built in the Dravidian style.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Dravida style :-
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Other temple Architectures :- Vessara temple :-
o This temple architecture began under the o Dravida:-
chalukyas rulers of Karnataka (mid 7th AD)  Design of Vimana
o vesara literally means ‘mule’.  Intricate carvings & sculptures.
o It is also considered as the mixture of Nagara + o Semi-circular halls at rear end of the temple was
Dravida inspired from Buddhist chaityas.
o Hybridised Style – Nagara + Dravida o Ex –
o Emphasized on
 Vimana & Mandapa  Durga temple (aihole)
 Open Ambulatory Passway  Ladkhan temple (aihole )
 Intricate carvings (pillars, doorways, ceilings)  Papanath temple (pattadakal)
o Vessara making dynasties:-
o Nagara:-  Chalukyas of Badami & Kalyani
 Covered ambulatory passageway  Rashtrakutas (750 AD) – Kailashnath temple
 upraised platform  Hoysala dynasty (1050 -1300 AD) – Halebid &
 curvelinear shikhara belur etc.
 square base.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Hoysala temple (Karnataka) :-
oCreated by the Hoysala ruler of Karnataka.
oThe later hoysala temple’s plan is more complex than that of earlier
ones.
oSikharas:
 All the chambers had shikharas.
 The shikhara is of moderate height, and stands stylistically midway
between the Nagara and Dravida temple towers.
oAnother specialty of the hoysala temple is the depiction of Hindu
mythology like Ramayana, Mahabharata, purana etc. on the walls of the
temples.
oEx –
 Channakesava (belur, Karnataka) (another belur in Bengal)
∙ The specialty of the hoysala temple is stellate ground plan (star
shaped ground plan).
∙ It is also noted for intricate carving on exterior and interior walls.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Vijayanagar style :-
o Combination of  Chola + hoysala+ Pandyas+ Chalukyas
o KA, AP,TN and some parts of Kerala.
o Also influenced by – “Indo-Islamic Style of Bijapur”
o Type of dravida with some variations.
o Features:-
 Very high enclosure walls (boundary walls).
 Large gopurams were present on all sides.
 Walls and pillars were adorned with profused Sculptors ornamentation of supernatural
horses were created on enclosure walls. (Yali,unicorn, Pegasus).
 Highly decorated with carvings (temple walls) & geometrical patterns.
 Themes – religious Ramayana, Mahabharata & normal (humans, animals)
 They introduced a separate shrine known as the Amman shrine, it is dedicated to the
chief wife of the main deity.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Mandaps:
oMore than one Mandap (assembly hall) was built.
oThey also created Kalyana Mantapam inside the premise of temples (it is where the union of
god & spouse was done on special occasions)
 Kalyana means Marriage i.e marriage halls were created.
 Thousand pillar mandap became popular. It was a huge hall having numerous rows of pillars.
oOther mandaps – Rangmandap, uttaramandap etc.
 Ex –
oVirupksha temple (pattadakal)
oVeerbhardra temple (lepakshi, AP)
oVittal temple (vijaynagar, KA)
 Finest
 Characteristised by temple chariot
 Amman shrine present
 Kalyan mandap
 3 gopurams
 Musical pillars.
oHazara rama temple (vijaynagar, KA)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Nayaka style
 AKA “Madurai School”
 Flourished – 16th – 18th AD ; Nayaka Rulers.
 Similar to dravida style but much larger in scope.
 Has Islamic Influence.
 Portico Approach & roofed Ambulatory passway.
 Intricate carvings used.
 They also followed the concept of Amman Shrine.
 It is noted for presence of large number of Gopurams. ( Art of gopuram reached climax)
 Another important feature of nayaka temples Is the presence of huge corridors known as
Parakrams.
 Some of the temples also have 1000 pillar halls and musical columns.
a. Musical columns – 7 pillars/columns i.e sa re ga ma pa da ni sa
 Ex –
a. Menakshi temple (Madurai).
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Philosophy :- o Orthodox (theist)
 Samkhya
 Yoga
 Nyaya
 Vaiseshika Believe in Salvation
 Mimansa
 Vedanta

Divided into 2 parts o Heterodox (atheist)

∙ Basis of division:  Buddhism
Concept of God.  Jainism Reject salvation
Concept of salvation.
 Caravaka
Concept of rebirth.  Ajivika
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

∙ Sramana Schools.
• There were many non-brahmanical heretical sects who
held ideals opposite to the orthodox Brahmanical
beliefs.
• There were many such schools and they can be divided
Heterodox into Pre-buddhist and during buddha times.

Philosophy:- • Source of information – Digha Nikaya & Dipavamsa.

• Sramanic preachers:
• Makkali Gosala
• Purana Kassapa
• Ajita Kesakambali
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Carvaka Philosophy :-
o Founder – Carvaka
o it is also known as Lokayata, which means “Worldly”.
 Here this school underlines the importance of intimate contact with the world (loka), and showed a lack
of belief in the other world.

∙ Rise of this school:

During 7th BCE.
o Buddhist scriptures occasionally mention the Charvaka as part of the wandering religious groups known as
sramanas.
 Before the time of the Charvaka school there were other materialistic schools in India, but none of them
managed to systematize their teachings like the Charvaka did.
• A prominent member associated with this school during the time of the Buddha was Ajita Kesakambali. His
ideas are summarized in a Buddhist Pali text known as Samannaphala Sutta.
∙ Their ideals: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
• Accepted sensory perception as the only source of knowledge.
• He accepted the existence/reality of only those things that could be experienced by human senses and
organs.
• Idea that only what is perceptible by the senses is true is the guiding principle behind their philosophy.
• The members of this school did not believe in ideas such as the soul, reincarnation, spirits, or gods.
• Religion, they said, is nothing but a fraud devised by clever men who want to take advantage of others.
• Soul or consciousness can be explained in natural terms as a side effect of having a healthy body:
When the body dies, consciousness simply disappears. No existence other than the physical body
exists for the Charvaka.
• Since there is no soul, there can be no case for liberation.
• The attitude towards human conduct in the Charvaka school was a very flexible one: Right or wrong
were seen as merely human conventions. The cosmos, they believed, was indifferent to human
behaviour.
• Charvakas believe in the present life and their dictum is to live this life fully.
• They promote egoistic hedonism, i.e.- pleasure for one’s own self.
• Of the four purusharthas mentioned in Indian scriptures- dharma, artha, kama and moksha; the
Charvakas have accepted only Kama and Artha.
Ajivikyaa :- BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Founder – Makkhali Ghosala (5th BCE sramanic individual).
 Another sramanic people associated with this school (some contributions) are Purana Kassapa and Pakudha Kachchayana as per
Buddhist texts.
o It was a sramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. This can be understood due to the opposite ideals.
o There are many scattered references to this sect, but we get majority information from the Jaina and Buddhist texts.
o This was called as the Niyati-vada (theory of destiny).
 They belived in niyati, the all-encompassing rule of the principle of order.
 According to them, Niyati controlled everything – all actions, all phenomena.
 So, Human volition has no role and was completely ineffectual.
 Sin and suffering, attributed by other sects to karma.
 Hence, for them strict determinism was the central tenet of Ajivikism.
o It was propounded by Makkali Ghosla.
o He was contemporary of V.Mahavira.
o His theory:
 The theory that Ajivikas believed in, was Fatalism.
 It was around this principle that a new sect developed which consisted of naked wanderers who were
dedicated to asceticism.
 They practised asceticism of the most severe form which often ended in death by starvation.
 It was against the sacrificial rituals of the Brahmanical religion and monistic theories of the Upanishads.
 Hindu, Jain & buddhist gave option of free will. i.e. with free will people can chose which path to follow to attain
moksha.
 This concept rejected by ghosala, because he told it is Niyati that determines and one dosent have free will.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Jain Philosophy:-
o Did not condemn the varna system, as Buddhism did:
 According to Mahavira, a person is born in a high or in a lower varna in
consequence of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the previous birth.
o World not created, maintained and destroyed by a personal God but by a universal
law.
o Mahavira regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various
degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain on the infliction of injuries.
o Believed in karma and the transmigration of soul.
o Salvation can be achieved through:
 Triratna or three jewels are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, which
can lead to liberation.
 Right conduct means observance of panchamahavrata (five great vows):
Buddhist philosophy: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of ‘karma‘.
 They believe in salvation (nirvana) and rebirth.
 Views on soul:
They did NOT believe in the concept of Permanent Soul. But gave the concept of Skanda (Pancha
skanda) (physical + Material).
o Rupa (form), Samjna (Name), Vedana (sentations), Vijnana (consciousness) and Samskara
(Disposition).
o Thus the individual is made up of a combination of these five components, which are never the
same from one moment to the next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux.
 Buddhism does not recognize the existence of god and permanence soul (atman). This can be taken
as a kind of revolution in the history of Indian religions.
 Buddha accept ‘karma’ and ‘transmigration’ but denies the permanence of soul.
 Buddha may be called an agnostic as he neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God.
 He was more concerned about the individual and his actions
 Opposed the varna system and caste
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Orthodox schools:-
∙ There are 6 schools of philosophy that developed. They were also known as the astika
schools.
• Samkhya,
• Yoga,
• Nyaya,
• Vaisheshika,
• Mimamsa (or Purva Mimamsa), and
• Vedanta (or Uttar Mimansa).
∙ The first four of these schools accept the authority of the Vedas, but do not derive their
∙ philosophical principles from the statements of the Vedas.
They are based on the teachings of individual Rishis or sages.
∙ The last two schools, i.e. Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta, however, base their theological
systems specifically on the statements of the Vedas.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Samkhya philosophy :-
o The Sāṁkhya Philosophy is one among the oldest school in India Philosophy. This is so because
the basic tenets of Sāṁkhya can be seen in Nyāya, Vaiśesika, Yoga, Jainism, and Vedānta
o The founder of this philosophy was Kapil Muni. He has written the script ‘Sāṁkhya Sūtra’, this
script known as Samkhya philosophy.
A significant commentary is known as ‘Sāṁkhya Kārika’ by Iśvarakṛsna.
o Samkhya philosophy can be dived into early and later Samkhya philosophy (SP)
As per early SP universe was created due to Prakriti (nature).
 They gave materialistic explanation of Origin of Universe.
Later SP  owed the origin of universe to both Nature & Divine Agency.
 This view became very popular and by the Gupta period it became the essence Samkhya
philosophy
o Samkhya says that attainment of real Knowledge Leads to Salvation.
 It says that valid knowledge cane be attained through
Pratyaksha (perception)
Anumana (inference/assumption)
Shabda (testimony)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Yoga philosophy :-
o Its founder is Patanjali
 He was the head priest of the Sunga family so this philosophy emerged in 2nd BC (185 BC)
o yoga is a spiritual effort to attain perfection through the control of sense organs, gross body, subtle mind, intellect and ego. It guides
to achieve the highest wisdom through spiritual realization.
o This philosophy is mentioned in yogasutra written by Patanjali.
 Patanjali’s ‘Yoga-sutras’ – 1st systematic and authoritative presentations in theoretical and practical aspects of yoga.
 After him, 2 commentries on yoga-sutras:
Vasys’s “Yoga–bhasya” and Vacavpati Mishra’s ‘Tattva-vaisaradi” are the good additions to Yoga philosophy.
o It says that salvation can be attained through the observance of Astanga-yoga which are as follows:-
Yama  do’s
 It is the control of mind, body, and speech.
 five yamas:- Ahimsa; Satya; Asetya; Brahmacharya; aparigraha
Niyama  Don’t’s
 It speaks about the rules for possessing good conduct.
 five niyamas:
oSauch –
 cleanliness (external cleaning (e.g. bath, pure diet, hair cutting and cleaning, nail cutting etc.) and internal cleaning (e.g.
friendliness, empathy, happiness, smile, etc.)
oSantosh:
 satisfy with yourself whatever you attain or posses. In other words, “what you are, you must be happy with that”
 oTapa: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Penance (it e includes the power of tolerance. To  Dharana  selecting an object
tolerate extreme and maximum cold and heat, one  Our mind constantly shifts from one object to
needs to do the hard practices. And, this is possible another. To keep our mind focused in one
through tapa) particular point and tries to check for its frequency
oSwadhyaya: of shifting one object to another is called as
 one needs to study religious scriptures to develop dharana.
his/her spiritual knowledge  helps possess good
conduct.
 Dhyana  concentrating on the object
 the aspirant becomes successful to remain
oIswara Pranidhan:
concentrate on an object in a longer time.
 always remember God is the supreme authority.  This step is known as meditation.
 One should completely surrender himself/herself to him.
Asana  Posture  Samadhi  deep meditation
 various bodily postures  helps to control the body as well  For liberation, follow astanga yoga, to free youself from
as mind karma & wordly attachments.
Pranayama  breathing exercises ‘Liberation’ in the Yoga philosophy is known as “kaivalya”
 to remain concentrate and focused. and the aspirant to attain the liberation is known as ‘kevali’.
Pratyahara  Restraint
 One should try to restrain the sense organs for not clinging
desperately for the objects of the world  help the mind
remain undisturbed from worldly objects.
 It requires strong determination and repression of the
senses.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Nyaya Philosophy :-
o founded by the sage Gotama; . He is known as ‘Aks̩apāda’
o The Nyāya School is a realist school that delves into the study of logic, so seeks for acquiring
knowledge of reality.
o The term ‘Nyāya’ translates into rules of logic or valid reasoning and thus, the work of the
Nyāya School is also known as the Tarkaśāstra (the science of reasoning).
o Nyāya Philosophy is devoted to the study of the criterion of valid knowledge (pramān̩a).
o Its various views:
 View on universe:
 It adheres to atomistic pluralism and logical realism. It is atomistic pluralism on the
account that atom is the constituent of matter and there are not one but many
entities, both material and spiritual, as ultimate constituents of the universe. By
holding pluralism standpoint it refutes materialistic and spiritualistic monism.
It says that the world exists independently from our perceptions and knowledge. Further, the
independent existence of the world can be defended not by our faith or intuition
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 View on Valid knowledge (Pramana):
 It professes that there are four independent Pramān̩as (sources of
valid knowledge).
 These are :-
oPerception
oInference
oComparison
overbal testimony or śabda.
 Divisions & understandings of knowledge :-
 It may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness, or
manifestation of objects.
 Knowledge is subjective and objective.
 Subjective knowledge differs from objective knowledge.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Knowledge may be valid (prama) or invalid (aprama):-
oPrama (valid):-
 valid knowledge is the true and right apprehension of an object. It is the
manifestation of an object AS IT IS.
 Thus, valid knowledge is treated as presentative knowledge.
Presentative knowledge arises when the object of knowledge is directly present to
the knower.
For example, Dr. Biplab perceives a pen in his shirt pocket as an instance of
presentative knowledge.
 Valid knowledge is produced by the four valid sources of knowledge-
Perception
Inference
Comparison
śabda.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Aprama (invalid):
 It is defined as the wrong Nyāya-Vaiśes̩ika apprehension of an object. It
includes memory (smr̩iti):
 Memory is not presentative but representative knowledge.
 doubt (saṁsaya)
 error (viparyaya)
 hypothetical reasoning (tarka).

 4 sources of valid knowledge:-

Perception (pratyaksa):
operception is the direct and immediate cognition produced by the interaction
between the object and sense-organs.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Inference:-
oAka anumana  anu + mana
 The word ‘anu’ stands for ‘after’ and ‘māna’ means ‘cognition’. Hence, ‘anumāna’
(inference) means ‘after cognition’.
 anumāna is such knowledge which follows from other knowledge.
 In an inference, knowledge of an object is derived due to previous knowledge of some
sign or mark.
Ex - individual saw the smoke on a hill form a distant place.
 Upamāna (Comparison):-
The word ‘upa’ means similarity or ‘sādr̩ śya’ and the word ‘māna’ means ‘cognition’.
oUpamāna as a source of knowledge is derived from the similarity between two
things/objects
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Verbal Testimony (Śabda):
‘Śabda’ literally means verbal knowledge.
oIt is the knowledge of objects derived from words or sentences.
oBut all verbal knowledge is not valid.
Śabda is the instructive assertion of a reliable person/ truthful person.
Views on Liberation:-
Nyāyikas believe in law of karma.
Liberation, according to Nyāya, can be achieved when there is cessation
of karmic chain or karmic influx. It is a state where self is detached from
body and sense organs.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 View on god& Universe:-
God is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the universe. He regulates the
earth, solar systems and the movements of planets and becomes identified as an
omnipresent and omniscience being in the cosmos.
God is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the universe. He is the efficient,
but not the material cause of the universe. The material cause of this universe is
the eternal atoms of earth, water, fire, and air.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Vaiseshikha :-
o A sage named ‘Kan̩āda’ is the founder of this school.
 But according to some, its founder is Ulūka/ulooka, therefore it is called
the aulūkya/alookya philosophy.
o The school derives its name from ‘visesa’ which means particularity of
eternal substances.
 There are five eternal substances. These are ether, space, time, soul, and
mind (manas).
 Theory of knowledge:
Nyaya philosophy accepts four pramanas; perception, inference, comparison
and testimony whereas, Vaisesika accepts only two pramanas, perception and
inference (i.e comparison and testimony can be subsumed and reduced into
perception and inference).
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Views on god:-
 They believe in God and says he is the authority of the Veda.
oHence, the Veda is also authoritative because it is the word of God i.e
God has said it.
oGod is the supreme soul, perfect, omniscient, omnipresent and eternal.
 They Believe in law of karma
oThe principle law of karma is guided by God. He imparts motion to the
atoms and leads to creation for the sake of pleasure and pain of the
individual soul.
oHence, god creates motion that the living beings may be rewarded and
punishable according to their past deeds.
 Atoms:
oGod is the guiding principle controlling the motion of atoms.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Universe:
oCreator  God & God creates the universe out of nothing  he is the
designer and architect of the universe.
oCreation and destruction on the wishes of God
Views on liberation:
 believes that human beings are in ‘bondage’ because of their ignorance and
they can be liberated from bondage by using and applying their knowledge.
oHence, bondage is due to ignorance and ‘liberation is due to knowledge.
oBondage and liberation are caused by our actions, & actions are performed
by our soul  then soul judged on basis of good & bad deeds as per the
vedas, since vedas are supreme  fruits/ results based on these actions.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Mimansa :-
o The Mimansa School was founded by Jaimini in 400 B.C (4th AD)
He was the author of ‘Mimansa sutra’.
The commentator works on Mimansa Sutra are primarily of Kumalia Bhatta and
Prabhakara Mishra. They aimed at giving a theistic learning to the Mimansa philosophy.
o word ‘mimansa’ means ‘revered thought’, which is to be applied originally in the
interpretation of the vedic rituals.
Mimansa deals with the initial part of the Veda and is therefore called as Purva-
Mimansa.
The initial part of the Veda concerns on human action, their rituals and the sacrifices. It
is thus known as karmakanda
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
oSources of Valid knowledge:-
 Perception:-
It is a form of knowledge which results from the contact between the object and
the sense-organs. Generally, we believe whatever is perceived by our senses
must be true because in perception, the objects are directly known through our
sense-organs. Thus perception is an immediate knowledge. Example; by seeing
and touching a table one can acquire the knowledge of that table. Perceptual
knowledge is valid only when an object is perceived as it is.
 Inference (Anumana) :-
is a kind of knowledge, which is based on previous cognition. In perception we
have direct knowledge i.e direct presentation of an object before our sense
organs. Therefore, perceptual knowledge is immediate or prataksa.
In anumana, there is no such direct presentation of the object hence called
Mediate knowledge.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Comparison (Upamana):-
knowledge of an object is determined by comparing it form other similar kinds of
objects.
 Verbal Testimony (sabda):-
testimony is a reliable statement uttered by a trust worthy person similar to Nyaya
Philosophy.

∙ Mimansa’s Metaphysics:
Views on Self:
∙ they suggest there are innumerable selves existing in the world. There are infinite and
eternal souls also exist in the world.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
• 2 types of soul
• Liberated soul
• Living soul (living beings of the earth).
• The soul is an eternal and imperishable substance.
• When a living animal dies, it won’t die with it. It continues to live to reap the
fruits of its deeds.
• Hence, karma effects seen.
 They believes in the existence of eternal world i.e heaven, hell etc although these are
not perceivable (i.e through sense organs).
 God & world:
They agreed upon the view that the creation and destruction of the world is based on
our karmas. Hence, they ruled out the existence of God behind the creation of the
world. For them, God is an unseen power who guides/ instructs us to do certain karmas
in certain time/period.
o Views on Liberations:-
BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 They give more importance to the Veda than the God.
 The Vedas prescribe eternal principles to do one’s own duties and possess a
good and healthy life in the cosmic world. God becomes only the name to offer
flower while performing the rituals.
 They consider ‘yajna’ is the highest sacrifice to achieve summum bonum in
one’s life.
 Yajna is not for the worship to Gods or propitiation of Gods but purification of
one’s own soul.
 For them detachment with worldly objects which arouses pain & sufferings is
Liberation (free from birth & death cycle).
 This can be attained only when the self gets emancipation from the bondages of
mind, body, sense organs and objects of the world  that is through yajna.
 In the state of liberation, the self cannot enjoy the experience of pleasure and
pain because it is devoid of consciousness.
 Thus, for Mimansikas, liberation is not a state of bliss. It is a state where the self
achieves its real nature and dissociated from worldly pleasure and pain.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Vedanta philosophy :-
oWhat is Vedanta?
The literal meaning of the term Vedanta is “the end of the Vedas, the
concluding parts of the Vedas, the culmination of the Vedic teaching and
wisdom”.
It is about the various elaborations and interpretations of the
Upanishads.
oUpanishads?
The Upanishads view constitutes the final aim of the vedas/essence of
vedas.
They are not the work of a single author, but the accumulation of the
insights of different men over a long period of time
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Vedanta’s origin associated with Vedanta sutras.
Author – Badarayana.
o(considered contemporary to vyasa as per Indian traditions)
Composed in period – 500 BC to 200 BC.
The author of the Sutra is considerably influenced by the theism of the
Bhagavadgita and the Bhagavatas.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Characteristics of Vedanta:
oAim  an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of the world
as it appears to us in our knowledge.
oVedanta philosophy is based both upon revelation or Sruti as well as thinking,
argument and logical justification.
 Features of Vedanta:-
oBrahman
oAtman:
oBondage & liberation:
oCosmology:
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Sub schools of Vedanta:
 Advaita:
“Advaita” literally means “not two”, and is often called a monistic or non-dualistic
system which essentially refers to the indivisibility of the Self (Atman) from the Whole
(Brahman).
Advaita refers to the recognition that the true Self, Atman, is the same as the highest
Reality, Brahman. Followers seek liberation/release by acquiring knowledge of the
identity of Atman and Brahman. Knowledge of Brahman destroys Maya, the illusory
appearances which cover the Real, Brahman.
The principal exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Adi Shankara in the
8th century, who systematized the works of preceding philosophers.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Adi Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on
ancient Indian texts.
oShankara’s masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally,
commentary on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.
oHis commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads and on the Bhagavad Gita are
also important.
 Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks under four Mathas, with the headquarters at
Dvaraka in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and
Badrikashrama in the North.
 Visishtadvaita: BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
VishishtAdvaita (“Advaita with uniqueness; qualifications”) is a non-dualistic school of
Vedanta philosophy.
oIt is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists, but is
characterized by multiplicity.
oIt can be described as qualified monism or qualified non-dualism or attributive
monism.
It believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity.
oRamanuja, the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy contends that the
Prasthana Traya (“The three courses”), namely the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita,
and the Brahma
Sutras are to be interpreted in a way that shows this unity in diversity.
According to Sankara, whatever is, is Brahman, and Brahman itself is absolutely
omogeneous, so that all difference and plurality must be illusory.
oAccording to Ramanuja also, whatever is, is Brahman; but Brahman is not of a
homogenous nature, but contains within itself elements of plurality owing to which it
truly manifests itself in a diversified world.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 The Brahman of Sankara is in itself impersonal. Ramanuja’s Brahman, on the other
hand, is essentially a Personal God.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Dvaita:
Dvaita, also known as Bhedavada and Tattvavada, is a school of Vedanta founded by
Madhvacharya (1238-1317).
Dvaita stresses a strict distinction between God—the Brahman (Paramatman)—and the
individual souls (jivatman).
According to Madhvacharya, the individual souls of beings are not created by God but
do, nonetheless, depend on Him for their existence.
Dvaita Vedanta, a dualistic understanding of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing
the existence of two separate realities.
The first and the more important reality is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the
supreme Self, God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The
second reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its own
separate essence.
Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul, matter, and
the like exist with their own separate reality.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Bhakti & Sufi Movement:

 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Bhakti Movement:
 The word bhakti is derived from the Sanskrit root “Bhaj” means to serve.
o However it is defined as “devotion” or passionate love for the Divine.
 the word Bhakti is first mentioned in Rig-Veda as worship to Indra and Surya Devata.
o Also finds mention in
 The famous discourse on Bhakti by Narad in Narad Bhakti Sutra.
 Vishnu-sookta.
 Bhakti and Upasana of Vishnu, Shiv, Roodra, Narayan, Surya is also indicated in
Upanishad.
 The great epic Ramayana emphasized Pitra Bhakti and Guru Bhakti.
o Historical & mythological traces:
 In the Katha Upanishad it is said that the divine help, which is the reward to
Bhakti, is necessary before one can be saved.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
The Sveta – Svatara Upanishad speaks of the highest devotion
to God.
Panini refres to the object of devotion in the Astadhyayi.
The earliest God connected with Bhakti is Vishnu – Krishna.
In the Bhagwad Gita there is emphasis on Love and devotion to
God.
The attitude of love to the supreme God continued to be
recommended in the Bhagwat Purana.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Characteristics of Bhakti Movement:
o Moksha or liberation  simple devotion to the divine.
o The main principles of Bhakti movement are:
God is one.
To worship God man should serve humanity
All men are equal
Worshipping God with devotion is better than performing religious ceremonies and
going on pilgrimages
Caste distinctions and superstitious practices are to be given up.
o Characteristics:
belief in One God.
Devotee could worship God by love and devotion.
no need to worship Idols or to perform elaborate rituals (Yjnas, fasts, going to sacred
places, bathing in the Ganges) for seeking gods grace.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Focus - equality of all castes
 irrespective of their religion are equal in the eyes of the God.
 Emphasis on Hindu – Muslim Unity.
 saints laid stress on purity of heart and practice of virtues like Truth, Honesty,
Kindness and Charity.
o Divisions:
 Saguna
 saints who composed verses extolling God with attributes or form
 Nirguna
Those extolling God without and beyond all attributes or form.
o The movement had two main objects in view.
 One was to reform Hindu religion to enable it withstand the onslaught of Islamic
propaganda.
 Second was to bring about a compromise between Hinduism and Islam.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Causes for the birth of Bhakti Movement:
 Origination:
o South India – 7th to 12th AD.
o 2 divisions
 Nayanmars – shiva
 Alwars – Vishnu.
o Imparted message of love & devotion in local languages in all of south India.
o How the saints worked:
 These saints gave their own message.
 They came from all castes and classes.
 They had visited from place to place singing devotional songs.
 They had also preached the Unity of God and brotherhood of man.
 They had stressed tolerance among various religious groups.
 Their preaching was simple.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Bhakti in north India:-
o gained momentum due to the Muslim conquest.
o Hindu traditions evolutions in north India is divided into various periods:
 2500 BC – 400 BC
 400 BC – 600 AD
 Epics period  concerned with heroes and heroic battles, kings, queens and
ideal roles of individuals.
 In this time frame - Law Books concerned with the ideal nature of society were
of importance.
 Varna system dominant
oDwijas/ twice born classes:
 Brahmin priesthood, Kshatriyas (warriors) and Vaishyas (merchants).
 Only they were allowed to take part in Sacred thread ceremony
(initiation ceremony), study the Vedas and take part in Vedic rituals.
oShudras , then the untouchables.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Ashrama system prevalent.
 The way to liberation from rebirth or moksha was in a true understanding
of dharma, recognition and maintenance of the good of the social order, as
exemplified and regulated by the Epics and Law Books.
 Factors for growth of Bhakti in Medival period:- Various.
o persecution of Hindus by the Muslim rulers, who tried to convert them to Islam
and imposed Jaziya. (reactions of Hindus leading to preservation of their religion
through Bhakti Movement)
o the ill-treatment of the lower classes in Hindu society by the upper castes.
o Prevalence of elaborate rituals and rigor in religion.
o the enthusiasm and the inspiration of the Bhakti saints. They tried to remove the
evils of Hindu society and gave it a new vigor and vitality.
 In 8th ad Shankaracharya was born in the state of kerela – philosophy – Advaitvada
 In begning of 12th AD – Ramanujacharya – Visisadvaitvada where he emphasised on
bhakti marg to salvation.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Bhakti saints during Medieval India:-
o Ramanuja :
 Born in the South.
 He considered God as an Ocean of Love and beauty.
 His teachings were based on the Upanishads and Bhagwad Gita.
 Whatever he taught, he had taught in the language of the common man.
 Ramanand was his disciple.
 He took his message to Northern parts of India.
o Ramananda :
 first reformer to preach in Hindi, the main language spoken by the people of the
North. He was educated at Benaras. He preached that there is nothing high or low.
All men are equal in the eyes of God. He was an ardent worshipper of Rama.
 He had twelve chief disciples. One of them was a barber, another was a weaver, the
third one was a cobbler and the other was the famous saint Kabir and the fifth one
was a woman named Padmavathi. He considered God as a loving father. He lived in
the 14th century A.D.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Kabir :
 ardent disciple of Ramananda
 the was the son of a Brahmin widow who had left him near a tank at Varanasi. A
Muslim couple Niru and his wife who were weavers brought up the child. Later
he became a weaver but he was attracted by the teachings of Swami
Ramananda.
 He wanted unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. He preached that both
the Hindus and the Muslims are the children of a single God. He had no faith in
idol worship, religious rituals and ceremonies. He taught that Allah and Eswar,
Ram and Rahim are one and the same. They are present everywhere. The
devotees of Kabir were known as Kabir Panthis. Thousands of people, both
Hindus and Muslims became Kabir’s followers. He probably lived in the fifteenth
century A.D.
o Namdeva : BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 from Maharashtra.
 He was a waterman by birth.
 He composed beautiful hymns in Marathi.
 He worshipped Vishnu in the form of Lord Vithoba.
 Some of his verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
o Guru Nanak. (A.D.1469 -A.D.1538):
 At the age of 29, he left his home and became a Sadhu  He went to Mecca and Medina 
preached his teachings  finally settled at Karthpur.
 His principles:
 laid emphasis on pure and simple living.
 He preached the Unity of God and condemned idolatry.
 He was against the caste system.
 He started the Langer or the common kitchen, where people belonging to all castes or
religions could have their meals together.
 His teachings:
 were in the form of verses.
 collected in a book called the Adi Granth  later written in Gurmukhi script.
 Holy book  granthi sahib
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Chaitanya (A.D.1485 - A.D.1533) :
 from Bengal.
 great devotee of Lord Krishna.
 From childhood great interest in education and studied Sanskrit.
 He married the daughter of a Saintly person. Later at the age of 24, he renounced the
worldly life and became a sanyasin.
 His image:
 addressed `Mahaprabhu’ by his followers.
 His followers regarded him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
 His works & principles:
 opposed to the inequalities of the caste system.
 He emphasized the need for tolerance, humanity and love.
 He spread the message of Bhakti in Bengal.
 He popularised ‘Sankritan’or public singing of God’s name.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Tulsi Das :
 a devotee of Rama.
 story of Rama – ramacharithamanas.
 He was the foremost in popularizing Rama cult.
 His other works in Hindi are Janaki Mangal and Parvathi Mangal.
 In his writings he insists the duty of a son to his parent, duty of a student to his
teacher and duty of a king to his people.
o Guru Ramdas:
 He was a famous teacher. He was born in A.D. 1608. Chatrapati Shivaji, the great
Maratha ruler, was a follower of Ramdas. He stressed upon the equality of all
men before God. He said that anyone could attain God’s favour by means of
Bhakti. Guru Ramdas was not merely a religious preacher but also a Nation
Builder.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Tukaram:
 was a saint who lived in Maharashtra. He composed a large number of verses
called Abhangas or devotional songs in praise of Panduranga or Krishna. He
believed in one God who was kind, merciful and protective. He wrote all his
abhangas in Marathi.
o Jnaneshwar:
 He is one of the greatest saints of Maharashtra. He worshipped Vishnu in the
form of Vitshoba or Krishna. At the age of fourteen, he translated the Bhagawad
Gita into the Marathi language. This book is called Jnaneshwari.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN SOUTH India:
o Nayanmars :
 In South India, the Nayanmars and Alwars were the noted saints of the Bhakti
movement.
 The Nayanmars, the devotees of Siva.
 The most famous among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana Sambandar and
Manickavachakar.
 These saints composed many verses in praise of Lord Siva.
 A saint named Nambiandar Nambi collected the devotional songs of Nayanmars.
o Alwars :
 The Alwars were the worshippers of Lord Vishnu. Among them Nammalwar,
Tirumangai Alwar, Andal and Perialwar were famous.
 The songs of the Alwars were compiled in a book called Nalayira Divya Prabandham
by Nadamuni. The devotional songs of Andal is called Thiruppavai.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Basava :
 Basava lived in Karnataka. He founded the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect. According to
Basava, Siva was the supreme God. Basava opposed child marriage and idol
worship.
 Female bhakti saints:
o Akkamahadevi
o Karnataka
o Aka Akka or Mahadevi
o Worshiper of shiva.
o Janabai
o Born – 13th AD
o To a low caste shudra family in Maharashtra.
o Follwer of namdev.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Mirabai
o Rajasthan
o Bahinabai
o 17th AD in Maharashtra.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Effects of Bhakti Movement:
o brought the Hindus and the Muslims closer to each other.
 It encouraged the spirit of toleration.
 it improved the moral and spiritual ways of life of the medieval society. It
provided an example for the future generation to live with the spirit of
toleration.
o reduced the rigidity of the caste system to a certain extent.
o The suppressed people gained a feeling of self-respect.
o The reformers preached in local languages.
 It led to the development of Vernacular literature.
o They composed hymns and songs in tshe languages spoken by the people.
 Therefore there was a remarkable growth of literature in all the languages.
o freed the common people from the tyranny of the priests.
o It checked the excesses of polytheism.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH

Sufism:
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
About the word Sufi:-
∙ There are various interpretations from which the word sufi has been derived, such
as:-
1st  Some orientalist say derived Greek word sophia which means wisdom 
hence, the divinely wise people were called Sufis.
2nd  Arabic roots  Arabic words saf which means rank. The people engaged in
worship and devotion who enjoyed the first rank in the hierarchy of Islamic Arab
society, were called sufis.
3rd  Arabic word safa which means purity  Purity is one of the basic virtues to
be inculcated by a novice.
5th  Arabic word suffah meaning the terrace  the devoted companions of the
prophet who dwelt on the terrace of the prophets mosque in Madina. They led a
life of prayer and penitence in the days of peace and participated in the battles
against Islam in the days of war. They had no social and political responsibilities.
They were addressed as the dwellers of the terrace (ahl-al suffah)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
oOrigin:
originated and developed in the Arab peninsula and spread thereafter.
Abul Hamshin Kofi is believed to be the first Muslim mystic. His way of life
fascinated many people who joined him in this path and became his disciples.
 Sufism thus came into origin.
oDEVELOPMENT OF SUFISM:
o They were critical of Dogmatic definitions and scholastic method of
interpreting the Quran and Sunna adopted by the theologians.
oInstead they lead emphasis on seeking salvation through intense
devotion and love for god by following his commands.
o The Sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Quran on the basis of their
personal experience.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 divided into two phases (a) Early phase (b) later phase.
 Early Phase:-
 believed to have begun from the very inception of Islam.
 Mohammed before prophet hood, led a life of an asceticism, purity and
devotion which is the core of mysticism.
o After being declared prophet, he was the perfect man to comprehend
the esoteric (mysterious) aspect of Islam which again is the basic sprit
of Sufism.
o the pious caliphs and Ali and his descendants continued the traditions
and lived a life of devotion and obedience to God with an emphasis on
the esoteric aspect of Islam.
  Early Sufis:
BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
oOways-Qarni, Hasan Basari, Abu Hashin Kufi etc
oRabia Basari was the first woman Sufi.
 They highlighted the essence of religion and the significance of mystic experience.
 But with development in social & political , some serious controversies emerged
(factionalism in islam, political upheavals etc).
 Early sufism therefore reflects a sense of condemnation towards the sociopolitical
eventualities and stressed upon leading a life of asceticism, purity, obedience and
love of God.
 Later phase:
 begins with Ghazali  founded some doctrines of Sufism such as
o(1) Tauba (Repentance)
o(2) Beem-vrija (hope and fear)
o(3) Sabr-v-Tavakkul (Patience) and dependence.
o(4) Marfat (Gnosis)
o(5) Fana (annihilation)
o(6) Ishq (Love of God)
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 other sufis  Junaid Bhaghdadi, Shahab-ud-din Suharwardi and Bayazeed
Bistami.
 Thei characteristics:
oWorship of God
oLove of God
oKnowledge of God
oObedience to God
oPurification
oAnnihilation
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Sufism in india:-
∙ With the advent of Islamic empires within the subcontinent, the Sufis were
attracted towards Indian subcontinent.
 The theologians (Ulama) attempted to remove all impurities entering into Islam
by way of ancestral beliefs.
They resolved to preserve Islam in its pristine form i.e the converts not bringing
their cultures.
 The sufis, however, in the pursuit of their mission interacted with the people in
their dialects and persuaded them to accept Islam in their own way.
 Some initial Sufis:
Shaikh ali Hujwari of Data Gunj was the first reputed sufi in India.
oBelonged to Early phase.
omonumental book Kashful-ul-Mehjoob.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Sufi schools were divided into Silsila.
 Divided into Major & Minor sufi orders:
oMajor:
 Chishtiya order
 Qadriya order
 Suharwardiya order
 Naqsh bandiya order
oThe minor orders emerged as the off shoot of one or the other major orders.
 number of minor orders.
 Some of them were founded outside India but many of them were initiated by
the sufi saints in India.
 they were basically the off shoots of one or the other major orders.
 From suharwardiya order origined from the Firdausiya and Kubraviya orders.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
Firdausiya:
ofounded by Sharf-uldin yahya Manyari;
oPhulwari near Patna in Bihar was its centre.
oThe order was popular in Bihar and Bangal
 Qadriya order.  Shattariya order.
Founded in the name of Abdulah Shattari.
popular in the east of Uttar Pradesh
 The chisties, however, remained loyal to their teachers and hence began no
order in their name.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
o Place of sufi is known as Khanqah (Sufi Hospice)
It is controlled by a Sheikh/pir/murshid
Followers of master are known as Murid.
o The unbroken linkage between the Murshid and murid is known as the Silsila.
o Famous Sufi silsila’s in India :-
∙ Chistiya Silsila :-
 1st saint – mouinuddin chisti
 Founder - Khwaja Moin-Uddin Chishti
 migrated into India from central Asia at the behest of his guide (Peer), Khawaja
Usman.
 He came here with a firm resolution of serving Islam and the Muslims living in
India.
 He preached  communal harmony, spiritual satisfaction to all, and religious
tolerance with all humility and integrity.
 This was estb in India by sheikh Moinuddin chisti
 In 1192 AD he made ajmer the base of his teachings.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 He was popularly known as Garib Nawaz (servant of the poor)
 He criticed the orthodox practices of both Islam and Hinduism and
disregarded caste rigidities.
 Qadariya order:
founded in the name of its precursor Abdul Qadir Jilani.
They also migrated into India from the PersioArab land.
Muhibullah Shah, Miyan Meer and Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan,
were the representative sufis of this order.
Abdul Qadir of Badayun founded it here in the last decades of 14th century.
Intro after chisti.
 Farid Uddin Ganj I Shakar
He made his bade in Ajodhan and Faridkot
Popularly known as Baba Farid, and his teaching were incorporated in Sikhism.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 Nizzamuddin auliya of Delhi (1235-1325 AD)
 He carried out the provisions of shariya & emphasized the love of God.
 He also practiced the other Chishti teaching in letter and sprit.
 He was very critical of the ruler of Delhi Sultans. He often complained
that the sultans living a luxurious life at the expense of the masses do
not pay any heed for their development.
 Naseeruddin chirag
 Known as Lamp of Delhi

o Naqsh Bandya order:

 It owes its existence to the silsila of Khwajgan.
 The order was founded by Khwaja Baha-ul-din Naqsh band.
 He lived in the Turkish Empire in the city of Samarqand.
 It was preached and popularized by one of his very renowned disciples,
Khawja Naseer-ul-din Ubaidullah Ahrar.
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 It was introduced in India with the invasion of Babar.
 The King Babar and many of his soldiers owed allegiance to ubaid-ul-Ahrar.
 Mission - the eradication of alien elements crept in Islam from the native
religions.
 less tolerant as compared to the Chishties ,Qadries and Suhawardies.
 Naqsh Bandya  believed that their origin from the first caliph, Abu bakr.
 Other three (above)  claimed themselves to be the descendents of Ali.
o Suhrawadi Silsila
 founded in the name of sheikh shahabuddin Suharwardi Maqtul. By
 Intro after chisti.
 Bahauddin Zakarya/ Sheikh Bahaiddin Zakaria – famous saint of suhrawadi, He
spread and made it popular particularly in the Northern India.
 Contemporary of Nizamuddin auliya
 BY: VEER PRATAB SINGH
 The former is believed to have visited the later at least once. Unlike the
chishti saints the Suharwardis considered the accumulation of wealth as
indispensable to offer better services to humanity.
 Suhrawadi accepted office position in Delhi sultanate as such Iltutmish
gave him the title of Shrikh-ul-Islam (leader of Islam)
o There are 2 types of sufi in the world
 BaShara – sufi who accepted shariat (Islamic law)
 Shara – means shariat
 Ba – with
 Beshara – Sufis who did not believe in shariat