CHAPTER I

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING

1. Definition

Writing is the activity or skill of marking coherent word on paper and composing
text.

2. The fundamentals of writing

 Purpose
 Reader
 Topics

a) Purpose in writing
a. Narative writing
Writing tells a story or related a series of event.
example : composition describing your explorations among rocks and tide pools
along the ocean shore.
b. Descriptive writing
Writing describe a person, place or think.
Example :a brochure describing giant redwoods, a lost kittenposter that tells
exactly what the kitten looks like.
c. Expository writing
Writing gives information or explain.
Example : an article entitled “how the internet has changed our lives”.
d. Persuasive writing
Writing attemps to convince someone to do or believe something.
Example : an advertisement, an article about importance of water conservation.

b) Reader
reader is the people who read the writing
example : the student read a book
the girl read a magazine

c) Topics
A matter dealt with in a text, discourse, or conversation a subject.
Technique to choose the topics
a. Clustering
b. Cubing
c. Brainstorming
 CAHPTER II

PUNCTUATION

1. Definition of Punctuation
The set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings, principally by
separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses. You may find some aspects of
punctuation harder to grasp than others (for example, when to use a semicolon or a
colon). If so, just click on the relevant heading in the list to the left. There are also handy
sections with advice on using punctuation when writing direct speech, lists, or
abbreviations.
2. Purpose of Punctuation
Punctuation is used, in printing and writing, to imitate speech. When we speak we
use voice inflections, stops, pauses, and even body language to indicate our meaning. For
example, when we ask a question our voice rises at the end of a sentence.
Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing. They show the reader where
sentences start and finish and if they are used properly they make your writing easy to
understand, When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate
emphasis. This section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semicolons, and
other types of punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and
effective.
3. Types of punctuation
a) Full stop or period ( . )
Is used to show that you have come to the end of sentence. You can also use them
to show that you have shortened or abreviated words. There are 2 type of abreviations
that use full stop.
a. You can put after full stop after the first letter of each abreviated word.
Example: R.A.C – Royal Automobile Club
B.B.C – British Broadcasting Corporation
b. After selected group of letters from a word.
Example: St. – street
Rd.- road

b) Comma ( , )
A comma marks a slight break between different part of a sentence. Comma make
the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and
clauses. Here are the main cases when you need to use comma:
a. Use commas In lists
You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the
following sentence.
For example: Saturday morning started with a healthy breakfast of scrambled
eggs, bacon, sauce, and french toast.
b. Use commas In direct speech
 When a writer quotes a speaker’s words exactly as they were spoken this in
known as direct speech. If the piece of direct speech commas after the
information about who is speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the
direct speech.
For example: Steve replied, ‘no problem.’ ‘I dont’t agree, they said.
c. Use commas to separate clauses
Commas are used to separate clauses in a complex sentence (a sentence
which is made up of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.)
For example:Having had lunch, we went back to work.

c) Semi-Colon ( ; )
Colon (It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas,
semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a
period's full stop. Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a caveat: avoid the
common mistake of using a semicolon to replace a colon (see the "Colons" section).
a. Semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between
two closely linked sentences.
Examples: Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
b. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that
is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete
sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short
supply.
c. Semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such
as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.
Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a
promise I will keep.

d) Colon (: )
Use a colon before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand
by itself. Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on:
There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time.
For example: he charter review committe now includes the following people:
the mayor
the chief of police
the fire chief
the chair of the town council

e) Hyphen ( – )
Just as all punctuation marks ensure the clarity of writing, hyphens function to avoid
confusion and misreading by joining compound words including nouns and other
modifiers. Hyphens perform seven basic functions.
a. Compound numbers and fractions
 Use hyphens with compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine.
For example: twenty-one
forty-five
seventy-seven
ninety-nine
Also use hyphens to separate numerators and denominators in fractions.
For example: one-half
two-thirds
five-eights
three-tenths
b. Compound nouns
Use hyphens with some compound nouns.
For example: Mother-in-law
T-shirt
Cul-de-sac
c. Use hyphens to join coequal nouns.
For example: writer-illustrator
director-actor
librarian-professor
d. Use hyphens to join compound modifiers that precede nouns.
For example: middle-class family
self-fulfilling prophecy
soft-hearted neighbor
e. Use hyphens to join adjectives with adverbs such as better, best, ill, lower,
little, and well.
For example: well-known novelist
better-prepared student
ill-mannered child
f. Use hyphens to join compound modifiers in which the second word is the
present or past participle of a verb.
For example: sports-loving uncle
fear-inspired devotion
hate-filled rhetoric
g. Use hyphens to join compound modifiers that contain numbers.
For example: sixth-floor stacks
second-semester freshmen
twentieth-century literature
h. Use hyphens to separate words in phrases functioning as modifiers that
precede nouns.
For example: all-you-can-eat buffet
out-of-this-world experience
over-the-counter medication
i. Use hyphens with certain prefixes and suffixes such as all-, anti-, -elect, ex-,
mid-, neo-, post-, pre-, pro-, and self-.
 For example: all-purpose
mid-century
self-employed
j. Use hyphens with the prefixes anti-, mid-, neo-, post-, pre-, and pro- that
precede proper nouns and numbers.
For example: mid-1980s
post-Vietnam War
pro-American
k. Use hyphens to avoid confusion and misreading. Use hyphens to avoid
awkward letter combinations.
For example: re-sign (as in to sign again, not resign or quit).
English-language student (a student studying English, not an
english speaking student studying language).
semi-independent (not *semiindependent).

f) Dash ( — )
You can used dash to denote a sudden twist in thought or a diviation from
sentence’s main point. In some cases the interruption relater to the original idea.
For example: The boy – the one in the white shirt and blue jeans – is my cousin.

g) Question Mark ( ? )
The question mark has a very simple function in writing. It indicates a question. If
a sentence ends with question mark, then it is asking a question or interrogative
sentence.

h) Exclamation Mark ( ! )
Is usually showhes stronge feeling such as surprise anger or joy. Using an
exclamation mark when writing is rether like shouting or raising your voice when
speaking. Exclamation mark are most commenly used in writing quoted speech. You
should avoid using exclamation marks in formal writing, unless absolutely necessary.
a. Used un exclamation mark to indicate stronge feelings or raised voice in speech:
She shouted at him,”Go way! I hat you!”
b. Many interjections need an exclamation mark: Hi! What’s new? Ouwch! That
hurt.
c. A non-question santence beginning with “what” or “how” is often an
exclamation and requites an exclamation mark: what idiots we are! (we are such
idiots) how preety she looked in that dress! (she looked very pretty in that dress.)
d. Informal writing (personal letter or imel),people sometimes used two or more
exclamation mark together: Remember,don’t be late!!

i) Slash, Forward Slash Or Oblique ( / )

a. Slash is often used indicate “or”
Example: marry will eat cake / fruit.
b. Used a noun fof fraction
 Example: ½ (one half)
c. Used a slash to indicate “per” in measurements of speed, prices etc...
Example: The speed limit is 100 KM per H.
d. A slash is often used in detes to sparete day, mounth and year.
Example: He was born on 17/september/1998
e. The slash is used to separate parts of website addres on the internet and
separate fulders on some computer system.
Example: www.example.com/writing/slash.htm.

j) Double Quotation Marks ( " " )

We use Quotation marks to show the beginning and end of a word or prase that is
some how spesial or comes from out side the text that we are writing. Quotation
Marks can be double(“...”) or singgle (‘....’) that is really a mater of slile. Quotation
Marks are also colled quwoites or inverted comas.
a. Use Quotation Marks around the title or mane of a book film ship etc.
Example: “Titanic”is a 1997 movie directed by james cameron about the sinking
of the ship “Titanic”
b. We use Quotation Marks around apiece of texs that we are guoting or citing,
usually on an other source
Example: in the cambridge or encyclopedia of the English language, David crytal
argues that punctuation “plays a critical role in the modern writing system”.
c. Use Quotation Marks around dialogue or directspeech.
Example: Mary turned to him and said: “do you love me,jomes?”
d. Use Quotation Marks around a word or phase that we see as slang or jargon.
Example: The police were called to a “disturbence”-which in reality was a pretty
big fight.

k) Single Quotation Marks ( ' ' )

l) Apostrophe ( ' )
Use the Apostrophe to show possessive, with a singular noun, add an Apostrophe
plus the letter s.
Example: A woman’s hat the boss’s wife Mrs. Chang’s house.
m)Underline
Underline, also called an underscore,is a more or less horizontal line immediately
below a portion of writing. In a manuscript to be typesed, various froms of
underlining were conventionally used to indicate that textshould be set in aspecial
typeface such as italics to show emphasis, part ofa procedure known as mark.
Example: Book titles 1984
Plays Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf
Long (especially epic) poems Paradise Lost
n) Underscore ( _ )
The underscore sign is mainly used to show a space where a space is not allowed,
such as in internet usernames, email addresses and some computer programs.
Examples: Please sign here ______________________.

I, _____________________, promise to complete my chores by Friday.

red_dog@sample.com.

o) Brackets [ ] ( ) { } ⟨ ⟩
Brackets to set apart or interject other text. Used unqualified, brackets refer to
different types of Brackets, in different parts of the world and in different contexts.
a. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by
someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.
Examples: "Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."
"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."
b. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents
material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in
nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.
Example: She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same
outfit as my sister."
c. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a
quotation and the sentences others use it in.
Example: "[T]he better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to
Lincoln's first inaugural address.

p) Ellipsis Mark ...

The Ellipsis Mark consists of thee dots (periods). We usethe ellipsis mark in a placr
of missing words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an originaltext,
we replace them with an ellipsis mark.
Example: “the film focussed on thee English learners...studying at university.”
The new sentence still makes sense, but the ellipsis mark shows the reader that
something is missing. We sometimes also usean ellipsis mark to indicate a pause
when someone is speeaking, or unfinished sentence.
Example: Daeling, there is something... I need to tell you.
 CHAPTER III
STRUCTURE SENTENCE

1. Subject
The subject of a sentence is the noun or word group acting as a noun that performs
the action expressed in the predicate of a sentence or clause. The subject may be one
word: Sally loves chocolate. The subject may be in a noun phrase:

2. Predicate
The predicate is the part of the clause or sentence that says something about the
subject. In other words, the part of the sentences that is not the subject and its modifiers
is the predicate. A predicate can be one word or several words, not all of which are verbs.

3. Object
The object of a sentence can be a noun, pronoun, or word group that acts as a noun,
and receives the action of a verb or is influenced by a transitive verb, verbal (a word
derived from a verb, i.e., gerund, infinitive, and participle), or a preposition.

4. The four structures sentence

a. Simple sentences
A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. An independent clause
is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Example : I drink coffee.
I drink coffee is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (drink),
and it expresses a complete thought.

b. Compound sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These clauses
are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. A coordinating conjunction
is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses together.
Example : She cooked and he cleaned.
She cooked is an independent clause. He cleaned is also an independent clause. And
is a coordinating conjunction joining the two independent clauses. She cooked and
he cleaned is a compound sentence.

c. Complex sentences
A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and an independent clause. A
subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not
express a complete thought.
Example : I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.
I washed the dishes is an independent clause. After I ate breakfast is a dependent
adverb clause modifying the verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast is
a complex sentence.
d. Compound-Complex sentences
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at
least one subordinate clause.
Example : I would have purchased the cheese that you like, but it was too expensive.
I would have purchased the cheese and it was too expensive are both
independentclauses. They are being joined by the conjunction but.
 CHAPTER IV

AGREEMENT SUBJECT- VERB

1. Subject Verb Agreement

Subject and verb must agree with one another in number (singular or plural ) thus,
if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular, if subject is plural, its verb must
also be plural, In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in apposite ways: nouns
ADD an S to the singular form.
Example : the dog chases the cat the dogs chase the cat

Singular singular plural plural

-s +s +s -s

2. Are five subject verb agreement rules.

a. A pharase or clause between subject and verb does not chage the number of subject
Example :the women who want to the meeting were bored

S dependent clause verb

The verb were agree with the subject women ,not with meeting.\

b. Indefinite pronouns as subject

 Singular indefinite pronoun subjects
Take singular verbs
Singular :each ,either,neither,one,nobody,nothing anyone, any
body,anything,someone,somebody,something,everyone,every thing.
Example :each does a good deal of work around the office

Singular singular

c. Plural indefinite pronoun take plural verb.

Plural :several,few,both,many.
Example :both do a good deal of work around the office

d. Compound subject
Is two subject in the same sentence,joined by and are always plural

e. With compound subject joined by or/nor.

When using “or”or “nor”in compound subject containing a singular and plural
subject,the verb agrees with the closest subject

f. Collective nouns
Collective nouns can be snggular or plural depending on meaning
 CHAPTER V

CONSISTENT OF USE PRONOUN AND CONSISTENT OF USE

VERB TENSE AND RULES OF USEAGE

1. Pronoun
Pronouns are words used to replace nouns ( nouns ) , these nouns can be people,
animals , places and abstract concepts . The purpose of the use of pronouns can be
caused by many things such as to make it more concise , a name not mentioned
repeatedly in a sentence and the effectiveness of a sentence . Listed below are several
types of pronouns in the English language ( pronouns ) along with an explanation and
examples of pronouns.

a. Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns for a person, animal , place , or thing. In a
sentence , the personal pronouns can be used as the subject ( the subject of a verb ) or
object ( the object of a verb).
a) Subject pronouns
Personal pronouns used as the subject of the verb is I, you , he , she, it , we , and
they . Consider the following example sentences :
b) Object pronouns
Personal pronouns used as the object of a verb is me , you , him , her , it , us and
them . Consider the following example sentences :

b. Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show ownership of an object . The words
used are mine , yours, his , hers , ours , theirs, its, and theirs.
Example : Look at those cars .This new car is mine .

c. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronoun is used that substitute nouns when the nouns they replace
can be understood from the context. At the same time, to indicate whether they are
close or far, in space or time, from the speaker in the moment of speaking. They also
indicate whether they are replacing singular or plural words.
"This" (singular) and "These" (plural) refer to an object or person NEAR the speaker.
"That" (singular) and "Those" (plural) refer to an object or person further AWAY.

d. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronoun is used to ask people, objects , or an option . The pronoun
that is often used is what, who, whose, which and whom.
Example :What is falling ?

e. Relative pronouns
 Relative pronouns are pronouns that refer to the preceding noun (antecedent)
which serves as kind of relative pronouns are who, which, that , and Whose Whose .

f. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that are used to indicate the actions or
activities undertaken by the subject himself ( the subject of the verb). Reflextive
pronoun is used personal pronouns (my , your , him , her , it , our , them ) coupled
with “self” singular noun ( singular ) or “selves” plural noun ( plural ) .

g. Indefinite pronouns
The use of this pronouns , objects or things that are general and not specific to
using this type of pronouns . Indefinite pronouns are divided into single , multiple or
even both. Type Indefinite pronouns.

h. Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns reciprocity which means that an action or
activity that occurs involving two people / groups who do the same thing to each
other. The pronoun is used as a reciprocal pronoun are each other and one another.

2. Consistent Of Use Verb Tense And Rules Of Useage.

Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time of the actions being described.
Changes in verb tense help readers understand the time relationships among various
narrated events. Writers will generally maintain one tense for the main discourse and
indicate changes in time by changing tense relative to that primary tense. Even
apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses consistently and clearly.
English has three forms of verbs ( verb tense) , namely :
1. Said base ( infinitive or base form)
2. Past tense (past )
3. Perfect shape .
Example : eat ( base word ) , ate ( past tense ) , eaten ( perfect shape ) .
There are three main verb forms for showing time or tense:
1. Simple Tense
2. Perfect Tense
3. Progressive Tense

a. Verb tense consistency on the sentence level.

Keep tenses consistent within sentences. Do not change tenses when there is no
time change for the action.
Example: During the movie, Sam stood up and then dropped his popcorn.

Past tense past tense

 During the movie, Sam stands up and then drops his popcorn.

Present tense present tense

Since there is no indication that the actions happened apart from one another.,
there is no reason to shift the tense of the second verb. Note another example: When
Mary walks into a

b. Verb tense consistency on the paragraph level

Generally, establish a primary tense and keep tenses consistent from sentence to
sentence.

c. Verb tense consistency on the essay level

Use present tense when writing essays about your own ideas, factual topics, the
action in a specific movie, play, or book

.
 CHAPTER VI

COMPOUND SENTENCE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

1. Compound sentences
Compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or
complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN
BOYS": For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
Examples of compound sentences include the following:
1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
2. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on
the bus before I arrived.
3. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at
the bus station.
Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay, you should consider
revising some of them into complex sentences (explained below).

2. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent
clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a
complete sentence.
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
1. because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon.
2. while he waited at the train station.
3. after they left on the bus.
Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they
can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the
most common subordinating conjunctions. After, although, as, because, before, even,
though, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, wherever, while.
A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent
clauses.
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent
clause, as in the following:
Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate the
two clauses. For Example:
1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not
see them at the station.
2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.
3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at
the train station.

CHAPTER 7
.........................................
 CHAPTER 8

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

1. Conditional Sentence
Conditional sentences also known as conditional clauses or if clauses. Conditional
sentence is used to express an event or action that may or may not occur. They are made
up of two halves. The first halves with the word if in is a condition, and the other halves
the main clause states the action to occur if the condition is fulfilled.

2. Type of Conditional Sentence

There are three types of Conditional Sentences.
a. Conditional sentence type 1
Conditional sentences that used when the result or consequence of the condition have
the possibility to realized in the future due to the realistic condition to fulfilled.
Formula of conditional sentence type 1:
 If + simple present tense, Simple future tense
 Simple future tense + if + simple present tense
NOTE: do not forget to enter, (comma) if you want to put the first subordinate clause. No
need to put a comma if the main clause, you input first.
For example:
1. They will buy a car if they have money.
2. My mother will go to Bali if she has a lot of money.

b. Conditional sentence type 2

Conditional sentence that used to expressed events that may not occur because the
condition cannot happen. This sentence used to expressed the fact that the opposite of the
present.
Formula of conditional sentence type 2:
 If+Simple past tense,Past future tense
 Past future tense+if+simple past tense
For example:
1. I would fly to the moon if I were superman.
2. If I were you, I would be very angry.

c. Conditional sentence type 3

Conditional sentence types 3 are used when it is impossible for condition to be
fulfilled because the possibility has already passed.
Formula of conditional sentence type 3:
 If +Past perfect, Past participle
 Past participle + if + past perfect
For example:
1. If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.
 2. I would have passed the exam if I had studied har

Group 9

NOUN CLAUSE

1. The Meaning of Noun Clause

Noun clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate noun. Noun Clause
answers the question related to the verb, the noun is usually start with That, What, How,
However, Why, Whether, dan Whoever.
Formula : Conjunction + Subject + Predicate+object
An example is :
 My prayer is that you should have good health
 What is says is quite correct
 Wati said that she would come soon
 Can you tell us what happened?
 That he left his wife his known to all his friend
2. Use of Noun Clause
As for the use of the noun clause is as follows :
a. Subject of verb
Eg :

 That he has bought the hotel is known to all.

 Whether to apply for the post is a problem to me.
 What politicians promise is not always dependable.

b. Transitive object verb

Eg :
 We don’t know how long she wants to remain unmarried.
 I know when to apply for a bank loan.
 John keats declared that a think of beauty is a joy forever.

c. Object verb
Eg :
 I am satisfied with what I achieved in life.
 She did not pay attention to what I explained to her.
 I couldn’t see the accident from where we stood.
d. Additional information on the noun or pronoun
Eg :
 We believe the principle that all men are born free.
 The fact that she has a desire to marry a rich man is known to all her
 friends.
 It is really a pity that shinta has never recognized my love.
e. Verbs of incomplete predications/incomplete verb or as predicative noun
Eg :
 His fear is that he will lose his job.
 That question is where to find the money for the project.
 My worry is whether I shall be able to see mastu again.

3. Types of Noun Clause

a. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Question Words
Noun clauses that preceded by question words are usually used to answer a question. The
following examples :
 Where does Sarik Live?. I don't know where Sarik lives.
 Group 10
DISCUSSION

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
A. Defenition of Adverbial Clause
Adverbial clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, adjective, or adverb in the
main clause. Every adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction. An adverb
clause tells when, where, why, how, to what extent, or how much about the word it modifies.

B. Kinds of Adverbial Clause

1. Adverbial clause of result
Adverb clauses of result are introduced by subordinating conjunction (so, hence, thus,
therefore, consequently, that).
For example:
- He didn’t study hard; therefore, he didn’t pass the test.
2. Adverb clauses of supposition
Adverb clauses of supposition are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions ( though,
although, even, if, etc). The adverb of clauses of concession are one and the same as adverb
clauses of supposition.
For example:
- Though he is poor, he is honest.
3. Adverb Clause of Reason
We use adverb clause of reason to modify verb in main clause and to tell the cause that an
action takes place ( because, as, for, that). These clauses are used to indicate the reason for
something.
For example:
- I come here because I want to meet you.

4. Adverb Clause of Time

- Adverb clause of time are used to modify verb in main clause and to tell the time that
an action takes place ( when, whenever, anytime, before, after, till, until,

5. Adverb Clause of Place

Adverb clause of place are introduced by the conjunctions “where and wherever”.
For example:
- Where there is a will there is a way.
- Wherever you go, I shall follow you.
6. Adverb Clause of Purpose
Adverb clauses of purpose are used to indicate the purpose an action ( so that, in order that, in
order to + V1).
For example:
- He plans to visit the village so that he can meet his uncle.
- We work hard in order to achieve our ambitions.
7. Adverb Clause of Contrast
 Adverb clause of contrast are used to indicate a opposition/contrast ( although, eventhough,
however, nevertheless, whereas, still, on the other hand, but, yet, while).
For example:
- Although it rains heavily, he still goes out.
- He always revises his lesson at home, yet he still fails in the test.

RELATIVE CLAUSES
A. Definition Of Relative Clauses
A clause is a part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or thing ( or what
kind of person or thing) the speaker means. Relative clauses ( relative pronoun) also mentioned
adjective clauses that modifies a noun. It describes or gives information about a noun.

B. Kinds Of Relative clauses

1. Relative clauses as subject
a. Subject of person ( who/that)
Who is used in a relative clause when we are talking about people. We use “who” instead of
he/she/they.
Eg: - The boy is my brother.
- He broke this window yesterday.
-The boy who broke this window yesterday is my brother.
- The boy who broke this window yesterday is my brother.
- I thanked the women.
- She helped me.
- I thanked the women who helped me.
- I thanked the women that helped me.
b. Subject of Thing ( which/that)
Which / that are used when we are talking about things. We used which/that instead of it /
they.
Eg: - The book is mine.
- It is on the table.
- The book which is on the table is mine.
- The book that is on the table is mine.

2. Relative clauses as Object

a. Object of Person ( whom)
Whom is possible instead of who ( for people) when it is the object of the verb
in the relative clause.
Eg: - The man looked so young.
- I saw him driving a bus.
 - The man whom I saw driving a bus looked so young.
b. Object of Things ( Which)
Which are used for things.
Eg: - The books were expensive.
- I bought them.
- The books which I bought were expensive.
3. Relative Clauses of Possesive
a. Possesive of Person and things ( Whose)
Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other possessive pronouns
used as adjectives his, her, its, and their. Whose is connected to a noun. Like his bicycle
whose bicycle
Eg: 1.- I know the man.
- His bicycle was stolen.
- I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
2.- I know a girl.
- Her brother is a movie star.
- I know a girl whose brother is a movie star.
b. Possessive of Things ( of which)
Eg: - The house is old
- The doors of it are broken.
- The house, the doors of which are broken is old.
- The house, whose doors are broken is old.
4. Relative Adverb ( where, why, when)
a. Relative adverb of place refers to a place
Eg: -The place where we met him.
-The hotel where we stayed wasn’t very clean.
b. Relative adverb of time refers to a time expression.
Eg: - I’ll never forget the day when I met you.
c. Relative adverb refers to a reason.
Eg: - The reason why we met him.
- Tell me why you were late ho
5. Relative Clauses “extra information”
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes
the sentence easier to understand.
a. Relative clause of preposition + whom/which
Eg: - The men are angry.
- The girl is talking are to them.
The men to whom the girl is talking are angry.
- The store is big .
- I bought the ice cream from it
The store from which I bought the ice cream is big.
b. Relative clause in phrases ( All of/most of +whom/which
Eg: - Jack has three brothers. All of them are married. ( 2 sentences)
Jack has three brothers, all of whom are married. ( 1 Sentence)
 Ann has a lot of books. She hasn’t read most of them. ( 2 sentences)
Ann has a lot of books, most of which she hasn’t read. ( 1 sentence).

Group 11

1. What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences about a topic. Every paragraph should have one topic,
which is usually presented in the fi rst sentence called the topic sentence. All the other
sentences in the paragraph must develop and support the topic. According to Oshina and Hogue
(1981), a paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related
sentences develop mean idea. Meanwhile, McWhorter (1985) argued that a paragaraph then,
provides explanation and support for a main idea about a particular topic.

A paragraph gives one main idea and all the examples or the smaller ideas that explain it. The
main idea is sometimes called the theme.

The themeof a paragraph is given in the topic sentence. This is usually the first sentence of
the paragraph. The topic sentence tells your reader what the paragraph is about and what your
idea is.

2. The structure of a paragraph

A paragraph is made up of three components: the topic sentence, the supporting sentences
(body), and the concluding sentence.

1. Topic sentence
 The first sentence in a paragraph
 Presents the topic and the controlling idea (an important idea about the topic) of the
paragraph

2. Supporting sentences
 The main part of the paragraph
 Provide several supporting points that explain the controlling idea of the paragraph
 Provide details that explain each supporting point
3. Concluding sentence
 The last sentence in a paragraph
 Restates the controlling idea and summarizes the supporting points
 Example: Gold

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a
lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and
ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For
example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-
three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and
science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection
outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its
utility.

The topic sentencestates the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the
paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in
the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling idea. Notice how the
topic sentence of the model states both the topic and the controlling idea:

(Topic) (Controlling Idea)

 Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

Supporting sentencesdevelop the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic sentence by
giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations. Some of the supporting sentences
that explain the topic sentence about gold are

 First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.

 For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was
minted twenty-three centuries ago.

 Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry and science.

 The most recent application of gold is in astronauts’ suits.

 b. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Whether or If
Noun clauses that preceded by whether or if are used to answer yes/no type questions.
Whether and if are usually interchangeable. The following examples:Does Judy own a Honda?
I don't know if Judy owns a Honda.
C. Noun Clauses That Preceded by That
Noun clauses that preceded by that are used to answer questions in which person who is
answering is thinking, giving an opinion, or using a mental activity verb. The following
examples:
 I believe that there is an ATM in the supermarket.
 I knew that he had to go.
 Group 12

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Writingis an activityideas, ideas, concepts, thoughts, orimaginationintowrittenform(print). As

oneaspectof language skills, writingisthe mostdifficultaspectamongotherskills, such aslistening,
speaking, andreading. Inwriting activities, students are requiredto devote alltheir knowledge
andother skillstobe able toproducea"writing". Good writingis generallyproducedbypeoplelike
toread, insightful, manylisten toeverything, andhave the abilityto thinkaregood.

Leonhardt(2005: 103) arguesthat the habit ofreadingis essential forthe successofwriting.

Good writinghas flow, content and linguisticgood. In terms ofplot,oodwritinghas
agroovethinkthatsequence, andsustainable. In terms of content,good
writingcontainingtheinformationis completely accurateandtruthanbe justified scientifically.
Andin termsoflanguage, a goodessayusingcorrect spelling,
dictionvaried,effectivesentencesandcoherentparagraphsDescriptionis a form
ofdiscoursethattries to presentan objectorathingin suchawaythatthe objectas if itwere in front
ofthe eyes ofthe reader's head, as ifthereaderseefor himselftheobject(Keraf 1995:16).
Descriptiongaveamentalimageofsomething that isexperienced, for example,scenery,
peopleorsensation.Moredescriptionprovidesaninterestingimageoftheobject.Descriptionmuch to
do withthe relationshipsensesandimaging,somuch has been
writtendescriptionclassifiedascreativewriting.

2.1DefinitionParagraphDescription

Paragraphdescriptionisa paragraphthat describesordepictssomethingbased ontheexperienceof

allthe senseswithwordsclearly and in detail. The purposeofthisparagraphistoprovide
detailsordetailsabout the objectso thatthe readeras if theywent to see, hear,feel, orexperience
what isdescribed.

example:The park wasalsodecorated withseveralstatuesof whitestork. The statuesthatlook

veryunique. In themiddle of the parkthere is apond. In themiddle of thepond, there isa fountain.
Variouschildren's toyshelped completethe ParkGround.

Paragraphdescription ofadescription of astate ofthesentences, giving rise

totheimpressionthatlife. Depictionorpaintingitshould bepresentedas lively-life, so
thatwhatwasdepictedlifeintheimaginationof the reader.Paragraphsarehigher unityofthesentence.
Paragraphconsists of only onetheme. Paragraphis notasentence, butacouple
ofsentencesthathaveonebig idea. Main ideasinparagraphssupported by thesenseof unitythat
comes froma fewsentences. Thus, paragraphrather than a collection ofa few sentencesthatdo
nothave asenseof unity(Anwar Hasnun, 2006:25) Thepurposewritea descriptionismadeaware
ofthelifeof thereaderwhatthe writerabsorbedthroughthe senses, stimulate
thereaderfeelingaboutwhat he described,presentingaqualitydirectexperience. Objects
thatdescribtionedmight be somethingthat could becapturedbyoursenses, anatural landscape, city
streets, sewerratsorhorseraces, facepretty attractiveperson, orsomeone who isdesperate,
musicorthunder, andso on.

2.2The Elements OfParagraphDescription

Elements ofthe descriptionin thisparagraphmeansthe partsthatbuildthe paragraphdescription.

Iituelement, too, who also becameabenchmarkassessmentof a paragraphdescription,
whetherwrittenparagraphis perfectornot. WandonoinSiburian(2010: 18) suggests elementsof
thisparagraphthe followingdescription.

1).contents

Inparagraphdescription, the contentsareaspects of assessment.

Contentsincludetopicsandsequencedevelopment.Atopic can besourcedfromthe experience,
knowledge, imagination, opinion andbelief, the facts. Sothe
paragraphmaypresentopinions,beliefs, facts, opinions attitudes, responses, imagination,
divination, andso on. Atopicinparagraphformulatedagainintosub-topics to forma good
framework, or asequence ofdevelopmentina paragraph.Fillgood
paragraphshouldmemeprlihatkanfairlydetailedsequence ofdevelopment, as well
ascarefullyandlogicallyarranged. Thus, the compositionbecomesaregularparagraphsandthe
author does notcome outofa stated objective.

2). Ina paragraphto notethe contentsorganization.

Organizationin the paragraphcontentsareprocessingmaterials, organize,

developandmenyusunyaina logicalstructure. Content ofa goodorganizationshouldpay attention
tocohesionandcoherence. Cohesioncan beseenthroughthe
preparationorlogicalrelationshipssentence.
Relationshipexistingthoughtsinparagraphsintoacoherent, complete andcompact.
Thiscohesioncan be builtthroughconjunctions, pronounsandkeywords(word
repetitionoverlooked). Coherencevisibleifonesentencewiththealinclearlyshows the
relationshipreciprocallogicalandclearlydiscussthe main ideas.
 3). Diction/WordOptionsInparagraphdescription

dictionan essaymore interesting. InBig Indonesian Dictionary(2003: 264), the dictionisthe

rightchoice of wordsandharmony(in its use) toexpress the ideain order to
obtaincertaineffects(as expected).n order forbusinessesto
leverageinterestingstorytellingtechniquesthrough the choice ofthewordgooddictionmust

 choosing the rightwords to expressan ideaorthingdiamatkan,

 an authorshouldhave the abilityto accurately distinguishnuancesof meaningin
accordancewiththeidea ofwantingsubmittedandthe abilitytofind
aformappropriate to the situationandthevalue ofa sense ofreaders,
 the appropriatechoice of wordsadanappropriateonlypossibleifhecontrolsa large
number ofvocabulary(vocabulary).

4). Impressionism

Paragraphdescription ofimpressionismshowstwothings. Firstly theobjectsdepicted.The

objectdescribeditcomesdaariexperience, completion, imagination, andso on.
Inparagraphdescription ofpaintingan objectmustattract attention, so itreallycan
beseen,heard,readandperceivedbythe reader.Second, the existence ofthe detailsof
theobjectsdepicted. These detailsmaybecharacteristicsordetails ofanobject.
Objectsaredescribeddaidetailswillshowaninterestingparagraphdescription.
Thusadescriptionessaycanmeetits existenceasatypicalparagraphdescription.Thus, it is
clearthatsomething(an object) thatwant tobe depictedmust
haveconsideredsalientdetailsabouttheobject. Detailsof the objectcanalsodistinguishbetween
objectsdescribedbyotherobjects. Thusparagraphdescriptionswilllook attractive.In this study,
assessmentparagraphdescriptionusingthe aboveelementsas
adescriptorwhichlaterdevelopedintothe indicator. Withtheseindicators, theabilityto writea
paragraphdescription ofthe datacan be measured.

2.3Kinds ofParagraphDescription

In general, the paragraphdescriptiondivided into two kinds, namely:

1) Paragraphspatialdescriptionisa paragraphthat describesthe roomorvenue foran

event.Its portrayingbe seenfromthevarioustermsthatareclearly definedspacein thethoughts
andfeelings ofthe reader.
Example:Pitch black nightinthe Brantasriver upstream. Caught. Intermittentlybustle
thatnodesultoryitbecomesonewith bells andwhistlesthatawfullanddiscouraging,
signjunglekingfell tothe groundforever.Crowdedinjunglewarfareandapparentlyitwill not stop.
Nothingmercy,whichfalllivedfall, no one willpick it up.Occasionallight
oftheweatherwilderness, such asfireattacked. Butthe realityinthe blink of aneyethe loss
oflightthatdared invedinghimselfintothe middle ofthewar, destroyedbyenemy the durations
"blackking".
2) Paragraphobjectivedescriptionisa paragraphthat describessomethingor
someonetorevealhis identityas it isso thatthe readercanimaginethe situation.So thatan objectcan
evokeimaginationto the reader, the writermust bedescribedfromvariousviewpoints. The
moredetailedthe writing, the moreclearly illustratedin the shadow ofthe reader.
Ifthe objectisa persondescribedit, the detailscan bemade to thephysicalaspectandthe spiritual
aspect. Spiritualaspectsincludefeelings, character, talent, theirrole inthefield ofemployment, etc.
Example:In the cornernearthe doorsata man. HisnamePaijo. She waswearingshortsand aT-
shirtthathas beentorn, depictingthesqualorandpovertyof everydaysuffered.Inbroad
chestandcontains, solidarmveinscanbe seenhowthe fullweight oftheir daily
work.Facethemurkywater, deflatedcheeksandeyesweresunkenstates thatit has takenthe roadof
lifeis full of obstaclesandthorns.

2.4CharacteristicsParagraphDescription

1. To describeorportraysomething
2. Theportrayal ismadevery clearby engagingthe senses
3. Makethe readerorlistenerto feelaloneor experience
4. DevelopmentPatterns
5. Thespatialdevelopmentpatternthatparagraph developmentpatternsbasedspaceandtime
6. The pattern ofdevelopmentor objectiveviewpointis apattern ofdevelopmentthat
isbased onaparagraphanda writerin apositionto see something

2.5StepsWritingParagraphsDescription
Steps inwritinga paragraphdescriptionis:

1. determine thetheme
2. set a goalof writing
3. collectmaterials
4. make theoutline
5. develop theoutline
6. revising theessay.

The firststepis to determinethe theme. Atfirst this activitiesperformedifwillwriteancomosition

is determinetheme. Thismeansthat itmustbe determinedwhat discussed inwriting. The themeis
thecentral ideathat would be submittedinwriting. The ideaormain ideacan begainedfromthe
experience, research, severalsources, opinions, andobservations. Statementthememaybethe
same as thetitle, butmaybe not.
 The secondstepis to determinethe purpose of writing. Inthis
stepeveryauthormustdiscloseclearly the purposeof writingthatwill beimplemented. The
formulation ofthe purpose of writingis veryimportantandmust determined firstbecauseitis the
starting pointinthe nextall activitywriting. By determiningthe purpose of writing, will
knowwhat to doat this stage ofthe writing. Wewillknowthe necessaryingredients, a
widebouquetthatwill applied norganization, ormaybeselectedviewpoints. The purposeisthe
principaldeterminantandwill directand composition limit. awareness ongoalduring the writing
processwillkeepperfection of article.

The thirdstepisto collectmaterial. At the choose time andlimitour

topicshouldalreadypredictedthe possibility of gettingmaterial. By limitingthe topic, then we
areactuallyhave centredlimitedattention to thetopicit, andcollectspecialmaterialsas well.
Thiswritingmaterialcan be collectedat the stagebefore writingandcanalsotake placeat thetimeof
writing. For asmall problemthatobjectives are clearin our mindsand gatheringfixingmaterialcan
be doneat the timeof writing.

The fourth stepis to make theoutline. Be organizationessaycan be determined, beforewehave

topreparethe outline. Developoutlineisonewayto developaseries
ofclearandregularstructuredfrom compositionto be written. Outlineawork planthatcanbe
usedasoutlinedincomposing. Alsoguaranteesthe authorsoutlinetheideasin a logical andorderly.
Preparation of theoutlineis highly recommendedbecause itwillobviating writer
ofmistakesthatshould not have happened.
The usefulness ofthe outline oftheauthoris(a) composition frameworkcanbe
writtencomposeessaysregularlyanddo notdiscusstheideatwiceandcanpreventwritersoutfrom
targetalready formulatedin the topicortitle; (b) acomposition frameworkshowingprincipal
partsfabrication andmember possibilityforexpansion ofthese parts. Thiswillassisting
writercreatedifferentatmosphere, according to thevariationwishing; and(c) anoutlinewillshowto
writermaterialorany materialthat isneededin the discussion ofwhich shall bewritten

Kelompok 13

Definition of Narrative
A narrative is some kind of retelling, often in words (though it is possible to mime a story), of
something that happened (a story). The narrative is not the story itself but rather the telling of
the story -- which is why it is so often used in phrases such as "written narrative," "oral
narrative," etc. While a story just is a sequence of events, a narrative recounts those events,
perhaps leaving some occurrences out because they are from some perspective insignificant,
and perhaps emphasizing others. In a series of events, a car crash takes a split second. A
narrative account, however, might be almost entirely about the crash itself and the few
seconds leading up to it. Narratives thus shape history (the series of events, the story of what
happened).

Definition of Narrative Techniques

Narratives are works that provide an account of connected events. A synonym for 'narrative'
is 'story'. There are many types of literature that are considered narratives, including novels,
dramas, fables, folk tales, short stories, poetry, etc. In addition to literature, narratives are
found in cinema, music, and theatre. Narrative literary techniques are also known as literary
devices.

Narrative techniques provide deeper meaning for the reader and help the reader to use
imagination to visualize situations. First, it is important to understand that literary elements
in narratives include setting, plot, theme, characters, style/structure, perspective/voice, etc.,
since literary techniques are best understood in the context of one of these elements. Literary
techniques include metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, alliteration,
backstory, flashback, flash-forward, foreshadowing, and narrative perspective/point of view.

Types of Narrative Techniques

There are many literary techniques, but for this lesson, we will examine literary techniques
relevant to style, plot, and narrative perspective/point of view.
Common techniques relevant to style, or the language chosen to tell a story, include
metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, and alliteration.
Common techniques relevant to plot, which is the sequence of events that make up a
narrative, include backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and foreshadowing.
Common techniques relevant to narrative perspective, or who is telling the story, include
first person, second person, third person, and third-person omniscient.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Style

The style a writer uses is seen in the diction/language used. Figurative language is a common
element in narrative writing.
Metaphors and similes are expressions used to compare two things in an effort to help the
reader have a better understanding of what the writer is attempting to convey. The difference
between a simile and a metaphor is the simile uses the words 'like', 'as', or 'than' in the
comparison, while the metaphor does not utilize these words. Consider the metaphor, It's
raining men. This, obviously, does not mean it is literally raining men, since that is
impossible. It simply means there are a lot of men present. Here you can see an example of a
simile, It was raining like cats and dogs. Again, this does not literally mean cats and dogs are
coming from the sky; that is impossible. This is an expression that helps the reader
understand that the rain is very powerful and forceful.
Imagery creates visuals for the reader that appeals to our senses and usually involves
figurative language: The bar was a dark, gloomy eyesore. This statement appeals to our
senses to help us visualize and feel the negative aspects of this location.
Personification is seen when an inanimate object is given human or animal-like (living)
qualities, like, The stars danced in the sky. We know stars cannot dance. This statement is an
attempt to help the reader have a better picture of how the stars appeared to move in a
dancing fashion.
Hyperbole is an over-exaggeration to make a point. You might have heard someone say, My
purse weighs a ton. We know this is not to be meant in the literal sense, but it is meant to help
the reader understand the excessive weight of the purse.
Alliteration is seen when the writer uses the same letters together in a sentence. Here is a
classic example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Some writers use alliteration
to help readers remember phrases or concepts, while some writers simply use this technique
because it is 'catchy' and appealing to readers.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Plot

When we think of the common techniques relevant to plots, we think of a certain sequence of
events. To present the events, writers use backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and
foreshadowing.
Backstory is used when the author feels it is important for the reader to know something that
has happened prior to the actual events described in the narrative. For example, in the story of
Cinderella, we learn that Cinderella's father has lost his wife and married another woman who
has two other daughters. This is important for us to understand why Cinderella is treated so
differently from the other daughters. We don't actually experience this event in the story.
Instead, the narrator gives us this 'backstory' just before the actual first event that we do
experience.