Defining Child Development
Child development is the study of changes in children over the period of childhood from
conception to adulthood.
These changes include the process of growth, which is observable and measurable.
Development also includes the process of maturation or the biological development based on
the genetic make-up of the individual and learning which is the process through which the child
learns through interaction with his or her environment.
Physical Development: Motor Skills
During early childhood, children continue to expand their repertoire of physical skills, adding
to those that were mastered during infancy. Throughout this stage, girls tend to develop
slightly faster than boys. There general developmental markers that children achieve at certain
ages, but it is perfectly normal for each child to master these skills at different speeds, ages,
and in different sequences.
Gross and Fine motor development
The term "gross motor" development refers to physical skills that use large body movements,
normally involving the entire body. In the sense used here, gross means "large"
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop "toddling," or using the awkward, wide-
legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait,
they also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate in
throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with
their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet
together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adults place one foot on
each step in sequence). However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to
prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill.
Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a result, their
catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically
hit a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole body coordination improves, children of
this age can now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in
front of their bodies.
By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking
one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of
this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding
their tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster.
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They're running even faster
and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step
sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle
gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping
rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on.
Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more precise movements, normally using
the hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require less
precision to perform.
By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build towers out of
blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen. Children of this age can
also insert objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3
year-olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other,
which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed.
Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and
snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they
enter school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves
(even though they may take a long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin
using scissors to cut paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid"
scissors for safety reasons!
3 to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons.
Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing
hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with
their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can
now open containers with lids, caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as
cleaners and medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental
poisonings.
During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier
skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their
artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles,
squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.
5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as
printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles. They are able to use paints,
pencils and crayons with better control. Children can also complete other self-care tasks
beyond dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Children
of this age can also independently feed themselves without an adult's immediate supervision
or help.
Factors affecting physical development
1. HEREDITY: The genetic make up of an individual is the result of the mixing of the
genes of both parents. This genetic make up, predispose the child to certain characteristics
and physical disposition, for example it is most likely that the child’s eye and hair is similar to
those of the parents.
2. LIFESTYLE FACTORS: Nutrition, healthcare, socio-economic conditions, sanitation have
obvious effects on the physical development of the child. Ozmun (2006)show the impact of
severe malnutrition on both mental and physical development.
3. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL FACTORS: for a child to develop physically, socially and cognitively,
there is need for emotional stability- enhanced self-esteem and self-confidence
BRAIN
The brain is a very complex structure. We will look only at some basic explanations of the brain
structures that affect language. It is important to note that we are dealing with different parts
of the brain that interact and communicate with each other, and with different parts of the
body.
The brain cell or neuron?
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons are specialised to transmit
information. Every neuron consists of a cell body and at least two extensions that receive and
transmit impulses to other neurons. A neuron can have connections with many other neurons
and can pass information to other neurons using electrochemical processes.
The nervous system can be divided in two parts: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes all the nerves outside the
skull and the vertebrate and it deals with sensory input and output. The central nervous
system consists of the spinal cord and brain. The spinal cord is connected to the brain and
carries messages from the brain to the body and back. Thus the central nervous system is the
place where all cognitive activities are integrated.
The brain consists of a cerebellum and a cerebrum. The cerebellum regulates and maintains
functions such as equilibrium and coordination of body movements including those of speech
organs such as the tongue, lips and vocal cords. The cerebrum is situated above the much
smaller cerebellum and consists of two halves known as hemispheres. These two hemispheres
are linked by a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum, which acts as a bridge
between the two hemispheres.
The corpus callosum is a very important part of the brain, because it allows the two
hemispheres to communicate with each other.
The brain stem is a structure at the very base of the brain that controls vital functions such as
respiration and heart beat as well as auditory input.
Cross section of human brain
The brain is made up of grey matter called the cortex. It is about ¼ inch thick and is packed
with approximately ten billions neurons. The cortex covers the outer portion of the cerebrum
and the cerebellum.
The cerebrum is the most highly developed part of the human brain and is responsible for
thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. Most information processing
occurs in the cerebral cortex.
The cortex integrates all the functions of the nervous system. It receives and transmits
messages to and from all sensory organs and controls all voluntarily actions. The cerebral
cortex is divided into lobes that each has a function.
An important fact about our body is that the two hemispheres control opposite sides of our
bodies. This is called contralateral control which means that the left hemisphere controls the
right side of the body while the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. That is if
you move your right hand the message was sent by your left hemisphere. Here is an
illustration.
CHILD RELATED ISSUES
Nature- Nurture.
Nature-Nurture How much of an individual's development is due to nature, innate biological
factors (inheritance) ( and how much to nurture(upbringing)? Typically, developmental
psychologists are interested in looking at how these factors interact, rather than trying to
decide which is more important.
CONTINOUS-DISCONTINOUS
At the heart of the continuity versus discontinuity debate lies the question of whether
development is solely and evenly continuous, or whether it is marked by age‐specific periods.
Developmentalists who advocate the continuous model describe development as a relatively
smooth process, without sharp or distinct stages, through which an individual must pass.
Meanwhile, supporters of the discontinuous model describe development as a series of
discrete stages, each of which is characterized by at least one task that an individual must
accomplish before progressing to the next stage. For example, Freud, in his stage model
of psychosexual development, theorized that children systematically move through oral, anal,
phallic, and latency stages before reaching mature adult sexuality in the genital stage.
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Domains of Development
Development can also be organized into broad areas or domains which collectively ensure the
holistic development of the young child.
The different domains are:
1. Physical development
Changes in body size and proportions, order and acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.
2. Cognitive development:
The development of intellectual processes that include attention, memory, knowledge,
problem-solving, language and communication. The brain of an infant baby is growing faster
than at any other time in life! Studies have shown the first months of life to have enormous
consequence for social and emotional development much later in life and up through
adulthood. However healthy cognitive development does not need to be complicated.
3. Socio-emotional development:
The development of social skills through interaction with others, emotional expression,
attachment, development of self-esteem and self-confidence. Social and emotional
development serves as the foundation for relationships and interactions that give meaning to
a child’s experiences in the home, at school, and in the larger community. Brain research
consistently supports the importance of the first five years as the critical years for developing
foundational social and emotional skills.
