17.

1 ~ntroduction
Growth of Education: A ~ i s t o r i c a Overview
l
17.2
17.3 Growth of €ducation in the Post independence period
17.4 Expansion of Education
17.5 Diversification of ~ducationalStreams
17.6 conclusion
17.7 Further Reading
Learning Objectives

..
Following the study of this unit, YOU should be
know about the growth of education through different ages;
understand the \imitations and strengths of the past systems of education;
. appreciate the growth of education i n terms of its ability to reach the
masses; and
develop awareness about the recent trends that have led to the
of the educational scenario.

17.1 Introduction
In this unit we shall trace the growth of education i n India and also study its
expansion. AS we know, growth refers to vertical increase while expansion
usually connotes lateral enhancement with increased scope for accommodation
as well as diversification into various forms and types. However, at the very
beginning we would like to tell you that growth and expansion of an abstraction
like education are closely interrelated processes and it is difficult to separate
one from the other i n a clear cut manner. In the first part of the unit we shall
concentrate on the growth of education. Starting from the Vedic period, we
shall trace the growth of education through the Buddhist, Mughal, and British
period and thereafter we shall reach the post independence period. Thus we
shall study under growth of education, the inception of formal education and
the major changes it underwent to reach the present form. Our study of
expansion of education will mainly deal with the enhancements i n the ability
of our educational system to include millions of aspirants, the expansion of
physical facilities for imparting education and the emergence of diverse forms
and types of education that has been taking place due to the rapidly expanding
knowledge base resulting in new specialsed areas of knowledge. Thus, expansion
of education has been taking place mainly in response to the rapidly changing
socio-economic changes in modern India, and it is all the more true for the
post independent period.

17.2 Growth of Education: A Historical Overview

As a process, education is as old as the progression of human race. Right from
the time of evolution of human beings, education began in one form or the
Other. and skills related to processes of fulfilling basic human needs,
" gathering
Onesea' These
food, hunting, covering the body, preparing tools, protecting
during the period passed on from one generation to the next. Education
were was
bound by certain totally informal in nature; neverthelesz it was
immediate needs Pertaining to objectives.
bodily These objectives were
to fulfill the
wants such as hunger,
etc. and enhance the level Of
Thereafter with the growth of
civilization
f
Educationai Systems in
\ndia 'he need Of formaleducation for the development of the individual as wellas
the society was realired and gradually education got institutiona\ized,

great changes We could say that education has grown

Since the form
in which it existed as testified
Indian dates back to by the
to the times of the valley
that there was the civilization. Following
age and thereafter
passed through the the ~ ~ d dperiod.h i ~ Then ~
Went under medieval age and traveling through the Muqhal period,
it
as "Ie for about two hundred years. ~ f independence,
t ~ ~
the as expansion of education has been by leaps and bounds unlike
'low progress
US the most- made in the Past and this has been a matter that concerns
Therefore, the growth Of education has been taken up
to pre-independence to post independence periods,
The
independence Period, which has witnessed the rapid growth of
merely spans a period of fifty eight years. ~~t the period before
independence
back to thousands of years. The growth of education
since the historical Past
shall be studied through its afferent periods, namely
Vedic period,
period, Mughal period and finally the British period.
Vedic Period

Let us first study the educational system during the Vedic period. Differences
in opinion exist as to the exact date of this period. According to some, it
could have extended between 1500 and 500 BC. The contribution of this era
towards the generation of knowledge and emphasis on learning is immense. It
is claimed that during the early part of Vedic period, education was not
restricted for the male members of society and women too got equal
opportunities regarding education. Women scholars of this period like
Vishvarava, Atreyi, Maitreyi, Gargi, Lopamudra and many others are a testimony
to this. However, later on during this period education for women lost its
popularity.

Education had started acquiring a formal nature during this period. Education
was imparted at centers of learning called gurukuls, ashrams, parishads, etc-
Young students were sent from home to the residential d ~ o o l swhere they
stayed with the guru (teacher) and his family. Education was imparted for
years together. Teaching- learning started following an initiation process into
the world of education called upanayan. Education during this period
aimed at achieving salvation. It aimed at balanced development Of the pupils
and their moral, intellectual, social and cultural developments were
takeencare of (Singh, 1992) Taxila, Patliputra, Varanasi became some Of the
renowned seats of learning.
The teacher used to be an expert in both theory as well as practice' The
teacher was highly revered for his knowledge and integrity. He was
to be the epitome of erudition, character, morality, r i and nobility'
~ ~
He was therefore considered to be the representative Of God. He was who'1y
responsible for the education and general Welfare of his students' A'th0ugh
taught
the concept of gurudakshina (fees) was there but gurus Or was
not for the sake of money but because it was their sacred duty.
thus not an occupation in the strict sense but rather a duty discharged toward'
society.
from a life of
supposed to be hard working and refrain
The students were and be
supposed to lead a life of chastity, be
luxury. They were teacher. The concept of working at the teacher's
obedient to their
period. This made the pupils not Only educated
was
while Prevailed inthis in day-to-by teacher They spent
in the Sk,\h
but alro adept learner Was we'' cared for by the
individualired and
their time in gaining knowledge and skills but also had to cultivate the teacher's Education: Expansion
Land, tend his cattle, beg for alms and perform the tasks assigned to him by and Growth
the teacher (Sharma 1992).

The curriculum was rich and diversified with components such as mathematics,
languages, grammar, Literature, warfare for the kshatriyas (warriors),
administration, scriptures, astrology, astronomy, etc. Stress was laid on character
development. Thus as underlined by Singh, (1992) education aimed at moral
development, spiritual consciousness, and was also humanitarian with salvation
as the ultimate destination. There were rigid rules to regulate the conduct of
pupils. Theses rules pertained to hygiene, morality, religious performances,
etc. The students following the initiation ceremony would put on the sacred
thread and spend fourteen years away from their home in the seclusion of an
ashram or gurukul (James and Mayhew 1988). Teaching - learning were mainly
through oral activities. Listening, contemplating, internalizing, reciting were
emphasised over reading and writing (Sharma 1992). Even the literature of the
then popular language, Sanskrit has its origin i n an oral tradition and gave rise
to the holy texts of the Vedic era. Panini developed Sanskrit grammar and
since then a lot of literary contributions were made such as the shastras,
epics, lyric poetry, stylized drama, etc. (Academic American Encyclopedia 1983).

Education during this period was not for the masses but only for the elites of
society. Only the members of the upper castes namely Ksatriayas and Brahmins
were allowed to avail the opportunities regarding education. Women's education
too did not receive its due share. The entire system of education was entrusted
to the Brahmins. Education for the other classes was informal, unorganized
and neglected. This was a drawback of the educational system prevailing then.
However, the scholarly contributions made during this period are so rich that
they have acquired the status of classics. Another important feature is that
the students were like the members of the teacher's family and although the
concept of gurudakshina i.e. fees happened to be there but knowledge was
held to be too sacred to be commodified for sale and profit making.

Reflection and Action 17.1

Collect information about the curriculum and teaching methods of a gurukul
of ancient India and compare it with that of modern times. According to
you what are the strengths and weaknesses of the former over the latter.

Buddhist Period
About the sixth century BC, rigidities of Vedic rituals and sacrifices along with
the overwhelming dominance of the Brahmins over the lower castes became
responsible for the disenchantment of the masses with the prevailing system
(Encylopaedia Britannica Online). Gautam Buddha, the great religious leader as
well as social reformer preached non-violence and social equity. He vouched
for a casteless society. As a result the social discrimination in the field of
education that was prevalent in the Vedic period was challenged during this
period and it was the first attempt towards providing education to the masses.
During the Buddhist period education was institutionalized. Educational
institutions enjoying great repute, as Takshashila, Nalanda and other flourished
during this period. These institutions attracted students from several countries.
Young children were admitted to these institutions and education was imparted
for a fixed period of time as in modern times.

During this period sanghs came up that were the centers of all religious
instructions and activities. Later on these sanghs emerged as the centers that
were also involved in educational activities. The gurukuls and ashrams of the
Vedic age were thus substituted during this period by institutionalized sanghs
or monasteries. These institutions were akin to the universities of the modern
world. During this period entrance tests were common i n educational
Educational Systems in institutions. Only those successful at these tests were allowed to avail of the
India educational services provided at these institutions. The number of students
in educational institutions was quite high. There were thousands of students
and teachers at these institutions. Therefore, Buddhist educational institutions
had a wide perspective. This was a step forward from the individualised and
exclusive functioning of the ~urukulsof the Vedic period. The educational
institutions of this period being open to all sections of society were more
inclusive in nature and had a collective participation.

In order that the common man did not have to grapple with the complexities
of Sanskrit, which was the medium of educational and literary activities earlier,
the languages commonly used, Pali and Prakrit, were resorted to. In spite of
marked differences between the educational systems of the Vedic and Buddhist
periods, the curriculum followed in the latter period s t i l l reflected a continuation
of that of the Vedic period. Dharma or religion was the main curricular
component at the monasteries. The curriculum included components such as
theology, philosophy, literature, astronomy, administration, etc. Professional
studies like medicine, surgery, etc. were also carried out in these institutions
(Sharma 1992).

Education was imparted following the payment of fees by the students. This
was the beginning of education becoming a paid service. As in the Vedic
period the students were supposed to observe celibacy and be fully obedient
and respectful towards their teachers. Just as the Brahmins were in charge cf
imparting education in the Vedic period, during this period, the monks at the
monasteries were in charge of it. The monks were celibates and spent their
time in prayer, meditation, and studies (Academic American EncycIopedia 1983 1.
Huen Tsang, (quoted by Sharma 1992) had recorded that thousands of priests
who were men of highest abilities and talent, with great distinctions and
whose conduct was pure, sincerely followed the moral law. They spent their
time i n discourses. Thus the teachers of this period as in the Vedic period
were revered in society because they were persons of character and erudition.

We thus see that during the Buddhist period the first attempts were made to
impart education to the masses. There was greater social equity in imparting
education. However, the education of women did not receive i t s due importance
and the educational scenario continued to be dominated by men. The Buddhist
period did not last in lndia and became popular abroad. For 500 years from the
4th century AD to the close of the athcentury, during the reign of the Gupta
dynasty and its successors, there was a remarkable advancement in several
areas. The rulers patronized scholars and remarkable contributions were made
in different areas such as science, mathematics, astronomy, art, literature,
etc. (Encylopaedia Britannica Online).

Reflection and Action 17.2 1

State some educational contributions that had been made during the
Vedic times. What are the similarities in the educational system of the
Buddhists and the Vedic period?

Medieval period
This period can be traced back to about the twelfth century AD. Muslim
invaders repeatedly invaded during this period and it resulted in Islam taking
firm roots in India. Political instability due to repeated invasions and ag, oressions
adversely affected the existing educational system. During this period the
education system underwent far-reaching changes. Madrasas and makhtabs
were opened to impart education. The madrasas, which in Arabic mean
'schools', were the institutions of higher learning. They function even today
as theological seminaries and Islamic law schools. The curriculum would be
I6 centered on the study of the Quran, hadith, Arabian grammar, logic, languages,
etc. The study of Islamic jurisprudence was stressed. The makhtabs were Education: Expansion
Muslim elementary schools that made the students competent to read the and Growtk
religious texts. Elementary knowledge of writing, grammar, etc. was also
imparted to the young children (Srivastaval989). lnstrl~ctionswere imparted
mainly orally in makhtabs and madrasas. Memorisation of Islamic texts was
emphasised. The wealthy people of the society would fund these educatignal
institutions.

Theological considerations dominated educational institutions like madrasas

and makhtabs. Education during this period is said to h w e had an excessive
theological bias. This was probably due to the bias of the I ulers who patronized
education during this period and the ulema, who controlled the educati~r13i
scenario, towards theological aspects. The emphasis was thus on reii;io is
issues although the main goal was to do away with illiter;,cy ar?d advance
knowledge. This trend resulted in nurturing madrasas that were essentially
schools of theology with auxiliary linguistic studies. These institutions provided
a steady supply of quazis, muftis, and other experts in jurisprudence and
administration for the state (Srivastava, 1989).

During medieval lndia too poets, scholars and philosophers were greatly
respected and patronized by the rulers and some from abroad visited India.
During the times of Firozshah Tughlaq and Sikandar Lodi special interest was
taken in education and renowned madrasas as seats of higher learning were
opened. Thereafter the Mughal period started i n lndia with Babar as the first
Mughal emperor. The Mughal period extended from the early part of the 16th
century and extended till the middle of the nineteenth century. The Mughal
emperors too were interested in providing education to their subjects. They
patronized learned men and institutions of learning.

During the Mughal period the credit for organising education on a systematic
basis goes to Akbar. He opened a large number of schools and institutions of
higher learning for both Hindus and Muslims (Encylopaedia Britannica Online).
He even introduced certain curricular reforms. The curriculum emphasised,
besides theological aspects, also the study of science, history, geometry,
mathematics, etc. He also opened educational institutions for his Hindu
subjects where Sanskrit, its grammar, Vedant, literature, etc., were taught.
The need for moral education was also emphasised. Duiing this period, many
Hindus joined lslamic educational centers and learnt Persian since it was the
language used for judicial purposes. Aurangzeb opened many madrasas and
makhtabs and scholarships were paid in his time to the poor but deserving
students (Singh 1992).

Box 17.1 : Expansion of Education during Mughal period

Art and architecture flourished during this phase and calligraphy was an
important component of the curriculum during this period. Education was
provided free of cost so that people from all classes of society could avail
of it. Obedience towards teachers and respect for learned people still
continued in this period as in the earlier periods. Institutions for imparting
education to the Hindus continued to exist i f not flourished and Sanskrit,
literature, mathematics, etc. were taught in these institutions. Varanasi,
Mithila and Mathura were some of the centers for higher learning for
Hindus. Women's education continued to be neglected and was confined
only to the women from the higher classes of society. Women from well to
do Hindu and Muslim families were provided with educational facilities at
their homes by tutors appointed by their families.

During the Moghal period even when it flourished and reached its peak,
education was still not recognized as a tool for national development and the
collapse of the Mughal empire brought with it the ruin of the educational
system. Developments in science and literature both among Hindus and Muslims
Educational Systems in had taken a back seat. There was almost moral anarchy as testified to by the
India acquisition of power by the British in Bengal and the subsequent conversion
of lndia into a colony. It was more a phase of treason, treachery and open
rivalry for power. This had started with the death of Aurangzeb and education
as a system started losing its vigour towards the close of the eighteenth
century (James and Mayhew 1988). What remained was an indigenous system
of education with tols and madrasas imparting Hindu and Arabic education
respectively. The infrastructure of the educational institutions that were usually
single teacher schools was often poor and learning was mostly in the open.
The notable change was that the role of teacher was no longer the monopoly
of Brahmins all over India. In Bengal, for instance, members of other upper
castes too taught in schools for hindu children. But in the institutions of
higher learning Brahmins still continued as teachers. Education in this period
mainly comprised the study of texts. Investigative studies, experimentation,
scientific studies were not given importance. Since Persian remained the court
language, many Hindu boys too learnt it. Mainly mathematics, grammar,
literature, religious texts, languages, were taught. Illiteracy was widespread
among the people belonging to the lower castes (Basu 1982).

Reflection and Action 17.3

Explain some of the educational achievements during the Mughal period.

British Period
The British period started with the decline of the Mughal empire in the middle
of the eighteenth century. The missionaries from Europe had already started
arriving in lndia to propagate Christianity and along with the British regime,
they had an active role in shaping the educational system of this period.
Warren Hastings was the first Governor General of lndia who recognised the
duty of the government to provide education to its subjects. He founded and
also endowed the Calcutta Madrasa, which happened to be the earliest
educational institution to be set up by the British rulers. Soon after a Sanskrit
College was established in Benaras by Jonathan Duncan, the then Resident in
Benaras and it was also provided with substantial funds. A college for Hindu
Learning was also opened at Poona by Mountstuart Elphinstone. The newfound
interest in the Oriental, especially lndian literature, sacred texts and other
sources of knowledge, her history and culture, led to the revival and even
encouragement of a learning system that had existed prior to the arrival of the
British in India. As a result Hindu educational institutions and also institutions
where Arabic learning was there were encouraged by the then British regime
(James and Mayhew 1988).

This trend continued till the early part of the 19th century. The evangelicals,
the liberals and the utilitarians questioned this early policy of encouraging
Oriental education. They were all agreed that lndian society had to be reformed
(Basu, 1982). The Christian missionaries had by then started taking an active
interest in the education of the natives. English education was felt to be
necessary by some' of the evangelists to propagate Christianity and regenerate
lndian society. Although their aim was to use education as a tool for achieving
the evangelisation of the natives, the cause of education too was served.
Schools and colleges were opened in the early part of the 19th century by
Christian missionaries at Kolkata, Serampore, Chennai, Mumbai and other places.
The continuing craze for admission to Christian convent schools and the desire
for western education can be traced back to this period. The people from the
upper classes and even the middle classes of Bengal and other places had
started realizing that western education provided in these institutions was
more useful as well as Liberating than that provided at the pathshalas, tols, and
madrasas. Social reformers and educationists had realized the need for takine,
the best from the west for the progress of the Indians. Even the social reformer,
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was in favour of imparting western education, especially Education: Expansion
its science education so as to liberate the minds of lndians and modernize and Growth
them. Along with indophiles like David Hare and Sir Edward Hyde East, he
opened the Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817 to impart modern education. In
1823, when the first Committee on Public Instructions was set up, he pleaded
against the setting up of a Sanskrit school, which he felt would teach things
that were 2000 years old. He requested that a liberal system of instruction
that included mathematics, science, philosophy and other subjects that were
more suitable in that period be started.

Macaulay's minutes of 1835 that laid the foundation of the modern education
system along the patterns of the British model is often blamed for superimposing
a western model of education on the structure of education that had evolved
for thousands of years. His motives are also questioned and he is still accused
that the education system that has been established on account of his minutes
was intended to prepare clerks for the British rulers. He is also blamed for
vouching for English and disregarding Indian science, literature and other
knowledge existing i n other disciplines and for deriding the prevailing knowledge
as antiquated. But as mentioned earlier, before Macaulay's minutes, the
missionaries had already established schools and colleges imparting modern
education and even the Hindu College was opened i n Kolkata. lndians had
started desiring western education. Macaulay had argued that advancements
in the fie1.d of education made by the west should not be withheld from the .
natives who are craving for it. lndians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy too had
expressed such views (James and Mayhew 1988).

Box 17.2 : Attempts for Equitable Distribution of Education i n Modern

lndia
Wood's dispatch of 1854 is looked upon as a charter of educational privileges.
It considered it as a sacred duty of the government to provide education
to the Indians. I t was felt the masses could be taught in their mother
tongue but nevertheless the knowledge of English was required. The despatch
also recommended a grants-in-aid system for educational institutions. It
also made several recommendations to strengthen the system of education
and make its access more equitable (Singh, 1992). After a long gap since
the period of Nalanda, Taxila and other such institutions, following Wood's
despatch, the first universities of modern lndia were opened in present
day Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai. Hunter's Commission presented its report
in 1882. It had recommended the careful withdrawal of the government
from the field of higher education, and its being taken over by private
enterprise while the state paid more attention to primary education. It
also emphasised the moral side of education with strict discipline being
maintained i n educational institutions (James and Mayhew 1988).

In 1910 Gopal Krishna Gokhale mooted the idea of free and compulsory primary
education for children all over the country. The plan was shelved at that point
of time but its popularity and utility remain till today. During this period the
need for teacher training and adult education were also expressed. One of the
recommendations made by the Sadler Commission in 1917 stressed the need
for substantial increase in the output of trained teachers. In 1920 the Central
advisory Board of Education (CABE) was set up to advise the government on
issues related to education. It was subsequently dissolved and set up again i n
1935. The need for adult education was realized by the proponents of mass
education. However till the early part of the last century not much attention
had been paid t o it. During 1937-39 the CABE committee stressed the need for
adult education t o be taken up on a wider scale and also suggested that
voluntary organisations may also be involved i n this cause. The Sargent
Commission (1944) spelt out that the responsibility for providing adult education
should be shouldered by the state. During this period lndians like Vivekananda,
Educational Systems in Mahatma Gandhi, Gijubhai Bedeheka, Rabindra Nath Tagore were actively
India involved i n the educational process. Not only did they start educational
institutions but also based them upon philosophies that were more suited to
the needs and culture of India. At the same time the curriculum could also
respond to the needs of modern India.

Education in the colonial period was thus markedly different from which that
prevailed i n the past. In spite of two hundred years of British rule, the literacy
rate was abysmally low. This was especially true for the socially and economically
backward sections of the society. The dropout rate was high. The transitian
rates from one level of education to the next higher level were also very low.
The social progression was not to the extent that people would feel the
indispensability of formal education. Education was also removed from the
socio- cultural requirements and was considered more suited to fulfill the
demands of a regime that belonged to an alien culture. It has been stated by
Raza (1991) that in the colonial period education, especially at the higher
levels was concentrated in and around the cities of Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai where the British had constructed ports. Thus there was enclavisation
of higher education. In comparison, the other areas were neglected. It i s also
alleged that spreading English education was not an act of selfless magnanimity
but rather a ploy to further the interests of the British government by preparing
a work force that was well versed in English and make the Indians feei that
the British were not aliens. I t is also alleged that education was too Literal in
approach and areas such as vocational education and technical education were
neglected. Mass education was also neglected (Basu 1982).

However, there were also certain positive aspects. For the first time the goa:i
of education and the curriculum reflected a pragmatic approach which wag
more i n sync with modern times. Changes i n the school curriculvm,
diversification of education, concepts like teacher education, mass education,
free and compulsory education, adult education, etc. also came up. Above ai!
the foundations of modern education were Laid during this period. The
education system, when it was being established did not make any attempt
to withhold the advancements made i n different fields in the west frorn the
natives but rather encouraged them towards such learning.

Reflection and Action 17.4 1

I
What were the strengths of the education system prevailing ring the I
British rule i n India? I
1
I-J

17.3 Growth of Education in the Post Independence

Period
The educational system inherited from the British was fraught with seri0t.l;
problems such as extremely low literacy level, poor retention, abysmally low
educational opportunities for the backward sections of society and vjomer,
and so on. These problems needed to be addressed and the educational system
needed to be transformed in a major way so that it could be the means for
the transformation of a nation enslaved for centuries to a modern and developed
nation. The first task was to expand the educational system so that it reached
the millions, especially to those at the fringes of society. There was the need
to initiate the eradication of illiteracy, vocationalise education and bring about
other necessary reforms in the curriculum.

In order to facilitate the growth of education, experts had to be involved.

Therefore several commissions and committees were set up. In1948 the first
Education Commission of free lndia namely, University Education Commission.
was set up to suggest reformative measures in the field of higher education.
I Thereafter the Secondary Education Commission was set up i n 1952 t o Education: Expansion
strengthen the secondary education system. In 1966, the Indian Education and Growth
Commission under the chairmanship of D.S. Kothari submitted a report that
covered a l l aspects and level of education. It was rather a blueprint of
reformative action for the entire educational system of India. It came up with
I a unique and integrated national system of education. (Singh 1992).Discussions
and deliberations on these recommendations led to the National Policy on
Education (NPE) in 1968. As a result a uniform pattern of education, 10+2+3
system was initiated all over the country by 1975. In 1977 under the chairmanship
I
, of Dr. MS. Adisheshaia, the National Review Committee reviewed the curriculum
of t h e +2 Stage of school education and emphasised t h e need f o r
vocationalisation of education. Thereafter NPE, 1986, was formulated and to
implement it, the Programme of Action was also developed by the Ministry of
Human Resource Development (MHRD). Meanwhile Operation Black Board was
launched in 1985 to equip primary schools with the basic infrastructural facilities.
In 1990, to further review the recommendations and implement NPE, 1986,
Acharya Ramamurthy Committee submitted its report (Aggarwal 1992). Apart
from all these, since independence there have been other commissions and
committees too to strengthen the educational system and usher in effective
reforms.

Growth of Education Facilitated by Constitutional Provisions

The Indian Constitution came into force in 1950, when lndia became a republic.
The constitution has several provisions regarding education. Education was
initially a state subject but following an amendment (42nd)to the Constitution
in 1976, it became a concurrent subject. As a result both the center and the
state can legislate on it. The center however mainly coordinates and monitors
the functioning of the states in educational matters. At the center the MHRD,
is entrusted with educational matters.

Among the fundamental rights enshrined i n the constitution, right to education

too has now been included The Directive Principle of Dtate Policy, which
earlier required the state to impart free and compulsory elementary education
now requires the state to provide early childhood care and education. The
Constitution has provisions that require the state to care for the educational
interests of the backward sections of society and also promote with special
care the educational interest of women. There are also provisions to uphold
the educational rights of the linguistic and religious minorities. Besides, there
is a provision that requires the medium of instruction to be the mother
tongue at the primary level.

In order to fulfill the constitutional obligation regarding universal elementary

education (UEE), programmes like the District Primary Education Programme
had been launched. The latest attempt in this direction is through the Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan launched in 2000. Besides, there are several other programmes
like Janshala, Shiksha apke dwar, etc. initiated by the local governments as
;1 well as non government organisations for achieving the target of UEE.

Growth of Literacy Rates

Ability to read, write and comprehend empowers people and also leads to
gainful employment. Illiteracy i s the greatest block in the path of socio-
economic development. In the British period the need for the education of
the masses was realised but not much was achieved. Soon after independence,
in 1951 the literacy rate was a mere 18.33% with only 8.86% literacy among
women. It was realised that literacy leads to awareness about rights and

duties. Enhancing Uteracy was a\so f e \ t to be the most effective to01 for
arresting the population explosion. Therefore, a campaign was started to provide
education to the masses and especially to the deprived sections of society.
Eradicating illiteracy from a vast country like lndia with over a billion people,
Educational Systems in geographically remote places, and years of neglect and backwardness has rlot
India been very easy. Hence the National Literacy Mission was set up in 1988 to take
up earnestly the cause of adult education. The results have been, i f not very
encouraging at least better than that made on this front in the colonial pcriod.
In 1991 the literacy rate was a little over 52% but i n 2001 the literacy rate
stood at 65.38%. Thus about 13%gain had been made in the literacy rate during
the last decade and the goal of achieving 75% threshold literacy rate appears
t o be achievable. Another achievement has been in the field of female literacy.
Even in 1991 female Literacy was only 39.42% but i n 2001 it was 53.7%. Also as
per the 2001 census report the rural-urban gap in literacy has come down from
31% in1991 to 21.7%.

Reflection and Action 17.5

Explain the education scenario immediately preceding the British period.
. Elaborate the gains in terms of the literacy rates of the Indian ppulation
since independence.

Thus we see that since independence i n the last five decades there has been
significant growth i n education in comparison to the British period. However,
literacy merely refers t o the ability t o read, write and comprehend and i s only
a small achievement when a comprehensive term like education i s considered
but nevertheless attainment of literacy i s the first step in all future educational
attainments. Therefore, eradication of illiteracy is the prime necessity for any
sort of educational growth.

In spite of great efforts being made to achieve LIEE, we are still far frorn
achieving it. Deadlines had been fixed for achieving it but they have been
missed. The greatest impediment to educational growth has been the poor
retention rate in primary schools. There has been a sustained campaign for
UEE and as a result there have been great achievements i n terms of enrolment.
But the number of children dropping out is enormous. Therefore, the high
enrolment ratio i s unable to take us anywhere near the achievement of UEE.
In spite of the enrolment ratio being as high as about 97%, the dropout rate
is 36.3% in grades I-V, which means one third of the children enrolled drop out.
I t is still higher at 53% in grades V- VIII. Thus we see that poor retention i s
impeding the achievement of WEE. Enrolment as well as retention are all the
more i n a dismal state when it comes to the weaker sections of society namely
the backward communities and female members. These are some of the factors
that are slowing down educational growth.

17.4 Expansion of Education

We have already discussed that growth and expansion of education are closely
interrelated terms. The ability of the education system to expand or reach out
t o all sections of society i s increasing. Earlier education was the privilege
enjoyed by the elite. But after independence it was realised that human
resource development cannot ignore large sections of society and the education
system has to be such that it can accommodate the masses'. Hence efforts are
being made to reach out and raise enrolment at different levels of education.
For this educational facilities are being increased. Special attention is also
being paid t o the education of women and backward sections of society.
Alternative means of providing education are also being explored. At the same
time there is an ongoing diversification of educational streams due to changing
social needs and expansion of knowledge base. Let us study some of the
aspects leading t o expansion of education.

Expansion of Education in Terms of Enrolment

In 1951 the population was just 36 crores. The literacy rate of 18% indicates
the restricted access to educational opportunities. Today the pQp~/g[jQfl hi;')
more than tripled but that the literacy rate having crossed 65% indicates that Education: Expansion
the scope of the educational system has widened. In 1951 only 27% of males and Growth
and 8.86 % of females were literate but today 75% of males and about 53% of
females are literate. Enrolment at the lower primary level is about 109 million
and i n the upper primary level it is about 40 million. There are about 1.705
million and 1.082 million teachers respectively at these levels (Gopalan, 1998).
The enrolment at the primary level i n 1951 was about 19.2 million. It has
enhanced by about 5.75 times. For girls, enrolment since then has enhanced
by about nine times in 1996-97. At upper primary level the net increase since
1951 has been about 13 times, while for girls the increase has been by about
32 times. At the secondary and senior secondary levels the net increase has
been by 21 times since 1951 and for girls it has been by 49 times. The gross
enrolment ratio in 1950-51 at the primary level was 42.6% while in 2002-03 it
rose to 95.4%. Elementary education today in our country with149.4 million
children in the age group of 6-14 years and 2.9 million teachers is the second
largest i n the world. These figures as indicated by Table17.1 reflect the
inclusiveness of education and its expansion
Table17.1: Enrolment by stages from 1950-51 to 2001-2002 (in million)
Year Primary (I -V) MiddleIUpper Primary High/Hr. Sec./lnter/
(VI-VIII) Pre-Degree (IX-XII)
I

I Boys I Girls 1 Total I Boys I Girls I Total

I

I Boys 1 Girls ( Total 1

*-Provisional data
Source: http: / /www.education.nic.in
Expansion Of Educational Facilities
In the last five decades the number of education institutions has grown
manifold. From 1950-51 to 2001-02 the number of schools of different levels
have grown by many times. Table 17.2 indicates the growing trend in educational
facilities.
Educational Systems i n Table 17.2: Growth of recognised educational institutions from 1950-51 ro 2001-
India 2002
Years Primary Upper High/Hr.Secl Colleges for Colleges for Universities1
Primary InterlPre. Jr. General Professlonal Deemed Univ.1
Colleges Education Education Instt.
(Engg., Tech) of National
Arch., Medica Importance
and Education
colleges)
1950-51 209671 13596 7416 370 208 27
1955-56 278135 21730 10838 466 218 31
1960-61 330399 49663 17329 967 852 45
1965-66 391064 75798 27614 1536 770 64
1970-71 408378 90621 37051 2285 992 82
1975-76 454270 106571 43054 3667 ** 3276 101
1980-81 494503 118555 51573 342 1 " 3542 110
1985-86 528872 134846 65837 4067 ** 1533 126
1990-91 560935 151456 79796 4862 886 184
1991-92 566744 155926 82576 5058 950 196
1992-93 571248 158498 84608 5334 989 207
1993-94 570455 162804 89226 5639 1125 213
1994-95
1995-96
586810 168772
593410 174145
94946
99274
6089
6569
1230
1354
219
(
1996-97 603646 180293 103241 6759 1770 226 i
1997-98 619222 185961 107140 7199 2075 229
228 11
1998-99" 626737 190166 112438 7494 2113 237 I

1999-2000" 641695 198004 116820 7782 2124 244

2000-2001* 638738 206269 126047 7929 2223 254
2001 -2002* 664041 219626 133492 8737 2409 272
' - provisional data
Source:http://www.education.nic.in

Today due t o the efforts made during the last several decades since
independence, about 94% of the population has access to a primary school
within a radius of one kilometer. We thus see that apart from the growing
number of learners leading to the expansion of the educational system another
major indicator of its expansion is the development in the number of educational
institutions that are today catering to millions of learners.

There are several new dimensions related to the expansion of education. Let
us examine a few.

a) Development of Women's Education

As mentioned earlier even during the colonial period women's education was
greatly neglected. Since independence greater attention has been paid to this
and enrolment of women at all stages of education has been increasing steadily
through the years. Since 1950-51 enrolment of girls has increased many fold in
Primary, Middle, Sec./Hr.Sec stages and Hr. Education levels frorn 28.1% to
44.1%, froml6.1% to 41.8%, from 13.30% to 39.5%, and from 10.0% to 39.9%
respectively.
 Education: Expanslcn
rent t o total enrolment by stages and Growth

Provisional

fixpans.ior, of educar mi cannot be holistic and inclusive if women's education

IS ne5lected. Today there are several hundred women's college and quite a few
uni\/ets?tresonly for women. The number af women enrolled per 100 men in
institutions of higher cSucation in 1950-51 was just 14 but during the last
decade i t was about 46. However, women's participation i s s t i l l below fifty per
cent at all stages of education. The literacy rate of 53% i s also less than 75%
fcr men. The average number of years spent by girls in schools i s also much
less than that spent by boys. The situation continues to remain grim in case
of women belonging to the backward sections of society and rural areas.
Besides lower enrolment of women at different levels of education, another
trend that i s being noticed i s the relatively much Lower enrolment of girls at
the higher secondary level and above i n the science stream and i n technological
courses. Most of the women learners enroll in the humanities stream. Hence,
growth of women's education is yet to catch up with that of men. From
female literacy of 14%in 1951 to reach a literacy rate of 53%, it has taken about
50 years. It can be expected that with sustained ?;forts like the Mahila Samakhya
Project in rural areas that emphasises the cenu-ality of education to achieve
equality and the efforts of the government and non-government agencies to
enroll and retain girls, 100% literacy will be attained for women in a much
shorter time.
5) Development of Alternative Forms of Educational institutions

We have already discussed the growth of institut.ionr offering educatio~.~t

different levels. But today even such an expandd systr.m of education fails
Educational Systems in
India to accommodate every aspirant. There are still many who have been left
behind' Therefore, alternative modes of offering education have been developing
in to the educational system, Education imparted through
the distance and the non-formal education systems are forces to
alternatives are greatly aiding the expansion of education
reckoned with- ~ h e s e
and are Parallel to the conventional system.

Ref k c t i o n and Action 17.6

information on the rising enrolment of people belonging to the

backward sections of society and compare ifwith that of the period when
India became independent.
c) Distance education
Since the first correspondence courses offered by Delhi University
distance and Open learning System has covered a long way. In 1982, the first
Open was opened in Andhra Pradesh. In 1985, a central Open
lndira Gandhi National Open University, was opened and today we
ha~eab~uta dozen state open universities. Apart from the institutions that
are offering education exclusively through the distance mode, there are several
universities and academic institutions that are offering education in a dual
mode, i.e., through face-to-face mode and also through the distance mode.
The National Open School provides education at the school level ~ogether
these institutions are catering to the educational needs of millions of students.
Open learning centers have been contributing a lot towards the expansion of
education as they are capable of taking education to the doorsteps of those
aspiring for education but cannot join conventional systems due to various
reasons. The distance education system on account of its greater flexibility
regarding time of learning, pace of learning and even educational background
of the learner, coupled with its ability to accommodate a much larger student
population, is gaining popularity rapidly. Development of distance education
system has been greatly contributing towards the expansion of education,
especially in the field of higher education. Through their regional / study
centers they are actively providing education that includes even professional
courses. There are facilities to take care of the practical component too and
hence, courses i n science, engineering, medicine, nursing, teacher training,
etc, offered through the distance mode are quite common today.
d) Non-Formal Education
Non-Formal Education (NFE) comprises systematic and organized educational
activities that are carried out outside the framework of the formal system of
education. It mainly intends to serve those who Cannot or could not attend
educational systems and especially the dropouts. I t also intends to provide
education to those pursuing an occupation so that they may function in a
better manner. It aim is at generating awareness of contemporary social issues
that concern us like AIDS. It thus provides need-based education to a particular
section of society. Different media are used to provide non-formal education.
The sixth five-year plan emphasised i t s need and from rural areas it has reached
urban slums, hilly areas, deserts, tribal areas, etc. Assistance is provided to
the state governments for running NFE centers by the central government
(Aggarwal, 1992). The National Policy on Education, 1986, stressed the need
for non-formal education for school dropouts, girl children who could not
attend school and other such people deprived of regular educational facilities.
Apart from the print medium, electronic media like radio, television, audio and
video cassettes, toll-free telephonic helplines, etc. are used to impart non-
formal education. The educational programmes offered through the non- for ma1
mode thus commonly aim to generate awareness, develop literacy, ai-d enhawe
competence i n those who are pursuing an occupation. It is provided by
government organisations as well as by non-government ones. Even fornlai
educational institutions may be the providers of non- formal education, for Education: Expansion
and Growth
instance that provided to farmers, teakhers, etc. through the extension services
of universities and colleges.

17.5, Diversification of Educational Streams

The educational system of our country has undergone expansion due to the
inclusion of a higher per centage of student population in comparison to the
pre independence era at every level of education. 'There has also been expansion
in terms of increase in terms of educational facilities. Besides these, expansion
of education has another connotation, namely diversification of educational
streams or in other words, we can say the branching out of general education
into new specialized areas. Education today thus has a much wider scope than
in the past.

As we have been discussing, in ancient times the curriculum included only a

few areas of study such as religious texts, literature, grammar, mathematics,
etc. Much later, during Muslim rule, components of the curriculum changed
according to the prevailing philosophy and needs. During this period the study
of Persian language began to be studied by both Hindu and Muslim students
because of its utility as the court language. Later on, with British rule, the
western system of education was started. Systematic study of science and
social sciences became parts of the curriculum. Various branches of science
such as chemistry, physics, etc., were studied. With the use of English as the
court language and also with the influence of the British rulers, English was
studied by the Indians from different communities.

Following independence, the study of the freedom struggle became an integral

part of the curriculum of schools. Vocationalisation of education led to the
addition of new areas of study. During the last few decades, due to the
changing socio-economic needs and changing outlook, several new areas of
study have been introduced. New disciplines have come up in response to
new demands. For instance, in response to industrialization, studies related
to technology as well as management of industrial organisations started. Later
on the study of management further branched out with the development of
new types of organisations and their growing complexities. Today we have
management studies related to educational institutions, hospitals, hotels, etc.
Similarly, with the invention of computers and their growing utility in all sectors,
studies related to the computer sciences are very much in demand. Studies
related to Information Technology are common today. Exploration of the space,
the oceans, underground mines, deep forests etc, has given rise to new
dimensions in these areas. Genetic engineering, biotechnology, nanotechnology,
etc. are some of the upcoming areas. Population education, environmental
education; peace education, etc. have come up due to the present day
requirements.

Apart from the socio economic needs, the other equally important factor is
the rapidly expanding knowledge base in every sphere. This is leading to
specialized knowledge in different areas. Along with the emergence of new
technology, there is also the ongoing phenomenon of technology getting
obsolete due to rapid advancements in knowledge. Therefore, the scope of
education today holds many more disciplines and in this sense education can
be said to have expanded.
Reflection and Action 17.7
What is the role played by distance education in educational development
in India?
Educational.Systems in
India
17.6 Conclusion
Education is a dynamic concept that has changed with changing times. It has
grown in response to the socio-economic demands of the day as well as the
philosophy prevailing during a particular period. In Vedic times education was
mainly for the elite of society. It was imparted i n ashrams, gurukuls, etc. Study
of religious texts, literature, grammar, mathematics, etc. were considered to
be important. Students stayed with their teachers and were like members of
his family. There was thus a close relationship between the teacher and the
taught. Disciplined life was expected from them. In the Buddhist period the
expansion of education started, reaching out to include students from different
sections of society. Education was also institutionalized during this period and
was imparted a t monasteries. However, the curriculum reflected the
continuation of the components of the Vedic period. In the medieval period
the form of education changed and madrasas and makhtabs were opened as
centers of learning. Learning of religious texts, jurisprudence, Persian, etc.
started. In the British period western education with emphasis on the learning
of science and English began. Women's education, which had so far been
neglected, also started picking up.

After independence special efforts were made to strengthen the education

system. The rate of enrolment was dismal. The rate of dropout was very hizh
and much needed to be done for women's education and for the people ot the
backward communities. Several commissions and committees have been set up
to review educational issues and policies have been framed. The Constitution
also includes provisions to strengthen the educational system. The conditions
regarding the education of the marginalised sections like women, backward
communities and people from rural areas have today improved considerably.
Expansion of education although closely related to its growth has taken place
in the true sense since independence. It has been in terms of student
enrolment at different levels of education, enrolment of women and other
marginalized sections at different levels, increase in the number of educational
facilities and also due to the diversification of general education in response
to the dynamic socio-economic conditions and rapid expansion of the knowledge
base.

17.7 Further Reading

Gopalan, K. 1998. "Indian Strategies to Achieve Universalisation of Eiementary
Education". In Saraswati, B.(ed.) The Cultura[ Dimension of Education. IGNCA:
New Delhi

James, H.R. and Mayhew, A. 1988. Development Of Education System In India.

Vanity Books: New Delhi

Kumar, A. 1991. Current Trends i n Indian Education. Ashish Publishing House:

New Delhi
 I UNIT 18
1 Constitutional Provisions and Educational
I
Policies in India
, Contents
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Constitutional Provisions Regarding Education
18.3 Educational Policies
18.4 Conclusion
18.5 Further Reading
Learning Objectives
In this unit we shall discuss the various constitutional provisions regarding
education and some of the major educational policies. Hence, following the
study of this unit you should be able to:
know about the constitutional provisions regarding education;
deliberate upon the policies on education; and
reflect upon the linkages between educational policies with the educational
provisions enshrined i n the Constitution.

) 18.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we have discussed the expansion and growth of education
in India and seen that education, over the years, has continuously evolved to
become more inclusive and that it has also diversified into various streams.
I
Such growth and expansion has not been an undirected movement. I t has
! been directed, through certain guidelines on various issues in education. But
! from where d o - w e get such guidelines? In this unit we shall take up this
1
discussion it would include deliberations upon the constitutional provisions
regarding education that happen to be the fountainhead of all policies, rules
and regulations enacted for educational administration. Thereafter we shall
bring forth some of the legislations that have been enacted to regulate certain
aspects of education i n India. Finally we shall introduce you to some of the
major policies that have been framed to regulate matters pertaining t o
, education i n India. These policies, besides regulating education, also serve as
points of reference for educational issues and ensure uniformity in approach.
Discussing all the provisions, legislations and policies on education i n detail
would not be feasible i n this unit. Hence, we shall restrict our study to a brief
deliberation on these aspects.

18.2 Constitutional Provisions Regarding Education

I
A society has several aspirations that are formulated as its goals. These
aspirations are generally related t o social development and security, which are
t o be achieved through tasks like ensuring the general well being of the
people, economic growth, preservation and transmission of culture, etc. To
fulfill these aspirations and reach its goals, societies have acknowledged the
potential of education as the means t o attain these ends. This has Led t o the
inception of the formal educational system and education gradually becoming
, ., . s: onsibility. But in the past such privileges were enjoyed by a
P . . I I .I--
I .-..-- reahzed that education. has
-7 it was .
;ections of the popu\ation I"
,-:,,h\~ AS has been
Educational Systems in poverty. Hence, there i s the need to improve and enhance well being and the
India quality of life of all people and through social integration create "a society for
all", where every individual has an active role to play. Education is the key to
attaining all these objectives. Besides, it is also the means of promoting
cohesiveness i n a multicultural society like India. Therefore, to fulfill these
needs of society, the founders of our Constitution included certain provisions
to serve as beacons for the process of development of education. In this
section we shall discuss these provisions briefly.

In the beginning, education was primarily a State subject and was exclusively
the responsibility of the States, the Central Government being concerned
directly with certain areas like coordination, determination of standards in
technical and higher education etc. In 1976, following a Constitutional
amendment (42"), education became the joint responsibility of the Central
and State Government, i.e. a concurrent subject. However, the Constitution
still places certain educational matters within the exclusive jurisdiction of the
'Union. These are: maintenance of Central Universities and institutions of
national importance, declared as such by Parliament by law; all Union agencies
and institutions for professional, vocational or technical training or for promotion
of special studies or research; and the coordination and determination of
standards i n institutions of higher education or research and scientific and
technical institutions (Entries 63,64,65 and 66 of List I). As per Article 239, the
Government of India, being responsible for the administration of the Union
Territories, has the executive and legislative authority for all subjects including
education.

We shall now discuss the constitutional provisions regarding education briefly.

There are several fundamental rights in Part Ill of the Constitution provided to
the citizens of lndia and some of them have a bearing oa education too. In
keeping with these rights there are several provisions with a bearing on
education, about which we shall discuss now.

As per Article 28 there is the freedom t o attend religious instructions or

worship i n certain types of educational institutions. However, as per Clause 1,
of this article no religious instruction shall be provided i n any educational
institution wholly maintained out of State funds. But as per Clause 2, nothing
i n Clause 1 shall be applicable t o an educational institution, which is
administered by the state but has been established under any endowment or
trust, which requires that religious instruction shall be irr~partedin such an
institution. The third Clause states that a person attending an educational
institution recognized by the state or receiving aid out of state funds shall
take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution
or attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or
i n its prernises only if such person consents to it or i f slhe is a minor, his/her
guardian consents to it.

Article 29 pertains to the Cultural and Educational Rights of the citizens.

Clause 1 of this Article states that any section of the citizens residing in the
territory of lndia or any part of it, having a distinct Language, script or culture
of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. Clause 2 states that no
citizen shall be denied admission t o any educational institution maintained by
the state or receiving aid out of state funds on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of' these.

Article 30 is regarding the right of minorities t o establish and administer

educational institutions. Its Clause 1 states that all minorities, whether based
on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice. The second clause states that the
state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate
60
 Constitutional Provi=ions
has been inserted and Educational policies
in lndia
2,A is re4drdin% the of proposed Rh'i t
the jon*itution i nEducation'
~e~~~~~~ 2002 but yet
it states state provide free and compuisOrv
by the
be brought into
of six to fourteen yeafi '"
i n the age group
education to a\\ chit'ren
manner as State may, by [w
Directive Principles of State Policy on Education: This has been included in
the part IV of the Constitution and some of these principles have a bearing
on education. Article 41 pertains to right t o work, t o education and to public
assistance in certain cases. This Article urges the State to make effective
provisions for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance
in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other
cases of undeserved want.

Article 45 deals with the provision for free and compulsory education for
children. This Article states that the state shall endeavour to provide, within
a period of ten years from the commencement of the Constitution, for free
and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years. But now, following an amendment as discussed above, this has
been converted into the right to education (yet to be implemented), while
this Article now pertains to early childhood care and education. It provides
for early childhood care and education for children below the age of six years.

Article 46 deals with promotion of educational and economic interests of

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. This Article
states that the State shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, i n particular,
of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from
social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

We thus see that while certain educational provisions flow from the fundamental
rights provided to the citizens, there are certain Directive Principles of state
policy that urge upon the state to develop an egalitarian society by equalizing
educational opportunities.

The Constitution of lndia also includes certain Fundamental Duties of the

citizens, which are prescribed Article 51 A. It states, among other things, that
it shall be the duty of every citizen of India:

to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective

activity so that the nation constantly rises t o higher levels of endeavour
and achievement.
who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education t o his
child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen
years. Added by 86th Amendment of December 2002, but yet to be brought
into force.
The educational implications of the fundamental duties are immense. They are
reflected in the curricular and co-curricular activities, i n the teaching-learning
process, administration of educational institutions, i.e., i n all efforts to make
the children and the youth aware of them. For instance, the curriculum has
to take care of the development of scientific temper i n children, respect for
cultural heritage, etc. Similarly value education, environmental education, being
imparted i n schools, etc., are also i n keeping with these duties.

Reflection and Action 18.1

There are constitutional provisions that seek the advancement of the
weaker sections of society. In your view what has been their impact on
the educational attainment of these sections?
rducational Systems in
lndia Part XI of the constitution deals with the relationship of the center with till.
States- In the seventh schedule (Article246) there are three Lists L.
List; List 11, State List, and List Ill, Concurrent ~ i ~ t 1
List I (Union List) ,
at I, Union I

Entry 63: institutions b o ~ n at the commencement of the Conrtitu.ion ,,

List.

Entry 64: Institutions for scientific or technical education financed by the

Government of lndia wholly or i n part and declared by Parliament by law to be
institutions of national importance.

Entry65: Union agencies and institutions for professional, vocational or technical

training, including the training of police officers; or the promotion of special
studies or research; or scientific or technical assistance in the investigation
or detection of crime.

Entry 66: Co-ordination and determination of standards in institutions for

higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions.

List II (State List)

This list includes educational issues of the state including universities (subject
t o the provisions of List I and Entry 25 of List Ill)

Entry 12: Libraries, museums, and other such institutions controlled and financed
by the states; ancient and historical monuments and records, other than
those declared to be of national importance.

List Ill (Concurrent List)

Entry 20: This provision has an indirect but significant bearing on educatlon
and i s concerned with "Economic and Social Planning". Education Planning
being an essential element of economic and social planning, the Government
of lndia and the State Governments are to work together in preparing and
implementing the national plans for the reconstruction of education.

Entry 25 - Vocational and technical training of labour:

Article 350A facilities for instruction i n mother tongue at primary stage. This
Article requires the Government to safeguard the interests of the children
belonging to linguistic minority groups and to ensure adequate facilities for
them to receive at least primary education through their mother tongue.

Article 351: places a special responsibility on the Government of lndia for

promoting the spread of Hindi language and its development so that i t may
serve as a medium of expression for all in the composite culture of India.

Article 343 deals with the Official language of the Union. This Article states
that:

a) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi i n Devnagari script. The
form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shali
be the international form of Indian numerals.
b) Notwithstanding anything in clause (I), for a period of fifteen years from
the commencement of this Constitution, English language shali continue
to be used for all the official purposes of the Union.
 At present Hindi is the Official Language of the Union of lndia and English is Constitutional Provisions
the associate official language. Thus the Constitution has provisions to regulate and Educational Policies
the language policies to be implemented in schools. in lndia

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or

place of birtt;. The third clause of this Article empowers the state to make
special provisions for women and children and this includes education too.

Reflection and Action 18.2

You have read about the constitutional provisions regarding education.
How would you summarize the social reasons for including such provisions?

I8.3 Educational Policies

Now that we are aware of the constitutional provisions regarding education,
let us discuss some of the major National Policies on education. The Government
of lndia through its various agencies formulates policies on education and also
revises them. We know that the Republic of lndia is governed on the basis of
the Constitution of India, which came into force on 26th January 1950.
Educational policies are framed by various agencies of the central as well as
state governments in the perspective of the provisions in the Constitution.
The policies framed by the agencies of the central government have a national
jurisdiction and prevail over the policies framed by the states in case of
conflict between them. These policies have a direct role in shaping the
educational scenario and assist educational administration by ruling out doubts
and ambiguities.

The constitutional provisions were framed way back but since then with the
changing socio-economic milieu, there has been new thinking on social issues
including education. Therefore, to comply with the demands of a changed
socio-economic order the country and also to cope with those put forth by a
changing global situation, policies on education have been changing. To
accommodate,these changes the constitutional provisions regarding education
too have been amended from time to time. Therefore, the policies on education
are dynamic in nature and are framed to respond to the existing political,
social, economical and cultural needs of society. Policy decisions on individual
issues can also be taken by the government or its agencies as and when felt
necessary - in the form of Resolutions, Schemes, Guidelines, Orders, etc. The
policies framed are a reflection of the existing philosophy of education and
strongly display the outlook of society, and especially of the government,
regarding educational issues.

Reflection and Action 18.3

Do you think we have succeeded in fulfilling the constitutional obligation
regarding universalisation of elementary education? Justify your answer.

Apart from the Constitution that has provisions on education, educational

policies are also articulated through legislations. Some of the important Central
legislation$ having a bearing on the subjects allotted to the Department of
I
Secondary and Higher Education are:

The University Grants Commission Act, 1956: The University Grants Commission
(UGC) was established through this Act to regulate important issues pertaining
to the functioning of the universities.
I
I

The All lndia Council for Technical Education Act, 1987: It led to the
establishment of an A\\ lndia Council for Technical €ducation basically for the
proper planningand coordinated development of the technical education system
1 in lndia.
Educational Systems in The National Council of Teacher Education Act, 1993: It led to the establishment
India of a National Council for Teacher Education for achieving planned and
coordinated development of the teacher education system, the regulation and
proper maintenance of norms and standards in the teacher education system
and for other related matters.

The National Council for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004: This Act
regulates the educational institutions of the minorities of India.

The Copyright Act, 1957: This Act is regarding the various aspects related to
copyright of literary, artistic, and architectural and other such aspects.

The Apprentices Act, 1961 : This Act is regarding apprentices and their training.

The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection o f Rights and

Full Participation) Act, 1995: This Act is an important step i n ensuring equal
opportunities for people with disabilities and their full participation i n nation
building.

We thus see that policies on education emerge mainly from the constitution
and also from the legislations/agencies of the government. Now let us discuss
some of the major policies on education.

National Policies on Education

In lndia since independence, there have mainly two comprehensive statements
regarding the National Policy on Education, viz. those of 1968 and 1986. The
former contained decisions of the Central Government mainly based on the
recommendations of the National Commission on Education, 1964-66. The
latter was a result of the renewed priority assigned to Educatian by the
government then. The 1986 policy was thereafter reviewed by a Committee
constituted in 1990 under the chairmanship of Acharya Ramamurti. On the
basis of the recommendations of this Committee, certain provisions of the
1986 policy were modified in 1992.

National Policy on Education, 1968 (NPE 1968): Several policies were formulated
on various aspects of education. For instance a policy was made that the state
should put ir; strenulous efforts to implement Article 45 and provide free and
compulsory education to all children i n the age group of 6-14 years. There
were also policies regarding status, education of teachers, development of
languages, equalization of educational opportunities, etc. But one of the most
significant policies was that regarding the uniform educational structure with
10+2+3 pattern to be followed in all the schools of the country. We shall not
discuss NPE, 1968 i n detail, as there has been another national policy after it
i n 1986.

National Policy on Education, 1986: The adoption of the educational policies

formulated i n 1968 led to considerable expansion in educational facilities all
over the country and schools came up even i n many parts of the rural areas
within a radius of one kilometer of habitations. There was sizeable augmentation
of facilities at other stages of education also. However, problems of access,
quality, etc. that had accumulated over the years had assumed such massive
proportions that they had to be dealt with utmost urgency. Apart from these
reasons, a variety of new challenges and social needs made it imperative for
the Government to formulate and implement a New Education Policy for the
country.

It has been rightly mentioned in NPE (1986) that every country develops its
system of education to express and promote its unique socio-cultural identity
and also to meet the challenges of the times. During this period lndia reached
a stage in its economic and technical development when a major effort had
 to be made to derive the maximum benefit from the assets already created Constitutional Provisions
and to ensure that the benefits of such development reach all sections and and Educational Policies
it was also felt that education is the highway to reach this goal. So as to fulfill in lndia
these aims, the Government of lndia initiated the formulation of a New
Education PclPtcy for the country and this is how the National Policy on Education
(NPE, 1986) came about.
Programme of Action (POA, 1992): In order to implement the provisions of
NPE, 1986, a programme of Action was developed. The POA 1992 was circulated
I
in 1993 to all the States and Union Territories to draw their own State Programme
of Action (SPOA) by 31 December 1993 as per the decision taken in the 49th
Meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) held on 15 October
1993.
Now that we are aware of the backdrop of NPE 1986, let us discuss the policies
that emerged following the formulation of NPE (1986) and the POA, 1992. We
shall bring to you the various sections of the entire policy so that your idea
about the policies on various aspects of education i s comprehensive.
The Essence and Role of Education
Education has been considered by the NPE, 1986 to be essential for all as it
is fundamental to all-round development - material and spiritual. It has also
been expressed that education has an acculturating role and that it refines
sensitivities and perceptions that contribute to national cohesion, scientific
temper and independence of mind and spirit, which in turn further the goals
of socialism, secularism and democracy as enshrined i n our constitution.
Education is thus considered as a unique investment i n the present as well as
the future and this cardinal principle i s the key to the National Policy on
Education.

The National System of Education

NPE, 1986 vouched for a National System of Education, which would imply that
up to a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex,
have access to education of a comparable quality and to achieve this, the
Government will initiate appropriately funded programmes.
Education for Equality
NPE, 1986 accords great importance to removing disparities and equalizing
educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have
been denied equality. There would be efforts t o uplift weaker and neglected
sections of society like women, Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes
(STs). The policy aspires to use education as an agent of basic change in the
status of woman. Special educational facilities for students of weaker sections
of society like SCs and STs and recruitment of teachers from these sections
were also envisaged. Similarly educational facilities would also be provided to
other groups like those from other educationally backward sections and areas,
physically handicapped people and the minorities as certain minority groups
are yet to advance educationally Hence, greater attention will be paid to the
education of these groups in the interests of equality and social justice. For
the handicapped the objective is to integrate the physically and mentally
handicapped with the general community as equal partners, to prepare them
for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence.
Policies regarding adult education have been formulated to strengthen the
cause of adult education through various and systematic programmes of adult
and continuing education.

Reflection and Action 18.4

There are constitutional provisions that seek the advancement of the
weaker sections of the society. in your view what has been their impact
on the educational attainment of these sections?
Educational Systems in Reorganization of Education at Different Stages
India
Policies have been made for the reorganization of education a t different stages:

Early childhood care 8 education (ECCE): The National Policy on Children

emphasizes investment for the welfare of young children, particularly those
who are from those sections of the populations, where most of the children
happen to be the first generation Learners. Further, the programmes for (ECCE)
would cater to the holistic nature of child development, viz., nutrition, health
and social, mental, physical, moral and emotional development. ECCE will receive
high priority and be suitably integrated with the Integrated Child Development
Services programme, wherever possible.

Elementary education: Regarding Elementary education the policy places thrust

on two aspects: (i) universal enrolment and universal retention of children up
to 14 years of age, and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education.
Also there would be a child centered approach that would be warm, welcomirlg
and encouraging so that children are attracted to school and motivated to
learn.

Primary schools would be provided with essential facilities. The scope of

Operation Blackboard will be enlarged to develop and upgrade the infrastructure
and it would be extended even to the upper primary level. The number of
teachers would also be increased.

Non-formal education: The Non-formal Education Programme, would be

strengthened and expanded to provide education to school dropouts, children
from habitations without the facilities of schools like border or remote areas,
working children and girls who cannot attend whole-day schools.

A Resolve: The New Education Policy accords highest priority to the problem
of dropout and resolves to arrest the high rate of dropout of children from
schools by adopting strategies based on micro-planning, applied at the grassroots
level all over the country so as to ensure retention of the children enrolled in
schools.

Secondary education: This policy envisaged widening of access to secondary

education with an emphasis on enrolment of girls, SCs and STs, particularly in
science, commerce and vocational streams. It also desired that Boards of
Secondary Education be reorganized and vested with autonomy so that they
can improve the quality of secondary education. Providing computer literacy
i n secondary level institutions so that children are equipped with necessary
computer skills and are prepared for the emerging technological world was also
considered.

Pace setting schools: To provide quality education to children with special

talent or aptitude and offer them opportunities to utilize their potential, pace
setting schools would be set up for them, and, if required, free education,
would be provided to them.

Vocationalisation: The introduction of systematic, well-planned and rigorously

implemented programmes of vocational education was envisioned as it is crucial
for educational reorganisation and to enhance employability, bridge the gap
between the demand and supply of skilled manpower and to provide an
alternative for those not interested i n pursuing higher education.

Higher education: Higher education contributes t o national development

through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills and being at the
apex of the educational pyramid, it has a key role i n producing teachers for
the education system. In the context of the unprecedented explosion of
knowledge, higher education has to become dynamic. It was also decided that
urgent steps would be taken to protect the system from degradation. Constitutional Provisions
and Educational Policies
Open university and distance learning: As per the NPE, 1986, open learning in India
system has been initiated to augment opportunities for higher education, as
an instrutiient of democratising education and to make it a lifelong process.
The flexibility and innovativeness of the open learning system are particularly
suited to the diverse requirements of the citizens of our country, including
those who had joined the vocational stream. It was decided that lndira Gandhi
National Open University, established in 1985 to fulfill these objectives, will be
strengthened and establishment of open universities in the states would be
supported. The National Open School will be strengthened and open learning
facilities extended in a phase'd manner at the secondary level in all parts of the
country.

Delinking degrees from jobs: A beginning will be made in de-linking degrees

from jobs in selected areas. However, this cannot be applied to occupation-
specific courses like Engineering, Medicine, Law, and Teaching etc. Similarly,
it would not be applicable to services requiring specialists with academic
qualifications in humanities, social sciences, sciences, etc.

Rural university: The new pattern of the rural university will be consolidated
and developed on the lines of Mahatma Gandhi's ideas on education so as to
take up the challenges of micro planning at grassroots levels for the
transformation of rural areas.
Technical and Management Education: It was decided that although the
two streams of technical and management education are functioning
separately, it is essential to view them together, because of their close
relationship and complementary concerns. It was also decided that the
reorganisation of Technical and Management Education should take into
account the anticipated scenario by the turn of the century, with reference
to the likely changes in the economy, social environment, production and
management processes, the rapid expansion of knowledge and the advances
in science and technology.
Making the System Work: It was envisioned that all these tasks related
to education could not be performed in a state of disorder. Hence,
education needs to be managed in an atmosphere of intellectual rigour,
seriousness of purpose and, at the same time, with freedom essential for
innovation and creativity. While far-reaching changes will have to be
incorporated i n the quality and range of education, the process of
introducing discipline into the system will have to be started.

Reflection and Action 18.5

In your view what should be the considerations leading t o policy
formulation on an educational issue?

Reorienting the Content and Process of Education

This involved the following:

The cultural perspective: The existing schism between the formal system of
education and the country's rich and varied cultural traditions need to be
bridged. The preoccupation with modern technologies cannot be allowed to
sever our new generations from the roots in India's history and culture.
Education can and must bring about the fine synthesis between change-oriented
technologies and the country's continuity of cultural tradition.
Value Education: The growing concern over the erosion of values is
necessitating readjustments in the curriculum in order to make education a
forceful tool for the cultivation of social and moral values.
Educational Systems in The Evaluation Process and Examination Reform: Assessment of perf~rmance
India is an Integral part of any process of learning and teaching and hence, NPE,
1986 considered the following as necessary:

The objective will be to re-cast the examination system so as to ensure a

method of assessment that i s a valid and reliable measure of student
development and a powerful instrument for improving teaching and learning;
in functional terms, this would mean:
a) The elimination of excessive element of chance and subjectivity;
b) The de-emphasis of memorization;
c) Continuous and comprehensive evaluation that incorporates both scholastic
and non-scholastic aspects of education, spread over the total span of
instructional time;
d) Effective use of the evaluation process by teachers, students and parents;
e) Improvement i n the conduct of examination;
f) The introduction of concomitant changes in instructional materials and
methodology;
g) tradition of the semester system from the secondary stage in a phased
manner;
h) The use of grades in place of marks.

Policies were also developed on many other issues like books and library,
languages, media and educational technology, environmental education,
population education, yoga, physical education, role of the youth, mathematics
and science teaching.
The Teacher
As per the NPE 1986, the status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural
ethos of a society and it is said that no people can rise above the level of i t s
teachers. The Government and the community should endeavour to create
conditions, which will help motivate and inspire teachers on constructive and
creative lines. It was also expressed that teachers should have the freedom to
innovate, to devise appropriate methods of communication and activities
relevant to the needs and capabilities of learners and the community.

Teacher education
Teacher education is a continuous process, and its pre-service and in-service
components are inseparable. As the first step, the system of teacher education
will be overhauled. The new programmes of teacher-education will emphasize
continuing education and the need for teachers t o meet the thrusts envisaged
in this Policy.
The management of education
An overhaul of the system of planning and the management of education will
receive high priority. The guiding considerations will be steps such as evolving
a long-term planning and management perspective of education and i t s
integration with the country's developmental and manpower needs;
decentralization and the creation of a spirit of autonomy for educational
institutions; giving pre-eminence to people's involvement, including association
of non-governmental agencies and voluntary effort, etc.
Resources
NPE 1986 stated that resources, to the extent possible, will be raised by
mobilizing funds from the community, involving them to maintain school buildings
and supplies of some consumables, raising fees at the higher levels of education
and saving resources through the efficient use of facilities
 Review Constitutional Provisions
and Educational Policies
NPE, 1986 expressed that the implementation of the various parameters of the in India
New Policy must be reviewed every five years. Appraisals at short intervals will
also be made to ascertain the progress of implementation and the trends
emerging irom time to time.
The future

According t o NPE, 1986, the future shape of education in lndia i s too complex
to envision with precision. Yet, given our tradition, which has almost always
put a high premium on intellectual and spiritual attainment, we are bound to
succeed in achieving our objectives. The main task i s to strengthen the base
of the pyramid, with about a billion people. Equally, it is important to ensure
that those at the top of the pyramid are among the best in the world. It has
further been expressed that further intensifying the nation-wide effort i n
Human Resource Development, with education playing its multifaceted role, is
now possible.

We have not discussed the policies in details here, nevertheless you wou1.d
find that NPE, 1986 covers all the major aspects related to education and the
process of implementing these policies all over the country has started.

Reflection and Action 18.6

You have kead that policies on educational matters are formulated on the
basis of the constitutional provisions and the legislations. There has been
a directive from the Supreme Court of lndia to teach environmental science
in schools and similarly with the funds from UNICEF, some teacher education
programmes are now preparing to impart education related to AIDS. How
would you relate them to the fundamental duties and other constitutional
provisions on education?

18.4 Conclusion
Since independence, there has been considerable growth and expansion of
education in India. The goal of a modern secular and democratic society like
lndia is t o strive for egalitarianism through equalization of educational
opportunities and also to enable itself to meet the challenges of the modern
world. Therefore, educations has to be more inclusive and reach the vast
majority of our population and at the same time equip the learners with the
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for ensuring the development of the
nation. To fulfill these demands the growth of education has to be well directed
and along certain guidelines. These guidelines are the educational policies
framed by the government and i t s agencies from time to time. These policies
are formulated in the perspective of the constitutional provisions regarding
education, which, following an amendment of the Constitution is a concurrent
subject and i s the joint responsibility of the center and the states. However,
certain educational matters are still within the exclusive jurisdiction of the
Union.

Our Constitution provides us with certain fundamental rights. In keeping with

these rights there are several provisions with a bearing on education, for
instance, freedom to attend religious instructions or worship in certain types
of educational institutions i n certain cases; in keeping with the cultural and
educational rights of minorities, the right to set up educational institutions
and administer them, etc. Similarly some of the Directive Principles of State
Policy too have a bearing on education, as for instance Article 41 urges the
state to ensure the right to work, to education and to public assistance in
certain cases. Article 46 i s for the promotion of educat.iclnai and economic
interests of Scheduled Castes, Schedui.ed Tribes and other weaker sections.
The Constitution of lndia also includes certain F u n d a ~ ~ e n i aDuties
l of the
India Constitution has provisions regarding the use of mother tongue for providing
instructions, promotion of Hindi, etc.

From these provisions and the different legislations made by the government,
policies on education have emerged. In 1968 we had the first national policy
on education and thereafter i n 1986 we had the new national policy on
education. In 1992, Programme of Action was developed to implement the
NPE, 1986. NPE, 1986 has accorded great importance to the role of education
for the development of the nation and has reiterated the importance of
national system of education. It envisages education to bring about equality
among the different sections of the population. It also aspires to reorganize
education at different stages right from early childhood t o higher education,
vocational education, distance education, etc. I t provides directions for
technical and management education, reorienting the content and process of
education, for the general well being and professional growth of teachers,
planning and management of education, etc. Thus the policies on education
provide a direction to the field of education in our country.
In your view have we succeeded in fulfilling the constitutional obligation
regarding universalisation of elementary education? Justify your answer.
In your view what should be the considerations leading t o policy 'formulation
on an educational issue?

18.5 Further Reading

Rao, D. B. 1998. Nationai Pol icy on Education Towards an En1ightened and
Humane Society. Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi
Sharma, Y.K. 2001. History and Problems of Education. Volume1 Kanishka
Publishers: New Delhi
Unit 19
Universalization of Elementarv Education
Contents
lntroduction
Structure of Elementary Education
Historical Perspective
The Present Scenario
Initiatives, Innovations and Strategies
Innovative Intervention in Teacher Education for Universalization of
Elementary Education
Role of Distance Education in Teacher Training at Primary Level
Conclusion
Further Reading
Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
explain the need and importance of universalization of elementary
education in India;
describe the structure of elementary education;
describe various developments that took place for universalization of
elementary education during pre and post independence periods;
discuss the present scenario of elementary education in India;
discuss various inriovations, initiatives and strategies taken for universal-
ization of elementary education; and
explain the role of distance education in teacher training at elementary
level.

19.1 lntroduction
After India attained independence, elementary education became one of the
most important item on the agenda of successive governments at the centre.
This is because the makers of Indian Constitution had made a provision that
within a period of ten years from 1950, free and compulsory elementary education
would be provided to all children up to 14 years of age. The rationale behind
such a provision was to make all the citizens of the country literate so that
they could become productive members of society. Elementary education is
provided to the children in the age group 6-14 years. This is the most important
and formative period in a chil.d's life. Apart from imparting a child the basic
skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, necessary care is taken to foster all
round development of the personality through curricular and co-curricular
activities. A person with elementary education can become a self-reliant,
sensible and productive citizen of the country. Research has shown that
increasing the average primary schooling of the labor force even by one year
can increase output substantially (World Bank). The .Social benefits of elementary
education are immense. Educated parents send their children to school.
Elementary education leads to perpetuation of benefits from one generation
to another (Sinha 2000). The importance of elementary education is very crucial
not only for the country but also for all the citizens of the country. The
concept of elementary education in its structural sense varies from state to
state. However, there i s a common structure of education, which has been
as the national system of education. Let US examine the structure
of education in the national system of education.
India
Systems in 19.2 Structure of ~lernefitar-yEducation
The national system of education was enunciated by the National Policy on
Education (1968) in the form of 10+2+3. The National Policy on Education
(1986) defined that the structure of elementary education would consist of 5
years of primary education and 3 years of upper primary education. But there
are variations in the states with regard to organization of elemerrtary education.
For example, some states have 4 years of primary and 3 years of upper primary
structure. Some states have 5 years of primary and 2 years of upper primary
structure. In spite of these variations, elementary education structure is
understood as defined by the National Policy on Education (1986) as presented
in Figure 1.I.
Age 4-6 Pre-Primary
Class I-V Primary
Age 6-11 Elementary Education
Class VI-VIII Upper Primary
Age 12-14
Class IX-X Secondary
Age 15-16
Class XI-XIII Senior Seccndary
Age 17-18
Fig. I.I: National System o f Education

Although serious concerns for elementary education t o all were expressed

during the post-independence period, one can also find similar concerns before
the country became independent. Let us look a t the concern for elementary
education from a historical perspective.

19.3 Historical Perspective

During Vedic times, elementary education was imparted thro6gh Guru-Shishya
Parampara (teacher-taught tradition). The children went to the Ashram (School)
of the Guru where they were taught religious texts. With the rise of Buddhism
children were taught through the monastic system of education. By the tenth
century, there were pathshalas and tolls, which provided primary education to
children. During the medieval period, Maktabs attached to mosques used to
impart elementary education. The Maktabs were concerned with teaching
children how to read and write and special emphasis was given on how to read
the Quran.

The Pre-Independence Period

Serious concern for education among Indians during the pre-Independence
period, i.e., the British period, started with the Macaulay's Minutes. The main
purpose of Macaulay's Minutes was to spread western education among the
masses. During that time, there were indigenous elementary schools, providing
for the teaching of the three Rs - reading, writing and arithmetic - to a few
categories of people like priests, business community and rich farmers. The
British government introduced elementary education to educate Indians to
help it in administrative work. The content of education was mostly western
ideas, concepts, history of England, mathematics and science, etc. But the
system of elementary education was not suitable for the local community.
Hence, the Indian Education Commission of 1882 which emphasized elementary
education suggested transfer of elementary education to the local community.
With awakening among the masses for education, there was a great demand
elementary education. Another Landmark during the pre-independence period
was that of the Basic Education Programme of Gandhiji. Popularly known as
the Wardha scheme of education, it advocated a system of elementary
education, which emphasized earning while learning. Teaching of craft, child-
centredness, activity-based, close interface between school and community
were some of the features of the basic education programme.

Post-Independence Period
The post-independence period witnessed a series of committees, commission
and constitutional amendments recommending for free and compulsory
elementary education. In 1947, the Kher Committee was set up to explore
means to promote universal elementary education and it made recommendations
on the association of local bodies with the administration of primary education
and the creation of education bodies.

But the first milestone to universalize elementary education was laid by the
Constitution of India, adopted in 1950. Article 45 of the Indian Constitution
under the Directive Principles of State Policy says: "The state shall endeavour
to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of the
Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete 14 years."

Following the constitutional directives, the Five-Year Plans allocated large finance
for elementary education. There was an attempt to adopt Basic Education of
Gandhijf as the national Pattern of elementary education. However, the attempt
did not get support. The Education Commission (1964-66) recommended the
10+2+3 Pattern of education, which was accepted by the first ever National
Policy on Education (NPE 1968). But the most comprehensive policy on education
was the National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986), which was reviewed and
revised in its Plan of Action (POA 1992). Both NPE (1986) and POA (1992) took
universalisation of eh'Mltary education with serious concern and emphasized
universal access, universal e n r ~ h e n and
t universal retention. In 1990, Acharya
Rammurthy Committee also recommended for compulsory primary education.
In 1992, lndia signed 'UN Convention on Right of the Child' and committed
itself to providing compulsory elementary education. In 1993, the Supreme
Court upheld elementary education as a fundamental right. The Saikia Committee
also recommended making elementary education a fundamental right i n 1997.
In 2001, the 93rdAmendment Bill was introduced to make free and compulsory
elementary education a fundamental right. The 93rdAmendment Bill was passed
(renumbered as 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002) by the Parliament in
December 2002 and free and compulsory elementary education became a
fundamental right of every citizen.

Reflection and Action 19.1

Trace the development of Elementary education in India.
d

19-4 The Present Scenario

Educa,tionat System in
India

1991 52.21 64.13 ,

39.29
2001 65.38 75.85 54.16
Source: Selected Educational Statistics (2000-2001), MHRD, Government of lndia,
New Delhi, 2002
From the Table 19.1, we find that the literacy rate has significantly increased
from 18-33 in 1951 to 65.38 in 2001. Although literacy rates of males and
females have increased since 1951, the literacy rate of females is still far
behind that of males.
Table 19.2: Number of Primary and Upper Primary School i n lndia
Year Primary Upper Primary Ratio of Primary to
Schools Schools Upper Primary Schools
1950-51 2,09,671 13,596 15.4
1960-61 3,30,399 49,663 6.7
1970-71 1,08,378 90,621 4.5
1980-81 4,94,503 1,18,855 4.2
1990-91 5,60,935 1,51,456 3.7
1995-96 5,90,421 1,71,216 3.4
1998-99' 6,26,737 1,90,166 3.3
1999-2000* 6,41,695 1,98,004 3.2

* Provisional
Source:Selected Educational Statistics, 1990-2000, MHRD, Government of India,
2001.

From the Table 19.2, it is evident that the number of primary and upper
primary schools has significantly increased since 1950-51. Now let us look at
the Gross Enrolment Ratio, All lndia Level, 1950-51 to 1999-2000.
Table 19.3 : Gross Enrolment Ratio, All lndia Level
Year Primary Level Upper Primary Level
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1950-51 60.6 24.8 42.6 20.6 4.6 12.7
1960-61 82.6 41.4 62.4 33.2 11.3 22.5
1970-71 95.5 60.5 78.6 46.5 20.8 33.4
1980-81 95.8 64.1 78.6 54.3 28.6 41.9
1990-91* 98.1 75.9 80.5 79.8 54.6 62.1
From Table 3, it is clear that enrolment figures in terms of Gross Enrolment Universalization of
Elementary Education
Ratio (GER) at primary and upper primary levels have improved from 1950-51 to
1999-2000. Moreover, the differences in the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) have
also reduced. But, the Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) at Primary level for boys was
78 per cent ar.c! for girls 64 per cent i n 1997-98. The overall NER was 71 per
cent suggest;r,g that 29 per cent of children at primary level in 6-11 age group
continued to remain out of school. Educationally backward states have even
lower NER than the national average of 71 per cent. (Sinha 2004). Moreover,
dropout rates continue to be high, retention of children i n schools is poor,
achievement levels are low, and wastage is considerable. Despite increased
participation of girls, disparity still exists, more particularly among scheduled
castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) (Gopalan 1998).

The National Policy on Education (1986) and the Programme of Action (1992)
took up the challenge of universalization of elementary education seriously.
The following three are the main points of emphasis of these policy documents.
Universal access
Universal enrolment
Universal retention
Apart from emphasizi'ng these three aspects, the documents advocated:
decentralized participative planning with community involvement;
infrastructure support provision i n terms of improved school environment;
satisfactory condition of school buildings, provision of teaching and learning
materials;
qualitative improvement in elementary education through child-centred,
activity based teaching learning process;
Restructuring of pre-service and in-service training;
addressing the issues of access and quality.
The concern of the NPE and POA got further strengthened by the international
efforts made by LINICEF, UNDP and the World Bank. The World Conference on
Education for All (EFA), held on March 5-9, 1990 i n (Thailand), organized by
UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank, adopted a Declaration calling upon 155
member states and international agencies to take effective steps for achieving
EFA by the year 2000. It emphasized basic learning needs of all children like
literacy, oral expression, numeracy, problem solving and basic learning contents
such as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
For fulfillment of these learning needs, the Declaration of EFA took a broadened
vision of basic education as consisting of formal schooling, non-formal education
programmes as well as open learning systems which together attempt to provide
basic-education to all children as well as adults (DEP-DPEP 2003). As a follow-
up to the Conference, the World Education Forum of Education for All met at
Dakar, Senegal, during April 26-28, 2000. The six goals adopted by the forum
are:
e Expanding and improving comprehensive early education care and
education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged sections.
Ensuring that by 2015, all children, particularly girl children, in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to
free and compulsory primary education of good quality.
Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skill programr:les.
6 Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in Levels of
adult literacy by 2015,
es~eciallvfor women, and equitable access to basic and continuing
Educational Systems in
lndia
. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 20057
and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus01
ensuring girls' full and equal access to and achievement in DaSlC eaucation
of good quality.
Improving every ,aspect of the quality of education and ensuring their
excellence so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are
achieved by all, especially i n literacy, numeracy and life skills.
Box 19.1 : National and International Level lnitiatives for achieving Universal
Elementary Education
The nationallinternational level initiatives like, the resolution of the
National Policy on Education (1986) and the Programme of Action (1992) to
ensure free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality to all children
upto 14 years of age by 2000, the Education for All (EFA) Summit of the
nine high-population (E-9) countries held in New Delhi in December 1993,
the World Conference on Education for all in Jomiten, i n March 1990 and
subsequent Dakar Framework for Education for All (2000) emphasizing on
E-9 countries to generate their own approach towards achieving EFA, have
resulted i n a number of innovations, initiatives and strategies being
implemented i n lndia to achieve universalisation of elementary education.

19.5 lnitiatives, Innovations and Strategies

Although the government of lndia has recently made concerted efforts to
universalize elementary education several initiatives were taken right after
NPE (1986). Let us discuss the initiatives taken after 1986.

Operation Blackboard: The scheme of Operation Blackboard was launched in

1987. The basic aim was to improve the school environment and enhance
retention and learning achievement of children by providing minimum essential
facilities in all primary schools. According t o this scheme, the following are
provided to each school.

i) At least two reasonably larger all-weather rooms, with a verandah and

separate toilet facilities for boys and girls;
ii) At least two teachers - one of them a female - for each school; and
iii) Essential teaching-learning materials including blackboards, maps, charts,
toys and equipment for work experience.
As part of this scheme, some 523,000 primary schools have been covered as
originally envisaged with central government assistance.

Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project: The Andhra Pradesh Primary

Education Project (APPEP) was initiated with the assistance of Overseas
Development Agency (ODA) with an estimated outlay of Rs.1000 million during
the 8th Plan. It adopted a two-pronged strategy of improving classroom
transaction by training teachers and giving a fillip t o school construction
activities.

Bihar Education Project: The Bihar Education Project (BEP) was Launched in
1991. The main aim of the project was to bring about quantitative and
qualitative improvement i n the elementary system, with emphasis on the
education of deprived sections of society, such as SCs, STs and Women. The
project emphasized participatory planning and implementation. The total
project outlay was Rs.3600 million, which included the total outlay for the
second phase (1996-98) i.e. Rs.613 million which was shared by the UNICEF,
Government of lndia and Government of Bihar.

Uttar Pradesh Basic Education Programme: The Uttar Pradesh Basic Education
Programme (UPBEP) was launched in 1993 with the assistance of the World
 Bank, through its International Development Agency (IDA). It had an outlay of Universalization of
Rs.7,288 million spread over seven years. The UP Government had to share 13 Elementary Education
per cent of the total project cost. The project emphasized construction work
of schools, Block Resource Centres (BRCs), preparation of training materials for
teacher trainers and training of in-service teachers.

I Reflection and Action 19.2

Why do you think it i s essential to reach elementary education to every
one i n the society?

Non-Formal Education (NFE): The scheme of Non-Formal Education was

introduced by the Government of India in 1979-80 with the objective of
supporting the formal system i n providing education to all children upto the
age of 14 years . Initially, it targeted 10 educationally backward states of
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. But the NPE (1986)
reviewed the scheme and concluded that it was not catering to the children
from habitations without schools, working children, and girls. Hence, the Policy
suggested that apart from focusing on 10 educationally backward states, the
scheme needed to be extended to urban slums, hilly, tribal and desert areas
and working children i n other states and UTs as well. It also recommended
central grants t o Voluntary Agencies (VAs) for running NFE centers. The
Programme of Action (POA) 1992 further suggested some strategies for
strengthening of the NFE scheme as mentioned below:

i) setting up NFE centers based on micro-planning exercise carried out for

UEE.
ii) Central role for community by involving them in setting up of the centre,
identification of the instructor and supervision of the NFE centre.
iii) Efforts t o evolve different models of NFE programme for different target
groups.
iv) Adequate training and orientation of NFE instructors (30 days initial training
of instructors and 20 days in subsequent years etc.).
v) Linkage with the formal school to facilitate lateral entry of the learners
from the NFE stream.
vi) Efforts to link non-formal courses with formal schools.
vii) Adoption of learner-centred appro.ach. The learning levels for the learners
to be equivalent to the formal system.
The NFE scheme had certain shortcomings in terms of very Low investments;
poor community involvement; problems i n release of funds; several quality
issues including training of instructors, and number of hours of teaching per
day. Evaluation studies on the scheme of NFE were carried out by Parliamentary
Standing Committees on Human Resource Development and on the dropout
problem. Similarly, another study was conducted by the Planning Commission.
Based on the findings of the studies, the scheme of NFE was restructured and
renamed as Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovation Education
(EGS and AIE). The new scheme was introduced with effect from April 1, 2001.
According to MHRD (2001-2002), "EGS and AIE envisages flexible strategies
including schools i n unserved habitations, seasonal hostels or condensed courses
I
for migrating children, bridge courses, residential camps, drop-in centers for
street and slum children, remedial coaching for children enrolled i n formal
schools and short-duration summer camps".
The scheme would support the following broad strategies:
i Setting up of schools i n school-less habitations
ii) Interventions for mainstreaming of 'out of school' children viz. through
1
bridge courses, back to school camps, etc.
Educational Systems in iii) Strategies for very specific, difficult groups of children who cannot be
lndia mainstreamed.

These schemes became, later on, a part of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) the
overall programme for Universalisation of Elementary Education.

National Programme of Nutritional Support t o Primary Education (Mid-Day

Meal-Scheme), 1995: The scheme was launched on 15thAugust, 1995 t o give
a boost to Universalisation of Elementary Education. It emphasized increasing
enrolment, retention and attendance i n primary classes by supplementing
nutritional requirements of children attending primary schools. The scheme
was implemented in 2408 Blocks i n the first year, and covered the whole
country in a phased manner by 1997-98. The programme originally covered
children of primary stage (Classes 1 to V) in government, local body and
government aided schools. It was extended to cover children studying i n
Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative Innovation Education (AIE)
Centres i n October 2002.

National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL):

NPEGEL aims at providing education to under privilegedldisadvan taged girls
from class I to Vlll as a separate and distinct gender component plan of Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). The programme is necessary to achieve UEE for girls in
educationally backward areas.
The objectives of NPEGEL are:
a) To develop and promote facilities to provide access and t o facilitate
retention of girls and to ensure greater participation of women and girls
i n the field of education.
b) To improve the quality of education through various interventions and to
stress upon the relevance and quality of girls' education for their
empowerment.
The scheme would be applicable i n Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBS)where
the level of rural female literacy i s less than the national average and the
gender gap i s above the national average, blocks of districts which have at
least 5% SCIST population and SCIST female literacy rate below 10%,and selected
urban slums. The target groups under this scheme are out of school girls,
dropout girls, over-age girls who have not completed elementary education,
working girls, girls from marginalized social groups, girls with low attendance
and girls with low levels of achievement. The programme aims at development
of teaching learning material CDs, films, guidelines for gender concerns,
compilation of supplementary reading material, etc.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV): The scheme called Kasturba Gandhi
Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) has been approved by the Government of India to set
up upto 750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for
girls belonging to SC, ST, OBC and minorities in difficult areas. The scheme will
be coordinated with the existing schemes of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, National
Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Mahila
Samakhya (MS). The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality education
t o the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by setting up residential schools
with boarding facilities at elementary level. The scheme will be operational i n
these Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBS) where, as per Census data of 2001,
rural female literacy is below the national average and gender gap in literacy
is more than the national average. Among these blocks, schools may be set up
i n areas with:
Concentration of tribal population, with low female Literacy andlor a large
number of girls out of school;
 Concentration of SC, OBC and minority population, with low female literacy Universalization of
and/or a large number of girls out of school; Elementary Education

+ Areas with low female literacy; and

Areas with a large number of small-scattered habitations that do not
qualify for a school.
The scheme will be implemented by the State Government through the Mahila
5amakhya (MS) Society i n MS states and through the SSA in case of other
states. Training for teachers and staff a t the residential schools will be
coordinated by the District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETS), Block
Resource Centres and the Mahila Samakhya Resource Groups.

Lok Jumbish Project: Lok Jumbish Project was initiated in Rajasthan during
1992-94 in the first phase and extended upto 1998 in the second phase. The
expenditure i n the project was shared between Swedish International
Development Co-operation Agency (SIDA), Government of lndia and Government
of Rajasthan. It is a unique project in which government agencies, teachers,
NGO elected representatives and the people worked together to promote
universalisationof primary education. 'The allocation for the project was Rs.1100
million for Phases I and I1 and Rs.4000 million for Phase-Ill. The seven guiding
principles of Lok Jumbish are:
A process rather than a product approach;
Partnerships;
Decentralized functioning;
Participatory learning;
Integration with the mainstream education system;
Flexibility of management; and
Creating multiple levels of leadership committed to quality and mission
mode.
Janshala Programme: The Janshala Programme aimed at supporting ongoing
efforts of the Government of lndia towards UEE. The programme was a joint
effort of five LIN agencies - UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPA to universalise
primary education. These agencies provided financial and technical support to
the Government of lndia for a community-based primary education programme
called the Joint Government of India-UN System Education Programme, the
Janshala Programme. Special focus was given to the problems of girls and
marginalized children. Though the programme was initiated in March 1997, the
implementation was carried out in August 1998. Nine states were covered
under this programme. In these states, the districts and blocks, .which were
not covered under DPEP, were taken into account by identifying blocks with
low female literacy, high concentration of SCs, STs and high incidence of child
labour. The main objectives of the programme were:
1

To enhance and sustain community participation i n effective school

management;
To improve performance of teachers in the use of interactive child-centred
1 and gender-sensitive methods of teaching, especially i n multi-grade
classrooms;
To improve performance of teachers in the use of interactive child-centred
I
and gender sensitive methods of teaching, especially i n multi-grade
l classrooms; and
1
To redress social constraints which affect attendance and performance of
1 children (Mainly girls).
The project period was for five year (1998-2002). The total project outlay was
Rs.1031 million. The states covered under the programme were Andhra Pradesh,
I Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, 79
Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh.
Educational Systems in Free and Compulsory Education as a Fundamental Right: The Constitution
India (86th Amendment) Act 2002, enacted in December 2002 sought to make free
and compulsory education a Fundamental Right for all children i n the age-group
6-14 years by inserting a new Article 21A in Part Ill (Fundamental Right) of the
Constitution.
The new Article 21A reads as follows: "21A. Right to Education -
The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the
age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine."
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP): The DPEP was launched in
November 1994 to achieve universalisation of elementary education through
district-specific planning and disaggregated target setting. The programme as
conceptualized based on the experiences of APBEP, BEP and UPBEP. Unlike the
earlier programmes, which had schematic piecemeal approach, the DPEP took
a holistic view of primary education. The major features of DPEP were
decentralized management, community mobilization, and district specific
planning based on contextuality and research-based inputs.
While 85% of the cost involved i n the programme was borne by the Central
Government, the rest of the cost was the responsibility of the State
Governments. The Central Government managed the fund with external funding.
IDA provided $260 million and $425 million under Phase-l and Phase-ll respectively.
The European Union (EU) provided 150 Million ECU. The ODA (UK) extended a
grant of $80.21 million. The grant from the Netherlands amounted to $25.8
million. The first phase of the programme covered 42 districts i n the states of
Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and Madhya Pradesh.
The second phase covered 80 districts of Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat and all the states of Phase-
I. The districts were selected on the basis of female literacy below national
average and (Total Literacy Campaign) TLCs have made a demand for elementary
education in these districts.
Box 19.2 : Objectives and Achievements of DPEP
The main objectives of DPEP are:
To provide all children with access to primary education either in the
formal system or through the non-formal education (NFE) programme.
To reduce differences i n enrolment, dropout rates and learning
achievement among gender and social groups to less than 5%.
To reduce overall primary dropout rates for all students to less than
10%.
0- To raise average achievement levels by at least 25% over measured
base line levels and ensuring achievements of basic literacy and
numeracy competencies and a minimum of 40% achievement Levels in
other competencies by all primary school children.
The achievement under DPEP obtained so far is as below:
Opening of new schools numbered 0.160 million of which 0.084 million
were alternative schools.
- Creation of additional schooling facilities.
- 45,900 new school buildings
- 46,800 additional classrooms
- 15,302 resource centers
- 46,500 toilets
- 16,700 drinking water facilities
Appointment of para teachedshiksha karmis (0.177 million)
Source: MHRD Annual Report (2002-2003
 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): The scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was Universalization of
approved by the Government of India in November 16, 2000. It would subsume Elementary Education
all existing programmes of UEE except Mahila Samakhya and Mid-day Meal
Scheme. The districts would be units of programme implementation. Apart
from improving the efficiency of the delivery system for quality-based education
up to Class VIII, it would bridge the gender gap by involving the community
i n school management. The broad objectives of the scheme are:
All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, Back-
to-School Camp or bridge course by 2003;
All children i n the 6thage group complete five years of primary schooling
by 2007;
All children i n the 6-14 age group complete eight years of elementary
schooling by 2010;
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
. education for life;
Bridging of all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007
and at elementary education level by 2010; and
Universal retention 2010.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a massive mission-mode campaign which covers
the entire country and seeks to address the needs of 192 million children i n
1.1 million habitations. Nearly 0.85 million existing primary and upper-primary
schools and 33 million existing teachers would be covered under the Abhiyan
(MHRD, Annual Report 2002-2003).

Reflection and Action 19.3

Critically evaluate attempts of government of lndia for the universalisation
of elementary education
?

19.6 Innovative Intervention in Teacher Education

for Universalization of Elementary Education
Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP)
The project was initiated i n Rajasthan in 1987 with assistance from the Swedish
International Development Co-operation Agency (SIDA). The project aims at
UEE in socio-economic remote backward villages i n Rajasthan with emphasis
on girls' education. I t identified teacher absenteeism as the main cause of
high dropout rates. Under this project, regular teachers are replaced by local,
teachers who are less qualified, but specially trained. The Shiksha Karmi is a
local person with a minimum qualficiation of Class Vlll for men and Class V for
women. She is given both induction training programme as well as periodic
refresher courses. One of the outstanding achievements of SKP was 100%
enrolment of children i n 576 villages i.e. more than one fourth of the project
villages.

MV Foundation Programme
This programme is implemented in the Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh
to achieve universalisation of elementary education. The main concern of this
I
programme is to eradicate child labour and put children into regular government
i schools by reteasing them from child labour. Under this programme, the para
teachers are appointed:

1
To campaign against child Labour;

1 To mobilize children, parents and the community i n favour of schooling;

Educational Systems in To run bridge courses for children released from labour for giving them
India basic literacy and numeracy skill and getting them used t o school
life; and
To assist the government teachers in teaching, and to retain the new
entrants recently released from labour and put into school after an intense
campaign.
The programme started in 1991 and had been successful in putting children
back into schools.

Himachal Pradesh Volunteer Teacher Scheme (HPVTS)

The scheme was introduced by the State Government in 1984. Under this
scheme, an additional volunteer teacher was provided to single teacher primary
school. This was done as there was increase in the enrolment in government
schools. Another objective of this scheme was to provide unemployed youth
lob in schools. These volunteer teachers after serving for 10 years got permanent
employment as Junior Basic Teacher in Schools.

19.7 Role of Distance Education in Teacher Training

at Primary Level
With a well-established distance education system fully equipped with latest
communication and information technology, teacher training at primary level
has received focused attention from all national and state level institutions
and agencies. The role of lndira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and
National Council of Educational Research and Training is noteworthy.

IGNOU in collaboration with NCERT launched a Certificate Programme in Guidance

(CIG) in 1993 for primary school teachers and parents. A similar kind of
collaborative effort between the .two organizations culminated i n the
development of a comprehensive programme titled "Diploma i n Primary
Education (DPE)", which was launched for training of untrained primary school
teachers in North-Eastern States, Sikkim and Jammu and Kashmir. The programme
broadly emphasizes developing knowledge and understanding of primary school
curriculum, factors affecting child development and role of teacher i n the
socio-cultural and political context of the country i n general and in the primary
education system in particular. The programme is conducted through print
material, audio-visual aids, conduct of practicals, handbooks, teleconferencing
and evaluation.

The NCERT also made use of interactive video technology i n 1996 to train
primary school teachers of Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka under its "Special
Orientation Programme for Primary School Teachers (SOPT)". It was a seven day
training programme covering topics such as Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL),
Teaching Aids, Multi-grade Teaching, and Strategies for Teaching Mathematics,
Environmental Studies and Languages.

Distance Educatipn Programme Under IGNOU i n Collaboration with NCERT

IGNOU in collaboration with NCERT launched Distance Education Programme

(DEP) as part of DPEP i n 1996. 'The project was financed by MHRD through a
loan from the International Development Association (World Bank) iowards the
cost of second phase of DPEP. The broad goal of DEP-DPEP was to strengthen
the ongoing training programme of primary education personnel by using distance
learning inputs and materials. This was to help evolve a sustainable system of
in-service training linked to improving effectiveness of the teaching-learning
process i n primary schools (DEP-DPEP, IGNOU, 2003).
 Distance Education Programme Under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (DEP-SLA) Universalization of
Elementary Education
The DEP-SSA was created by the MHRD as a national centre for distance
education activities under SSA on July 1, 2003. The implementation of the
I
I
project i n states and UTs has been entrusted to IGNOU. The main aim of the
project is to support the states and UTs to achieve the objectives of SSA.
I I t covers 28 States and 7 UTs for elementary school stage. It caters to the
i
I
needs of elementary teachers, BRCICRC coordinators, VEC members, community
I
leaders and parents, alternative school functionarieslpara teachers, faculty of
Distance lnstitutes of Eduation and Training (DIETS), State Council for Educational
Research and Training (SCERTs), State lnstitutes of Education (SIEs) and Non-
Governemntal Organizations (NGOs) (IGNOU Profile 2006). It provides printed
self-learning materials, audio-video programmes and organizes teleconferences.

Reflection and Action 19.4

Do you think appropriate teacher training will facilitate spreading the
elementary education. What are the requirements for such teacher training
programmes?

19.8 Conclusion
Through this unit we made an attempt to present t o you i n a synoptic manner
the concept, history and the present scenario of universalization of elementary
education and the initiatives and strategies taken by both central and state
governments to achieve universalisation of elementary education. Elementary
education is very crucial not only for the country but also for all the citizens
of the country. The makers of the Constitution had made a provision that
within a period of ten years from 1950, free and compulsory elementary education
would be provided to all children up to 14 years of age. Before independence
the demand for compulsory primary education was proposed by Gokhale. After
independence, the first milestone to universalize elementary education was
laid by the Constitution of India i n 1950, but, the serious concerns t o
universalize elementary education were shown by the National Policy on
Education (1986) and Programme of Action (1992). The concerns of the NPE
and POA got further strengthened by the international efforts made by UNICEF,
UNDP and the World Bank through the Declaration of Education for all (EFA).
Several initiatives innovations and strategies have been taken by both central
and state governments towards universalisation of elementary education. Some
of them are Operation Blackboard, APPEP, BEP, UPBEP, NFE, Mid-Day Meal
scheme, Lok Jumbish Project, Janshala Programme, Free and Compulsory
Education as a Fundamental Right, District Primary Education Programme, Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). Several initiatives in teacher education have also been
taken for universalization of elementary education. Some of them are Shiksha
Karmi Project, MV Foundation Programme, HPVTS, etc. Distance and Open
Learning have also played a part i n universalization of elementary education.
IGNOU offers academic progra,mmes for training of primary school teachers.
Distance Education Programme (DEP-SSA) is also supporting the states and UTs
to achieve the objectives of SSA.

19.9 Further Reading

Gopalan, K. 1998 lndian Strategies to Achieve Universalisation of Elementary
Education. lndira Gandhi .:National Centre for the Arts: New Delhi

Sinha Shabnam 2004, "~le/mentar~Education i n India". in J.S. Rajput (Ed.)

Encyclopaedia of Indian Education. National Council of Educational Research
and Training: New Delhi