Definition of Altruism:
Altruism refers to selfless concern for the well-being of others. It involves actions intended to
benefit someone else without expectation of personal gain, and sometimes even at a cost to
oneself. Altruistic behavior can range from small acts of kindness, like helping a stranger, to
significant sacrifices, such as donating an organ.
Literature Review on Altruism
The study of altruism spans multiple disciplines, including psychology, sociology, evolutionary
biology, and economics. Below is a thematic overview of key areas and findings in the literature:
1. Psychological Perspectives
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1991):
One of the most influential theories, proposed by C. Daniel Batson, suggests that
altruistic behavior is motivated by empathetic concern. When individuals feel empathy
for someone in need, they are more likely to help regardless of any personal benefit.
Developmental Psychology:
Research shows that altruistic tendencies can be observed in children as young as one
year old (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006). These behaviors are shaped by both biological
predispositions and socialization processes.
Personality Traits:
Studies indicate that traits like agreeableness, empathy, and moral reasoning are
positively correlated with altruistic behavior (Graziano & Eisenberg, 1997).
2. Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
Kin Selection and Inclusive Fitness (Hamilton, 1964):
Evolutionary biologists argue that altruism toward kin increases the survival of shared
genes. This theory helps explain why individuals are more altruistic toward family
members.
Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers, 1971):
Suggests that altruism can evolve between non-relatives when individuals expect that the
favor will be returned in the future.
Neuroscience of Altruism:
Neuroimaging studies have found that altruistic acts activate brain regions associated
with reward processing (e.g., ventral striatum), suggesting a "warm glow" effect from
helping others (Moll et al., 2006).
3. Sociocultural and Environmental Influences
Cultural Norms and Values:
Altruistic behavior is influenced by cultural expectations. For instance, collectivist
societies may promote more community-oriented altruism compared to individualistic
cultures.
Religion and Morality:
Many studies have shown that religious beliefs and moral values often encourage
altruistic acts, although the motivations can differ (e.g., divine reward vs. intrinsic moral
duty).
Social Identity Theory:
People are more likely to act altruistically toward members of their in-group than out-
group, which affects the scope and target of altruistic behavior.
4. Economic and Behavioral Models
Game Theory and Altruism:
Experiments like the Ultimatum Game and Public Goods Game demonstrate that people
often behave more altruistically than predicted by purely rational self-interest models.
Cost-Benefit Analysis:
Some researchers argue that even altruistic acts can involve a cognitive calculation of
perceived benefits (e.g., social approval, avoidance of guilt), blurring the lines between
"true" and "strategic" altruism.
5. Altruism in Real-world Contexts
Volunteering and Philanthropy:
Studies highlight various motivations for long-term altruistic involvement, such as
compassion, community belonging, and a sense of purpose.
Disaster and Crisis Response:
Evidence shows spikes in altruistic behavior during crises (e.g., natural disasters,
pandemics), often driven by empathy, shared identity, and moral obligation.
Conclusion
Altruism is a multifaceted construct with biological, psychological, social, and cultural
dimensions. While debates continue about the purity of motives behind altruistic acts, research
consistently affirms that such behaviors play a crucial role in fostering social cohesion and
human cooperation.
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describe the theoritical framework related to altrusim
ChatGPT said:
Theoretical Framework Related to Altruism
A theoretical framework provides the foundation for understanding the concept of altruism by
organizing and explaining how different variables and theories relate to altruistic behavior.
Several psychological, biological, and sociological theories have been proposed to explain why
individuals engage in altruistic acts. Below is a description of the major theoretical perspectives
that form the theoretical framework for altruism:
1. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1991)
Core Idea:
This psychological theory suggests that empathy is the main motivator for altruistic
behavior. When a person feels empathy for someone in need, they are more likely to help,
regardless of any personal gain.
Key Components:
o Empathic concern
o Emotional arousal
o Motivation to relieve another's suffering
Example:
Seeing a homeless person and feeling emotional distress may lead you to offer food or
money purely out of concern.
2. Social Exchange Theory (Homans, 1958; Blau, 1964)
Core Idea:
Altruistic behavior is driven by a cost-benefit analysis. People help others when they
believe the rewards outweigh the costs, whether those rewards are internal (e.g., feeling
good) or external (e.g., praise).
Key Components:
o Rational decision-making
o Maximization of personal benefit
o Avoidance of punishment or guilt
Criticism:
This theory implies that all altruism is ultimately self-serving.
3. Evolutionary Theory
Kin Selection Theory (Hamilton, 1964):
Altruism toward relatives increases the survival chances of shared genes.
Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers, 1971):
Altruistic acts are performed with the expectation that the favor will be returned in the
future.
Group Selection:
Altruistic behavior can enhance the survival of the group, even if it’s costly for the
individual.
Example:
Animals sharing food or humans helping group members during a crisis.
4. Social Norm Theory
Core Idea:
Altruism is influenced by social and cultural norms, such as the norm of reciprocity
(returning help) and the norm of social responsibility (helping those in need).
Key Components:
o Internalized moral expectations
o Cultural or religious teachings
o Social approval or disapproval
Example:
Helping an elderly person because society teaches it is the right thing to do.
5. Humanistic Theory (Maslow, 1943; Rogers, 1961)
Core Idea:
Altruism is a manifestation of self-actualization—the highest level in Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs. Once basic needs are met, individuals seek fulfillment through
helping others.
Key Concepts:
o Self-growth
o Inner potential
o Fulfillment through service
Example:
A person dedicating their life to humanitarian work after achieving personal success.
6. Biological and Neuroscientific Theories
Core Idea:
Altruism is linked to biological mechanisms, including brain structures and hormones.
Key Findings:
o Brain imaging studies show that altruistic acts activate reward centers in the
brain (e.g., the ventral striatum).
o Hormones like oxytocin enhance prosocial behavior.
Example:
The "helper’s high" or good feeling after donating to charity.
7. Social Identity and Intergroup Theories
Core Idea:
Altruism is more likely when individuals identify with the group or person they are
helping.
Key Concepts:
o In-group favoritism
o Shared identity
o Empathy as a group-based emotion
Example:
Helping victims of a natural disaster in one’s own country more readily than those in a
distant one.
