Biome

A biome (/ˈbaɪ.oʊm/) is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal
life. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment
and regional climate.[1][2] Biomes may span more than one continent. A biome encompasses
multiple ecosystems within its boundaries. It can also comprise a variety of habitats.

One way of mapping terrestrial (land) biomes

around the world

While a biome can cover small areas, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined
space on a much smaller scale. For example, the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria,
viruses, and other microorganisms that are present on or in a human body.[3]

A biota is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period, from local
geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-
timescale spatiotemporal scales. The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere.

Terminology

The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of
Möbius (1877).[4] Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of
phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the
animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition.[5][6] In 1935,
Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[7][8] The International
Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[9]

However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature,
particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical
unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional,
terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome
name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by
climate zone, altitude or soil).[10]
In the Brazilian literature, the term biome is sometimes used as a synonym of biogeographic
province, an area based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant
species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain"
of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar
geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many
biomes in fact.[5][11][12]

Classifications

To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale
variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to
the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made
according to the average conditions that predominate in them.[13]

A 1978 study on North American grasslands[14] found a positive logistic correlation between
evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general
results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary
production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots),
and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.[15] These findings help
explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then
later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants
used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit
perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones

Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Although conceived as three-dimensional by

its originator, it is usually shown as a two-dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular
frame.

In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the
biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two
abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge
uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his
diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that
these were important.

Allee (1949) biome-types

The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[16]

Tundra

Taiga

Deciduous forest

Grasslands

Desert

High plateaus

Tropical forest
 Minor terrestrial biomes

Kendeigh (1961) biomes

The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[17]

Terrestrial
Temperate deciduous forest

Coniferous forest

Woodland

Chaparral

Tundra

Grassland

Desert

Tropical savanna

Tropical forest

Marine
Oceanic plankton and nekton

Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte

Pelecypod-annelid

Coral reef

Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types

The distribution of vegetation types

as a function of mean annual
temperature and precipitation.
Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme
can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's
greater specificity.

Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously
compiled a review of biome classifications.[18]

Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme

Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent

characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species - including
plants.

Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation

structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal
communities.

Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.

Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by

physiognomy.

Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.

Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when
applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and
animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize
similar communities.[19]

Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types

Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to
climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[19]

1. Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and
dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide

2. Climatic moisture gradient

3. Temperature gradient by altitude

4. Temperature gradient by latitude

Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish
biome-types:
 The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.

Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists

(decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment
becomes less favorable).

Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species
diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.

Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance
along the ecoclines.

The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the
world.

Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and
combined this with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is
known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-
axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.

Biome-types

1. Tropical rainforest

2. Tropical seasonal rainforest

deciduous

semideciduous

3. Temperate giant rainforest

4. Montane rainforest

5. Temperate deciduous forest

6. Temperate evergreen forest

needleleaf

sclerophyll

7. Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (taiga)

8. Elfin woodland

9. Thorn forest

10. Thorn scrub

 11. Temperate woodland

12. Temperate shrublands

deciduous

heath

sclerophyll

subalpine-needleleaf

subalpine-broadleaf

13. Savanna

14. Temperate grassland

15. Alpine grasslands

16. Tundra

17. Tropical desert

18. Warm-temperate desert

19. Cool temperate desert scrub

20. Arctic-alpine desert

21. Bog

22. Tropical fresh-water swamp forest

23. Temperate fresh-water swamp forest

24. Mangrove swamp

25. Salt marsh

26. Wetland[20]

Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types

The multi-authored series Ecosystems of the World, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a
comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:[21]

I. Terrestrial Ecosystems
A. Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Wet Coastal Ecosystems

2. Dry Coastal Ecosystems

 3. Polar and Alpine Tundra

4. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and Moor

5. Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts

6. Coniferous Forests

7. Temperate Deciduous Forests

8. Natural Grasslands

9. Heathlands and Related Shrublands

10. Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests

11. Mediterranean-Type Shrublands

12. Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands

13. Tropical Savannas

14. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems

15. Wetland Forests

16. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground

B. Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems

17. Managed Grasslands

18. Field Crop Ecosystems

19. Tree Crop Ecosystems

20. Greenhouse Ecosystems

21. Bioindustrial Ecosystems

II. Aquatic Ecosystems

A. Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
22. River and Stream Ecosystems

23. Lakes and Reservoirs

B. Marine Ecosystems
24. Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems

25. Coral Reefs

26. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas

 27. Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves

28. Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean

C. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems

29. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems

III. Underground Ecosystems

30. Cave Ecosystems

Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes

The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of
temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine
major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each
biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant
form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a
swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[10][22][23]

Number Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation type

Equatorial, always moist, little

ZB I Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforest
temperature seasonality

Tropical, summer rainy season and Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry
ZB II Red clays or red earths
cooler "winter" dry season forest, scrub, or savanna

Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid Desert vegetation with considerable

ZB III Serosemes, sierozemes
climate exposed surface

Mediterranean, winter rainy season Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-

ZB IV Mediterranean brown earths
and summer drought sensitive shrublands and woodlands

Warm temperate, occasional frost, Yellow or red forest soils, Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat
ZB V
often with summer rainfall maximum slightly podsolic soils frost-sensitive

Nemoral, moderate climate with Forest brown earths and grey Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate
ZB VI
winter freezing forest soils forest

Continental, arid, with warm or hot

ZB VII Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts
summers and cold winters

Boreal, cold temperate with cool Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved

ZB VIII Podsols
summers and long winters forest (taiga)

Low, evergreen vegetation, without

Polar, short, cool summers and long, Tundra humus soils with
ZB IX trees, growing over permanently frozen
cold winters solifluction (permafrost soils)
soils
Schultz (1988) eco-zones

Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept
of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[24]

1. polar/subpolar zone

2. boreal zone

3. humid mid-latitudes

4. dry mid-latitudes

5. subtropics with winter rain

6. subtropics with year-round rain

7. dry tropics and subtropics

8. tropics with summer rain

9. tropics with year-round rain

Bailey (1989) ecoregions

Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the
United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest
of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided
into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on
other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine
and continental; lowland and mountain).[25][26]

100 Polar Domain

120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)

M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces

130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)

M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces

200 Humid Temperate Domain

210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)

M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces

220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)

 M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces

230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)

M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces

240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)

M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces

250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)

260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)

M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces

300 Dry Domain

310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division

M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces

320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division

330 Temperate Steppe Division

340 Temperate Desert Division

400 Humid Tropical Domain

410 Savanna Division

420 Rainforest Division

Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200

Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson et al. and used by the
WWF and Global 200.
A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided
the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into
ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also
called major habitat type).[27][28]

This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as
priorities for conservation.[27]

For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic
realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).

Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)

NA: Nearctic

PA: Palearctic

AT: Afrotropic

IM: Indomalaya

AA: Australasia

NT: Neotropic

OC: Oceania

AN: Antarctic[28]

The applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa
is unresolved.[29]

Biogeographic realms (marine)

Arctic

Temperate Northern Atlantic

Temperate Northern Pacific

Tropical Atlantic

Western Indo-Pacific

Central Indo-Pacific

Eastern Indo-Pacific

Tropical Eastern Pacific

 Temperate South America

Temperate Southern Africa

Temperate Australasia

Southern Ocean[30]

Biomes (terrestrial)

1. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)

2. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)

3. Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)

4. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)

5. Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)

6. Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)

7. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical,
semiarid)

8. Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)

9. Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)

10. Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)

11. Tundra (Arctic)

12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm,
semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)

13. Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)

14. Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[28]

Biomes (freshwater)

According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[31]

Large lakes

Large river deltas

Polar freshwaters

Montane freshwaters
 Temperate coastal rivers

Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands

Temperate upland rivers

Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers

Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands

Tropical and subtropical upland rivers

Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins

Oceanic islands

Biomes (marine)

Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):

Polar

Temperate shelves and sea

Temperate upwelling

Tropical upwelling

Tropical coral[32]

Summary of the scheme

Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)
Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a main biome type (14)
Ecosystems (biotopes)

Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)
Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a main biome type (12)
Ecosystems (biotopes)

Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
(Marine provinces) (62)
Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a main biome type (5)
Ecosystems (biotopes)

Example:
 Biosphere
Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf
and mixed forests
Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean
zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)
Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list)
Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)

Other biomes

Marine biomes

Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[33]

Littoral zone

Pelagic zone

Abyssal zone

Longhurst (1998) biomes:[34]

Coastal

Polar

Trade wind

Westerly

Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):

Open sea

Deep sea

Hydrothermal vents

Cold seeps

Benthic zone

Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)

Abyssal

Hadal (ocean trench)

 Littoral/Intertidal zone

Salt marsh

Estuaries

Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons

Kelp forest

Pack ice

Anthropogenic biomes

Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result,
vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much
of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crops and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic
biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of
sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements,
urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the
irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's
biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.

Major anthropogenic biomes:

Dense settlements

Croplands

Rangelands

Forested

Indoor[35]

Microbial biomes

Endolithic biomes

The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers
beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification
schemes.[36]
Effects of climate change

Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's
biomes.[37][38] Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk
of becoming new biomes entirely.[39] More specifically, between 54% and 22% of global land area
will experience climates that correspond to other biomes.[37] 3.6% of land area will experience
climates that are completely new or unusual.[40][41] An example of a biome shift is woody plant
encroachment, which can change grass savanna into shrub savanna.[42]

Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous
biomes,[43][44][45] which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently
the most vulnerable to climate change.[43] South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to
go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes.[46][47] With its annual
average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry
up.[46][48]

Predicated changes for Earth's

biomes under two different climate
change scenarios for 2081–2100. Top
row is low emissions scenario,
bottom row is high emissions
scenario. Biomes are classified with
Holdridge life zones system. A shift of
1 or 100% (darker colours) indicates
that the region has fully moved into a
completely different biome zone
type.[49]

Climate change is already now altering biomes, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine
ecosystems.[50][51] Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and average
weather patterns.[52][53] This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity
of extreme weather events.[54] As a region's climate changes, a change in its flora and fauna
follows.[55] For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, half
were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate
change.[56]
See also

Climate classification – Systems that categorize the world's climates

Ecotope – Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and

classification system

Life zone – Concept was developed by C. Hart Merriam in 1889

Natural environment – Living and non-living things on Earth

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Further reading

Ritter, Michael E. (2005). The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110228054041/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/tex
tbook/biomes/outline.html) . University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.

External links

University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's The World's Biomes (http://www.ucm

p.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/)

Gale/Cengage Biome Overview (https://web.archive.org/web/20110711070312/http://www.gales

chools.com/environment/biomes/overview.htm) (archived 11 July 2011)

"Biomes" (http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/51cbfc84f702fc2ba812bc2d/) . Encyclopedia of

Earth.

Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map (http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/glo

bal-ecology.php#3)

WorldBiomes.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20110222001659/http://www.worldbiomes.co
m/) (archived 22 February 2011)

Panda.org's Major Habitat Types (https://web.archive.org/web/20170706065633/http://wwf.pand

a.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/) (archived 6 July 2017)

NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Bio

me/)

World Map of Desert Biomes (https://databayou.com/world/deserts.html)

Portals: Biology Earth sciences Ecology Environment