Ratio Analysis

UNIT 6 RATIO ANALYSIS

Structure Page Nos.
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Categories of Ratios
6.2.1 Long-term Solvency Ratios
6.2.2 Liquidity Ratios (Short-term Solvency Ratios)
6.2.3 Activity or Turnover Ratios
6.2.4 Profitability Ratios
6.2.5 Market Test Ratios
6.3 Utility of Ratio Analysis
6.4 Diagnostic Role of Ratios
6.5 Application of Formulas
6.6 Summary
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions/Exercises
6.8 Solutions/Answers to Check Your Progress

6.0 INTRODUCTION
The stakeholders of a firm viz., shareholders, creditors, suppliers, managers,
employees, tax authorities, government and others are interested broadly in knowing
what the firm is doing and whether the firm is financially sound or otherwise. Ratio
analysis is the quantitative interpretation of the company’s financial performance. It
provides valuable information about the organization’s profitability, solvency,
operational efficiency and liquidity positions as represented by the financial
statements. The information requirement of each of the stakeholders may be different.
Trade creditors and short term lenders are interested in knowing the ability of the firm
to meet short term liabilities, whereas term lending institution and banks are
interested in the long term survival of the firm. Similarly, others stakeholders may
have other information requirements.

Ratio analysis refers to the analysis of various pieces of financial information in

the financial statements of a business. They are mainly used by external analysts to
determine various aspects of a business, such as its profitability, liquidity, and
solvency. Before introducing you to the concept of financial analysis, let us
recapitulate on the various types of financial statements, as all the variables used in
ratio analysis are taken from these statements.

1. Profit & Loss A/C: The income statement or trading and profit and loss
account shows the various variables regarding expenses and revenue and the
aggregate difference between these two as either net profit or net loss.

2. Balance Sheet: Balance sheet is a statement which shows the financial position
of a firm on a particular date, it summarises the assets owned by the business
and the claim of the owners and creditors against these assets in the form of
liabilities as on the date of the statement.

3. Profit & Loss Appropriation A/C: This statement which is also known as
profit and loss appropriation account is a link between P&L A/C and Balance
sheet. The net profit shown in the P&L A/C is transferred to the balance sheet
after appropriation through this statement. Retained earnings are the
accumulated excess of earnings over losses and dividends.

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Understanding and Analysis 4. Fund Flow Statement: This statement shows the sources of funds from which
of Financial Statements additional funds were derived and the use (application) of these funds.

5. Cash Flow Statement: This statement depicts the change in cash position
from one period to another.

Financial statements are the means of providing general information regarding

operational results and the financial position of a business firm. These
statements do not reveal significant information such as efficiency of
management strength and weakness of the firm, potential of further progress
etc. In order to extract meaningful information, these statements need to be
analyzed and interpreted for specific purposes. Analysis of financial statements
is the systematic numerical calculation of the relationship between one fact
with the other to measure the profitability, operational efficiency and the
growth potential of the business. The main objectives of financial statement
analysis and interpretation are as follows:

 Measuring financial soundness

 Judging solvency
 Measuring profitability
 Judging operational efficiency
 Indicating trends
 Assessing growth potential
 Inter firm and intra firm comparison.

A ratio is an arithmetical relation between two figures or variables. Financial

ratio analysis is a study of ratios between various items or group of items in
financial statements. Financial ratio analysis is an analytical tool for measuring
the performance of an organisation. Ratio analysis is primarily used to analyse
past performance and on the basis of this future projections are made.

Users of Financial Ratios

Financial ratio analysis is the process of establishing relationship between the
variables of the balance sheet and profit and loss account in order to find out the
strength and weakness of the firm. Ratio analysis is undertaken by the various
stock holders in the firm viz. trade creditors, suppliers of long-term debt,
investors and the management itself. Trade Creditors are interested in the firm’s
ability to meet claims in the short run. Their analysis will therefore, be confined
to the firm’s liquidity position in the short run.

Suppliers of long-term debt, on the other hand are more concerned with long-term
solvency and survival. They analyse the firm’s profitability over time, its ability
to generate cash, its ability to repay interest and the principle amount. They also
analyse the capital structure. Long-term suppliers of credit also analyse the
historical financial statements but their main focus is to analyse its future
solvency and profitability. Investors are interested in the firm’s earnings and how
these earnings are used. They concentrate on the firm’s present and future
profitability. They are also interested in the firm’s financial structure to the extent
that it influences the firm’s earnings ability and risk.

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 The management of the firm would be interested in every aspect of the financial Ratio Analysis
ratio analysis as, this helps them assess how efficiently and effectively the firm’s
resources are being used.

Nature of Ratio Analysis

Ratios are used as a bench mark for evaluating the financial position and performance
of a firm. Accounting figures presented in the financial statements would convey
some meaning only if they are seen in relation to the other variables. Ratios help the
stakeholders in summarizing large quantities of financial information (data). Through
ratio analysis one can make a qualitative judgment. The ratios basically reflect a
quantitative relationship among different variables.

Standards of Comparison

A ratio itself would not provide any useful information, until and unless the ratios are
compared with some standard. Standards of comparison may consist of:
Past ratios, i.e., ratios calculated from the past financial statements of the same firm.
Competitor’s ratios, i.e., ratios of some selected firms preferably the firms having
similar turnover. Another approach is to compare the firm’s ratios with that of the
market leader. Industry ratios, i.e., the average ratios of the industry to which the firm
belongs.

6.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 provide a broad classification of ratios;
 learn how to extract useful information from financial statement through ratio
analysis;
 recognize the diagnostic role of financial ratios;
 highlight the utility of financial ratios in credit analysis and competitive
analysis, and
 identify ratios which are appropriate for the control of activities.

6.2 CATEGORIES OF RATIOS

The ratios are broadly classified under different categories which as follows
 Solvency Ratios
 Liquidity Ratios
 Activity Ratios
 Profitability Ratios
 Market Test Ratios

6.2.1 Long-term Solvency Ratios

All the funds that are used to run a company are not obtained directly from the
owners. To manage business, companies usually take debt which can be in the
form of deposits, debentures or loans. In the long-term debts that are taken by the
business needs to be repaid along with interest. Solvency is referred to as the
firm’s ability to meet its long-term debt obligations.

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Understanding and Analysis Solvency ratios are a key component of the financial analysis which helps in
of Financial Statements determining whether a company has sufficient cash flow to manage the debt
obligations that are due. Solvency ratios are also known as leverage ratios. It is
believed that if a company has a low solvency ratio, it is more at the risk of not
being able to fulfill its debt obligation and is likely to default in debt repayment.
Solvency ratios vary with the type of industry, but as a good measure a solvency
ratio of 0.5 is always considered as a good number.
a) Debt Equity Ratio
b) Shareholders Equity Ratio
c) Debt to Net Worth Ratio
d) Capital Gearing Ratio
e) Fixed Asset to Long-Term Funds Ratio
f) Proprietary Ratio
g) Dividend Cover
h) Interest Cover
i) Debt Service Coverage Ratio

a) Debt Equity Ratio: There are basically two sources of capital  equity and
debt. Debts are raised when owners want to increase investment but are
unwilling to dilute the equity or the cost of debt is less than that of equity.
There are many ways to calculate this ratio but the most commonly used
method is,

Long term debt

Debt Equity Ratio =
Share holder funds

In other method instead of long term debts all the debts are taken into
consideration. This ratio indicates the relationships between loan funds and net
worth of the company. It also depicts the relative contribution of owners. A
company with high components of debt capital relative to its equity is known as
a highly geared company and vice-versa. There is no standard debt equity ratio
and the same will vary from industry to industry. but as a good measure a
solvency ratio of 0.5 is always considered as a good number

b) Shareholder’s Equity Ratio: This ratio is calculated as follows:

Shareholder equity
Total assets (tangible)

The financial strength of a firm can be gauged by the proportion of equity

capital in its capital structure, higher the proportion of equity, stronger is the
firm’s financial strength. This ratio depicts the relationship between the
shareholders equity and the total assets. This ratio also indicates the degree to
which unsecured creditors are protected against loss in the event of liquidation.
Shareholders equity includes equity and preference capital plus reserves and
surplus. An increase in this ratio implies that the dependence of the firm on
outside sources of funds is decreasing.

c) Debt to Net Worth Ratio: This ratio is calculated as follows:

Long term debt

Net worth

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 This ratio computes long term debts of the firm to that of net worth. Net worth Ratio Analysis
is calculated as capital and free reserves less fictitious assets like carry forward
losses and deferred expenditure. This ratio is a refinement of the debt equity
ratio and gives a factual idea of the adequacy of assets to meet long-term
liabilities. If the debt ratio is higher, it represents the company is riskier. Low
debt to net worth is indicative of a business that is stable.

d) Capital Gearing Ratio: This ratio indicates the degree to which the firm is
trading on equity which in turn indicates the volatility of earnings available to
shareholders. The fixed interest bearing funds includes debentures, long-term
loans and preference share capital. Equity shareholders funds include equity
share capital, and reserves and surplus. It is calculated as follows:

Fixed interest bearing funds

Equity shareholder funds

Companies with high levels of capital gearing will have a larger amount of debt
relative to their equity value. A proper capital gearing is very important for the
smooth running of the enterprise. It affects the profitability of the concern. In a
low geared company, the fixed cost of capital will be lower and the equity
shareholders will get a higher profit by way of dividend and in case of high
gearing the fixed cost of capital will be higher and the profits to be distributed
to the equity shareholders will be lower.

e) Fixed Assets to Long-term Funds Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Fixed assets
Long term funds

This ratio indicates the proportion of long term funds (Share capital reserves
and surplus and long term loans) deployed in fixed assets (gross fixed assets
minus depreciation). A high ratio indicates the safety of funds in case of
liquidation. This ratio also indicates the proportion of long-term funds invested
in working capital.

f) Proprietary Ratio: A proprietary ratio is also known as equity ratio. It

establishes a relationship between the proprietor’s funds and the net assets or
capital. It is calculated as follows:

Net worth
Total assets

Reserves which are created and earmarked for specific purposes should not be
included in the calculation of net worth. A high ratio is an indication of a strong
financial position.

g) Interest Cover: The interest coverage ratio is used to determine whether the
company is able to pay interest on the outstanding debt obligations. It is
calculated as follows:

Profit before interest depreciation and tax

Interest

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Understanding and Analysis The interest coverage ratio reflects the number of times interest charges are
of Financial Statements covered by the funds that are available for payment of interest. A higher
coverage ratio is better for the solvency of the business while a lower coverage
ratio indicates debt burden on the business. Generally a ratio of 2:1 is
considered as adequate.

h) Dividend Cover: It is calculated as follows:

Net profit after tax
Dividend
This ratio indicates the number of times the dividends are covered by net profit.
This ratio also highlights the retained earnings.

i) Debt Service Coverage Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Profit before interest and taxes

Interest  perodic loan instalment
This ratio reflects the ability of the firm to service its obligations on account of
interest payment and loan repayments. A high ratio is an indicator of the fact
that the firm is less likely to default on payments.

 Check Your Progress 1

1) From the following statement calculate: (1) Current Ratio, (ii) Liquidity Ratio,
(iii) Debt-Equity Ratio, (iv) Proprietary Ratio and (v) Solvency Ratio.

Condensed Balance Sheet

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Paid up Capital 1,00,000 Fixed Assets less Dep. 2,19,810
Reserves and Surplus 84,500 Stock 49,460
Debentures 1,00,000 Trade Debtors 11,710
Bills Payable 6,500 Cash at Bank 26,020
3,07,000 3,0,000
2) Balance Sheet of S.K. Ltd. is given below:

Rs. Rs.
Equity Capital 50,000 Fixed Assets 1,40,000
12% Pref. Capital 30,000 Stock 20,000
15% Debentures 70,000 Debtors 16,000
Capital Reserve 5,000 Bank 14,000
P and L Account 10,000
Creditors 12,000
Bank Overdraft 8,000
Proposed Dividend 5,000
1,90,000 1,90,000

Calculate the Capital Gearing Ratio, Liquidity Ratio and Fixed Assets Ratio.

3) From the following information, calculate Interest Coverage Ratio, and Debt to
Cash Flow Coverage Ratio:

Net Income After Tax Rs. 15,630

Depreciation Charges Rs. 20,000
Tax Rate 50% of net income
5% Mortgage Bonds Rs. 2,50,000
Fixed Interest Charges Rs. 14,750
Sinking Fund Appropriations 5% of Outstanding Bonds
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 Ratio Analysis
6.2.2 Liquidity Ratios (Short-term Solvency Ratios)
a) Current Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Current assets loans and advances

Current liabilitie s and provisions

This ratio measures the solvency of the company in the short run (1 year).
Current assets are those assets which can be converted into cash within one
accounting period (usually 1 year) and current liabilities are those liabilities
which are payable within a year. A current ratio of 1.33:1 is the minimum ratio
required by banks to finance working capital needs. A very high current ratio
implies that the firm has blocked the funds either in inventories, debtors or idle
cash.

b) Quick Ratio or Liquid Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Current assets,loans & advaces  Inventories

Current liabilitie s & Provisions  Bank Overdraft

This ratio is a modification of the current ratio. In this ratio, inventories are
subtracted from current assets and the bank overdraft is subtracted from current
liabilities. The reason for doing so is that the bank overdraft is secured by
inventories. This ratio depicts the ability of the firm to service current
liabilities other than the bank overdraft.

c) Absolute Liquid Ratio (Super Quick Ratio): It is calculated as follows:

Absolute liquid Assets

Current liabilitie s
It is a ratio of absolute liquid assets to quick liabilities. However, for
calculation purpose current liabilities are taken into consideration. Absolute
liquid assets are cash, bank balances and marketable securities. An ideal
absolute liquid ratio is taken as 1:2 or .5.

d) Bank Finance to Working Capital Gap Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Short term bank borrowings

Working Capital gap

This ratio shows the dependence on bank finance for working capital. Working
capital gap is equal to current assets minus current liabilities other than bank
borrowings.

e) Interval Measures: A dynamic measure of liquidity, the interval measure is

defined as:

Quick assets
Average daily expenses on operations

Interval measure shows the time interval for which the liquid assets of the firm
will suffice to meet its operating expenditure.

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Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements
 Check Your Progress 2
1. Following is the Balance Sheet of Idiot Limited as on 31 st March, 2021.

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Equity Share 72,000 Plant and 1,35,000
Capital Machinery
Profit and Loss 18,000 Stock 36,000
A/c
Debentures 45,000 Sundry Debtors 27,000
Sundry Creditors 70,200 Cash at Bank 6,840
Provision for 1,800 Prepaid Expenses 2,160
Taxation
2,07,000 2,07,000

Calculate the following ratios:

1) Current Ratio,
2) Liquidity Ratio.

What conclusions do you draw about the company on the basis of these ratios?

6.2.3 Activity or Turnover Ratios

a) Inventory Turnover Ratio: For manufacturing and trading firms a
considerable amount of funds may be tied up in financing of raw material, work
in progress and finished goods. A good inventory management practice is to
keep inventory level consistent with the need to fulfill customer’s order in time.

Cost of goods sold

Inventory Turnover Ratio = or
Average inventory
Sales
=
Average Inventory

Opening Stock  Closing Stock

Average Inventory =
2

Higher the inventory turnover ratio or lower the stock turnover period the better
it is.

b) Debtors Turnover Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Credit Sales
Average Debtors

This ratio measures the efficiency of a firm in converting debtors into cash,
higher ratios indicate better efficiency:

Average Collection Period: It is calculated as follows:

Average debtors
 365
Credit sales

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 This ratio measures the time it takes to collect the amount from debtors. Ratio Analysis

c) Creditors Turnover Ratio: A business concern may not purchase its all
items on cash basis. Sometimes, there may be credit purchase. This ratio is
calculated to find the time taken in paying the creditors’ amount. It is very
similar to Debtors / Inventory Turnover Ratio. This ratio is otherwise called
as creditors velocity.

Credit purchase
Average creditors

Average Payment Period

Average creditors
 365
Purchase

This ratio measures the average time taken to pay for goods and services
purchased by the company. In general, longer the period better it is, because the
operations of the firms are financed interest free by suppliers. An unduly long
period would indicate liquidity problem on one hand and may also impact the
credit rating of the firm.

d) Assets Turnover Ratio: These ratios measure the firms ability to generate
sales revenue in relation to the size of the asset investment.

i) Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio:

Sales
Fixed assets
This ratio measures sales per rupee of investment. This ratio measures the
efficiency with which fixed assets are being employed. When the fixed assets
of the firm are old and substantially depreciated the fixed asset turnover ratio
tends to the high.

ii) Total Assets Turnover Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Sales
Total assets

This ratio measures how efficiently assets are employed overall. The asset
turnover ratio can be used as an indicator of the efficiency with which a
company is using its assets to generate revenue. The higher the asset turnover
ratio, the more efficient a company is at generating revenue from its assets.

(iii) Working Capital Turnover Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Sales
Capital Employed

This ratio indicates the extent of working capital turned over in achieving sales.
Working capital turnover measures how effective a business is at generating
sales for every rupee of working capital put to use. A higher working capital
turnover ratio is better, and indicates that a company is able to generate a larger
amount of sales.
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Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements (iv) Sales to capital employed Ratio: It is calculated as follows:

Sales
Capital employed

This ratio indicates efficiency in utilization of capital employed in generating

revenue. The sales to capital ratio, also known as the capital turnover ratio or
sales to working capital ratio, is an efficiency ratio. The sales to capital
ratio tell us how efficiently a company can turn one rupee of capital into one
rupee of revenue.

 Check Your Progress 3

1. Compute the stock turnover ratio with the help of following figures relating to
Meenakshi Limited:
Trading Account
For the year ending 31 st March, 2021
Rs. Rs.
To Opening Stock 15,920 By Sales 78,000
To Purchases 39,000 By Closing Stock 14,400
To Carriage Inwards 1,000
To Gross Profit 36,480

92,400 92,400
2. Raj & Co. sells goods on cash as well as on credit. The following particulars are
extracted from the books of accounts for the year 2021:
Rs.
Total Gross Sales 1,50,000
Sales Returns 30,000
Total Debtors for Sales as on 31.12.21 10,500
Bills Receivable as on 31.12.21 13,500
Provision for Doubtful Debts as on 31.12.21 3,000
Total Creditors on 31.12.21 1,000
Calculate the Average Collection period.

3. Tyagi and Sons Limited purchases goods on cash and credit terms. From the
following particulars obtained from the books, calculate the creditors turnover
and average payable period.
Rs.
Total Purchases 8,40,000
Cash Purchases 70,000
Purchases Returns 40,000
Creditors at the end of the year 1,20,000
Bills Payable at the end of the year 20,000
Provision for Discount on Creditors 7,500

4. The following is the Balance sheet of Sanchit Company Ltd. as on 31 st 2021:

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Share Capital 80,000 Fixed Assets 1,60,000
General Reserve 30,000 Debtors 60,000
Profit and Loss A/c 50,000 Bills Receivable 20,000
Mortgage Loan @ 80,000 Cash at Bank 50,000
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 10% Ratio Analysis
Creditors 40,000 Preliminary 10,000
Expenses
Bills Payable 20,000
Total 3,00,000 3,00,000

Other information:
Sales during the year 2020-21 amounted to Rs. 1, 60,000.

Calculate:

(i) Capital Turnover Ratio

(ii) Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio
(iii) Working Capital Turnover Ratio
(iv) Current Assets Turnover Ratio
(v) Total Assets Turnover Ratio.

6.2.4 Profitability Ratios

The purpose of calculating these ratios is to assess the adequacy of the profits earned
by the company and also to estimate the trend of profitability over a period of time.
Profitability of a company is the net result of numerous policies and decision. These
ratios show the combined effect of capital budgeting, liquidity management, asset
management on operating results. Profitability, ratios are measured with reference to
sales, capital employed, total assets, shareholders funds etc. The major profitability
ratios are as follows:

a) Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) or Return on Investment (ROI)

b) Earning Per Share (EPS)
c) Cash Earning Per Share (cash EPS)
d) Gross Profit Margin
e) Net profit Margin
f) Cash Profit Ratio
g) Return on Assets
h) Return on Net Worth (or Return on Shareholders Equity)
i) Operating Ratios.

a) Return on Investment: The aim of any business enterprise is to earn a return

on capital employed. ROI is determined by dividing the net profit or income by
the capital employed or investment made to achieve the profit.

Net Profit
ROI   100
Capital Employed
ROI consists of two components (i) Profit Margins (ii) Investment Turnover.

Net profit Sales

ROI  
Sales Investment in assets
(Profit Margin) (Investment Turnover)

ROI can be improved by increasing the profit margin and investment turnover
or both. The capital employed is found out by adding the debt and equity
components of the balance sheet viz., Share Capital (paid up), Reserves and
Surplus and Loans (secured and unsecured), from this total subtract if any,
(i) Capital Work in Progress (ii) Investment Outside the Business Activities
(iii) Preliminary Expenses (iv) Debit Balance of P&L A/C.

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Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements ROI is a measure regarding optimal utilization of the assets of the company.
This measure helps in selecting and disposing of assets as well as in selecting
various investment proposals.

b) Earnings Per Share (EPS): One of the objectives of the firm/company is

wealth/value maximization, of the stake of various stakeholders. The value is
maximized when the market price of equity shares increases. The market price
of equity shares is a function of the present and future earning potential of the
firm. An appropriate and operationally feasible way to measure value
maximization is to measure Earning Per Share (EPS).The EPS is one of the
important measures of economic performance of an economic entity. A higher
EPS among the comparable firms means better capital productivity.

Net profit after tax and preference dividend

EPS 
No. of equity shares

1. EPS when debt and equity is used:

( EBIT  I ) ( I  T )
N

II. EPS when debt equity and preference shares are used:

(EBIT  I) (I  T)  D p
N

Where EBIT = Earning before Interest and Taxes

I= Interest
T= Rate of Corporate Tax
Dp = Preference Dividend
N = Number of Equity Shares

c) Cash Earning Per Share: The cash earning per share is calculated by dividing
the Net Profit + Depreciation by number of Equity Shares.

Net Profit  Depreciation

Cash EPS 
No. of Equity Shares

d) Gross Profit Margin: The gross profit margin is calculated as follows:

Sales  cos t of goods sold

  100
sales
or
Gross profit
  100
Sales

The gross profit measures, the excess of sales proceed over their cost before
taking into consideration administration, selling, distribution and financing
charges. This ratio measures, the efficiency of the company’s operation. Under
normal circumstances the gross profit margin should remain unchanged over a
period of time irrespective of the level of production and sales, since it is based
on the assumption that all cost deducted when computing gross profit are
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 directly variable with sales. Variation in gross profit margin may be due to the Ratio Analysis
following reasons:

1) price cuts
2) cost increases
3) change in product mix
4) under or over valuation of stocks.

e) Net Profit Margin: This profit is calculated as follows:

Net profit before interest and tax

 100
Sales

This ratio reflects net profit margin on the total sales after deducting all
expenses but before deducting the interest and corporate tax. The non-operating
incomes and expenses are ignored in computation of net profit before tax,
depreciation and interest. This ratio is used to compare performance with that
of the previous year as well as with the competitors.

f) Cash Profit Ratio: This ratio is computed as follows:

Cash profit
 100
Sales

Where Cash Profit= Net Profit+ Depreciation

This ratio measures the cash generated by the company as a result of the
operations expressed in terms of sales. In situations where the profit fluctuates
from year to year, due to changes in tax rates and depreciation rates and
policies, this ratio is a reliable indicator of performance. This ratio is not
affected by the method of depreciation used to charge depreciation.

g) Return on Assets: This ratio is calculated as follows:

Net profit after tax

 100
Total assets

This ratio establishes the relationships of profits with the total assets of the
Organisation. This ratio indicates the efficiency of utilization of assets in
generating revenue.

h) Return on Equity Shareholders Funds or Return on Net Worth:

Net profit after interest and tax

 100
Net worth

Where Net Worth= Equity capital+reserves and surplus. This ratio shows how
much money is returned to the owners as a percentage of the money they have
invested in the company. The higher the percentage, the more money is being
returned to investors.

6.2.5 Market Test Ratios

The market test ratio relates the firm’s stock price to its earning and book value per
share. These ratios are indicators of the performance of the company and also reflect
the likely performance of the company in the near future. If the firm’s profitability,
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Understanding and Analysis solvency and turnover ratios are good then the market test ratios will be high. The
of Financial Statements market test ratios are as follows:
a) Divided Payout Ratio
b) Dividend Yield
c) Book Value

a) Dividend Payout Ratio:

Dividend per share
Earnings per shares
Dividend payout ratio is the dividend per share divided by the earnings per
share. Dividend payout ratio indicates the extent of the net profit distributed to
the shareholders by way of dividend. A higher dividend payout ratio indicates
that the company does not require further funds in the near future or it may also
indicate that the cost of borrowing is less than the cost of equity. A low payout
ratio is an indicator of the fact that company is in requirement of funds.

b) Dividend Yield:
Dividend per share
 100
Market price
This ratio reflects the percentage yield earned by investors by investing in
company’s share at the current market price. This measure is specially useful
for those investors who are interest in regular returns rather than capital
appreciation.

c) Book Value:

Equity capital  Reserves  Profite Loss A/C debit balance

Total number of equity shares

This ratio indicates the net worth per equity share. Book Value is a function of
the past earnings and distribution policy of the company.

 Check Your Progress 5

1. The capital of Sun Ltd. is as follows:

Rs.
9% 30,000 Preference Shares of Rs. 10 each 3,00,000
80,000 Equity Shares of Rs. 10 each 8,00,000
11,00,000

The following additional information has been obtained form the books of the
company.

Profit after tax at 60% Rs. 2, 00,000; Depreciation Rs. 60,000; Equity Dividend
Paid 20% Market Price of Equity Share Rs. 40.

You are required to calculate (i) Dividend Yield on Equity Share; (ii) Earnings
Per Share; (iii) Price Earning Ratio, and (iv) Dividend Pay-out Ratio.

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 Ratio Analysis
6.3 UTILITY OF RATIO ANALYSIS

The ratio analysis is one of the most widely used tools of financial analysis. The
various stakeholders in the firm would be interested in the information relating to
operating and financial efficiency. They would also be interested in knowing the
growth prospect of the firm. The various stake holders use ratio to determine those
financial characteristics of the firm in which they are interested. With the help of
ratios, one can determine:

 the ability of the firm to service its current obligations;

 the effect of borrowings on long term solvency;
 the efficiency with which the firm is utilizing its assets in generating sales
revenue; and
 the overall operating efficiency and performance of the firm.

Performance Analysis:

As stated above various stakeholders have different interests in the firm; short term
creditors will be interested in the current financial position, while profitability long
term creditors will be interested in the solvency of the firm. The equity holders are
generally concerned with the returns. It is to be noted here that in every kind of
financial analysis short-end long term financial position along with profitability are
tested, but the emphasis would differ depending upon the interest of the stakeholder.

6.4 DIAGNOSTIC ROLE OF RATIOS

Profitability Analysis

1. How profitable is the company? What accounting policies and practices are
followed by the company? Are they stable?

2. Is the profitability (RONA) of the company high/low average? What are the
underlying reasons for current profitability? Is it due to:

 Profit Margins
 Asset Utilization
 Non Operating Income
 Window Dressing
 Changes in Accounting Policy
 Inflationary Conditions?

3. Is the return on equity (ROE) high/low/average? Is it due to:

 return on investment
 financing mix
 Capitalization of reserves?
15
Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements 4. What is the trend of profitability? Is it improving because of better utilisation
of resources or curtailment of expenses of strategic importance?
5. Will the company be able to sustain high profitability or improve the
profitability given the competitive and other environment utilizations?

Asset Utilization
These types of ratios are basically used to gauge the effective utilization of
assets. Here assets include, both fixed as well as current assets. Through
calculating these ratios we try to find out:

1. How effectively assets are being utilized to generate sales?

2. Are the level of debtors and inventories relative to sales reasonable in
view of the firm’s competitive and operating characteristics?
3. What are the trends in collection periods, inventory turnover and fixed
assets turnover?
3. Is the improvement in the fixed assets turnover due to

 Depreciated book value of fixed assets?

 Disposal of some fixed assets.

Liquidity Analysis
As already discussed these ratios are used to predict short term and long-term
solvency of the firm. In addition to this these ratios are also used to analyse the
following:

1. What is the level of current assets and liabilities? Is it reasonable in the

context of the firm’s business?

2. What is the frequency and duration of payment to the creditors? If it is high

or low what is the effect of it?

3. How efficiently and frequently does the company convert it’s current assets
into cash?

4. Given the company’s riskiness and future financial needs, what is the pattern
of financing :

 What is the mix of debt and equity?

 What is the maturity structure of debt and is the company faced with
large debt repayment in the near future?
5. What are the lease commitments of the firms and the quantum of contingent
liabilities?

6.5 APPLICATION OF FORMULAS

Example 6.1: The following is the Trading and Profit and Loss A/C and Balance
Sheet of a firm:

16
Trading and Profit and Loss Account Ratio Analysis

Particular Rs. Particular Rs.

To Opening Stock 10,000 By Sales 1,00,000

To Purchases 55,000 By Closing Stock 15,000
To Gross Profit c/d 50,000
1,15,000 1,15,000
By Gross Profit b/d 50,000
To Administration Expenses 15,000
To Interest 3,000
To Selling Expenses 12,000
To Net Profit 20,000
50,000 50,000

Balance Sheet
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Capital 1,00,000 Land and Buildings 50,000
Profit and Loss A/C 20,000 Plant and Machinery 30,000
Creditors 25,000 Stock 15,000
Bills Payable 15,000 Debtors 15,000
Bills Receivable 12,500
Cash at Bank 17,500
Furniture 20,000
1,60,000 1,60,000
Calculate the following ratios: (1) Inventory Turnover Ratio (2) Current Ratio (3)
Gross Profit Ratio (4) Net Profit (5) Liquidity Ratio (6) Proprietary Ratio

Solution:
Cost of Goods Sold
1. Inventory Turnover Ratio =
Average Stock
Cost of Goods Sold =

Opening Stock 10,000

Purchase 55,000
65,000

Less: Closing Stock 15,000

50,000

Opening Stock  ClosingStock

2

10,000  15,000
12,500
2

50,000
Inventory Turnover Ratio =  4 times.
12,500

17
Understanding and Analysis 2. Current Ratio:
of Financial Statements

Current Assets
Current Ratio=
Current Liabilitie s

Current Assets Rs. Current Liabilities Rs.

Stock 15,000 Creditors 25,000

Debtors 15,000 Bills Payable 15,000
B/R 12,500
Cash in Bank 17,500 40,000
60,000

60,000
Current Ratio = =1.5:1
40,000

3. Gross Profit Ratio:

Gross Profit 50,000

Gross Profit Ratio =  100   100  50%
Net Sales 1,00,000

4. Net Profit Ratio:

Net Profit 20,000

Net Profit Ratio =  100   100  20%
Net Sales 1,00,000

Cost of Goods sold  Operating expenses

5. Operating Profit:  100
Net Sales
Cost of Goods Sold = 50,000

Operating Expenses (Rs.)

Administration Expenses 15,000

Selling Expenses 12,000
27,000

50,000  27,000
Operating Ratio  100  77%
1,00,000

Liquid Assets
6. Liquidity ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Liquid Assets Rs. Current Liabilities Rs.

Cash in Bank 17,500 Creditors 25,000

Bills Receivable 12,500 Bills Payable 15,000
Debtors 15,000 40,000
45,000

18
 Ratio Analysis
45,000
Liquidity Ratio =  1.125 :1
40,000
7. Proprietary Ratio
Shareholder ' s funds
Proprietary Ratio =  100
Total Assets
Capital 1,00,000
Profit and 20,000
Loss A/C 1,20,000
Total Assets = Rs. 1, 60,000
1,20,000
Proprietary Ratio =  100  75%
1,60,000
Example 6.2: There are three companies in the country manufacturing a particular
chemical. Following data are available for the year 2020-21.
Company Net Sales Operating Cost Operating Assets
A Ltd. 300 255 125
B Ltd. 1,500 1,200 750
C Ltd. 1,400 1,050 1,250

Which is the best performer as per your assessment and why?

Solution:
Comparative statement of performance (Rs. Lakhs)
Particular A Ltd. B Ltd. C Ltd.
Sales 300 1500 1,400
Less: Operating Cost 255 1200 1,050
Operating Profit (A) 45 300 350

Operating Assets (B) 125 750 1,250

Return on Capital Employed (A)/(B)  100 36% 40% 28%
Analysis: Basing on the return on capital employed, B Ltd. is the best performer in
comparison to A Ltd. and C Ltd.
Example 6.3: Calculate the P/E ratio from the following:

Equity Share Capital (Rs.20 each) 50,00,000

Reserve and Surplus 5,00,000
Secured Loans at 15% 25,00,000
Insured Loans at 12.5% 10,00,000
Fixed Assets 30,00,000
Investments 5,00,000
Operating Profit 25,00,000

Income Tax Rate 50%. Market Price/Share Rs.50.

Solution:
(Rs.)

Operating Profit 25,00,000

Less: Interest on
Secured Loans @ 15% 3,75,000
1,25,000 5,00,000

19
Understanding and Analysis Unsecured Loans @ 12.5%
of Financial Statements
20,00,000
Profit Before Tax (PBT) 10,00,000
Less: Income-Tax @ 50%

Profit After Tax (PAT) 10,00,000

50,00,000
Number of Equity Shares   2,50,000
20

Profit after tax Rs.10,00000

Earning as Per Share (EPS) =   Rs.4
No. of equity Shares Rs. 2,50,000

Price Per Share = Rs.50.

P/E ratio = Market Price Per Share/EPS = Rs.50/Rs.4
= 12.50

Example 6.4: Profit and Loss Account of Happy Ltd.for the year ended 31st March
2021.
Rs. Rs.

To Opening stock 90,000 By Sales 9,00,000

To Purchases 5,60,000 By Closing Stock 90,000
To Wages 2,14,000
To Gross Profit 1,26,000 9,90,000
9,90,000
To Salaries 16,000 By Gross Profit 1,26,000
To Electricity 10,000
To Miscellaneous Expenses 10,000
To Depreciation 30,000
To Net profit 60,000
1,26,000 1,26,000

Balance Sheet of Happy Ltd. As on 31st March, 2021

Liabilities Rs
1,80,000
Equity Share Capital 1,20,000
Reserves and Surplus 2,10,000
Secured Loans 90,000
Creditors Total: 6,00,000

Assets
Fixed Assets 5,40,000 3,90,000
Less: Depreciation 1,50,000
Stock 90,000
Debtors 1,05,000
Cash 15,000
6,00,000

20
Discuss under the following important functional grouping the usual ratios and Ratio Analysis
comment on the financial strength and weakness: (i) Liquidity and Solvency Ratios;
and (ii) Profitability Test Ratios.

Solution:

a) Liquidity Ratios
 Current Assets  2,10,000
1. Current Ratio     2.3
 Current Liabilitie s  90,000

 Liquid Assets  1,20,000

2. Acid test Ratio     1.3
 Current Liabilitie s  90,000
b) Solvency Ratios
 Debt  2,10,000
1. Debt  Equity Ratio     0.7
 Equity  3,00,000
 Fixed Assets  3,90,000
2. Fixed Assets Ratio     0.76
 Long term funds  5,10,000
c) Profitability Test Ratios
 Gross Profit  1,26,000
1. Gross Profit Ratio    100   14%
 Sales  9,00,000
 Net Profit  60,000
2. Net Profit Ratio    100   100  6.7%
 sales  9,00,000

 Net Profit  60,000

Return on Capital employed    100   100  11.7%
 Capital Employed  5,10,000

Analysis
1. The current and acid test ratios are satisfactory. Since they are above the
ideal standards of 2:1 and 1:1 respectively.
2. The debt equity ratio is marginally higher than the ideal standard of 2:1.
However, the debt-equity ratio fixed assets ratios reflect a satisfactory
position of the company.
3. The Gross Profit Ratio and Net Profit Ratio and Return on Capital Employed
is not impressive and effort needs to be made to improve the profitability of
the Company.

Example 6.5: The summarized Balance Sheet of M/s Ram Shyam. Traders Ltd. for
the year 31.3.2021 is given below:
(Rs. in Lakh)
Capital and Liabilities Assets

Equity Share Capital (fully 140 Fixed Asset (at cost) 210
paid-up) Less: Depreciation 25 185
Reserves and Surplus 45 Current Assets:
Profit and Loss Account 20 Stock 25
Provision for Taxation 10 Debtors 30 70
Sundry Creditors 40 Cash 15
Total: 255 Total: 255
21
Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements The following further particulars are also given for the year:

(Rs. in lakhs)
Sales 120
Earnings Before Interest and Tax (EBIT) 30
Net Profit After Tax (PAT) 20

Calculate the following for the company and explain the significance of each in one
or two sentences:

(i) Current Ratio; (ii) Liquidity Ratio; (iii) Profitability Ratio; (iv) Profitability on
Funds Employed; (v) Debtors’ Turnover Ratio; (vi) Stock Turnover Ratio; (vii)
Average Collection Period; (viii) Return on Equity.

Solution:
(i) Current Ratio
(Rs. Lakhs)
Current Assets

Stock 25
Debtors 30
Cash 15

Total 70

Current Liabilities 40

 Current Assets   70 
      1.75 : 1
 Current Liabilitie s   40 

This ratio indicates the financial position of firm in meeting current liabilities
out of current assets. The prudential norm is 2:1.

(ii)
 quick assets   Current assets  Stock   70  25 
Liquidity Ratio      1
 Current liabilitie s   Current liabilitie s   40 

Liquidity ratio indicates the liquidity position of the company in meeting its
current liabilities out of the liquid assets. The prudential norm is 1:1

(iii)
 EBIT  30
Profitablitiy Ratio    100   100  25%
 Sales  120

This ratio indicates the margin of profit made on sales.

(iv) Profitability on funds employed:

22
 Ratio Analysis

 EBIT  30
  100   100  14.64%
 Share capital and longterm loan  205

This ratio indicates the margin of profit made on sales.

 Sales  120
(v) Debtor' s turnover     4 times
 Average Debtors  30

It indicates the speed in conversion of debtors into cash.

 Sales  120
vi) Stock Turnover Ratio =    4.8 times
 Average Stock  25

It indicates the number of times the stock is converted into sales.

 Average Debtors  30
(vii) Average collection period    12   12  3 months
 Credit sales  120

This ratio indicates the average credit period allowed to the customers.

 PAT  20
(viii) Return on equity    100   100  9.76% .
 Shareholder ' s funds  205

This ratio indicates the percentage profit after tax earned on shareholders funds.

Example 6.6: The Profit and loss Account and Balance Sheet of XYZ Ltd. are as
under:
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st December, 2021.

23
Understanding and Analysis Net Sales 3,00,000
of Financial Statements 2,58,000
Less: Cost of Production
42,000
Less: Operating Expenses:
Selling 2,200
General Administration 4,000
Rent of Office 2,800 9,000

Gross Operating Profit 33,000

Less: Depreciation 10,000
23,000
Net-Operating Profit 1,500
Other Income (Interest on Government Securities)

Gross Income (Before Tax)

24,500
Less: Other Expenses:
Interest on Bank Overdraft 300
4,500
Interest on Debentures 4,200
Net Income (Before Tax) 20,000
10,000
Tax 50% on net income
Net Income (After Tax) 10,000

Balance Sheet as at 31st December, 2021

(Rs.)

Liabilities

Equity Share Capital 50,000

7% Preference Share Capital 10,000
Reserves and Surplus 40,000
6% Mortgage Debentures 70,000
Creditors 6,000
Bills Payable 10,000
Outstanding Expenses 1,000
Provision for Taxation 13,000
2,00,000

Assets

Fixed Assets 1,80,000 1,30,000

Less: Depreciation 50,000
15,000
Investment in Government securities

Debtors 20,000
Stock 30,000
Cash 5,000
2,00,000

You are required to calculate the following ratios: (i) Return on Investment; (ii) Net
Profit Ratio; (iii) Current Ratio; (iv) Net Worth to Capital Employed; (v) Cost of
Production to Capital Employed.
Solution:

24
(i) Return on Investment Ratio Analysis

Net Operating Profit  100 Rs. 22,700  100

 14.65%
Capital employed Rs.1,55,000

Operating Profit = Net profit before non-operating income but

after Interest on bank overdrafts

Capital Employed = Net fixed Assets+Current Assets-Current

Liabilities
Alternatively,
Return on Investment =
Net Profit (before interest and tax)  100 Rs. 24,200  100
  14.24%
Capital employed Rs.1,70,000

Tax and profit includes income from interest on Government Securities (less interest
on bank overdrafts) and capital employed covers investment n government securities
also.
(ii) Net Profit Ratio:
Net Profit (after tax)  100 Rs.10,000  100
  3.33%
Net Sales Rs. 3,00,000

Net Operating Profit  100 Rs. 23,000  100

Alternatively ,   7.67%
Net Sales Rs. 3,00,000
(iii) Current Ratio:

Current Assets Rs. 55,000

  1.83 : 1
Current Liabilitie s Rs. 30,000

Rs. 70,000
or   2.33 : 1
30,000
(Current Assets inclusive of Investment in Government Securities)

(iv) Net Worth to Capital Employed:

Net Worth Rs.1,00,000

  58.32%
Capital Employed Rs.1,70,000

Rs.1,00,000  100
or   64.52%
Rs.1,55,000

(v) Cost of Production to Capital Employed

Current of Production  100 Rs.2,58,000  100

   151.76%
Capital Employed Rs.1,70,000
Rs. 2,58,000 100
or   166.45%
Rs.1,55,000
Example 6.7: From the Final Accounts of Product Ltd. Given below, calculate
the following:
25
Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements
(i) Gross Profit Ratio (ii) Current Ratio, (iii) Liquid Ratio; and (iv) Return on
Investment Ratio.
Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2021

Rs. Rs.

To Material Consumed By Sales 85,000

Opening Stock 9,050 By Profit 600
Purchase 54,525 By Interest on 300
63,575 Investment
Less: Closing stock 14,000
49,575

To Carriage Inwards 1,425

To Office Expenses 15,000
To Sales Expenses 3,000
To Financial Expenses 1,500
To Loss on Sales of Tired Assets 400
To Net Profit 15,000
85,900 85,900

Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2021

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Share Capital 2,000 Equity 20,000 Fixed Assets:

Shares of Rs. 10 each, fully paid Buildings 15,000
General Reserve 9,000 Plant 8,000 23,000
Profit and Loss Account 6,000 Current Assets:
Bank Overdraft 3,000 Stock-in-trade 14,000
Sundry Creditors Debtors 7,000
Bills Receivable 1,000 25,000
For Expenses 2,000 Bank Balance 3,000 48,000
For Others 8,000 10,000
48,000

Solution:
Gross Profit
Gross Profit Ratio =  100
Sales

Rs.
Sales 85,000
Less: Material Consumption 49,575
Carriage Inwards 1,425 51,000
34,000

Rs. 34,000
Gross Profit Ratio =  100  40%
Rs.85,000

26
 Ratio Analysis
Stock 14,000
Debtors 7,000
Bills Receivable 1,000
Bank 3,000
Current Assets 25,000

Current Assets
Current Ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Rs.
Sundry Creditors 10,000
Bank Overdraft 3,000
Current Liabilities 13,000

Rs. 25,000
Current Ratio = 1.92 : 1
Rs.13,000
Calculation of Liquid Ratio

Liquid Ratio =

Liquid Assets Current Assets  Stock Rs.25,000  Rs.14,000

=   0.84 : 1
Current Liabilities Current Liabilitie s Rs.13,000

Operating Profit
Return on Investment =  100
Capital Employed
Rs.
Net Profit 15,000
Add: Loss on Sale of Fixed Assets 400
Financial Charges 1,500
16,900
Less: Interest on Investment 300
Profit (non-operating) 600

Operating Profit 900

16,000
Rs.
Share Capital 20,000
General Reserve 9,000
Profit & Loss A/c 6,000
Capital Employed 35,000

Rs.16,000
Return on Investment =  100 = 45.71%
Rs. 35,000

Example 6.8: The following data has been extracted from the annual accounts of a
company:
(Rs. in lakhs)
Share Capital Divided into 20,00,000 Equity Shares of Rs. 10 200.00
each
General Reserve 150.00
Investment Allowance Reserve 50.00
15% Long Term Loan 300.00
Profit Before Tax 140.00
Provision for Taxation 84.00
27
Understanding and Analysis Proposed Dividends 10.00
of Financial Statements
From the details given above calculate the following: (i) Return on Capital Employed;
(ii) Return on Net Worth.
Solution:
(a) Calculation of Capital Employed

Share Capital 200

General Reserve 150
Investment Allowance Reserve 50
15% Long Term Loan 300
Capital Employed 700

(b) Calculation of Return

Profit before Tax 140

Add: 15% Interest on Long Term Loan 45
Return 185

(c) Calculation of Net Worth

Share Capital 200

General Reserve 150
Investment Allowance 50
Reserve 400

(d) Return on Shareholders’ Fund

Profit before Taxation 140

Less: Provision for Taxation 84
56
Return

On the basis of the above the following ratios have been calculated:

(i) Return on Capital Employed =

Return 185  100
 100   26.4%
Capital Employed 700

(ii) Return on Net Worth =

Return on shareholders funds 56  100
 100   14%
Net worth 400
Example 6.9: From the following final accounts of XYZ Ltd. For the year ended
31st March 2021, you are required to calculate the following: (i) Acid Test Ratio; (ii)
Stock Turnover Ratio.

Balance sheet as on 31st March 2021

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Share Capital (in shares 5,00,000 Land and Buildings 5,00,000

of Rs. 10 each Plant and Machinery 2,00,000
General Reserve 4,00,000 Stock 1,50,000
Profit and Loss A/c 1,50,000 Sundry Debtors 2,50,000
28
 Sundry Creditors 2,00,000 Cash and Bank Balance 1,50,000 Ratio Analysis

12,50,000 12,50,000
Profit and Loss account for the year ended 31st March, 2021

Opening Stock 2,50,000

Purchases 10,50,000 Sales 18,00000
Gross Profit c/d 6,50,000 Closing Stock 1,50,000
19,50,000 19,50,000
Admn. Expenses 2,30,000 6,50,000
Selling and Distribution 1,00,000 50,000
Expenses 7,00,000
Gross Profit b/d
Expenses of Financing 20,000 Other Income (misc.)
3,50,000
Net Profit 7,00,000

Solution:

Working Notes:

(i) Cost of Goods Sold = (Opening Stock + Purchases  Closing Stock)

= Rs. 2,50,000+10,50,000  Rs. 1,50,000 = Rs. 11,50,000

or

= Sales-Gross profit = Rs. 18, 00,000-Rs 6, 50,000 = Rs.11, 50,000

(ii) Operating Expenses = Administrative Exp. + Selling and Distribution Exp.

= Rs. 2, 30,000+Rs. 1, 00,000 = 2, 30,000

(iii) Statement of Capital Employed

Share Capital 5,00,000
General Reserve 4,00,000
Profit and Loss A/c 1,50,000
Shareholders’ Funds 10,50,000
(iv) Average Stock =

Opening Stock  Closing Stock Rs. 2,50,000  Rs.1,50,000

  Rs. 2,00,000
2 2

Calculation of Ratios

Liquid Assets Rs.4,00,000

(i) Acid Test Ratio =   2 :1
Current Liabilitie s Rs. 2,00,000

(ii) Stock Turnover Ratio =

Cost of Goods Sold Rs.11,50,000
  5.75 times
Average Stock at Cost Rs. 2,00,000

29
Understanding and Analysis 1,40,000
of Financial Statements (iii) Fixed Assets to Net Worth Ratio = 1.55 : 1
90,000

Example 6.10: From the following data: (a) Current Ratio (b) Quick Ratio (c) Stock
Turnover Ratio (d) Operating Ratio (e) Rate of Return on Equity Capital.

Balance Sheet as on December 31, 20021

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Equity Share Capital 10,00,000 Plant and Machinery 6,40,000

(Rs. 10 shares) Land and Buildings 80,000
Profit and Loss Account 3,68,000 Cash 1,60,000
Creditors 1,04,000 Debtors
Bills Payable 2,00,000 Less: Provision for Bad
Debts 3,20,000
4,80,000
Other Current Liabilities 20,000 Stock Prepaid Insurance 12,000
16,92,000 16,92,000

Income Statement for the year ending 31st December 2021

(Rs.)

Sales 40,00,000
Less: Cost of good 30,80,000
9,20,000
Less: Operating expenses 6,80,000
Net Profit 2,40,000
Less: Income tax paid 50% 1,20,000
Net Profit after Tax 1,20,000

Solution:

Balance at the beginning of the year:

Debtors Rs. 3, 00,000

Stock Rs. 4, 00,000

Current Assets
(a) Current Ratio =
Current Liabilities

Current Assets Rs. Current Liabilities Rs.

Cash 1,60,000 Creditors 1,04,000

Debtors 3,20,000 Bills Payable 2,00,000
Stock 4,80,000 Other Current 20,000
Prepaid 12,000 Liabilities 3,24,000
Insurance 9,72,000

9,72,000
Current Ratio =  3 :1
3,24,000

(b) Quick Ratio

30
 Ratio Analysis

Liquid Assets
Quick Ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Liquid assets
Rs.
Cash 1,60,000
Debtors 3,20,000
4,80,000
4,80,000
Liquid Ratio = 1.48 : 1
3,24,000
Cost of goods sold
(c) Stock Turnover Ratio =
Average stock
Cost of Goods Sold = 30, 80,000

Average Stock =
Opening Stock  Closing Stock 4,00,000  4,80,000
  4,40,000
2 2
30,80,000
Stock Turnover ratio =  7 times
4,40,000
(d) Operating Ratio =

Cost of goods sold  Operating expenses 30,80,000  6,80,000

 100   100  94%
Net Sales 40,00,000

(e) Rate of Return on Equity Capital

Net Profit after Tax 1,20,000
 100   100  12%
Equity Share Capital 10,00,000
Example 6.11 The capital of Growfast Co. Ltd. is as follows:
Preference shares of Rs.10 each 50,00,000
Equity share Rs. 100 each 70,00,000
1,20,00,000

Additional Information:
Profit after tax at 50% Rs. 15, 00,000 Equity dividend paid 10%
Depreciation Rs. 6, 00,000 Market price per equity share Rs.200

Calculation the following: (i) The cover for the preference and equity dividends;
(ii) The Earnings Per Share; (iii) The Price Earnings Ratio; (iv) The Net Funds Flow.
Solution:
(1) Cover for the Preference and Equity dividends

Profit after tax Rs.15,00,000

  1.25 Times
Preference dividend  Equity dividend Rs. 5,00,000  Rs. 7,00,000

(ii) Earning Per Share

31
Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements
Net Profit after Preference dividend Rs.15,00,000  Rs.5,00,000
  Rs.14.29
Number of equity shares 70,000

(iii) Price Earnings Ratio

Market Price per share Rs.200

  14 Times
Earning per share Rs.14.29

(iv) The Net Funds Flow:

Profit after Tax 15, 00,000

Add: Depreciation 6, 00,000

21, 00,000

6.6 SUMMARY
A large number of ratios are used to measure performance and exercise control. The
ratios are used by all the stakeholders of the business viz., owners, managers,
creditors, bankers, suppliers, government etc. The ratios are basically divided into
five categories. The short and long term solvency ratios are used to judge the ability
of the firm to meet its financial obligations. Activity or turnover ratios are used to
find out how effectively and efficiently the firm’s resources are being used.
Profitability ratios are used to gauge the profitability of the firm with reference to
sales and assets. The market test ratios are used to gauge the firm performance in
terms of share prices and dividends.
Liquidity Ratios:
Current Ratio Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Quick Ratio Current Assets  Inventory
Current Liabilitie s
Interval Measure Current Assets  Inventory
Average daily cash operating expenses

Leverage Ratios:

Total Debt Ratio Total debt

Capital employed
Debt-Equity Ratio Net worth
Total debt
Capital-Equity Ratio Capital employed or net assets
Net Worth
Interest Coverage EBIDTA
Interest

Activity Ratios:

32
Inventory Turnover Ratio Analysis
Cost of goods sold or sales
Inventory
No. of days, inventory 360
Inventory turnover
Debtors Turnover Credits sales or Sales
Debtors
Collection period 360
Debtors turnover
Assets Turnover Sales
Net assets or capital employd
Working Capital Turnover Sales
Net working capital

Profitability Ratios:

Gross Margin Gross profit EBIT

or
Sales Sales
Net Margin Profit after tax EBIT (1  T )
or
Sales Sales
PAT to EBIT Ratio PAT
EBIT
Return on Investment (ROI) before tax EBIT
Net assets or capital employed
Return on Investment (ROI) after tax EBIT (1  Tax rate)
Net assets or capital employd
Return on Investment (ROI) before tax EBIDTA
Total assets or Net assets
Return on Equity (ROE) Profit after tax
Net worth

There exists a relationship between various ratios. For example, ROE can be
expressed as follows:

ROE Sales EBIT PAT

 
Net assets Sales EBIT
Net assets

Net Worth

33
Understanding and Analysis In practice companies calculate many other ratios. Most important ratios
of Financial Statements include:

EPS PAT
No. of shares

DPS Pr ofit distributed

No. of shares
Payout DPS
EPS
Price-Earnings Ratio Market value of share
EPS
Market value-book value ratio Market value of share
Book value of share

6.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What are the different types of financial ratios?

2. Discuss the importance of liquidity ratios?

3. Define and evaluate various leverage ratios?

4. Discuss the important turnover ratios.

5. Explain the important profit margin ratios?

6. Compare the following: rate of return ratios, return on total assets ratios, and
returns on equity?

7. Discuss key valuation ratios?

8. If the market price per share is equal to the book value per share, the following
are equal, return on equity, price earning ratio, and total yield. Prove.

9. Write short notes on ‘Debt Service Coverage Ratio’.

10. Explain proprietary ratio.

11. ‘Ratios are indicators  sometimes pointers but not in themselves powerful
tools of management’. Explain.

12. Ratio analysis is only a technique for making judgments and not a substitute for
judgments. Examine.
13. Write short notes on (i) Return on investments
(ii) Pay-out Ratio.
14. Explain the limitations of ratio analysis for evaluating investment proposals and
liquidity analysis.
15. Ratios are symptoms like blood pressures, the, pulse or the temperature of an
individual’. Explain, also name and explain in brief the ratios made use to judge
the long-term solvency of a concern.

34
16. Write short notes on ‘Earnings per share’. Ratio Analysis

17. Distinguish between Operating Ratios and Turnover Ratio.

18. Ratio analysis is an important tool for judgment of the health of any
organisation. Elaborate.

19. Write notes on uses and limitations of ‘Ratio Analysis’.

PROBLEMS

1. Premier Company’s net margin is 5 per cent. The total return assets turnover
ratio is 1.5 times, debt to total assets ratios is 0.7. What is the return on equity
for premier?

2. McGill Inc. has a profit before tax of Rs.40 ml. If the company’s times
interest covered ratio is 6? What is the total interest charge?

3. The following data applies to a firm.

Interest Charges Rs. 150,000
Sales Rs. 7,000,000
Tax Rate 60 per cent
Net Profit Margin 6 per cent

What is the firm’s times covered ratio?

4. A firm’s current assets and current liabilities are 600 and 1,500 respectively.
How much can it borrow from a bank without reducing the current ratio given
below 1.5? Justify.

5. A firm has a total annual sales of 1,000,000 and accounts receivable is

collected if management want to reducing the accounts receivable to 12,0
0,000?

6. Determine the sales of a firm with the following financial data:

Current Ratio 1.5

Acid-test Ratio 1.2
Current Liabilities 800,000
Inventory Turn Over Ratio times

7. Complete the balance sheet and sales data (fill in the blanks) using the
following financial data:

Debt/Equity Ratio 0.60

Acid-Test Ratio 12
Total Assets Turnover Ratio 15
Day’s Sales Outstanding in Account 40 days
Receivable
Gross Profit Margin 20 per cent
Inventory Turnover 5

Balance Sheet

35
Understanding and Analysis Equity Capital 50,000 Plant and Equipment
of Financial Statements
Retained Earning 60,000 Inventories
Account Receivable Cash
8. The 19X0-balance sheet and income statement for Omex limited is given
below. Compute the financial ratios for Omex. Evaluate Omex performance
with reference to the standards. Balance Sheet of Omex limited as on
31December 2021
Liabilities and Equity
Rs.
Equity Capital 10,000, 000
Reserves and Surplus 22,500,000
Long Term Debt 12,500,000
Short Term Bank Borrowing 15,000,000
Trade Creditors 10,000,000
Provision 5,000,000
Total 75,000,000
Rs.
Assets Fixed Assets (net) 30, 000,000
Current Assets
Cash in bank 5,000,000
Receivable 15,000,000
Inventories 20,000,000
Pre Paid Expenses 2,500,000
Other 2,500,000
Total 75,000,000

Income Statement of Omex limited for the year Ended December 31, 2021
Rs.
Net Sales 95,000,000
Cost of Goods Sold 72,000,000
Gross Profit 23,000,000
Operating Expenses 10,000,000
Operating Profit 12,500,000
Non- Operating Surplus 2,600,000
Profit Before Interest and Tax 15,100,000
Interest 5,000,000
Profit before Tax 10,100,000
Tax 5,000,000
Profit After Tax 5,100,000
Dividends 1,600,000
Retained Earnings 3,300,000

Omex Standard
Current Ratio 1.5
Acid-test Ratio 0.80
Debt-Equity Ratio 1.5
Times Interested Covered Ratio 3.5
Inventory Turnover Ratio 4.0
Average Collection Period 60 days
Total Assets Turnover Ratio 1.0
Net Profit Margin Ratio 6%
Earning Power 10%
Return on Equity 12%
36
 Ratio Analysis
6.8 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS

 Check Your Progress 1

1.
Current Assets
i) Current Ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Rs.87,190
=  3.88 : 1
Rs. 22,500
Current Assets = Cash at Bank + Trade Debtors +Stock
= Rs. 26,020 + Rs. 11,710 + Rs. 49,460
= Rs. 87,190
Current Liabilities = Creditors + Bills Payable
= Rs. 16,000 + Rs. 6,500 = Rs. 22, 500

Current Assets
ii) Liquidity Ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Rs. 37,730 (Rs. 26,020  11,710)
=  1.68 : 1
Rs. 22,500

Total Debts
iii) Debt-Equity Ratio =
Shareholders ' Funds
Rs.1,22,500
 0.66 : 1
Rs.1,84,500
Total Debts = Debentures +Current Liabilities
= Rs. 1, 00,000+Rs. 22,500 = Rs. 1, 22,500
Shareholders’ Funds = Rs. 1, 00,000+Rs. 84,500 = Rs. 1, 84,500

Proprietory Funds
(iv) Proprietary Ratio =
Total Assets
Rs.1,84,500
 0.6 : 1
Rs.13,07,000

Total Debts
(v) Solvency Ratio =
Total Assets
Rs.1,22,500
=  0.4 : 1
Rs.3,07,000

Variable Cost bearing Capital

2. i) Capital Gearing Ratio =
Fixed Cost bearing Capital

37
Understanding and Analysis Rs.65,000
of Financial Statements =  65 : 1 It is High Gearing
Rs.1,00,000

Variable Cost Bearing Capital

= Equity Capital + Capital Reserve + P. & L. A/c.
= Rs. 50,000 + Rs. 10, 000 + Rs. 5,000 = Rs. 65,000

Fixed Cost Bearing Capital

= 2% Pref. Capital + 15% Debentures
= Rs. 30,000 + Rs. 70,000 = Rs. 1, 00,000

Liquid Assets
ii) Liquidity Ratio =
Current Liabilities
Rs. 30,000
=  1.2 : 1
Rs. 25,000
Liquid Assets = Debtors + Bank

= Rs. 16,000 + Rs. 14,000 = Rs. 30,000

Current Liabilities = Creditors + Overdraft + Proposed Dividend
= Rs. 12,000 + Rs. 8,000 + Rs. 5000
= Rs. 25,000

Long term Funds

(iii) Fixed Assets Ratio =
Fixed Assets
Rs.1,65,500
=  1.18 : 1
Rs.1,40,000

3.

i) Interest Coverage Ratio or Debt Service Ratio

Net Profit before Interest and Tax

=
Fixed Interest Charges
Rs.1,56,370  Rs.1,56,370  14,750
Rs.14,750
Rs. 3,27,490
 22 times (Approx.)
Rs.14,750

ii) Debt to Cash Flow Coverage Ratio

38
 Ratio Analysis
Annual Cash Flow Before Interest and Tax
Sinking Fund Appropriations
Interest 
1  Tax Rate
Rs.1,56,370  Rs.1,56,370  Rs.14,750  Rs. 20,000

12,500
Rs.14,750 
1.50
Rs. 3,47,490
  8. times (Approx)
Rs. 37,750

 Check Your Progress 2

Current Assets
i) Current Ratio =
Current Liabilitie s
Rs. 36,000  27,000  6,840  2,160
Rs. 70,200  1,800
=
Rs. 72,000
 1 : 1
Rs. 72,000
Liquid or Quick Assets
ii) Liquidity =
Current Liabilitie s

Or

Quick Ratio or

Current Assets  (Stock  Prepaid Exp)

Current Liabilitie s
Rs. 72,000  (Rs. 36,000  Rs. 2,160)

Rs. 72,000
Rs. 33,840
  0.47 : 1
Rs. 72,000

 Check Your Progress 3

1.
Cost of Goods Sold
Stock Turnover Ratio =
Average Inventory at Cost
Rs.41,520
= = 2.74 times
Rs.15,160

Cost Goods Sold = Opening Stock + Purchases + Carriage Inward  Closing Stock
= Rs. 15,920 + 39,000 + 4,000-14,400
= Rs. 44,520
Opening Stock  Closing Stock
Average Inventory =
2

39
Understanding and Analysis Rs.15,920 Rs.14,400
of Financial Statements =
2
Rs.30,320
= =Rs. 15,160
2

Day in a year
Average Number of days to Turnover =
Inventory Turnover
Or
365
Stock Velocity = =133.21 or 133 days
2.74

2.
Account Collection Periods
Average Collection Period =  365
Net Credit Sales
Rs.16,500 365
=
Rs.1,09,500
= 55 days
or
365
Average Collection Period =
Debtors Turnover
365
= = 55 days
6.64
Net Credit Sales
Debtors Turnover =
Accounts Receivables
Rs.1,09,500
= = 6.64 times
16,500

(i) Calculation of Accounts Receivables:

= Debtors + Bills Receivable
= Rs. 13,500 + 3,000= Rs. 16,500

(ii) Calculation of Net Credit Sales:

= Total Gross Sales  Cash Sales- Sales Returns
Rs. 1, 50,000- 30,000-10,500= Rs. 1, 09,500
3.
Net Credit Purchases
Creditors Turnover =
Total Payable (Crs.  B / P )
Rs. 7,30,000
=
Rs.1,40,000
73
= = 5.21 times
14

Total Payables
Average Payable Period=  365
Net Credit Purchases

40
 Ratio Analysis
Rs.1,40,000
=  365 = 70 days
Rs. 7,30,000
or
Days in a Year
=
Creditors Turnover
365
= = 70 days
5.21

(i) Total Payables = Creditors + Bills Payable

= Rs. 1, 20,000 + 20,000
Rs. 1, 40,000
(ii) Net Credit Purchases = Total Purchases  Cash Purchases- Returns
= Rs. 8, 40,000  70,000  40,000
= 7, 30,000
(iii) The amount of provision for discount on creditors will not be deducted
from the creditors.

4.
Sales
(i) Capital Turnover Ratio =
Capital Employed
Rs.1,60,000
= = 0.69 times
Rs. 2,30,000

(ii) Capital Employed: 1,60,000

Fixed Assets
Add: Current Assets:
Debtors 60,000
Bills Receivables 20,000
Cash in Bank 50,000
30,000
Less: Current Liabilities:
Creditors + B/P
(40,000 + 20,000) 60,000 70,000
Capital Employed 2, 30,000

Or

Share Capital 80,000

Add: General Reserve 30,000
Profit and Loss A/c 50,000
Mortgage Loan 80,000
2, 40,000
Less: Preliminary Expenses 10,000
2, 30,000

Sales
(i) Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio =
Fixed Assets

41
Understanding and Analysis Rs.1,60,000
of Financial Statements = = 1 time
Rs.1,60,000

Sales
(ii) Working Capital Turnover Ratio =
Working Capital
Rs.1,60,000
= = 2.28 times
Rs. 70,000

Sales
(iii) Current Asset Turnover Ratio =
Current Assets
Rs.1,60,000
= = 1.23 times
Rs.1,30,000

Sales
(iv) Total Assets Turnover Ratio =
Total Assets
Rs.1,60,000
= = 0.55
Rs. 2,90,000
 Check Your Progress 4
1.

Gross Profit
i) Gross Profit Ratio =  100
Sales

Rs. 3,84,000
  100  48%
Rs.8,00,000
Operating Profit
 100
Net Sales
ii) Operating Profit Ratio =
Rs. 2,80,000
  100  35%
Rs.8,00,000
Operating Profit:

Net Profit + Non-operating Expenses  Non-operating Income

= Rs. 2, 81,200+Rs.3, 400  Rs.4, 600 = Rs. 2, 80,000

iii) Operating Ratio =

Cost of Goods Sold  Operating Expenses
 100
Net Sales
Rs. 4,16,000  Rs.1,04,000
  100
Rs. 8,00,000
Rs. 5,20,000
  100  65%
Rs. 8,00,000

Cost of Goods Sold:

42
 Ratio Analysis
Operating Stock +Purchase + Direct Exp  Closing Stock
= Rs. 60,000+Rs.4, 20,000+Rs. (28,000+8,000) – 1, 00,000 = Rs. 4, 16,000

Operating Expenses
Office Expenses + Selling and Distribution Expenses
= Rs. 48,000+Rs. 56,000
= Rs. 1, 04,000
Office Expenses
 100
Net Sales
iv) a) Office Expenses Ratio=
Rs. 48,000
  100  6%
Rs.8,00,000

b) Selling and Distribution Expenses Ratio:

Selling and Distribution Expenses

 100
Net Sales
Rs. 56,000
  100  7%
Rs.8,00,000

c) Non-Operating Expenses Ratio =

Non  operating Exp
 100
Net Sales
Rs.3,400
  100  0.425%
Rs.8,00,000

Net Pr ofit
 100
Net Sales
v) Net Profit Ratio=
Rs. 2,81,200
  100  35.15%
Rs.8,00,000

2.
Net Profit After Tax
 100
Capital Employed
1) Return on Capital Employed =
Rs.1,50,000
 100  13.63%
Rs.11,00,000

2) Return on Equity Shareholders’ Funds:

Net Profit after tax  Pref. Share Dividend Operating Profit

 100
Equity Shareholders, Funds
Rs.1,50,000  Rs.16,000
  100  35%
Rs. 7,50,000

43
Understanding and Analysis
of Financial Statements
Net Profit aftertax
3) Return on Total Assets =  100
TotalAssets
Rs.1,50,000
  100  13.33%
Rs.11,25,000

Net Profit after tax  Interest

 100
Total Assets
Rs.1,50,000  Rs. 23,500
  100
Rs.11,25,000
Rs.1,73,500
  100 15.42%
Rs.11,25,000

 Check Your Progress 5

Dividend Per ShareNet
1. Dividend Yield on Equity Shares =  100
Marked Pr ice Per Share
Rs. 2 (20% of Rs.10)
  100  5%
Rs. 40

Net Profit after tax  Pref. Dividend

 100
No. of Equity Shares
Rs. 2,70,000  Rs. 27,000
2. Earnings per Equity Share =
Rs.80,000
Rs. 2,43,000
 Rs. 3.04
Rs. 80,000

Market Price Per Share

3. Price Earnings Ratio =  100
Earning Per Share
Rs. 40
  13.16 : 1
Rs. 3.04

Dividend per share

4. Dividend Pay-out Ratio =  100
Earning Per Share
2
  100  66%
Rs. 3.04

44