g y

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Textile Science

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[For 1st Year Diploma Students of Fashion Designing]

d
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Institute of Design &
n
ig

Technology
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 Mr. Ashok. Goyal
Founder and Director
Institute of Design & Technology
Surat

Board of Studies and Content preparation Team

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Mr. Ashok Goyal Mr. Anupam Goyal

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Founder And Director Director
Institute of Design & Technology Institute of Design &Technology

ch
Surat Surat

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Ms Meghna Jariwala
Lecturer at IDT -Embroidery and Traditional Textiles
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Diploma in Fashion Designing & Clothing Technology (FDCT), NIFT
Surat
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Certificate Course of Indian Traditional Embroideries and Counted

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Threads from Mridula School of Embroidery, Chennai

es

Ms Pooja Gheewala
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Lecturer at IDT-Garment Construction and Pattern Making

B.SC in Physics and Photography-Fergusson College, Pune
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Two Years Advance Diploma in Fashion Designing from JRVGTI,

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Fergusson College, Pune

itu

This Book comprises a collection of learning material for students of

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Institute of Design and Technology, Surat. The centre is well known for
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its multifaceted fields in Education and technology. This Book is printed

and Published on behalf of Institute of Design and Technology for
Fashion Designing, Surat.
 Index

Unit Name of Unit Page No.

Unit 1 Introduction to Textile 01
Unit 2 Cotton 08

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Unit 3 Linen 13

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Unit 4 Jute 19

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Unit 5 Silk 22
Unit 6 Wool 29

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Unit 7 Viscose Rayon 35

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Unit 8 Cellulose Acetate 40
Unit 9 Acrylic 44

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Unit 10 Spandex 48
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Unit 11 Nylon 52
Unit 12 Polyester 56
n

Unit 13 Glass Fiber 60

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Unit 14 Yarn Spinning 62

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Unit 15 Yarn 69

Unit 19 Weaving 81
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Unit 17 Non Woven Fabrics 99

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Unit 18 Knitting 109

Glossary 117
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Bibliography 130
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 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

Unit 1
Introduction to Textiles
Objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to:

y
 Classify different fibers

g
lo
 Describe the basic composition of different fibers.
 Explain the basic nature of different fibers and their uses

no
ch
Introduction

Te
“The term „Textile‟ deals with the study of fibers, and it is used to
define and understand various fabrics.”The Progression from raw

d
an
 The Cultivation of Natural or manufacture of fibers
 The Twisting of Fibers into yarn called as Spinning.
n

 The interlacing (Weaving) or interloping (Knitting) of yarns into

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fabric.
es

 The combination of fibers ,yarns and fabric (non-woven)

 The finishing of fabric prior to sale.
fD

The study of textiles is important for fashion designers for many

O

reasons mainly for selecting the fibres. Complete knowledge of textiles

will facilitates an intelligent appraisal and develop adequate ability to
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select and will distinguish quality in fabrics. It will help a designer to

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identity suitable fabric for their collections.

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1 Institute of Design & Technology

 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

Fibers are the basic visible units formed by molecular structure

from which fabrics are made”. Fibrous raw materials are divided into two
Classes on the basis of length.

1. Filaments are natural or man-made fibers of continuous length,

measurable in yards or meter.

g y
2. Staple fibre is short length fibers which are measurable in inches.

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Classification of Textile Fibers

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an
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Natural Fibers: Are the fabrics obtained from nature. On the basis of
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source of origin they are classified as

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 Vegetable Fibers are found in cell walls of plants and are mainly
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composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are generally

composed of cellulose -COTTON, LINEN, JUTE.
In

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 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

 Animal Fibers are reaped from different animals and these are
protein in nature with a polymer of amino acids.- SILK and WOOL
 Mineral Fibers are obtained from natural rocks of certain types and
are inorganic in nature and are used for fire proof fabric. Eg-
Asbestos

g y
Man-Made Fibers: There are man-made or synthesized artificially in

lo
laboratory. These are classified on the basis of their raw-material.

no
 Cellulosic Fibers are derived from various natural sources. For e.g.,

ch
the natural material of cellulose taken from the cotton linters and
wood pulp and is processed chemically and changed into fiber of

Te
various length. These are RAYON, ACETATE, TRIACETATE
 Non-cellulosic Fibers are developed to imitate properties of natural
d
fibers or to develop other characteristics or to combine properties.
an
These are synthesized by combining carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
other simple chemical elements into larger complex combination or
n
ig

structures called Polymers.EG-NYLON,ACRYLIC,POLYESTER

 Rubber Fibers are manufactured fibers in which the fiber forming
es

substance comprises natural or synthetic rubber. It is used to make

fD

certain elastic fabrics

 Metallic Fibers are composed of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-
O

coated plastic or a core completely covered by metal. It is used as

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decorative yarns. EG SILVER ,GOLD ,ALUMINIUM

 Mineral Fibers are manufactured in various fibers-GLASS
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3 Institute of Design & Technology

 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

General Properties of Textile Fibers

A textile fibre is of practical value or commercial importance only

when it possesses certain desirable physical, chemical and microscopic
properties. All fibres possess certain basic characteristics. By knowing

y
these properties it can be determined whether a fibre is suitable for a

g
specific fabric. For example, if a soft, absorbent fabric is desired for a

lo
man‟s innerwear, cotton would be excellent, while nylon would be

no
undesirable. However, for a ski jacket shell where great strength and
wear resistance are required, nylon fibre would be a good choice

ch
whereas cotton would not serve the purpose. It is not only the properties

Te
of fibres, but also those of other component - yarns, fabric construction,
coloration and finish, which governs how the textile material will

d
ultimately perform. If a property of any component is altered, then there
an
will be change in the property of the fabric.
n

Some of the important properties to be possessed by a fibre to be

ig

a textile are as follows:

es

1. High Length to Width Ratio: Fibers must be considerably longer

fD

then wider, as the length will determine its spinability and strengths.
A minimum ratio of 1: 100 is essential. Fibers shorter than an inch
O

are rarely used in yarn manufacturing as spinning will be difficult.

Tenacity: The strength of a fiber denotes its tenacity. Fibers must
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2.
have sufficient strength to withstand chemical or mechanical
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processing while manufacturing. Fibers strength would provide

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adequate durability to the end product hence it is Important.

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3. Flexibility: Flexibility is ability of fiber to bend easily. Usually

thinner the fiber more flexible it is and better is its drapability.
4 Institute of Design & Technology
 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

Flexible fiber such as Acetate can be made into a highly drapable

fabric and garment. A rigid fiber like glass usually makes fabric
relatively stiff.
4. Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of fibers to stick
together or mass during yarn manufacturing process. It may be due

y
to longitudinal contours or cross-section shape that enables them

g
to fit together and adhere to each other. Filament fibers twist easily

lo
into yarn then Short fibers. Texturized fibers have high

no
cohesiveness.

ch
5. Uniformity: To convert into yarn, fiber must possess similar length
and width. Spinning Quality and Flexibility must be alike. Uniformity

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in yarn will provide fabric of uniform appearance. Non-uniformity
will result into fabrics with undesirable properties and poor quality.
6.
d
Abrasion Resistance: It is ability to resist wear and tear from
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rubbing. It contributes to fabric durability. Fabric with poor abrasion
resistance will result in pilling which will eventually spoil the surface
n

appearance and less strength. Garment made from fibers that

ig

possess both high breaking strength and abrasion resistance can

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be worn for long period of time.

fD

7. Absorbency: It is the ability to take-in moisture. Fibers that are

capable of absorbing the water readily are called as hydrophilic
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fibers. All natural fibers and rayon and acetate are Hydrophilic
fibers. Fibers which do not readily absorb water are called
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hydrophobic; all man-made fibers except rayon and acetate are

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hydrophobic.
Elasticity: It is ability of fiber to increase in length or stretch when
st

8.
under tension and then return to the original length when released
In

which is referred as elastic recovery. Fabric which possesses good

5 Institute of Design & Technology

 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

elasticity makes more comfortable garment. Better elasticity also

increases the breaking strength of the fabric.
9. Luster: It is a gloss, sheen or shine of the fiber. Luster in fiber is
determined by its ability to reflect light. Even reflections results in
more lustre and uneven reflection in no or less luster. Silk has

y
highest sheen and cotton has minimum.

g
10. Pilling: It is the formation of tiny balls by groups of short or broken

lo
fibers on the surface of the fabric. It is formed due to wear tear or

no
poor abrasion resistance. Hydrophobic fabric tends to pill much

ch
more then hydrophilic fabric.
11. Resiliency: It is ability to return to its original shape after

Te
compression, bending or creasing. Fabric that has good resiliency
does not wrinkle easily.

d
12. Flammability: Flammability of textile product should be considered
an
during the wear. It‟s the rate at which a fibre burns on catching the
fire. Fibres with low incidence of burning will be safer than fibres
n

that burn quickly.

ig
es

Summary
 Fibers are broadly classified as natural and man-made fibers
fD

 Natural fibers are classified as animal, vegetable and mineral fibers.

O

 Man-made fibers are classified as cellulose, non-cellulose, rubber,

metallic and man-made mineral fibers.
te

 You will also study the classification of these fibers on base of its
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composition.
 Different properties of fiber make its characteristic into existence.
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 By knowing these properties it can be determined whether a fiber is

In

suitable for a specific fabric and used for a particular garment.

6 Institute of Design & Technology

 Introduction to Textiles Unit 1

Self Assessment Questions

1. ___________ is a regenerated cellulose fiber.
2. Wool is composed of a ___________.
3. ___________ is a natural fiber obtained from rocks.
4. Tenacity is otherwise called as___________ of a fibre.

y
5. ___________ is the ability of the fabric to resist wrinkles

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6. The formation of tiny balls on the surface of the fabric is called

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as___________

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7. ___________is a man-made fibre which is hydrophilic in nature

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Terminal Questions

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1. What are staple fibres?
2. Give the classification of textile fibres.

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3. What are the various vegetable fibres?
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7 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cotton Unit 2

Unit 2
Cotton
Objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
 Describe the manufacturing process of cotton.

g y
 Understand the properties and performance of cotton fabrics.

lo
Introduction

no
There are various types of natural vegetable fibers obtained from

ch
the plant sources such as cotton, flax, jute, ramie etc. Cotton is soft fiber
that grows around the seeds of the cotton plants.

Te
Cotton is most widely used fibre for fabric because of its strength,
durability and breathability. They are composed of cellulose.
d
an
n
ig
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O
te

The Cellulose fibers have several properties in common. They

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are soft and absorbent due to high amorphous regions and so usually
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give comfortable products. The fabrics could be easily laundered and

can withstand strong detergents, high temperature and bleaches. They
In

burn easily, giving off a smell like that of burning paper and deposit a
8 Institute of Design & Technology
 Cotton Unit 2

light fluffy ash. They can decomposed by acids but have excellent
resistance to alkaline solutions.

Manufacturing Process of Cotton

The manufacturing process of the fibre starts with cultivation and

y
is followed in following steps.

g
1. Picking: The cotton balls are picked by hand or machine.

lo
2. Ginning and Bailing: This process is mainly intended to separate

no
the lint (fibers) and seed. Foreign materials like seeds, leaf
fragments, dirt, etc. must be removed before the fiber is bailed. The

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seeds are removed by cotton gin and process is referred as ginning

Te
3. Grading: Here the long fibres and short fibres are separated and, it
is further cleaned.

d
4. Breaking: The cotton after grading undergoes a series of machines
an
which further tears it and removes impurities .Then the fibres are
converted to thick bales
n

5. Carding: The fibres undergoes in carding machine , it is an

ig

operation were remaining impurities are removed and they are

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arranged in thick slivers where all the fibres are made parallel
6. Combing: It is employed only when the fiber is intended for fine
fD

yarns. In this process, fibers are passed through additional

O

straightening process. The short fibers, called linters are combed out
and completely separated from the longer fibers by combing
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operation.
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7. Drawing: They are drawn and processed to eliminate the

irregularities in sliver. The drawings are inserted with slight twist and
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are called as rovings.

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9 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cotton Unit 2

8. Spinning: The roving goes into the spinning machine which draws
them to the required length and twist them to form cotton yarn

Characteristics of Cotton Fabrics

1. Composition: Cotton fiber is composed chiefly of cellulose, which

y
constitutes about 90%, and about 6% moisture and other natural

g
impurities.

lo
2. Strength: It is the ability of fiber to withstand the stress or tension

no
without being pulled or torn apart. Cotton is relatively stronger
which is due to its fiber structure when put in water, its strength

ch
increases by 25%.

Te
3. Elasticity: Cotton fiber has very little natural elasticity.
4. Resiliency: Cotton fabric tends to wrinkly very easily which shows
a poor resilience of it.
d
an
5. Drapability: Cotton does not have good drapability.
6. Heat Conductivity: Cotton has high degree of heat conductivity
n

which makes it best for summer apparel. It is considered as cool

ig

fiber.
es

7. Resistance to Mildew: Cotton fabrics should never be stored in

damp condition; it develops greenish-black or rust color spots
fD

caused by fungus.
O

8. Resistance to Insects: Cotton is not digestible by moth larvae, so

the fabric will not be attacked by moths.
te

9. Reaction to Alkalis: Cotton is not harmed by alkalis hence can be

itu

easily laundered using a detergent.

10. Reaction to Acids: Cotton is not damaged by such volatile organic
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acids as acetic acid, whereas concentrated cold or diluted hot

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mineral acids, such as sulphuric acid, destroys it.

10 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cotton Unit 2

11. Affinity for Dyes: Cotton fabrics due to its good absorbency and
the composition have a good affinity for dyes.
12. Resistance to Perspiration: Alkali perspiration does not
deteriorate cotton. However, acid perspiration has slight effect.

Burning Test

g y
 Fiber Approaching Time-Scorches and ignites easily

lo
 Fibers Flame- Burns quickly with yellow flame

no
 Odour- Burning paper
 Ash –Light, feathery grayish black ash

ch
Te
Fabrics of Cotton
1. Denim
2. Muslin
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3. Voile
4. Searsucker
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5. Organdy
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6. Lawn
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7. Toweling Material
8. Cambric
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9. Canvas
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10. Gauze
11. Gingham
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12. Casement
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13. Poplin
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11 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cotton Unit 2

Summary
 Cotton is major natural textile which is obtained from different parts
of the world.
 These are composed mainly of cellulosic components.
 Cotton fibers are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

y
 These are fibers generally a fibrous mass obtained from the seed of

g
the cotton plants.

lo
 Cotton has to pass through many process like, Ginning, Blow room

no
operation, carding, combing, drawing, simplex and spinning for form

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fine yarn.
 Cotton exhibit excellent qualities such as shrinkage, good affinity to

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dyes, bleaches, and heat conductivity.

Self Assessment Questions

d
an
1. Cotton fibre is composed of _______
n

2. _______ is the ability of a fabric to hang easily and fall into graceful
ig

shape and folds.

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3. ________ is a cool fibre.

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12 Institute of Design & Technology

 Linen Unit 3

Unit 3
Linen
Objectives
 Describe the manufacturing process of Linen
 Explain the Properties and performance of linen fabrics.

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Linen is an elegant, beautiful, durable, and refined luxury fabric. It
is obtained from the flax stalk. It is considered to be the oldest fibre used

ch
in western world .Belgium; Ireland, New Zealand and Soviet Union are
the major growers of flax.

Te
Linen is the strongest of all the vegetable fibers and has 2 to 3
times the strength of cotton. Linen yarn is spun from the long fibers
d
an
found just behind the bark in the multi-layer stem of the flax plant. .
These fibers are held together under the stem’s bark principally by a
n

gummy substance, Pectin. In order to retrieve fibers from the plant, the
ig

woody stem and inner pith, which holds the fibers together in a clump, is
es

rotted away. The cellulose fiber from the stem is spinnable and is used
for the production of linen thread, cordage, and twine. Linen fibers are
fD

known for the luster and strength

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 Linen Unit 3

Linen Manufacturing Process

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ch
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1. Cultivation Process:
fD

Cultivation of linen requires deep, rich well ploughed soil and

a cool, damp climate. Land with good supply of soft, fresh water. For
O

a good crop, the soil must be enriched for 6 years. Only one crop in
te

7 yrs. can be raised in a specified portion of land. The flax seeds are
itu

sown with hand in April or May. Plant should be protected from

weeds. In 3-4 months, the plant will grow with straight, slender stalks
st

that may be 2-4fts high with small blue or white fibers. The flax plant
In

turns yellow and seeds turn brown, indicating the time to harvest.

14 Institute of Design & Technology

 Linen Unit 3

2. Harvest:
Plant must be pulled as soon as it appears brown, as delay
may result in dull Luster fibers. The stalk should be removed from the
ground intact by hand or machine. If the stalk is cut the sap is lost.
Tapered ends of stalk gives smooth spun to yarns. These stalk are

y
tied in bundles, called beets and are ready for extraction of the flax.

g
3. Preparation of the Fiber:

lo
It involves two processes namely Rippling and Retting.

no
a. Rippling is the first stage after harvesting, where the seeds and

ch
the leaves are removed from the stems. In this, the top ends of
the bundle of stems are pulled through a ‘Ripple’, a comb like tool

Te
consisting of 20-30 vertical steel pins.
b. Retting is next process which involves steeping the bundles of

d
plants in water so that the tissue or woody part surrounding flax
an
fiber will decompose by the growth of micro-organism. It only
loosens the woody bark. If the flax is not fully retted, the stalk of
n

the plant cannot be separated from the fiber without injuring the
ig

fiber.
es

Different methods of Retting

fD

 Dew Retting: In this process the flax stalks are spread on

grass and are exposed to atmosphere for 3-4 weeks and
O

produces strong, dark gray flax. The dew facilitates the

microbial growth resulting in decomposition.
te

 Pool Retting: This process involves the use of stagnant pools

itu

of water and requires 13 days. It produces brittle and weak

fibers.
st

 Stream Retting: In this method the streams of water are used

In

and it produces high-quality flax fibers.

15 Institute of Design & Technology

 Linen Unit 3

 Vat Retting: Here the flax is immersed in wooden vats of

warm water at 25 to 30 C, which decomposes the bark. Flax
is then removed and passed between rollers.
 Chemical Retting: Chemicals such as soda ash, oxalic soda
and caustic soda in warm or boiling dilute sulphuric acid

y
solution are used to separate the pith and the bark.

g
4. Breaking:

lo
When the decomposed woody tissue is dried after retting, it

no
has to be crushed. They are sent through fluted rollers, which breaks

ch
up the stem and separate the exterior fibers from the bast that will be
used to make linen. Small pieces of barks, broken in this process are

Te
called Shives.
5. Scutching:

d
Scutching is either done by machine or hand. The machine
an
removes the broken shives with rotating paddles. This process,
finally releases the flax fibers from stalk.
n

6. Hackling (combing) :
ig

Hackling is done to remove remnants of the fibrous core and

es

bark and align the bundles of

fD

fibers for spinning. A series of

iron combs, ranging from
O

coarse to fine are used. The

fibers are pulled through the
te

teeth of combs beginning with

itu

coarser one leaving the fine

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fibers. This separates the short

fibers from the longer and
In

more luxurious linen fibers.

16 Institute of Design & Technology
 Linen Unit 3

Short fibers are called Tow and it is used for making coarser, sturdy
goods. The very finest flax fibers are called line or dressed flax, and
the fibers may be from 12 to 20 inches in length. Finally the yarn is
sent for spinning.

Characteristics of Linen Fabric

g y
lo
 Absorbency: Linen absorbs moisture and dries quickly when

no
compared to cotton. This good moisture absorbency makes linen a
comfortable fiber.

ch
 Cleanliness & Washability: Linen launders well and gives up stains

Te
readily. Its softness enhanced by repeated washing.
 Reaction to Bleaches: Linen is weakened by sodium hypochorite
bleaches. Sodium per borate bleaches is effective and safe.
d
an
 Shrinkage: Linen fabric does not shrink as much as cotton while
washing.
n

 Effect of Heat: Linen will withstand moderate heat, like cotton.

ig

 Effect of Light: The resistance of linen fabrics to light is more than

es

cotton but it will gradually deteriorate with protracted exposure to

direct sunlight.
fD

Burning Test
O

Burning characteristic: Scorches and ignites easily

te

Flame: Yellow flame little low then cotton

Odour: Burning Paper
itu

Residue: Ash Light feathery Grayish ash

st
In

17 Institute of Design & Technology

 Linen Unit 3

Summary

 Linen is second major vegetable fiber which is in common use.

 It is natural fibers obtained from flax composed of cellulosic
component like carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

y
 The linen fibers in general have good luster and strength.

g
 Being cellulosic fiber it is easily affected by insects and acid.

lo
 It is best suited for towels and handkerchiefs.

no
 These plants are grown once in 6 yrs. and require a well ploughed
soil.

ch
 The yarn formation process involves ripping, retting, breaking,

Te
scutching, hackling and spinning.
 The strength of the fiber increases by 10% when wet.

d
an
Terminal Questions
n

1. ______ will quickly destroy and weaken linen fabrics. (Acid / Alkali)
ig

2. _________ fibre is more suitable for towels and handkerchiefs

es

3. What is hackling process?

4. Why is linen suitable for handkerchiefs?
fD

5. Give the flow chart in manufacturing linen fabrics

O
te
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18 Institute of Design & Technology

 Jute Unit 4

Unit 4
Jute
Introduction
Jute is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton.
Jute is also called as Bast Fiber .It has a yellow to brown or gray

g y
colour with silky luster. This fibre is difficult to bleach and hence brown

lo
or tan colored. It is 61% cellulose. It is grown throughout Asia, chiefly in

no
India and Bangladesh.

ch
Te
d
an
n
ig

It is bundle of short fibre which are brittle and hence weakest of

es

cellulosic fibre. It is 100% bio-degradable & recyclable and thus

environment friendly. Jute is a natural fibre with golden & silky shine,
fD

and hence nicknamed as The Golden Fibre. Jute is the cheapest

vegetable fibre procured from bast of the Jute plant and it falls into the
O

category of bast fibres. Jute has high tensile strength, and low
te

extensibility resulting in poor elasticity and elongation. Jute stem has

very high volume of cellulose, that can be procured within 4-6 months,
itu

and hence it also can save the forest and meet cellulose requirement.
st

The best varieties of Jute are Bangla Tosha - Corchorus olitorius

In

(Golden shine) and Bangla White - Corchorus capsularis (Whiteish

19 Institute of Design & Technology

 Jute Unit 4

Shine). Raw Jute and Jute goods are interpreted as Burlap, Industrial
Hemp, and Kenaf in some parts of the world. The best source of Jute in
the world is the Bengal Delta Plain, which is occupied by Bangladesh
and India.

Cultivation and Processing of Jute

g y
1. To grow jute, farmers scatter the seeds on cultivated soil.

lo
2. When the plants are about 15-20 cm tall, they are thinned out.

no
3. About four months after planting, harvesting begins. The plants are
usually harvested after they flower, but before the flowers go to seed.

ch
The stalks are cut off close to the ground.

Te
4. The stalks are tied into bundles and retted (soaked) in water for
about 20 days. This process softens the tissues and permits the
fibres to be separated.
d
an
5. The fibres are then stripped from the stalks in long strands and
washed in clear, running water.
n

6. Then they are hung up or spread on thatched roofs to dry. After 2 - 3

ig

days of drying, the fibres are tied into bundles.

es

7. Jute is graded (rated) according to its colour, strength, and fibre

length. The fibres are off-white to brown and 1- 4 m long.
fD

8. Jute is pressed into bales for shipment to manufacturers.

O

Properties
te

1. Moderate strength
itu

2. Poor elastic recovery and low elongation

3. Good resistance to micro-organisms its texture is rough and course
st
In

20 Institute of Design & Technology

 Jute Unit 4

Burning test
 Burning characteristics- scorches and burns easily
 Flame- Yellow flames burns low then cotton
 Odour-Burning Paper
 Residue-Light feathery grayish and blackish ash

gy
Uses

lo
Jute is one of the most versatile natural fibres that has been used

no
in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-textile, and agricultural

ch
sectors. Jute is used chiefly to make cloth for wrapping bales of raw
cotton, and to make sacks and coarse cloth. The fibres are also woven

Te
into curtains, chair coverings, carpets, hessian cloth, and backing for
linoleum. However, jute is being replaced by synthetic materials for
many of these uses. d
an
The fibres are used alone or blended with other types of fibres to
n

make twine and rope. Jute butts, the coarse ends of the plants, are used
ig

to make inexpensive cloth. Conversely, very fine threads of jute can be

es

separated out and made into imitation silk. Jute fibres can also be used
to make paper, and with increasing concern over forest destruction for
fD

the wood pulp used to make most paper, the importance of jute for this
O

purpose may increase.

te

Self Assessment
itu

1. Jute is known as fibre.

st

2. and are the two best varieties of Jute.

In

3. Jute is graded (rated) according to its , , and.

21 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

Unit 5
SILK
Objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
 Describe the manufacturing process of silk fibres.

g y
 Evaluate the characteristics of silk fabrics

lo
Introduction

no
Silk is another natural protein fiber which is obtained from the

ch
cocoons of the silk worm. It is natural filament produced by the salivary
glands of silkworms. The origin of the silk dated back to 2600 B.C and

Te
the country producing the best quality of silk is China which is also the
birth place for the silk fiber. It is protein in nature and so exhibits the
d
an
natural characteristics which resemble the wool fiber. Silk Fibre is a twin
filament incased in a gummy layer with nodes. Silk protein is called as
n

Fibroin and silk gum is called as Sericin. The cultivation and

ig

manufacturing process of silk fiber is a costly affair and is known as

es

sericulture. Different varieties of silk produced in India from different

species of silkworm are mulberry silk, muga silk, eri silk and tussar silk.
fD

These days we even find silk mark on 100 % silk fabrics.

O
te
itu
st
In

22 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

g y
lo
no
Manufacturing Process for Silk Yarns

ch
Cultivation of Cocoons for the production of raw silk is called as

Te
Sericulture. There are 4 stages in the life cycle of the moth which are as
explained in the figure below

d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

23 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

1. Filature Operation: The cocoons are delivered to factory called

Filature, for different process to unwind the silk. The different
operations are as follows:
a. Sorting Cocoons is the process in which cocoons are first sorted
according to color, size shape and texture. Cocoon from China

y
are white, Japanese cocoons are creamy white and yellow and

g
Italian cocoons are yellow.

lo
b. Softening the Sericin is the process in which cocoons are

no
heated in boiling water to soften the gummy substance that holds

ch
the cocoon filament. Raw silk consists of about 80% fibroin and
20% sericin.

Te
c. Reeling the Filament is the process of unwinding the filament
from the cocoon.

d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

24 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

Silk filaments are unwound in the reel and combined together

to make thread of raw silk. The filaments from 4 to 8 cocoons are
joined. The resulting is called raw silk, which is consists usually of 48
individual silk fiber. The sericin acts as adhesive in holding the
several filaments. The length of the reeled filament is approximately

y
a quarter of mile long

g
lo
2. Throwing is the process of twisting of one or more threads of the

no
raw silk into a strand sufficiently strong for weaving or knitting.
Raw silk skeins are sorted according to size, color and length

ch
or quality. It is then soaked in warm water with soap and oil. After

Te
mechanical drying the skeins are wound on bobbins. During this
winding, single strands may be given any desired amount of twist. If

d
two or more yarns are to be doubled, they are twisted again in same
an
direction.
3. Degumming of Thrown Silk: The process of degumming involves
n

putting thrown silk yarn through final soap bath to remove the silk
ig

gum sericin. This process brings out the natural luster and soft feel of
es

the silk. 25% of the weight is lost by this process. After degumming,
the silk fiber or fabric is creamy white and less stiff.
fD

Characteristics of Silk Fabric

O

1. Composition: Silk is composed of 80% of fibroin, which is

te

protein in nature and 20% of sericin.

itu

2. Strength: Silk has good tensile strength, which allows it to

withstand great pulling pressure.
st

3. Elasticity: It is an elastic fiber and may be stretched from 1/7 to

In

1/5 of its original length.

25 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

4. Resilience: Silk fabric retains their shape and has moderate

resistance to wrinkling.
5. Drapability: Silk has a liability and suppleness that, aided by its
elasticity and resilience, gives it excellent drapability.
6. Heat Conductivity: Silk is a protein fiber and is a non-conductor

y
of heat. It make suitable for winter wear

g
7. Absorbency: Silk fabric has good absorbency. Silk can absorb

lo
11% of its weight in moisture, but range varies from 10% to as

no
much as 30%.

ch
8. Cleanliness and Washability: Silk does not attract dirt because
of its smooth surface. Dirt can be easily removed by washing or

Te
dry cleaning.
9. Reaction to Bleaches: Silk is deteriorated with chlorine bleaches

d
like sodium hypochlorite. Mild bleach of hydrogen peroxide or
an
sodium per borate may be used for silk.
10. Shrinkage: Silk fabrics are subjected only to normal shrinkage
n

which can be restored by ironing.

ig

11. Effect of Heat: Silk is sensitive to heat and begins to decompose

es

at 165 C.
fD

12. Effect of Light: Silk fabric weakens on exposure to sunlight

13. Resistance to Mildew: Silk will not mildew unless left for
O

sometime in damp state.

14. Resistance to Insect: Silk may be attacked by the larvae or cloth
te

moths or carpet beetles.

itu

15. Reaction to Alkalis: Silk can be damaged if the concentration

st

and temperature is high. A mild soap or detergent in lukewarm

water is advisable.
In

26 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

16. Reaction to Acid: Concentrated mineral acids will dissolve silk

faster than wool. Organic acids do not harm.
17. Affinity for Dyes: Silk has good absorbency and thus has good
affinity for dyes.
18. Resistance to Perspiration: Perspiration weakens and yellows

y
silk fabric.

g
lo
Care

no
Dry cleaning is preferred .But can be laundered at home using

ch
mild neutral detergent .It should be ironed at medium to low temperature

Te
by placing a semi wet muslin fabric. It should be dried in shade.

Storage
d
an
Silk should be stored clean and dry, by placing naphthalene balls
or neems leaves or they can be sealed and stored in vaccum bags.
n
ig

Summary
es

 Silk is a protein fiber, which is obtained from cocoons of the

fD

silkworms.
 The fabric made of twisted fibers exhibits good strength and is very
O

elastic in nature.
te

 These fibers are suitable for winter apparels as these are bad
itu

conductors of heat and also provides comfort in warmer weathers

 Silk is called as hygienic material as it does not attract dirt.
st

 Silk absorb the dyes very well because of their amorphous nature.
In

27 Institute of Design & Technology

 Silk Unit 5

Self Assessment Questions

1. Silk Protein is called as ___.
2. Silk is obtained from cocoons of ___ species of silk worm.
3. The process of unwinding the filament from the cocoon is called as
___________.

y
4. Silk is damaged by _, so it is not laundered using

g
detergent.

lo
no
ch
.

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

28 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

Unit 6
Wool
Objectives
 Understand the different properties of wool.
 Evaluate the performance and maintenance

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Wool fiber is the natural hair grown on sheep and is composed of
protein substance called as Keratin. Wool is composed of carbon,

ch
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur. It has crimps or curls, which create
pockets and give the spongy feel and create insulation for the wearer.

Te
Wool fibers are animal fibers, which are obtained from sheep.
The color of fiber ranges from white to brown depending upon the nature
d
an
of sheep from which it is sheared. Wool, after shearing, it is graded and
then scoured with alkaline solution. Then it is subjected to next process
n

depending upon whether it is meant for worsted purpose or woolen

ig

products. These are the only natural fibers, which have considerable low
es

strength. The color of fiber ranges from white to brown depending upon
the nature of sheep from which it is sheared. It is water repellent and the
fD

water droplets can be brushed off easily from the surface, it can also
absorb about 20% of its water without feeling
O

damp. These fabrics

te

are best intended for

itu

winter purpose as
very good insulating
st

properties.
In

29 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

g y
lo
no
The characteristic of protein fibers

ch
 They are composed of amino acids.
 They have excellent absorbency.

Te
 Moisture regain is high.
 They tend to be warmer than others as they are bad conductors of
heat.
d
an
 These are the only natural fibers, which have considerable low
strength.
n

 They have poor resistance to alkalis but good resistance to

ig

acids.
es

 They have good elasticity and resiliency.

fD

Properties of Wool
O

Composition: The chief constituent is protein substance called

Keratin. Chemically it contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
te

sulfur.
itu

 Strength: Wool is the weakest fiber. Fabric is strengthened by the

st

use of ply yarns. It loses about 25% strength when wet

In

30 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

 Elasticity: Each wool fiber is a molecular coil-spring making the fiber

remarkably elastic. It can be stretched 25 to 30% of natural length
and stretch up to 50% when wet. This is the reason why one should
be careful while laundry.
 Resilience: Wool is the most resilient fiber because it has a natural

y
crimp that keeps its shape.

g
 Drapability: Wool’s excellent draping quality is aided by its pliability,

lo
elasticity and resiliency.

no
 Heat Conductivity: Wool fibers are non-conductor of heat and acts

ch
as a natural insulator, they permit the body to retain its normal heat
and It is natural insulator and keeps body warm in winter.

Te
 Resistance to Mildew: Moisture is the main factor for the
development of mildew on a fabric. When fabric is left damp

d
condition, mildew develops. Since it is protein in content it is easily
an
degraded by mildew.
 Resistance to Insects: Wool is especially vulnerable to the larvae of
n

moths and such other insects as carpet beetles. These cause holes
ig

on woolen fabrics.
es

 Reaction to Alkalis: Wool is quickly damaged by strong alkalis,

fD

which make it essential to use mild soap or detergent for laundry..

 Reaction to Acids: Although wool is damaged by hot sulfuric acid, it
O

is not affected by other acids.

 Affinity for Dyes: The dye reaches the core of the fiber and bonds
te

permanently. It absorbs many different dyes deeply, uniformly and

itu

directly without use of combining chemicals.

Wool is weakened by alkali
st

 Resistance to Perspiration:
perspiration. Perspiration generally will cause discoloration.
In

31 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

 Absorbency: Wool fiber is original wicking fiber. Wool can be easily

absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling damp.
 Cleanliness and Washability: The wool adheres dirt and requires
thoroughly cleaning. Care should be taken while laundering as the
fiber is softened by moisture and heat which results in shrinking.

y
 Reaction to Bleaches: Chlorine bleaches like sodium hypochlorite

g
are harmful for wool. They can be bleach by hydrogen peroxide or

lo
sodium per borate.

no
 Shrinkage: Wool shrinks when washed.

ch
 Effect of Heat: Wool becomes harsh at 100 C and begins to
decompose at slightly higher temperature. It does not burn freely

Te
when touched by flame.
 Effect of Light: Wool is weakened by prolonged exposure to
sunlight.
d
an
Laundry:
n
ig

Wool is laundered using neutral detergent or shampoos as the

es

alkaline detergents damage wool. Do not wring them for removing

excess of water, but by rolling in between the towel or absorbent pad .It
fD

is dried flat on a paper with traced outline to bring back to its original
shape as wool undergoes shrinkage on laundry.
O
te

Storage:
itu

Wool is stored in clean and dry in vacuum bags with naphthalene

st

balls to avoid the damage by moth, mildew and insects

In

32 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

Difference between woolens and worsteds

Woolens Worsteds
Processing Processing
Spun from wool fibres of: Spun from wool fibres of:
 Length: spun from short fibres of 1-3”  Length: longer than 3”

y
 Diameter: medium or coarse  Diameter: fine diameter

g
The fibres are washed, scoured and Fibres are washed, scoured, carded,

lo
carded. combed and drawn

no
Yarn Yarn
 Bulky  Fine

ch
 Uneven  Smooth
 Low to medium slack twist  Even

Te
 Tensile strength lower than worsted  Tighter twist
 Higher tensile strength
Fabric Appearance
d Fabric Appearance
an
 Soft  Crisp
 Fuzzy  Smooth
 Heavier weight  Lighter weight
n
ig

Characteristics Characteristics
 Insulator due to trapped air  Less insulator
es

 Does not hold a crease well  Holds creases and shape

 Less durable than worsted  More durable than woollens
fD

Uses Uses
 Sweater  Suits
O

 Carpets  Dresses
 Tweeds  Gabardines
te

 Crepes
itu
st
In

33 Institute of Design & Technology

 Wool Unit 6

Summary

 Wool fibers are animal fibers, which are obtained from sheep.
 Wool, after shearing, it is graded and then scoured with alkaline
solution. Then it is subjected to next process depending upon

y
whether it is meant for worsted purpose or woolen products.

g
 These are the only natural fibers, which have considerable low

lo
strength.

no
 The color of fiber ranges from white to brown depending upon the
nature of sheep from which it is sheared.

ch
 It is water repellent and the water droplets can be brushed off easily

Te
from the surface, it can also absorb about 20% of its water without
feeling damp.

d
 These fabrics are best intended for winter purpose.
an
Self Assessment Questions
n
ig

1. _________ is the weakest of natural fibers.

es

2. _________ is necessary for the development of mildew on fabrics.

3. _________ is the only animal fiber, which contains sulfur in its
fD

composition.
4. _________ fabric is used for suiting and shirting.
O

5. Give differences between woolens and worsted fabrics.

te
itu
st
In

34 Institute of Design & Technology

 Viscose Rayon Unit 7

Unit 7
Viscose Rayon
Objectives
 Explain the manufacturing process of the rayon fibers
 Evaluate the Rayon fabrics for different properties

g y
lo
Introduction

no
The man-made fibres which are obtained from the cellulose base

ch
are called man-made cellulose fibres. It has many qualities of natural
cellulose. The technological advancement has resulted in production of

Te
rayon such as lyocell and modal, which are stronger when damp.

d
Rayon fibres are known as regenerated cellulose fibre whereas
an
acetate and triacetate are treated as cellulose acetates. Rayon was the
first manufactured man-made fibre and was called “artificial silk”. It is the
n

man-made fibre, made from cellulose based raw material that has been
ig

reformed or regenerated and has properties similar to those of natural

es

cellulosic fibres and thus referred as regenerated fibres. India was

fD

importing the rayon fabrics as well as the rayon yarns, but since 1942
the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research has taken efforts to
O

starting factories for making rayon yarn and many plants have been set
up since then. Bamboo and Bagasse cellulose from the sugar industry is
te

used for making rayon in India.

itu
st
In

35 Institute of Design & Technology

 Viscose Rayon Unit 7

Manufacturing process
The important steps in manufacturing the filament in each of
these processes are:

 Treating cellulose chemically for making them or rendering them into

y
a liquid.

g
 Extruding the liquid through the fine holes.

lo
 Solidifying the liquid stream into solid cellulose filaments.

no
ch
Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te

 Purified cellulose is chemically converted into a soluble compound.

itu

 This solution is passed through the spinneret to form soft filament

st

that are then converted or “regenerated” into almost pure cellulose.

In

36 Institute of Design & Technology

 Viscose Rayon Unit 7

 A liquid substance of cellulose is forced through a nozzle about the

size of thimble. This nozzle is made of platinum-rhodium alloy as it is
not affected by acids or alkalis.
 Filaments extruded through tiny holes of the spinneret are solidified
by a liquid bath.

y
 These filaments are combined by twisting to make any required

g
diameter of rayon yarn.

lo
no
ch
Te
Properties d
an
1. Composition: Rayon fabric is mainly composed of cellulosic
components.
n

Strength: Rayon fabrics are considerably strong and durable.

ig

2.
Regular rayon is stronger than wool but weaker than cotton and
es

weak when wet, HWM (High Wet Modulus Rayon) rayon are
fD

strong as cotton when damp.

3. Elasticity: Rayon has greater elasticity than cotton, but less than
O

wool. Elongation at break varies from 10 to 30% dry and 15 to 20%

wet.
te

4. Resilience: Rayon creases readily as it lacks the natural

itu

resilience of wool and silk. Fabric wrinkles easily.

st

5. Drapability: Rayon drape well as its heavy weight and it can be

In

made heavy with use of coarse filaments.

37 Institute of Design & Technology

 Viscose Rayon Unit 7

6. Heat Conductivity: It is good conductor of heat and fit for

summer. Fuzzy surface of spun rayon provides insulation for winter
wear.
7. Absorbency: Rayon is extremely absorbent but however, the loss
of strength of regular rayon when wet.

y
8. Cleanliness & Washability: Smoothness of rayon renders to

g
produce hygienic fabric that shed dirt. It can be washed easily and

lo
require mild soap or detergent.

no
9. Reaction to Bleaches: Rayon is white and does not normally

ch
discolor. They can be bleached with sodium hypo chlorite, sodium
per borate or hydrogen peroxide. It is affected by bleaches at very

Te
high concentration and elevated temperature.
10. Shrinkage: Rayon tends to shrink more than cotton.

d
11. Effect of Heat: It has burning properties like cotton, and loses
an
strength above 149 C. It chars and decomposes at 177 to 204 C.
Rayon do not melt.
n

12. Effect of Light: It has good resistance to sunlight, but prolonged

ig

exposure causes loss of strength and yellowing of fabric.

es

13. Resistance to Mildew: Resistance of rayon to mildew is similar to

fD

cotton, rayon has tendency to mildew when allowed to remain

damp for prolonged time.
O

14. Resistance to Insects: Rayon resists damage similar to cotton.

Moth are not attracted to cellulose.
te

15. Reaction to Alkalis: Bases does not attack rayon, however

itu

concentrated solutions of alkalis disintegrate rayon.

16. Reaction to Acid: Rayon are disintegrated by hot dilute and cold
st

concentrated acids.
In

38 Institute of Design & Technology

 Viscose Rayon Unit 7

17. Affinity for Dyes: Rayon being hydrophilic absorbs dyes evenly.
Dye stuff is added to the spinning solution before extruding through
spinneret.
18. Resistance to Perspiration: Rayon is fairly resistance to
deterioration from perspiration.

g y
Summary

lo
 There are many methods of producing the rayon fabrics the basis of

no
which is a cellulosic component.
 The basic steps in producing the fibre involves chemically treating

ch
the cellulosic fibres converting it into a viscous solution which is then

Te
extruded through spinneret.
 There are different varieties of rayon like high wet modulus rayon,
regular rayon etc.
d
an
 Filament yarns are cut into the staple length and can be made into
spun yarns.
n

 Characteristics exhibited by these yarns are similar to that of cotton

ig

fibre.
es

Self Assessment Questions

fD

1. method is used for spinning of viscose rayon.

O

2. ______ is a regenerated cellulose fibre.

3. Rayon filaments extruded through the spinneret are solidified in ___.
te

4. _____ is used as a raw material for production of rayon.

itu
st
In

39 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cellulose Acetate Unit 8

Unit 8
Cellulose Acetate
Objectives

 Explain the manufacturing process of the cellulose acetate fibers

y
 Evaluate the cellulose acetate for different properties

g
lo
Introduction

no
Cellulose acetate, is a synthetic compound derived from the

ch
acetylation of cellulose. They are the acetate ester compounds of

Te
cellulose. Cellulose Acetate is spun into textile fibres known variously as
acetate rayon, acetate or triacetate. The cellulose acetate fibres are of

d
two types – Acetate fibres and Triacetate fibres. These fibres are
an
similar in many of their properties but differ in the chemical compounds.
Triacetate are the primary acetate containing no hydroxyl group,
n

whereas acetate fibre is secondary acetate having few hydroxyl groups.

ig

The cellulose acetate are not pure cellulose compounds like rayon.
es

Manufacturing
fD

The raw material for manufacturing acetate includes cellulose

O

which is obtained from cotton linters and wood pulp and chemicals.
te

The cellulose are shredded and mixed with glacial acetic acid
itu

and kept for sometime .Then it is mixed in a mixing machine where

st

some chemicals are added during which the cellulose turns to liquid and
changes into cellulose acetate which are made into the flakes.
In

40 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cellulose Acetate Unit 8

These flakes are dissolved in solvents (Acetone) .The spinning

solution are forced through the spinnerets into warm air chamber .Here
the acetone evaporates and the acetate becomes hard into filament
.This method is called as dry spinning.

g y
lo
no
ch
Te
d
an
n
ig

Properties
es

1. Dimensional Stability: Shape and luster can be controlled by

adding a delustering agent – titanium dioxide.
fD

2. Resiliency: It has a very low resiliency so wrinkles easily

3. Moisture regain: It is slightly less then cotton
O

4. Effect of Temperature: Acetate is a thermoplastic fibre and is easily

te

softened at high temperature

itu

Fabric characteristics
st

1. A Silk like appearance, possesses a luxurious and soft feel.

In

2. It has excellent draping qualities.

41 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cellulose Acetate Unit 8

3. It ends to collect static electricity.

4. It dyes well.
5. It has relatively low strength.
6. Resistant to mildew and moths.
7. It can be weakened by sunlight.

y
8. It is moderately absorbent.

g
9. Holds in body heat.

lo
10. Resistant to stretch and shrinkage.

no
11. Commonly blended with other fibres.

ch
General care

Te
It is usually dry-cleaned. It can be hand wash or cool to warm
gentle machine wash. Need to be ironed at a low temperature while

d
damp, on the wrong side of the fabric. Acetone (nail varnish remover)
an
damages acetate fabric.
n

Common fabrics
ig

Common acetate fabrics include: satin, jersey, taffeta, lace,

es

brocade, tricot and crepe

fD

Summary
 There are two types of cellulose acetate fabrics, which include
O

acetate and triacetate.

te

 There are different types of yarns produced for these fibres, which
itu

mainly depend upon the holes of the spinneret.

 Thick yarn would be obtained if the hole of spinneret is wide enough
st

and in the same way a monofilament is produced with spinneret with

In

42 Institute of Design & Technology

 Cellulose Acetate Unit 8

one hole and multifilament is produced if spinneret is having more

then one hole.
 Yarns produced are highly absorbent and are resistant to the
moderate temperature.
 The main advantages of cellulose acetate fabrics are shrink

y
resistance and wrinkle resistance.

g
lo
Self Assessment Questions

no
1. Discuss the characteristics of cellulose acetate for the following

ch
properties:

Te
a. Strength
b. Resistance to insects
2. Explain the Manufacturing process of cellulose acetate.
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

43 Institute of Design & Technology

 Acrylic Unit 9

Unit 9
Acrylic
Objectives
 Discuss the manufacturing process of acrylic.
 Explain the characteristics of acrylic and spandex fabrics

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Acrylic was developed by DuPont in 1944 and was first
commercially produced in 1950. It is Also Known as Orlon. It is

ch
lightweight, soft and warm with a wool-like feel. Even though acrylic can
be considered a replacement for wool, there are some differences and

Te
similarities between wool and acrylic. Like wool, acrylic is crimped when
it goes through the dry spinning process, but acrylic unlike wool provides
d
an
bulk and warmth with no excess weight. Due to the fact that acrylic is the
best substitute for wool, it is readily available to consumers and is
n

significantly less expensive.

ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

44 Institute of Design & Technology

 Acrylic Unit 9

Acrylic has advantage of being used as an alternative for

cashmere due to the similar feeling of material. Acrylic fibers are
produced from acrylonitrile, a petrochemical. The acrylonitrile is usually
combined with small amounts of other chemicals to improve the ability of
the resulting fiber to absorb dyes. Some acrylic fibers are dry spun and

y
others are wet spun. Acrylic fibers are used in staple or tow form.

g
lo
Properties of Acrylic

no
1. Strength: Acrylic have fair to strong tenacity. It tends to lose the
tenacity in a wet medium.

ch
2. Abrasion Resistance: They have high resistance to damage by

Te
abrasion.
3. Elasticity: Acrylic have low elasticity. Elongation increases when
the fibre is wet.
d
an
4. Resilience: Acrylic fibres have good resiliency and recover from
bending. It will not wrinkle easily and therefore it good for dresses,
n

suits and slacks.

ig

5. Drapability: Acrylic have satisfactory draping qualities which

es

greatly vary according to the fabric construction, type of yarn used

in form of yarn.
fD

6. Heat Conductivity: Acrylic are bad conductors of heat and can

O

provide warmth with light weight.

7. Absorbency: Acrylic have low water regain.
te

8. Cleanliness and Washability: It is easy to keep acrylic clean, and

itu

they can be dry-cleaned.

Reaction to Bleaches: Acrylic are white in color and do not require
st

9.
bleaching.
In

45 Institute of Design & Technology

 Acrylic Unit 9

10. Shrinkage: Acrylic do not shrink and has moderate dimensional

stability. They tend to shrink when exposed to boiling water at high
temperature.
11. Effect of Heat: Acrylic cannot be heat set. They tend to discolor
and decompose when heated.

y
12. Effect of Light: Acrylic have excellent resistance to the exposure

g
of sunlight. After initial stage of the tensile loss, the fabric tend to

lo
have excellent resistance to sunlight.

no
13. Resistance to Mildew: Acrylic has excellent resistance to mildew

ch
and do not get stained or weakened.
14. Resistance to Insect: Acrylic are unaffected by moths or other

Te
insects.
15. Reaction to Alkalis: Acrylic fabrics are resistant to weak alkalis

d
and have moderate resistance to the strong and cold alkalis.
an
16. Reaction to Acid: Acrylic fabric have excellent resistance to the
acid.
n

17. Affinity for Dyes: They can be dyed with disperse or cationic dyes
ig

in wide range of color. In addition, most of the synthetic filaments

es

are solution dyed.

fD

18. Resistance to Perspiration: Acrylic are resistant to perspiration

19. Resistance to Sunlight: Excellent resistance to sunlight and
O

weathering
te

Major Acrylic Fiber Uses

itu

 Apparel: Sweaters, socks, fleece wear, circular knit apparel,

sportswear and children wear
st

 Home Furnishings: Blankets, area rugs, upholstery, pile, luggage,

In

awnings, outdoor furniture

46 Institute of Design & Technology

 Acrylic Unit 9

 Other Uses: Craft yarns, sail cover cloth, wipe cloths

 Industrial Uses: Asbestos replacement; concrete and stucco
reinforcement

General Acrylic Fiber Care Tips

y
Wash delicate items by hand in warm water. Generation of static

g
electricity may be reduced by using a fabric softener. Gently squeeze

lo
out water, smooth or shake out garment and let dry on a non-rust

no
hanger. Sweaters, however, should be dried flat. While machine
washing, use warm water and add a fabric softener during the final rinse

ch
cycle. Machine dry at a low temperature setting. Remove garments from

Te
dryer as soon as tumbling cycle is completed. If ironing is required, use
a moderately warm iron.

d
an
Summary
 Acrylic is a synthetic polymer obtained from the petroleum
n

derivatives.
ig

 It is a long chain of polymer constituted with 85% of acrylonitrile

es

units.
 There are different types of acrylic such as orlon acrylic, zeflan
fD

acrylic etc.
O

Self Assessment Questions

te

1. Acrylic fibre is produced from ________.

itu

2. Explain why acrylic is used in sweaters?

3. Acrylic fabrics are used as a replacement to ________ fabrics.
st

4. List and explain the properties of Acrylic fabric.

In

47 Institute of Design & Technology

 Spandex Unit 10

Unit 10
Spandex
Objectives
 Explain the characteristics of spandex fabrics
 Understand the fabric characteristics and performance.

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Spandex is elastomeric fibre with the superior elasticity. Lycra is
the famous brand name associated with spandex fibre. It is defined as a

ch
manufactured fibre, in which the fibre forming substance is long chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% of segmented

Te
polyurethane.

d
Lycra is never used alone, it is always combined with another
an
fiber (or fibers), natural or man-made. Fabrics enhanced with Lycra
retain the appearance of the majority fibre.
n
ig
es
fD
O
te

The type of fabric and it’s end use determine the amount and type
itu

of Lycra required to ensure optimum performance and aesthetics. As

st

little as 2 percent Lycra is enough to improve a fabric’s movement,

In

drape and shape retention, while fabrics for high-performance garments

such as swimwear and active sport wear may contain as much as 20-30
48 Institute of Design & Technology
 Spandex Unit 10

percent Lycra. Weaving or knitting techniques, together with fabric type

and end use, determine whether Lycra is used in a bare or covered yarn
form.

Properties

y
1. Strength: Spandex filament is weak but it does not reach the

g
breaking point until the fibre has been stretched to its maximum

lo
length.

no
2. Elasticity: Spandex have excellent elasticity. It has more shape
retention than any other fabric. It can be stretched up to 500 times.

ch
3. Resilience: Spandex have excellent resiliency. It quickly

Te
recovers its original length.
4. Drapability: Spandex is generally light in weight and are pliable.

d
It contributes to the draping qualities of fabric.
an
5. Heat Conductivity: Spandex are bad conductor of heat which is
evident by some degree of heat sensed when wearing the clothes
n

made of spandex.
ig

6. Absorbency: Spandex is hydrophobic in nature and have very

es

low absorbency.
Cleanliness and Washability: Spandex have good resistance to
fD

7.
the dry-cleaning. It can also be machine washed using detergents
O

under moderate temperature.

8. Reaction to Bleaches: Spandex fabric are white in color and do
te

not require bleaching. If the spandex combined with other fibres

itu

require bleaching, sodium chlorite is the safest bleach.

Shrinkage: Spandex will not shrink by exposure to water.
st

9.
10. Effect of Heat: Spandex are heat sensitive and thermoplastic.
In

Excessive heat may result in loss of elasticity.

49 Institute of Design & Technology

 Spandex Unit 10

11. Effect of Light: Spandex do not have degrading effects on

exposure to the sunlight. Strength may be lost, or turn yellow if
exposed for long time.
12. Resistance to Mildew: Spandex have excellent resistance to
damage by mildew.

y
13. Resistance to Insect: Spandex are unaffected by insects and

g
moths.

lo
14. Reaction to Alkalis: Spandex are sensitive to alkalis. It turns

no
yellow or dark color on reaction with alkalis.

ch
15. Reaction to Acid: Spandex fabrics are generally resistance to
acids.

Te
16. Affinity for Dyes: Spandex is affinities for many dyes such as
disperse, acid, chrome and other dyes. Color of spandex may be

d
affected by repeated exposure to the sea water.
an
17. Resistance to Perspiration: Spandex are resistant to perspiration.
n

Usage
ig

Widely used for weaving items like Apparels, Socks & stockings,
es

Seamless garments, Gloves, Sweaters, Swimwear, Narrow fabrics,

Smocking, Medical bandages, Head bandages, Wrist bands
fD

Care
O

Hand or machine wash in lukewarm water. Never use chlorine

te

bleach on any fabric containing Lycra. Either drip dry or machine dry
itu

using low temperature settings

st

Summary
In

 Spandex is synthetic elastomeric fabric having superior elasticity.

50 Institute of Design & Technology

 Spandex Unit 10

 The long chain polymer consists of rigid and flexible segments which
contribute to the strength and the elasticity of the spandex.
 They are resistant to degradation by body oils, sea water etc., which
make them suitable for swim wear.

Self Assessment Question

g y
lo
1. Spandex has resistance to _________ bleach.

no
2. The stretch which is important where the holding power and
elasticity are needed is termed as __________.

ch
3. Explain the use and care of spandex fabric

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

51 Institute of Design & Technology

 Nylon Unit 11

Unit 11
Nylon
Objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to:

y
 Explain the manufacturing process of nylon fibres.

g
lo
 Discuss the different properties of nylon fiber

no
Introduction

ch
Nylon is the first man made synthetic fibre (pure chemical fibre). It
is thermoplastic polyamide fibre, mainly composed of carbon,

Te
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The basic manufacturing process
includes the synthesis of polymers from the petroleum derivatives which

d
are extruded from the spinneret and drawn into the desired length. Nylon
an
is manufactured by polymerization of caprolactum. Nylon 6 polymer is
formed under the pressure, extruded, chipped into pallets of flakes and
n

then melt spun through a spinneret .Then the filaments are cold
ig

drawn.
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

52 Institute of Design & Technology

 Nylon Unit 11

Properties of Nylon
1. Strength: It has good tenacity and strength is not lost with age. It is
strongest textile fiber. Strength is lost when wet. It has excellent
abrasion resistance.
2. Elasticity: It has good elasticity. It has high elongation and

y
excellent elastic recovery.

g
Resilience: It has excellent resilience. Nylon retain their smooth

lo
3.
appearance and wrinkles from daily activities.

no
4. Drapability: It has excellent draping qualities. Light weight sheer

ch
nylon has high draping quality. Medium weight can drape very
nicely.

Te
5. Heat Conductivity: Nylon used in open construction would be
cooler when compared to closed construction.
6. d
Absorbency: It has low absorbency. Water remains on surface
an
and hence dries quickly, so its suitable for raincoats.
7. Cleanliness and Washability: It is easy care garments. Dirt
n
ig

doesn’t cling and can be cleaned by using damp cloth. Hot water
should be avoided during washing as it is a thermoplastic fibre.
es

8. Reaction to Bleaches: Nylon are white and do not require

fD

bleaching. Greying nylon should be bleached with oxidizing

bleaches such as hydrogen peroxide.
O

9. Shrinkage: Nylon retains shape after washing and it has good

stability and does not shrink.
te

10. Effect of Heat: It should be ironed at low temperature. Hot iron

itu

results in glazing and then melting of fabric.

st

11. Effect of Light: Nylon has low resistance to sunlight. They are not
In

suitable for curtains or draperies.

53 Institute of Design & Technology

 Nylon Unit 11

12. Resistance to Mildew: Nylon have absolute resistance to develop

mildew.
13. Resistance to Insect: Nylon is resistance to the moth and fungi.
14. Reaction to Alkalis: Nylon has excellent resistance to alkalis but
frequent and prolonged exposures to alkalis will weaken the nylon

y
fabric.

g
15. Reaction to Acid: Nylon is less resilient to the action of acids and

lo
is damaged by strong acid.

no
16. Affinity for Dyes: Nylon can easily be dyed and has good

ch
resistance to fading.
17. Resistance to Perspiration: Nylon are resistant to perspiration.

Te
Recommended Uses

d
Lingerie, dresses, suiting, blouses/shirts, knitwear, hosiery,
an
children’s wear, beachwear, raincoats, gloves, tights, fur fabrics,
blankets, curtaining and upholstery, carpets, ropes, nets and tyre cords.
n
ig

Care
es

When washing nylon, separate whites from coloured and use cold
to hot water. Dry nylon flat, line dry or put in the dryer on a cool
fD

temperature. Use a warm iron on the reverse side of the fabric. Use only
O

a little steam, if necessary. You can dry-cleaning nylon, but avoid

bleaching
te
itu

Summary
 The basic manufacturing process includes the synthesis of polymers
st

from the petroleum derivatives which are extruded from the spinneret
In

and drawn into the desired length.

54 Institute of Design & Technology

 Nylon Unit 11

 Nylon is thermoplastic polyamide fibre, mainly composed of carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
 Basic raw material is coal from which the nylon polymers are
obtained.
 These fabrics have excellent strength, resilience, resistance to

y
insects etc.

g
 Fabric has low absorbency making them suitable for the rain wear.

lo
no
Self Assessment Question

ch
1. Nylon fabrics can be bleached with _________ bleaches.

Te
2. Nylon fabrics have low _________ (Absorbency ,Color fastness
Resistance to alkalis , Strength )
Explain various properties of nylon fabric.
3.
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

55 Institute of Design & Technology

 Polyester Unit 12

Unit 12
Polyester
Objectives
 Explain the manufacturing process of polyester fibres.
 Discuss the different properties of polyester fibres

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Polyester is a chemical term, which can be broken into ‘poly’,
meaning many, and ‘ester’, which is a basic organic chemical

ch
compound. Polyester is a term often defined as long-chain polymers,
chemically composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester and a

Te
dihydric alcohol and a terephthalic acid. In other words, it means the
linking of several esters within the fibers. Reaction of alcohol with
d
an
carboxylic acid results in the formation of esters.
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu

Properties of Polyester
st

1. Strength: Polyester has good tenacity and good resistance to

In

abrasion. Tenacity remains unaltered even when wet.

56 Institute of Design & Technology

 Polyester Unit 12

2. Elasticity: Polyester fabrics do not have high degree of elasticity.

They are stiff and are of hard handle.
3. Resilience: Polyester have excellent resilience. Polyester resist
wrinkling in dry and also in we condition. Any wrinkling even under
humid conditions disappears when garments are hung up.

y
4. Drapability: Polyester have satisfactory draping qualities.

g
5. Heat Conductivity: Polyester have poor heat conductivity and the

lo
low heat resistance. They have moderate thermal retention but is

no
not as comfortable as wool for the winter season.

ch
6. Absorbency: Polyester are hydrophobic in nature. They are least
absorbent of the textile fibres. This is suitable for water repellent

Te
purposes.
7. Cleanliness and Washability: Polyester wash and dry easily and

d
have excellent wash-and-wear characteristics. Low absorbency
an
tens it to resist the water-bone stains.
8. Reaction to Bleaches: Polyester are white and do not require
n

bleaching. If polyester develop any stain, they can be bleached with

ig

chlorine or oxidizing bleaches.

es

9. Shrinkage: Polyester retain shape after wash and they have good
fD

stability and do not shrink.

10. Effect of Heat: Polyester is heat thermoplastic. They may be heat
O

set to obtain stability and permanent pleats.

11. Effect of Light: Polyester have very good sunlight resistance..
te

12. Resistance to Mildew: Polyester have excellent resistance to

itu

mildew and do not get stained or weakened.

13. Resistance to Insect: Polyester is resistance to the attack of the
st

insects.
In

57 Institute of Design & Technology

 Polyester Unit 12

14. Reaction to Alkalis: Polyester have good resistance to weak

alkalis and fair resistance to strong alkalis. Resistance is reduced
with increased temperature. It dissolves n strong, boiling alkalis.
15. Reaction to Acid: Polyester have good resistance to acid. High
concentrated solutions of mineral acid, such as sulphuric acid at

y
relatively high temperature will result in degradation.

g
16. Affinity for Dyes: Polyester dyed with appropriate dyes produce a

lo
good shade with excellent wash, and light fastness.

no
17. Resistance to Perspiration: Polyester fabrics are resistant to

ch
perspiration and do not lose strength.

Te
Uses of Polyester
The most popular and one of the earliest uses of polyester was to

d
make polyester suits. Polyester clothes were very popular. Due to its
an
strength and tenacity polyester was also used to make ropes in
industries. PET bottles are today one of the most popular uses of
n

polyester.
ig
es

Polyester care tips

Taking care of polyester clothing is really easy and very time
fD

efficient. Polyester clothing can be machine washed and dried. Adding a

O

fabric softener generally helps. Dry the fabric at low temperatures to

get maximum usage from the clothing. Though polyester does not
te

require much ironing, if you must then iron warm. Polyester can be dry-
itu

cleaned with no hassles.

st

Summary
In

 Polyester fibres are made up of long ester molecules.

58 Institute of Design & Technology

 Polyester Unit 12

 The basic mineral for the synthesis is ethylene, obtained from

petroleum.
 Polyester is used for various applications due to its desirable
characteristics.
 The most desirable characteristic of polyester fabrics are its strength

y
and durability.

g
 The fibres are relatively strong and are very resistant to wrinkling,

lo
attack by insects, perspiration etc.

no
 These are suitable for winter apparel depending upon the type of

ch
construction.

Te
Self Assessment Question
1. Polyester fabrics have excellent resistance to ________. (Alkalis.

d
Perspiration. Acids. All the above)
an
2. _________ and tenacity of polyester fabrics are unaffected by
water.
n

3. __ and are the raw materials used for

ig

manufacturing of polyester.
es

4. Write about the performance and care of polyester fabric with

reference to the properties.
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

59 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glass fiber Unit 13

Unit 13
Glass fiber

Introduction

y
Glass Fiber is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine

g
fibre of glass. Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica -based or

lo
other formulation glass are extruded into many fibers with small

no
diameters suitable for textile processing. The technique of heating and
drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia; however, the

ch
use of these fibers for textile applications is more recent. Until this time,

Te
all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple (that is, clusters of short
lengths of fiber)

d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te

Properties
itu

1. Glass fibers are good thermal insulators

st

2. Excellent strength
In

3. Excellent resiliency

60 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glass fiber Unit 13

Unfavorable properties

1. Heavy Fibre
2. Poor drape
3. Poor elastic recovery

y
4. Poor Hand or feel

g
5. Completely Hydrophillic

lo
no
Uses

ch
It is used for curtains and tyres.

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

61 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

Unit 14
Yarn Spinning
Objective
 Explain the different methods of spinning.
 Describe the blends and methods of blending.

g y
lo
Introduction

no
Spinning is a method converting the fibrous raw material into
yarn or a thread.

ch
The staple yarns like cotton, wool etc. are spun on conventional
method of spinning that includes different stages like blow room

Te
operation, carding, combing, drawing, roving and spinning. The spun
yarn can also be made by the variation in the conventional system.
d
an
Some stages of the conventional spinning are eliminated in these
methods of spinning which include open-end spinning, twist less
n

spinning etc. There are different methods of spinning the filament yarns
ig

such as wet spinning, dry spinning, melt spinning, etc.

es

Spinning of filament Yarn

fD

Filaments are spun by chemical spinning which includes the

process of extruding the polymer extrusion through the spinneret.
O
te

Spinning of
Filament Yarns
itu

Chemical Specialty
st

Spinning Spinning
Bicomponent
In

Wet Dry Melt Biconstituent

Spinning Spinning Spinning Spinning Spinning

62 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

Spinning of Staple Fibres (Conventional)

Staple fibres are converted into yarns by conventional or ring

spinning technique. The conventional is a long time practiced method of
spinning employed for natural fibres like cotton, wool and Lenin. The

y
stages of operations involved in conventional spinning are:

g
lo
 Preparing the fibres for spinning that includes cleaning the fibres and

no
opening the lumps of the fibres.
 Individualization of fibres and forming a coarse strand of fibres

ch
 Drawing out of the fibres into a fine strand.

Te
 Twisting the fibres to keep them together to gain cohesive strength.

The cotton spinning system is representative of the conventional

spinning system. d
an
1. Preparing the fibres: Cotton comes in bale form, which are cleaned
n

in blow room operation and ginning operation. These fibres are

ig

converted into form of lap and sent for carding operation.

es
fD
O
te
itu

2. Carding: Carding is mainly intended for individualization of the

st

fibres. In carding operation the lap of fibres is converted into a soft

In

rope of fibres called as card slivers.

63 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

3. Combing: Combing process produces a yarn which is superior in

quality than the carded yarn in terms of strength, fineness, evenness
and smoothness.
4. Drawing Out: Drawing process eliminates the irregularities in the
sliver by pulling the staples over one another from several slivers

y
placed parallel, thereby producing longer and thinner sliver.

g
5. Roving: The drawn slivers are fed through a machine called simplex

lo
roving. It increases parallelism of the fibre and low amount of twist is

no
inserted.

ch
6. Spinning: The spinning process adds the required amount of twist
into the rove slivers and converts them into the yarn.

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

64 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

Chemical Spinning

1. Wet Spinning: This is more suitable for Rayon fibres. This involves
extrusion of appropriate liquid solution through the spinneret in a
chemical bath that coagulates the solution into filament strand.

y
These are then drawn out of bath, washed and dried before

g
wounding on the spools.

lo
no
ch
Te
d
an
2. Dry Spinning: This is more suitable for Acetate yarns. It involves the
n
ig

extrusion of the
es

suitable liquid
solution through
fD

the spinneret into

an air chamber.
O

The air reacts

te

with the extruded

streams causing
itu

them to solidify
st

twisted or processed further and wound onto spools.

In

3. Melt Spinning: This is more suitable for Polyester yarns. As name

indicates the chips of fibres are melted and extruded through the
65 Institute of Design & Technology
 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

spinneret to obtain the fibres. The extruded stream cool and solidify
into continuous filaments and are then drawn out of the chamber
twisted and processed further and wound onto spools

Specialty Spinning

y
1. Bicomponent Spinning: This involves the extrusion of two

g
different types of the same polymer through the spinneret. There are

lo
three techniques of bicomponent fibre production.

no
a) Side-by-Side extension through one spinneret hole of two

ch
varieties of same polymer.

Te
b) Second is basically that of using one spinneret inside another.
One variant of polymer pumped through the core spinneret, while
other is pumped through outer surrounding spinneret.
d
an
c) The third one is distribution of drops of one molten polymer
variant into another molten form of the same polymer.
n
ig

2. Biconstituent Spinning – This involves the extrusion of two

different polymers through the spinneret. Method of extrusion is
es

similar to that of
fD

bicomponent spinning. The

filament can be obtained by
O

any of the three methods.

Blending is the
te

combining of different fibres

itu

together intimately to
st

achieve a desired product

In

characteristic.

66 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

Some of the advantages of blending are:

When two different types of fibres are blended, properties of
both fibres are synergized. Blending is done to produce fabric,
which is economical, by combining the aesthetic comfort properties
of natural fibres with easy care and strength properties of synthetic

y
fibres. Blending also helps to provide a light weight fabric with all

g
desirable characteristics. It also improves spinning, weaving and

lo
finishing efficiency and uniformity of product.

no
Methods of Blending

ch
Te
In opening stage, fibres are spread one on top of the other and
fed into the blending feeder. Blending can also be done in the carding
stage. Similarly the blending can be done at drawing or roving stage.
d
an
A filament yarn blended contains yarns of different deniers blended
together. Then the Manufactured Fibres goes for further fabric
n

manufacturing by weaving or any non Woven Method

ig

Summary
es
fD

 Spinning is a method converting the fibrous raw material into yarn or

a thread.
O

 The staple yarns like cotton, wool etc. are spun on conventional
method of spinning that includes different stages like blow room
te

operation, carding, combing, drawing, roving and spinning.

itu

 The spun yarn can also be made by the variation in the conventional
st

system.
In

67 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Spinning Unit 14

 Some stages of the conventional spinning are eliminated in these

methods of spinning which include open-end spinning, twistless
spinning etc.
 There are different methods of spinning the filament yarns such as
wet spinning, dry spinning, melt spinning, etc.

g y
Self Assessments Questions

lo
no
1. List and describe different Chemical spinning Methods?
2. Explain the steps in spinning of a staple fibre?

ch
Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

68 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

Unit 15
Yarn
Objectives
Understand the structure of Yarn
 Explain the different simple yarns.

g y
 Describe the varieties of fancy yarns.

lo
 Describe the production of textured yarns

no
Introduction

ch
As defined by ASTM, ‘Yarn is a continuous strand of textile
fibres, filaments or a material in a form suitable for knitting, weaving or

Te
otherwise intertwining to form a textile fabric.’

d
Types and appearance of a yarn plays a prominent role on the
an
appearance of a fabric. It can also be defined as continuous strand of
twisted threads of natural or synthetic material, used in weaving or
n

knitting. Yarn is an assemblage of fibres that is laid parallel and twisted

ig

together to form a continuous strand. The method of making yarn

es

involves arranging the fibres parallel to each other and twisting the
fD

fibres, by the process of spinning, using spinning machines, spindles

and charkha in olden times
O

1. A spun yarn is composed of short staple fibres which are arranged

te

parallel and twisted around each other.

itu

2. A filament is composed of long fibres that are grouped and twisted.

Yarns of one filament and yarns of several filaments are referred to
st

as mono-filament and multi-filament, respectively.

In

69 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

3. Blend-A fibre blend is an intimate mixture of fibre of generic type

,composition, length, diameter, color spun together into one yarn .In
intimate blends ,both fibres are present in a same yarn in planned
proportion..when this yarn is unspun and tested both the fibres

a. Blending fibres creates Fibres, yarns, fabrics with a more

g y
beneficial set of performance characteristics .An improvement in

lo
the quality of fabric, meeting specific end use requirements such

no
as performance, comfort or ease of care that would not otherwise
be available in single fibers. are individually observed.

ch
b. Intimate blends- An intimate blend is when two or more fibre

Te
types are combined to form a uniform mixture before the single
yarn is spun. Intimate blends cannot be separated; they are

d
mixed together throughout the entire yarn.
an
4. Mixture Blends a mixture fabric uses a combination of yarns; for
example, one type of fibre is used in the warp and another fibre is
n
ig

used in weft weave. A mixture blend also occurs when two different
yarns are knitted together. When the fabric of this type are unraveled
es

the fibers can be separated by placing all the warps in one piles and
fD

wefts in other.
O

Blends mixture and other combinations produces fabrics with

properties that are different from those obtained with only one fibre.
te

Blending is done for several reasons, mainly to produce fabrics with

itu

better combination of performance characteristics and to improve the

spinning, weaving and finishing efficiency to improve uniformity.
st
In

70 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

Yarn Types and appearance of a yarn plays a prominent role on

the appearance of a fabric. The important feature of yarn which are
evaluated to determine its quality are yarn number, strength, twist,
appearance and evenness. The strength of yarn is increased with the
increase in the twist of the yarn and at the same time the amount of the

y
twist given depends upon the thickness of the yarn or otherwise called

g
as yarn count. As yarn count of yarn increases the fineness increases

lo
which tends to increase the amount of twist to be given to a yarn which

no
in turn increase the strength of the yarn.

ch
Twist Direction

Te
The direction of the twist at each stage of manufacture is
indicated by the use of letters S or Z in accordance with the following
convention:
d
an
 A single yarn has S twist if, when it is held in the vertical position, the
n

fibres inclined to the axis of the yarn conform in the direction of the
ig

slope to the central position of the letter S.

es

 Yarn has Z twist if the fibres inclined to the axis of yarn conform in
the direction of slope to the central
fD

position of letter Z.
O

 The yarn which are given a

relatively lower amount of twist
te

and given a lesser yarn counts

itu

make it appear coarser and thus

st

the fabric made of it would be

In

coarser.

71 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

The Amount of Twist

In B.S 946:1952, it is stated that the amount of twist in a thread at
each stage of manufacture is denoted by a figure giving number of turns
of twist per unit length at that stage. The amount of twist also depends
upon the types of fabric to be woven:

g y
 Yarns intended for soft surface fabric are given slack twist.

lo
 Yarns intended for smooth surface fabric are given optimum twists.

no
 Yarns intended for crape fabrics are given maximum amount of
twists.

ch
Te
Yarn Count
 Yarn count expresses the thickness of the yarn. The yarn count

d
number indicates the length of yarn in relation to the weight. The
an
yarn count and yarn twist are of a great importance in determining
the final appearance of the fabric.
n

 The yarn which are given a relatively lower amount of twist and given
ig

a lesser yarn counts make it appear coarser and thus the fabric
es

made of it would be coarser.

There are different definitions for yarn count. They are;
fD

 Yarn count has a numerical expression, which defines its fineness as

O

said by J.E. Booth.

 Yarn count is the degree of fineness in yarns – Corbman.
te

 Yarn count has the numerical designation given to it to indicate its

itu

size and the relationship of length to weight – Fair child

 The definition of yarn count as given by textile institute is a number
st

indicating the mass per unit length or length per unit mass
In

 Yarn count may be defined as the thickness of the yarn.

72 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

Different Yarn Numbering Systems

There are different systems employed in numbering of the yarn

may be broadly classified as Direct system and Indirect system which
depends upon the weight per unit length or unit length per weight

g y
lo
no
ch
Te
d
an
n

.
ig

1. Indirect System: This is traditional method of yarn count. In this

es

system the yarn number or count is the number of units of length per
unit of weight. The different types of indirect numbering system
fD

a) Cotton English System

b) Worsted count
O

2. Direct System: In direct yarn count system the yarn number or

te

count is weight of a unit length of yarn. The direct system of yarn

itu

numbering consists of:

a) Denier System
st

b) Tex System
In

73 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

Types of Yarns
1. Simple Yarns: These yarns are simple in appearance and provide
greater amount of strength in fabric for which they are intended.
Simple yarns are of different types as given below:
a) Single Yarns: It is single strands composed of staple fibres held

y
together by required amount of twist. The strength of these yarns

g
depends upon the amount of twist, which is given to the yarns.

lo
b) Ply Yarns: It is composed of two or more single yarns twisted

no
together. Singles are plied together to form the 2-ply, 3-ply and 4-

ch
ply yarns.
c) Cable Yarns: Two or more ply yarns are twisted to form a cable

Te
yarn. It is constructed by twisting the plied yarns around each
other successively in opposite direction of preceding direction i.e.,
S/Z/S or Z/S/Z. d
an
d) Double Yarns: Double yarn consists of 2 or more single strand
without twist treated as one in the weaving process.
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu

2. Fancy Yarns: Fancy yarns have unlike portions that are irregular at
regular intervals. It has three basic parts such as foundation or core
st

yarn, the effect or fancy yarn and the binder yarn. Different types of
In

novelty yarns are:

74 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

a. Slub Yarns: In this yarns, some portions are left untwisted to

vary the diameter. These yarns consist of irregularities and
varying thickness of soft, untwisted areas at frequent interval
throughout the length of the yarn.
b. Flake Yarns: It is variation of slub yarns. The slub effect is made

y
by inserting the soft, thick, elongated tufts of fibre into the yarn at

g
regular intervals.

lo
c. Spiral Yarns: These yarns are obtained by winding the yarns

no
around each other rather than being twisted. These are plied

ch
yarns where one yarn wraps around the other.

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD

Spiral yarn Ratine yarn

O
te
itu
st

Knot Yarn
In

75 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

d. Ratine Yarns – This yarn is the variation of spiral yarn. The effect
yarn is twisted around the core yarn in spiral form, but at intervals
the effect yarn is thrown out as a longer loop, which kicks back on
itself. This structure of core yarn is effect yarn is held in place with
the binder yarn.

y
e. Knot or Nub Yarns – The knot yarn consists of bumps or nubs

g
spaced at intervals along the length of the yarn. The yarns are

lo
produced by twisting the effect yarn around the core yarn many

no
times within a very short space causing bumps.

ch
f. Chenille Yarns – These yarns have soft, fuzzy and lofty surface.
The construction of the yarn consist of two yarn plied together

Te
which hold short tufts of soft untwisted yarn between the twist
along the core length.

d
3. Textured Yarns: Textured yarns as defined by ASTM are a filament
an
or spun yarns that have been given notably greater apparent volume
than a conventional yarn of similar fibre count.
n
ig

 These yarns are more opaque, have improved appearance and

es

texture, and have increased warmth and absorbency.

 There are two different types of textured yarns:
fD

a. Stretch Yarns: These yarns are frequently continuous-filament,

O

man-made yarns that are very tightly twisted, heat-set, then

te

untwisted, producing a spiral crimp giving a springy character.

The different ways of manufacturing the stretch yarns are:
itu

i. By mechanical heat setting the thermoplastic filament fibres.

st

ii. From elastomeric fibres

In

iii. From bicomponent fibres

iv. From biconstituent fibres
76 Institute of Design & Technology
 Yarn Unit 15

v. By chemically treating the natural fibres

i. By mechanical heat setting the thermoplastic filament
fibres: Thermoplastic yarns are one which can be put into
any shape or form desired by subjecting to a predetermined
heat for a specific period of time. There are different

y
methods by which the heat setting treatment can be applied

g
onto the thermoplastic yarns.

lo
 Coil type – False twist method – The steps in

no
producing coil type yarns are;

ch
A yarn is held by nip roller on either end. A high
amount of twist is inserted into the yarn in opposite

Te
direction on each side of yarn. These are then passed
through a heat-setting zone wherein the predetermined

d
heat is applied to the yarns in a coiled condition. The
an
twist in the yarns is removed by a false twist spindle. On
emerging from false-twist spindle, the yarn has a built in
n

twist either in S or Z direction.

ig

 Curl type – Stress curled method – This is making the

es

stretch yarn based on the method obtaining random curl

fD

in paper ribbon by pulling between one’s thumb and edge

of a dull blade.
O

The yarn is first supplied to a two-stage delivery

machine which supplies the yarn to the delivery rollers.
te

The yarn from the heat delivery roller, is passed on the

itu

blade edge, which curl and then pass to cold delivery

roller. From cold delivery roller it is passed to the two-
st

stage delivery mechanism and then twisted onto the

In

spindle.

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 Yarn Unit 15

ii. From Elastomeric yarn - Spandex has distinctive property

of stretching about 4 to 7 times its relaxed state.
Spandex fibres such as Lycra are produced as core-
spun yarns. These yarns have spandex core, it would be as
little as 5 to 15 percent of the entire yarn with a layer of any

y
staple fibre. This fibre would be spun around the core. When

g
it is relaxed after spinning, the spandex core returns to its

lo
normal length, which pulls the outer layer of spun fibres into

no
a more compact formation. Since the core yarn is encased in

ch
a layer of staple fibres, the yarn takes on hand and
appearance.

Te
iii. From Bicomponent Yarns – It is made of two different
types of same polymer extruded simultaneously from the

d
spinneret opening. In processing of yarn, one type of
an
polymer which shrinks more than the other, causes the
crimped.
n

iv. From Bicomposite Yarns – It is made of two different types

ig

of polymers extruded simultaneously from spinneret

es

opening. The polymer adhere together to form a single

fD

filament.
v. By chemically treating the natural fibres – This involves
O

treating the cotton with polymeric chemicals giving heat

thermoplastic properties.
te

b. Bulk Yarn: ‘Bulk yarns’ as the name signifies are bulky in nature.
itu

These yarns have lower elastic stretch than stretch yarns. The
bulk yarns are relatively thick and soft. High bulk yarns have the
st

soft hand of the cashmere. One of the method of producing the

In

bulk yarn is given below:

78 Institute of Design & Technology

 Yarn Unit 15

 Loop Bulk or Air Jet Yarns – Loopy yarns have relatively

larger number of randomly placed and randomly sized loops
along the fibre or filament structure.
These yarns are generally made of air jet texturizing
method. These yarns are made of the continuous filament

y
fibres such as rayon, acetate nylon or polyester.

g
lo
The process involves the passing of smooth filament yarn

no
across high pressure air jet that causes the individual filaments to
loop up and become tangled so that permanently textured surface

ch
of randomly situated tiny loops develop along the yarn.

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

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 Yarn Unit 15

Summary

 There are different types of yarns which can be broadly classified as

simple yarns, fancy yarns and texturized yarns.
 Texturized yarns are again classified as stretch yarns and bulk yarns.

y
 Simple yarns like ply, cabled yarns etc., are used in construction

g
where the strength is of main concern.

lo
 Novelty yarns like flake yarn, spiral yarn etc., are used for decoration

no
purpose.
 The stretch yarns are produced by different methods like heat setting

ch
the thermoplastic yarns, by chemically treating the natural fibres,

Te
from elastomeric filament etc.
 The bulky yarns have soft and lofty surface and has soft hand of
Cashmere.
d
an
Self Assessment Question
n
ig

1. Ply yarns are composed of two or more single yarns twisted together.
es

(True / False)
2. Double yarns are stronger than the ply yarns. (True / False)
fD

3. Cable yarn is an example for fancy yarn. (True / False)

4. Explain various types of twists in the yarn.
O

5. Explain the simple Yarns with its types in detail.

te
itu
st
In

80 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

Unit 16
Weaving
Objectives
 Understand the Basic terminologies related to weaving
 To understand the process of weaving, structure of looms and fabric

g y
 Describe the different types of weaves

lo
Introduction

no
Weaving: This is the method of fabric formation by interlacing

ch
the warp and weft yarn at right angles to each other.

Te
 The yarns, which run parallel to the selvage on the woven fabrics,
are called warp yarns.

d
 The yarns, which run cross wise across the loom intersecting the
an
warp, are referred as weft yarns. In other words, the yarns
perpendicular to the selvage are called weft yarns
n
ig

There are a number of ways by which the warp and weft yarns could
es

be interlaced, thus producing different designs of the woven fabric.

fD
O
te
itu
st
In

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 Weaving Unit 16

The Structure formed by interlacing of Warps and Weft is called

as Weaves.
Terms Commonly Used with Weaving
 Balanced weave: A balanced weave has an equal distribution of
warp and weft yarns in the fabric surface.

y
 Beating up (Battening): Beating is the stage of pushing filling yarns

g
firmly in place by means of the reed.

lo
 Pick: A single crossing of the filling yarn from one side of the loom to

no
the other is known as a pick.

ch
 Selvages (Selvedges): As the shuttle moves back and forth across
the width of the shed, it weaves a self edge called the selvage, or

Te
selvedge, on each side of the fabric.
 Shed: The raising of alternative warp yarns forms an inverted V

d
opening through which the weft yarns are passed. This V opening is
an
called a shed.
 Shedding: Shedding is a process of raising specific warp yarns by
n

means of the harness or heddle frame.

ig

 The pick count: The number of weft yarns per inch in a woven fabric
es

is referred to as the pick count.

fD

Taking up and letting off small

O

The stage of weaving where winding the manufactured fabric on

the cloth beam and releasing more of the warp from the warp beam
te

takes place
itu

 Thread count: Thread count also known as cloth count, is

st

determined by counting the number of warp yarns and filling yarns in

In

a square inch of fabric.

82 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

 Warp-face fabric: A web in which the warp yarns predominate is

called a warp-face fabric.
 Weft-face fabric: A web in which the weft yarns dominate the
surface of the cloth or completely hide the warp is referred to as weft
faced fabric.

y
 Warp yarns: The yarns, which run lengthwise on the loom are called

g
warp yarns. In other words, the yarns, which run parallel to the

lo
selvage on the woven fabrics are warp yarns.

no
 Weft yarns: The yarns, which run cross wise across the loom

ch
intersecting the warp are referred as weft yarns. In other words, the
yarns which are perpendicular to the selvage are called weft yarns.

Te
 Unbalanced weave: An unbalanced weave has an unequal
distribution of warp and weft yarns, with one or the other
predominating.
d
an
Loom & Its Parts
n

Loom, in simple words could be said as a device used to weave

ig

clothes.” There are different definitions associated with the loom used
es

for weaving the fabrics. They are;

fD

 Webster defines a loom as "a frame or machine for interweaving yarn

or threads into a fabric, the operation being performed by laying
O

lengthwise a series called the warp and weaving in across this other
te

threads called the weft, woof, or filling.“

itu

 Another definition, which is quite to the point: "A loom is the

framework across which threads are stretched for the weaving of
st

cloth."
In

83 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

g y
lo
no
Different types of Looms

ch
Loom & Its Parts

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu

1. Warp & the cloth rollers: Wrap roller supply the warp at the back of
st

the loom. The cloth rollers also called breast beams consist of the
In

manufactured cloth. Back beam and the cloth beam are built width

84 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

wise of the loom and provide a firm, even foundation and tension of
the warp threads stretched across them.

g y
lo
2. Harness: The harness is like a wooden frame work, which contains

no
a number of wires.

ch
 Harness is used to pass the warp yarns. It is a frame which holds

Te
the heddles.
 Harness helps in lifting the warp yarns up and down to facilitate

d
the movement of the weft yarns in forming the interlaced pattern.
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu

3. Shuttle: Warp yarns in loom should be interlaced by the weft yarn in

the width wise direction. The device, which holds the weft yarns and
st

carries it across the loom for interlacing is known as shuttle. The

In

shuttle passes backwards and forwards across the loom to form the

85 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

woven fabric. The shuttle consists of a bobbin which holds the weft
yarns. The weft yarns are wound on these bobbins and are placed
inside the shuttle.

g y
lo
no
ch
Te
4. Reed: Reed is a frame which is located directly in the front of the
harness. This is used to push the interlaced pattern forward each

d
time the shuttle in between the warp yarns, and presses back the
an
filling thread in position. It is similar to the comb we use in combing
our hair. The narrow spaces between the reed is known as dent.
n
ig
es
fD
O
te

Different Operations on Loom

itu

Stages in Preparation of Yarn

1. Winding: The objectives of the winding process are to inspect the
st

yarns as obtained from spinning, inspecting the thick and thin spots
In

of the yarn and to wind it on the packages.

86 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

2. Warping: The yarns are removed from winding packages and the
desired number of yarns is arranged on the cylinders called beams.
Care is taken to arrange the yarns parallel and under uniform
tension.
3. Slashing or Warp Sizing: This process is applicable for warp yarns

y
to withstand the rigor in the weaving process. The main objective is

g
to increase the strength of the warp yarns and lubricate the yarn by

lo
treatment of starch.

no
Drawing-in and Tying-in

ch
The slashed yarns are passed through the harness and reed; the

Te
process of which is known as drawing in. When mass of warp yarns are
used in producing lengths of fabrics, the yarns from the new beam are

d
tied to the corresponding end of yarns of the old beam thus replacing the
an
same
n

1. Primary Motions: Every loom requires three primary motions to

ig

produce woven fabric:

es

a) Shedding: Shedding is the process by which the harness frames

fD

are moved up and down in order to separate the warp sheet into
two layers. This process of drawing each warp yarn through the
O

eye of the heddle eye is known as drawing in. There are different
types of shedding, which such as cam system of shedding, dobby
te

system of shedding and jacquard system of shedding.

itu

b) Picking or Filling Insertion: This is the means by which the weft

st

is projected through the shed. Looms using a filing carrier other

In

than a shuttle are grouped under the general heading of

shuttleless looms The common filling insertion methods in use
87 Institute of Design & Technology
 Weaving Unit 16

today include the conventional shuttle, rapiers, gripper projectiles,

air jets and water jets, the last four being shuttleless systems.
c) Beating-up: Beating-up is where the reed pushes the weft into
the fell of the cloth to form fabric. Beating-up is accomplished by
the use of the wire grate called a reed. At the beginning of the

y
weaving cycle, the reed is moved backwards to allow for filling

g
insertion. After the filling is inserted, the reed moves forward and

lo
the wires engage the filling yarns driving it into the fell of the cloth,

no
the position in the warp shed where each pick is beaten

ch
2. Secondary Motions: There are two secondary motions in weaving

Te
that assist in continuous weaving.

a) Let-off: This process delivers the warp yarns from the warp beam
d
to the weaving area of the loom at the constant tension.
an
b) Take-up: The cloth take-up motion withdraws cloth from the fell
and then stores it at the front of the loom.
n
ig

Weaves
es

A weave is formed on a loom by interlacing of the warp yarns

fD

with the weft yarns”. It denotes the fabric structure formed by

interlacing of warp yarns and weft yarns in a woven fabric.
O

 The manner in which the warp yarns are interlaced by the filling
te

yarns determines the pattern of the weave.

itu

 In a simple weave construction, the filling yarns go under one warp

yarn and over the next as shown in this figure.
st

 The weaves could be broadly classified as:

In

88 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

a. Simple weaves: These include weaves such as plain, rib, twill, satin
and basket weave. These are also called fundamental weaves.
b. Decorative weaves: These weaves include pile, double cloth,
gauze, dobby, and Jacquard weave.
c. Surface Figured Weaves: These have any surface embellishment

y
using extra warp or weft figuring- swivel, lappet, Spot, Leno, Pile,

g
Double Cloth,

lo
no
Plain Weave
Plain weave consists of each filling yarn going alternately under

ch
and over the warp yarns across the width of the fabric. It is sometimes

Te
referred to as tabby, homespun, or taffeta weave. It requires only two
harnesses for the weaving process. On its return, the yarn alternates the
pattern of interlacing.
d
an
The plain woven fabrics are used for different purposes as listed
below:
n

 They are used extensively for cotton fabrics and for fabrics that are
ig

to be decorated with printed designs

es

 They are more serviceable of all weaves, as fabrics with these

weaves are easy to maintain and care.
fD

 They are used for such purposes as blouses, dresses, shirts, and for
O

such home furnishings as curtains.

te
itu
st
In

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 Weaving Unit 16

There are two variations of Plain weaves

a. Basket Weave: Basket weave is a variation of plain weave

construction where double yarns are used to produce the design. As
the weave resembles the pattern of the basket, it is called basket
weave. Basket weave fabrics are used for suiting, outerwear and

g y
home furnishings such as drapery.

lo
no
ch
Te
d
an
b. Ribbed Weave – A raised effect called a ribbed effect is produced in
n

the warp or in the filling by alternating fine yarns with coarse yarns,
ig

or single yarns with doubled yarns. The ribbed fabrics are used for
es

blouses, curtains, dresses and a variety of apparel depending on

fD

their construction.
O
te
itu
st
In

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 Weaving Unit 16

Twill Weave
You can easily identify a twill woven fabric through the diagonal
lines which is the characteristic feature of the twill weaves. The method
of interlacing of the yarns follows the below given pattern

gy
lo
no
ch
Te
Satin Weave
A satin fabric is distinguished from fabrics by its lustrous or silky
d
appearance. Satin weaves generally use from five to as many as twelve
an
harnesses in the construction of the fabrics. But they have greater
drapability.
n
ig
es
fD
O

Reflection of light on the floats gives satin fabric its primary

te

characteristic of luster, which appears in the direction of the warp. The

itu

long floats found in the satin weave might be considered a

st

disadvantage because they represent a minimum of interlacing, and

therefore a potential weakness in the fabric. In its construction, the warp
In

yarns are made to pass over four filling yarns and under one. This type
91 Institute of Design & Technology
 Weaving Unit 16

of construction is called a five shaft construction, since the warp

interlaces every fifth filling yarn.

Sateen Weave
A weft faced satin weave is called sateen weave. The

y
distinction feature is that the weft or filling yarns lay on the surface of the

g
fabric. The floats in this construction are made of the filling yarns and the

lo
luster appears in the filling direction.

no
ch
Te
d
an
Novelty Weaves/Decorative Weaves
n

Novelty Weaves are also called as decorative, fancy, figure and

ig

design weaves. They are formed by predetermined changes in the

es

interlacing of warp and filling yarns. The different weaves include dobby,
fD

jacquard, leno, pile and double cloth

O

Dobby Weave
The dobby weave is created on a plain loom by means of a
te

mechanical attachment, called a dobby or cam, which raises or lowers

itu

as many as twenty-four to forty harnesses containing the series of warp

yarns that form the pattern. The designs made by dobby weaves are
st

simple, limited in size, and usually geometric in form & generally found
In

on shirtings and tie fabrics. The most familiar type of dobby weave is

92 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

bird’s eye, the small diamond pattern made with short floats that give the
impression of an eye.

g y
lo
no
ch
Jacquard Weave

Te
Fabrics with elaborate designs are woven using the Jacquard
loom. The Jacquard mechanism has the ability to control every warp
d
an
yarn instead of a series as in regular harness looms. The machine is
very big and very expensive. The pattern for the Jacquard loom is
n

transferred to a series of perforated cards, one for each filling pick in the
ig

pattern. The card is punched so as to permit the needles on the machine

es

to be raised to pass through the card. A special mechanism called

Jacquard mechanism is used which controls thousands of heddles,
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

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 Weaving Unit 16

which lift one or more warp yarns independently of others without the
use of harnesses.

This type of weave is used when large sized figures are

desirable. The jacquard woven fabrics are used for a variety of apparels
such as jackets and evening gowns and for such home furnishings as

g y
table cloths, drapery, and upholstery.

lo
no
Surface Figure Weaves
Extra warp or filling yarns can be interlaced on the basic weaves

ch
to produce different designs.

Te
Pile Fabric
Pile fabrics are formed by having the basic plain or twill weave as
d
an
a backing and a third yarn is woven to yield a surface pile. The pile
maybe warps pile or weft pile. For making ground fabric, plain or twill
n

weave is used, the extra set of filling yarn floats over three or more warp
ig

yarns. The floats are cut and brushed up to form pile. This is called filling
es

pile. Examples are velveteen and corduroy fabrics.

fD
O
te
itu
st
In

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 Weaving Unit 16

If an extra warp yarn floats over the filling yarn, it is called warp
pile. Examples are velvet, velour and rug velvet

Spot Weave
Spot designs are formed by extra warp or filling yarns. The yarns

y
are inserted the entire length or width of the fabric, spots or dot designs

g
are formed. The long floats on the back side are cut away, leaving the

lo
dots. The threads can be pulled easily. Filling threads are easy to cut but

no
warp floats are difficult. Example: dotted swiss

ch
Te
d
an
n
ig

Double – Cloth Weave

es

They are composed of five sets of yarns. Filling and warp yarns
fD

are both two sets, and one set is responsible to join the two layers by
interlacing between them. Fabrics have two layers and they may be
O

identical.
The type of weave used for both the fabrics range from plain
te

weave on each side or plain weave on one side and a twill weave on the
itu

other side. The two layers of the fabrics being woven are combined by
st

means of a separate set of yarns called tying yarns or by interlacing

some of the warp and weft yarns. Double cloth fabrics are by their very
In

nature heavier weight materials. Depending upon their composition and

95 Institute of Design & Technology
 Weaving Unit 16

construction, they can be used for robes, blankets, coat materials, and a
variety of upholstery fabrics.

g y
lo
no
ch
Te
Swivel Weave
This method of weaving is used to produce fabrics with

d
decorative effects such as dots, circles etc., in the fabric construction.
an
The fabric looks like an embroidered one.
The weaving of the design requires an extra filling yarn and
n

additional small shuttles or insertion devices. While the fabric is being

ig

constructed, the row of small shuttles drops across the width of the
es

loom, and each interweaves its separate design with a circular motion
on a small area of the warp. A long thread is carried on the under
fD

surface of the fabric from one design to the next. Different colours may
O

be used in each of the designs because each figure is woven with its
own specific bobbin. The decoration produced by the swivel weave is
te

not considered durable, because the swivel yarns are cut when the
itu

fabric is completed and cannot be securely fastened. The cut ends

roughen the under surface of the fabric and may pull out if it is handled
st

roughly, as may happen in laundering.

In

96 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

The Swivel weave differs from lappet in that designs are

produced by extra filling yarns. Separate shuttles are placed at each
point where the design has to be made. The shed is formed by the
pattern, where the shuttle carries the yarn through the shed, the
distance of the pattern. The extra filling floats on the back of the fabric,

y
the long floats are cut away after weaving is completed. Example: silk

g
sarees

lo
no
Summary
 Loom also called as weaving machine, is the device used in

ch
weaving.

Te
 The different parts of the loom, which assist in the process of
weaving include the reed, harness, heddle, shuttle and the beams.

d
 The yarns as obtained from the spinning process are put through
an
different process such as winding, warping slashing etc., to make
them suitable to withstand the pressure of weaving process.
n

 The process of weaving on the loom could be put into three motions
ig

such as primary, secondary and ancillary motions.

es

 There are three primary motions needed to produce a woven fabric:

shedding, picking and beating-up.
fD

 Let-off and take-up are secondary motions for weaving.

O

 Ancillary motions used on modern weaving machines are weft stop

motions, warp stop motions, warp protectors
te

 Weaving is a process of fabric formation wherein the warp yarns

itu

(lengthwise) on the loom are interlaced by the weft yarns, passed

across the loom with the aid of shuttle.
st

 The selvages are produced by the shuttle that moves back and forth
In

across the width of the shed weaving a self edge called selvage.

97 Institute of Design & Technology

 Weaving Unit 16

 The weaves are generally classified as basic weaves and fancy

weaves.
 There are different variations of the plain weave namely basket
weave and ribbed weave.
 The twill weave is characterized by the diagonal lines running on the

y
face of the fabric, which may be due to the warp or weft yarn.

g
 The ribbed weave has the ribbed surface on the face of the fabric.

lo
 The satin weave is characterized by the floats on the surface of the

no
fabric.

ch
 The different types of fancy weaves include the swivel, lappet,
double cloth and pile weave constructions

Te
Self Assessment Questions

d
1. ___________ on the loom has heddles.
an
2. The narrow spaces on the reed are called ___________.
3. Explain the different parts of the loom.
n

4. The manner in which warp yarn interlaces with weft yarn the
ig

resultant structure is called as .

es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

98 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

Unit 17
Non-Woven Fabrics
Objectives:
 Describe the meaning of nonwoven fabrics
 Explain the method of making nonwoven fabrics

y
g
lo
Introduction

no
The textile fibres are converted to yarns, which are processed
through different methods of fabric formation. The different methods of a

ch
fabric manufacture could be broadly classified as follows:

Te
 Conventional methods
 Non-conventional methods

d
an
Conventional methods
Conventional methods means the common methods of
n

manufacturing the fabrics include weaving, knitting, braiding, lace and

ig

felt making.
es

Non-conventional methods
This involves any other method then the usual weaving and
fD

mainly non-wovens.
O

Non Woven Fabrics

te

Non-woven fabrics are obtained by bonding or interlocking of the

itu

fibres. Non-woven are defined by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) as fabrics constructed of fibers held together “by
st

bonding or the interlocking of fibers or both, accomplished by

In

mechanical, chemical, thermal, or solvent means and the combinations

99 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

thereof”. Another definition for nonwoven is that they are sheets or web
structures bonded together by entangling fiber or filaments (and by
perforating films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They are not
made by weaving or knitting and do not require converting the fibers to
yarn

g y
a) Braiding: It is a method of forming a narrow fabric, which is

lo
generally used for decorative purpose. In this process the strands of

no
yarns are plaited together by crisscrossing them diagonally and
lengthwise.

ch
b) Felting: It is the massing and flattening or matting together

Te
(Interlocking) of many fibres by application of heat, pressure, steam
or chemicals.

d
Felting is possible only with the fibres moisture and stick to
an
one another firmly when pressure is applied and thus, forming the
fabric.
n
ig

Types of felts
es

There are two basic types of felt such as:

1. Wool Felt: The characteristics of the wool felt are given below:
fD

a. In most satisfactory grades of wool felt, at least one-half of the

O

fiber composes wool, as the wool fiber surpasses all others in the
physical quality of cohesiveness that makes this type of fabric
te

construction possible.
itu

b. Short: Staple wool fiber, or noils, is used for felt; but the finer the
st

grade of staple used, the stronger the felt.

In

100 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

c. Some lower priced grades of felt are also made chiefly from
wool. Other felts are made by combining cotton, kapok, or rayon
with woo

These felts may be distinguished from fur felt by the dull

appearance, harder feel, and comparatively rough texture. Acetate,

g y
nylon, and acrylic fibers are also blended with wool. They improve

lo
the fabric’s drapability. These blends also reduce the finished felt’s

no
tendency to shrink.

ch
2. Fur felt: The characteristics of the fur felt are:
The short fibers of some furbearing animals like rabbit, musk

Te
rat are important in the manufacture of felt for hats. Fur felt is usually
made from a mixture of fibers, and the better grade contains beaver.
Fur contributes softness, d
smoothness resilience, and water
an
repellency.
n

Properties of felt
ig

The properties of felt are given below:

es

 Felt has no warp, filling or selvage, which simplifies its use in

fD

garment construction. Because it does not have a system of threads,

it will not fray or ravel.
O

 On the other hand, its structure makes sewing difficult; hidden

mending of tears and holes is impossible.
te

 As it is made without twisted yarns and without interlacing, felt has

itu

little tensile strength and, when it retards, it does so in a ragged,

st

fuzzy manner.
In

 It has practically no elasticity or draping quality.

101 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

 However, felt can be cut or blocked into any shape. It has good
resilience and will retain its shape unless subjected to undue tension.
 Wool felt has high thermal insulating properties, and it provides
warmth.
 It absorbs sound and shock, and is more impervious to water than

y
untreated woven or knitted fabrics. Since wool felt shrinks, it should

g
 Be laundered carefully.

lo
no
Uses of felt
The uses of felt are listed below:

ch
 The properties of felt affect its application. Lack of tensile strength

Te
and drapability limit the use of felt as a general clothing fabric, but it
is especially adaptable for blocking into hats.

d
 Felt is also suitable for such articles as slippers, shoe insoles,
an
earmuffs, pennants and table padding. Because of its insulative and
noise absorptive properties, felt has various industrial uses
n
ig

Bonded Fabrics
es

There are several methods of bonding the fibers in the web to

form fabrics. The broad classification involves the following:
fD

a. Chemical bonding with includes methods such as resin bonding,

O

gelatin bonding etc.

te

b. Mechanical bonding such as stitch through bonding.

itu

c. Thermal bonding
st

This method of bonding is used for thermoplastic fiber webs,

In

which are fused with the help of thermoplastic threads. Here, layers of
thermoplastic fibres are stitched using thermoplastic thread. The
102 Institute of Design & Technology
 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

application of heat causes the thread to soften, shrink, and bond to the
web structure, making it more compact. These are some of the methods
used to bond the webs of fibres, thus forming non-woven fabrics such as
thermoplastic bonding. Other bonding methods are Resin Bonding,
Gelatin Bonding, Thermoplastic Bonding, Spun Radiation Bonding and

y
Stitch Bonding.

g
lo
Laminated Fabrics

no
Laminated are fabrics in which two layers of fabrics are combined
into one with adhesive or foam .This is a process of producing laminated

ch
fabrics.

Te
Laminating is the permanent jointing of two or more prefabricated
fabrics. Unless one or other of the fabrics develops adhesive properties

d
in certain conditions, an additional medium is necessary to secure
an
bonding.
 Wet laminating: Adhesives used in the wet process are dissolved or
n

dispersed in a suitable solvent. The simplest form of wet laminating

ig

consists of applying the adhesive to one of the lengths of material

es

that is to be joined, and to put the second length on it with the

required amount of pressure. Then drying, hardening or condensing
fD

the material that has been joined together is carried out. The
O

solvents can be macromolecular natural or synthetic substances and

water.
te

 Dry laminating: All Kinds of thermoplastics are used for dry

itu

laminating. These include powders, plastisols, or melt adhesives,

and are applied to the substrates that are to be joined together using
st

suitable machinery. Dry laminated non-woven fabrics have a soft

In

feel.

103 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

Pile Weave
This type of weave is considered as fancy weave as well as
functional weave. It has got loops called piles on the surface of the fabric
which could be cut or uncut making it a cut pile fabrics and uncut pile
fabrics respectively.

y
Pile weave construction is especially desirable when softness,

g
warmth and absorbency are desired. The weave construction used for

lo
pile weave is a twill or plain weave construction.

no
The simple description of the pile weave construction is as

ch
follows:

Te
In the weaving process an extra set of yarn is woven where the extra
set is woven as floats.

d
After weaving, a machine is used to raise the float. These form the
an
uncut pile construction.
If the piles are left as loops on the ground construction, then the
n

weave is called uncut pile construction.

ig

If the piles are cut using the blades at the centre, then the weave is
es

called cut pile construction.

fD
O
te
itu

Lace
st

Lace is the most common trimming used in decorating the

In

garment. The techniques of lace making involve looping, knotting,

104 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

braiding, twisting, or stitching thread into decorative, open – work

patterns.

Types of Lace
Handmade laces have always been highly prized as trimming for

y
apparel and as decorative pieces for the home. The techniques of lace

g
making involve looping, knotting, braiding, twisting, or stitching thread

lo
into decorative, open – work patterns.

no
 The fabric made as lace is a pattern with open holes in the work,

ch
which could be made by machine or hand.

Te
The general handmade laces include the following:

a. Bobbin (Pillow) Lace

d
an
b. Crocheted Lace
c. Darned Lace
n

d. Needle point Lace

ig

e. Tatting Lace
es

f. Macramé Lace
fD

Parts of Lace
O

Laces are constructed of different parts, each having a particular

designation.
te
itu

 Bride, or reseau, is the fine yarn that forms the mesh, which
provides the sheer ground (background) between the prominent
st

parts of the pattern.

In

 Cordonnet is the heavy yarn that outlines the pattern.

105 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

 Picot is a decorative loop used both in the pattern and on the edge
of the lace.
 Toile represents the predominate parts of the pattern made by
braiding, knotting, looping, or twisting the yarn.

g y
lo
no
ch
Te
d
an
n
ig
es

Uses of Lace
fD

 The fabric can be produced in widths of over one yard (1 m) that are
devoid of scallops. The fabric comes in bolt form and is used for
O

blouses, dresses, and evenings wear.

te

 Flouncing comes in 12” to 36” widths and is used for ruffles.

itu

 Gallon has scalloped edges on top and bottom & comes in widths of
18” and is used either as a banded appliqué on a fabric or as an
st

insertion between two pieces of fabric.

In

106 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

 Edging comes in widths of 18” or less and has a straight top edge
and a scalloped bottom. It is used to trim such garments as dresses,
blouses and lingerie.
 Medallion is a single-lace design that is used as an appliqué on a
ground fabric for dresses, blouses, lingerie, and napkins.

g y
Quality & Care of Lace

lo
 If lace is made by hand, it is considered better than machine – made.

no
 Lace should either be laundered by hand or dry cleaned, depending
upon its nature.

ch
 If it is to be laundered, lace should be either washed by hand

Te
squeezing suds through it without rubbing or by putting it into a mesh
or cloth bag and machine washing at a gentle cycle.

d
 Ironing or pressing should be done carefully by placing a cloth over
an
the lace to avoid tearing.
n

Summary
ig

Let us summon the important points discussed with reference to

es

nonwoven materials. Nonwoven are defined as fabrics constructed of

fibers held together “by bonding or the interlocking of fibers or both,
fD

accomplished by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or solvent means and

O

the combinations thereof”. The sequence in the manufacture of these

fabrics involve preparing the fibres called web formation, laying the
te

fibers for forming webs and bonding the webs to form the fabric
itu

structure. The fibers obtained are put through cleaning and blending
before they are used for nonwoven fabrics. The fibers thus formed are
st

converted to layers of web through the process such as parallel-laid

In

web, random laid web etc. The layers of web are then bonded by

107 Institute of Design & Technology

 Non- Woven Fabrics Unit 17

methods such as resin bonding, needle-punched, spun laced bonding

etc. The nonwoven fabrics in apparel construction are used as
interlinings and interfacings. They are mainly used for surgical and
industrial purposes.

Self Assessment Questions

g y
1) Explain Non-woven method of fabric construction

lo
2) Explain the following fabric structures

no
Lace
Pile

ch
3) Explain the properties of felt fabrics

Te
d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

108 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

Unit 18
Knitting
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Differentiate between weaving and knitting

g y
 Describe the needles used for knitting fabrics

lo
 Explain the warp knits and weft knits.

no
Introduction

ch
Knitting is the second most frequently used method of fabric
construction after weaving. Knitted fabrics may be constructed with a

Te
single yarn that is formed into interlocking loops by the use of hooked
needles. The growth in consumer demand for wrinkle–resist,
d
an
stretchable, snug–fitting fabrics, particularly in the greatly expanding
areas of sport wear and other causal wearing apparel has made knitted
n

fabrics more popular for different fashion products. Today, the usage of
ig

knitted fabrics ranges from hosiery, underwear, sweaters, slacks, suits,

es

and coats, to rugs and other home furnishings. When the interlocking
loops run lengthwise, each row is called a wale. When the loops run
fD

across the fabric, each row is called course.

O

Basic Structure of Knits

te

 With reference to knitting, you need to understand two terms – yarn

loop and knitted loop.
itu

 In knitting each stitch is made by the knitted loop coming from the
st

yarn loop. Essentially, the loop made on the needle is interloped with
In

the already formed loop.

109 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

 Each stitch - a knitted loop and yarn loop consist of the following
parts:
 Top arc (head),
 Two legs stitch that is bound at the end and
 Two bottom half-arcs (feet), at upper and lower ends, i.e. at the head

y
and at the feet.

g
 The first loops (yarn loops) are bound only at the head with loosely

lo
hanging feet.

no
 The knitted loops are bound only at the feet to the heads of the

ch
previous stitches.
 At the place where the legs transform into feet, there are two points

Te
of contact with the previous stitch. These are defined as the binding
points.

d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O

Types of knitting Needles

te

1. Latch Needle: It has a latch or swinging finger that closes onto the
itu

hook of the needle as it pulls the yarn through loop to form a new
st

loop.
In

110 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

g y
2. Spring-beard Needle – A spring – beard needle has a fine,

lo
sparingly hood slightly resembling a beard. This type of hook must

no
be used with a sinker to hold the fabric down and a presser to close
the hook as it forms the loop.

ch
Te
d
an
n
ig
es

3. Compound Needle – A compound needle is composed of a hook

and a sliding closing element.
fD
O
te
itu
st

The knitted fabric can be divided into two types based on its
construction as follows:
In

111 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

1. Weft Knits
2. Warp Knits

1. Weft Knits: This is formed when one continues yarn forms courses
across the fabric. There are three fundamental stitches in weft
knitting

g y
lo
a) Plain Stitch: The plain knit is made by needles intermeshing
loops drawn to one side of the fabric. It can be produced in flat –

no
knit or in tubular form otherwise called circular form.

ch
Loops form distinctive vertical herringbone like ribs or

Te
wales on the right side of the fabric. On the reverse side the
courses can be readily seen as interlocking rows of opposed half
circles.
d
an
b) Purl Stitch: This construction is also referred to as the links and
n

links stitch. It is made on flat bed and circular machines by

ig

needles using hooks on both ends to alternately draw loops to the

es

front of the fabric in one course and to the back in the next
course. A purl stitch has crosswise stretch and excellent
fD

lengthwise stretch and hence, it is widely used in infant and

O

children’s wear.
te
itu
st
In

112 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

c) Rib Stitch: Rib-knit fabrics have alternating length wise rows of

plain and purl stitches constructed so that the face and back of
the fabric appear alike.

g y
lo
no
2. Warp Knitting: The needles produce parallel rows of loops

ch
simultaneously that are interlocked in a zigzag pattern.

Te
 The stitches on the face of the fabric appear vertically, but at a
slight angle, and the stitches on the back appear horizontally as
flats at a slight angle. d
an
 These flats called laps, or under laps, are distinguishing
identification of warp knits.
n

 There are seven types of warp knitting, which are as follows:

ig

a. Tricot
es

b. Milanese
fD

c. Simplex
d. Raschel
O

e. Kitten Raschel
te

f. Crochet
g. Weft – insertion
itu

a. Tricot Knit: The machine has one or more warp beams

st

mounted above it. Each set of yarns from a warp beam is fed
In

to a row of needles arranged across the width of the machine

113 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

and is controlled by yarn guides set in a guide bar that is also

laid across the machine.
Typical uses of tricot fabrics are lingerie, loungewear,
sleepwear, blouses, shirts, dresses, slacks, uniforms for
nurses, bonded fabric material, outerwear, and automobile

y
upholstery.

g
b. Milanese Knit: It can be identified by the fine rib on the face

lo
and a diagonal pattern on the back. Milanese is knitted on the

no
flat bed machine with spring – beard needles and on the

ch
circular machine with latch needles.
c. Simplex Knit – Simplex fabrics are produced with spring –

Te
beard needles on a machine that is essentially two tricot
machines arranged back to back. They are used for such

d
purposes as gloves, handbags, and sportswear and slip
an
covers.
d. Raschel: Raschel constructions are made with heavy yarns
n

and usually have an intricate, lacelike pattern. The raschel knit

ig

ranks in importance of production with tricot, but it surpasses it

es

in variety of products, which range from veiling and laces to

fD

power nets for foundation garments to such pile fabrics as

carpets.
O

e. Ketten Raschel: This knit is also called the chain raschel.

The machine can be equipped to produce raised pattern
te

effects in one or more colors by a shell stitch construction.

itu

f. Crochet: This basic stitch is used in hand – crochet work

employing a pillar chain. Using either latch or beard, needles,
st

this construction is used in a wide variety of fabrics ranging

In

from nets and laces to bedspreads and carpets.

114 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

g y
lo
Weaving Knitting

no
• Weaving is formed by two sets • Knitting is formed loops which
of parallel yarns are interconnected in order to

ch
interconnected by interlacing produce a textile structure

Te
them at right angles • The term, ‘inter-looping’ is used
• The term, ‘interlacing’ is used • A single or one set of yarn is
Two sets of yarns are used in used which is interloped in the
•
d
an
the construction, which are construction of the fabric
interlaced at right angles • A horizontal set of yarns could
n

• The vertical yarns are termed be inter looped to produce a

ig

as warp and the horizontal weft knitted fabric, and a vertical

es

yarns as weft yarns set of yarns could be used to

• Woven fabrics are constructed produce a warp knitted fabric
fD

by the interlacing of two or • The advantage of stretchability

more sets of yarns, which do in knitted fabrics is an important
O

not allow the fabric to stretch consideration where fit and

te

to any marked degree comfort are concerned – they fit

itu

• The fabrics formed are firm, the figure but do not bind it
smooth, stable and are stiff • The fabrics are wrinkle resistant,
st

stretchable and fit to the body

In

115 Institute of Design & Technology

 Knitting Unit 18

Summary

We have learnt the different methods of producing the knitted

fabrics in this unit. We have started with the definition of knitting, which
is a process of constructing the fabric by interlocking the loops of the

y
single yarn. Knitted fabrics give warmth, elasticity and are very porous.

g
There are different types of needles used for machine knitting which

lo
may be listed as latch needle, spring beard needle and compound

no
needle. The two major types of knitting machines used may be listed as
flat bed machine and circular bed machine. There are two different

ch
varieties of stitches produced such as warp knits and the weft knits.

Te
Warp knitting differs from weft knitting, basically, in that warp knitting has
each needle looping its own thread; whereas in the weft knitting a single

d
thread is used which resembles the hand knitting. Three basic weft
an
knitted stitches include plain stitch, purl and rib stitches. Similarly, there
are different warp knitted stitches such as the tricot, milanese, simplex
n

etc.
ig
es

Self Assessments Question

fD

1. Knitted fabrics are formed by interloping of the yarns. (True / False).

2. _____ of the knitted fabric corresponds to the warp of the woven
O

fabric.
te

3. The top arc of the knitted stitch is called _______.

4. List the different types of weft knits.
itu

5. Explain the different types of needles used for knitting.

st

6. Discuss the difference between knitting and weaving

In

116 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Glossary
A
Abrasion Resistance: The degree by which a fabric is able to withstand
loss of appearance through surface wear, rubbing, chafing, and other
frictional actions.

g y
Absorbency: The ability of a fabric to take in moisture. Absorbency is a

lo
very important property, which affects many other characteristics such

no
as skin comfort, static build-up, shrinkage, stain removal, water

ch
repellency, and wrinkle recovery.

Te
Acetate: A manufactured fiber formed by a compound of cellulose,
refined from cotton linters and/or the wood pulp of the mulberry trees.

d
This material is then combined with acedic acid and is extruded through
an
a spinneret and then hardened.
n

Acetylation: The Process of Introducing an Ethanoyl (acetyl) Radical

ig

into an Organic Molecule.

es

Acrylic: A manufactured fiber derived from polyacrylonitrile. Its major

fD

properties include a soft, wool-like hand, machine washable and

dryable, excellent color retention. Solution-dyed versions have excellent
O

resistance to sunlight and chlorine degradation.

te

Ahimsa silk: An alternative, non-harmful method of producing silk. Silk

itu

is woven by making use of empty cocoons rather than harvesting live

moth pupae. Cultivated on forest trees, the silk is spun after the
st

silkworm metamorphoses into a moth and flies away leaving its cocoon.
In

117 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

This type of silk derives its name from the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain
doctrine of peace and non-violence.
B
Bast Fibre: Fibre Obtained From The Stems Of Various Plants.

y
Blend: A blend is a fabric or yarn made up of more than one type of

g
fiber

lo
no
Bleaching Agent: A chemical reagent capable of destroying partly or
completely the natural coloring matter of textile fibres, yarns and fabrics,

ch
and leaving them white or considerably lighter in colour. Examples are

Te
oxidizing and reducing agents. Amongst the former, hydrogen peroxide
is widely used.

d
Braid: To braids is to interweave or twine three or more separate
an
strands of one or more materials in a diagonally overlapping pattern.
n

Bonded: A Fabric Composed of 2 or More Layers Joined Together With

ig

an Adhesive, resin, Foam, Or Fusible Membrane.

es

Brocade: A heavy jacquard-type fabric with an all-over raised pattern or

fD

floral design. Appropriate for upholstery, draperies, handbags and

eveningwear.
O
te

Burlap: A loosely constructed, heavy weight, plain weave fabric. It has a

rough hand. Appropriate for draperies and decorative items.
itu

C
st

Cambric: A fine thin white linen fabric.

In

Canvas: A strong, durable, closely woven cotton fabric.

118 Institute of Design & Technology
 Glossary

Cheesecloth: A lightweight, sheer, plain-woven fabric with a very soft

texture. It may be natural colored, bleached, or dyed. It usually has a
very low count. If dyed, it may be called bunting and could be used for
flags or banners.

Chiffon: Lightweight, extremely sheer and airy fabric, containing highly

g y
twisted fibers. Suitable for full pants, loose tops or dresses.

lo
Crimp: The waviness or curvature of a fiber or yarn. Can be found

no
naturally, as with wool, or can be mechanically produced.

ch
Cotton: A white vegetable fiber grown in warmer climates in many parts

Te
of the world has been used to produce many types of fabric for hundreds
of years. Cotton fabric feels good against the skin regardless of the

d
temperature or the humidity and is therefore in great demand by the
an
consumer.
n

Crepe: Used to describe all kinds of fabrics--wool, cotton, silk, rayon,

ig

synthetics and blends-that have a crinkle, crimped or grained surface.

es

Combed Yarn: The process following carding, combing straightens

fD

fibers into parallel strands and removed any remaining impurities or

short pieces, in order to further soften cotton yarns.
O

D
te
itu

Dyes: Dye is used to color fabric. There are two main types natural and
synthetic the process is called dyeing.
st
In

119 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Denim: A twill weave cotton fabric made with different colored yarns in
the warp and the weft. Due to the twill construction, one color
predominates on the fabric surface. Suitable for pants, jackets and
skirts. Pre-wash and dry 100% cotton denim at least twice to eliminate
shrinkage and color bleeding

g y
Dobby: A decorative weave, characterized by small figures, usually

lo
geometric, that are woven into the fabric structure

no
Dotted Swiss: A lightweight, sheer cotton or cotton blend fabric with a

ch
small dot flock-like pattern either printed on the surface of the fabric, or
woven into the fabric. End-uses for this fabric include blouses, dresses,

Te
baby clothes, and curtains.

d
Double Cloth: A fabric construction, in which two fabrics are woven on
an
the loom at the same time, one on top of the other. In the weaving
process, the two layers of woven fabric are held together using binder
n

threads. The woven patterns in each layer of fabric can be similar or

ig

completely different.
es

Drill: Strong, medium- to heavyweight, warp-faced, twill-weave fabric. It

fD

is usually a 2/1 left-handed twill and piece dyed.

O

Duck: A tightly woven, heavy, plain-weave, bottom-weight fabric with a

te

hard, durable finish. The fabric is usually made of cotton, and is widely
used in men's and women's slacks, and children's play clothes.
itu
st

Dupioni Silk: A crisp fabric with irregular slubs. It is perfect for tailored
slimmer silhouettes like flat-front trousers, jackets and fitted blouses and
In

120 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

dresses. Silk Dupioni can be machine washed in the gentle cycle and
drip-dried.

Elasticity: The ability of a fiber or fabric to return to its original length,

g y
shape, or size immediately after the removal of stress.

lo
Embossing: A calendering process in which fabrics are engraved with

no
the use of heated rollers under pressure to produce a raised design on

ch
the fabric surface.

Te
Embroidery: An embellishment of a fabric or garment in which colored
threads are sewn on to the fabric to create a design. Embroidery may be
done either by hand or machine.
d
an
F
n
ig

Felt: A non-woven fabric made from wool, hair, or fur, and sometimes in
es

combination with certain manufactured fibers, where the fibers are

locked together in a process utilizing heat, moisture, and pressures to
fD

form a compact material. Ideal for most craft projects.

O

Flannel: Usually a 100% cotton fabric that has been brushed on one or
both sides for softness. Typically used for shirts and sleepwear.
te
itu

Flax: The plant from which cellulosic linen fiber is obtained. Linen is
used in apparel, accessories, draperies, upholstery, tablecloths, and
st

towels.
In

121 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Fleece: Synthetic knit fabric that stretches across the grain. Suitable for
vests, jackets and top Fiber

Fiber: Fiber is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are

in discrete elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread. Fibers are often
used in the manufacture of other materials. They can be spun into

g y
filaments, thread, or rope. They can be used as a component of

lo
composite materials. They can also be matted into sheets to make

no
products such as Paper or felt.

ch
G

Te
Gabardine: A worsted twill weave that is wrinkle resistant. Wool
gabardine is the most common and is considered year-round fabric for
suits. d
an
Gauze: A sheer, open-weave fabric usually cotton or silk. It is suitable
n

for blouses, dresses and curtains.

ig
es

Georgette: A drapey woven fabric created from highly twisted yarns

creating a pebbly texture. It is semi-sheer and suitable for blouses, full
fD

pants and flowing dresses.

O

Gingham: A medium weight, plain weave fabric with a plaid or check

te

pattern. End-use include dresses, shirts, and curtains

itu

J
st

Jacquard: Woven fabrics manufactured by using the Jacquard

In

attachment on the loom. This attachment provides versatility in designs

122 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

and permits individual control of each of the warp yarns. Thus, fabrics of
almost any type or complexity can be made. Brocade and damask are
types of jacquard woven fabrics.

Jersey Fabric: Usually thinner or lighter-weight than interlock knit with

less stretch. It’s appropriate for tops and fuller dresses.

g y
lo
Jute: A bast fiber, chiefly from India, used primarily for gunny sacks,
bags, cordage, and binding threads in carpets and rugs

no
ch
K

Te
Kapok: A short, lightweight, cotton-like, vegetable fiber found in the
seed pods of the Bombocaceae tree. Because of its brittle quality, it is

d
generally not spun. However, its buoyancy and moisture resistance
an
makes it ideal for use in cushions, mattresses, and life jackets
n

Khaki: A tan or dusty colored warp face twill, softer and finer than drill.
ig

Name derived from East India word meaning "earth color." Fabric made
es

of cotton, linen, wool, worsted, or manmade fibers and blends.

fD

Knit Fabrics: Fabrics made from only one set of yarns, all running in the
same direction. Some knits have their yarns running along the length of
O

the fabric, while others have their yarns running across the width of the
te

fabric. Knit fabrics are held together by looping the yarns around each
other. Knitting creates ridges in the resulting fabric. Wales are the ridges
itu

that run lengthwise in the fabric; courses run crosswise.

st
In

123 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Leather: Animal skin dressed for use in clothing.

Linen: A natural plant fiber, linen fibers are stronger

and more lustrous than cotton. Depending on the

g y
weight, it’s appropriate for anything from heirloom

lo
sewing and blouses to slacks and jackets.

no
Lawn: A light, fine cloth made using carded or combed, linen or cotton

ch
yarns. The fabric has a crease-resistant, crisp finish. Linen lawn is
synonymous with handkerchief linen. Cotton lawn is a similar type of

Te
fabric, which can be white, solid colored, or printed.

d
Loom: Yarns affixes to two ends of the frame, while the horizontal weft
an
yarns were manually woven through. Today there are many different
types of looms, from the hand looms still in use A machine or frame
n

used to weave cloth. The earliest looms featured vertical warp in

ig

developing countries to computer-controlled Jacquard looms that are

es

able to control minute movements in the weaving process with speed

fD

and efficiency.

Lycra: The trademark name for DuPont's brand of Spandex fiber.

O
te

M
itu

Madras: A lightweight plain weave cotton fabric with a striped, plaid, or

st

checked pattern. True madras will bleed when washed. This type of
In

fabric is usually imported from India. End-uses are men's and women's

124 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

shirts and dresses. Madras Fine cotton, hand loomed in the Madras
region of India. Dyed with natural dyes.

Muslin: An inexpensive, medium weight, plain weave, low count (less

than 160 threads per square inch) cotton sheeting fabric. In its
unfinished form, it is commonly used in fashion design to make trial

g y
garments for preliminary fit.

lo
no
N

ch
Net: Refers to any open-construction fabric whether it is created by
weaving, knitting, knotting, or another method.

Te
Nylon: Produced in 1938, the first completely synthetic fiber developed.

d
Known for its high strength and excellent resilience, nylon has superior
an
abrasion resistance and high flexibility.
n

Nap: The nap of a fabric is the direction in which the sheared pile faces,
ig

and can be manipulated with combing or brushing.

es

O
fD

Organdy: A stiffened, sheer, lightweight plain weave fabric, usually

O

cotton or polyester.
te

Organza: A crisp, sheer, lightweight plain weave fabric, with a medium

itu

to high yarn count, made of silk, rayon, nylon, or polyester.

st
In

125 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Polyester: A manufactured fiber introduced in the early 1950s, and is

second only to cotton in worldwide use. Polyester has high strength
(although somewhat lower than nylon), excellent resiliency, and high

y
abrasion resistance. Low absorbency allows the fiber to dry quickly.

g
lo
Poplin: A fabric made using a rib variation of the plain weave. The

no
construction is characterized by having a slight ridge effect in one
direction, usually the filling. Poplin used to be associated with casual

ch
clothing, but as the "world of work" has become more relaxed, this fabric

Te
has developed into a staple of men's wardrobes, being used frequently
in casual trousers.

d
Pile: From the Latin word for hair, pile is the extra yarn that protrudes
an
from the surface of a fabric. Pile can be shaved and shaped, as with
velvet and corduroy, or can be left uncut as with terry cloth
n
ig

Plush: Velvet with a deep, soft pile, plush is easily found in childrens'
es

stuffed animals. From the French word peluche meaning hairy, plush
fD

fabric can also be knitted for a bit of stretch.

Ply: When two or more threads are twisted together before weaving,
O

increasing yarn density and weight.

te

Q
itu
st

Quilting: A fabric construction in which a layer of down or fiberfill is

In

placed between two layers of fabric, and then held in place by stitching
or sealing in a regular, consistent, all-over pattern on the goods.
126 Institute of Design & Technology
 Glossary

Sateen Fabric: A fabric made from yarns with low luster, such as cotton
or other staple length fibers. The fabric has a soft, smooth hand and a
gentle, subtle luster. Sateen fabrics are often used for draperies and

y
upholstery.

g
lo
Satin: With a lustrous, shiny surface, drapability depends on fiber

no
content. Silk and rayon satins have the best stitch results.

ch
Seersucker: A fabric with a woven pucker, this fabric is traditionally
cotton, but can be polyester. Suitable for shirts, casual slacks and

Te
children’s clothing.

d
Spandex: Made with elastic fibers that can be stretched up to five times
an
its original length without damage. When blended with natural fibers, it
creates a lightweight and flexible fabric with great shape retention.
n
ig

Suede: Leather that has been given a velvety nap.

es

Silk: The fabric is woven using the natural filament fiber produced by the
silkworm in the construction of its cocoon. Silk is a naturally strong,
fD

lustrous, and fine fiber that produces long-lasting, versatile, and high-
quality multi-purpose fabrics.
O
te

T
itu

Taffeta: With a crisp hand, taffeta is typically used for formal wear like
st

gowns and fuller skirts. Underlining prevents some of the wrinkling it has
In

a tendency to have.

127 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Tapestry: A heavy, often hand-woven, ribbed fabric, featuring an

elaborate design depicting a historical or current pictorial display. The
weft-faced fabric design is made by using colored filling yarns, only in
areas where needed, that are worked back and forth over spun warp
yarns, which are visible on the back. End-uses include wall hangings

y
and upholstery.

g
lo
V

no
Velvet: Velvet is one of the most luxurious fabrics because of its evenly

ch
cut, thick, soft pile. Traditionally made from silk, velvet comes in a

Te
variety of blends like rayon/silk, cotton, or nylon, and some velvets, such
as stretch velvet, has some lycra blended in as well.

d
Velveteen: A lightweight fabric made from cotton with a very short,
an
dense pile. Developed in Manchester, England in the 18th century,
velveteen lacks the sheen and drape of velvet, is woven with an extra
n
ig

filling yarn, and can have a plain or a twill back.

es

Vinyl: A synthetic fabric made from PVC which resembles leather.

fD

Viscose: A man made synthetic fiber, typically referred to as rayon.

Viscose has a silken, smooth feel and a terrific drape, and is often used
O

for linings and bridal garments.

te

Voile: Usually made with cylindrical combed yarns, this plain, loosely
itu

woven fabric has an extremely clear surface because the excess fuzzy
st

yarns are singed away. It is thin, semi-transparent, and very lightweight,

In

resembling an organdy or organza in appearance.

128 Institute of Design & Technology

 Glossary

Woven Fabric: Fabrics composed of two sets of yarns. One set of

yarns, the warp, runs along the length of the fabric. The other set of
yarns, the fill or weft, is perpendicular to the warp. Woven fabrics are
held together by weaving the warp and the fill yarns over and under
each other

g y
Warp: The vertical threads in a particular fabric or on a loom.

lo
Weave: The manner in which a fabric is produced, utilizing methods of

no
combining the warp and weft threads. The type of weave affects the

ch
strength, stretch, sheen and weight of a fabric. The basic types of
weaves are plain, twill and satin.

Te
Weft: The horizontal threads in a particular fabric or on a loom.

d
an
Wool: This textile is made using the fibers from the hair of animals, such
as goats, sheep, camels, or llamas, and it comes in several different
n

forms from crepe, to gabardine, to worsted. Wool is moisture absorbing

ig

and known for its warmth, and is also naturally stain and wrinkle
es

resistant.
fD

Worsted: A wool fabric woven from firmly twisted yarns, which are spun
from combed long-staple wool, creating a solid smooth surface with no
O

nap.
te

Y
itu

Yarn: Also referred to as thread, yarn is the basic component of all

st

fabrics. Yarn can be composed of twisted natural or synthetic fibers, or a

In

longer single fiber.

129 Institute of Design & Technology

 Bibliography

Bibliography

1. ‘Understanding Textiles’ - Sixth Edition

Billie. J Collierr & Phyllis. G. Tortora
2. Textile – Sara.J. Kadolph

y
3. E.P.G Goal & H.D Vilensky

g
- Textile Design

lo
4. Dantyagie S. (1993) – Fundamentals of Textiles and care.

no
5. Bernard. P. Corbman (1983) – Textile fibre to fabric – Mc Graw Hill
International Edition – New York

ch
6. Arthur Price & Allen.C. Cohen– Fabric Science – Fifth Edition – Fair

Te
child publications New York.

d
an
n
ig
es
fD
O
te
itu
st
In

130 Institute of Design & Technology