Secure Synopsis compilation for January-2025

General Studies-3
Table of contents

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth,

development and employment................................................................................................... 5
Q. Discuss the significance of Gross Value Added (GVA) in understanding the structural
transformation of the Indian economy. How does it complement GDP as an economic
indicator? (10 M) .................................................................................................................... 5
Q. “The dichotomy between urban and rural employment in India reflects deeper structural
inequalities”. Analyze how fiscal and monetary policies can be synchronized to address these
disparities. (15 M) ................................................................................................................... 6
Q. Examine the role of External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) in India's financing
structure. Discuss their potential in bridging investment gaps and ensuring financial stability,
along with the associated risks in the current economic scenario. (15 M) ................................ 9
Q. Despite being a major employment provider, the unincorporated sector suffers from low
capital investment and limited access to institutional credit. Examine the reasons behind this
and suggest policy measures for financial resilience and growth. (15 M) ............................... 11
Q. Examine the relationship between household consumption expenditure and fiscal policy.
How can targeted government interventions enhance household purchasing power without
fuelling inflationary pressures? (15 M).................................................................................. 13
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. .......................................................................... 15
Government Budgeting. .......................................................................................................... 15
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, - different types of irrigation
and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues
and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers. ................................................ 15
Q. Despite its potential for sustainable growth and employment generation, the Indian jute
industry grapples with several challenges. Examine the factors affecting the industry and
suggest a roadmap for its revival. (15 M) .............................................................................. 15
Q. Evaluate the significance of the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) in India's
agricultural transformation. What are the key challenges faced in implementing the mission
effectively? (10 M) ................................................................................................................. 17
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public
Distribution System-objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks
and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. ............................. 19

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 Q. “India has a rich diversity of indigenous cattle breeds, yet they are underutilized
compared to exotic breeds”. Examine the factors responsible for this trend and suggest
measures to promote their usage. (10 M)............................................................................... 19
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and significance, location,
upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. ................................. 21
Land reforms in India. ............................................................................................................ 21
Q. “India’s land reforms have failed to adapt to the modern challenges of urbanization and
industrialization”. Analyze the need for reimagining land use policy in light of these trends”.
(15 M) ................................................................................................................................... 21
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth. .................................................................................................................... 23
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. .............................................. 23
Investment models. .................................................................................................................. 23
Q. Discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating private investment
into India's port and maritime sector under public-private partnership (PPP) models. (10 M)
.............................................................................................................................................. 23
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
.................................................................................................................................................. 24
Q. “Neutrinos are often referred to as "ghost particles”. Why are they significant in
understanding the universe, and how is India contributing to their research? (10 M) ........... 24
Q. Analyze the challenges posed by emerging zoonotic diseases to India's healthcare system.
Suggest measures to strengthen the "One Health" approach in the country. (15 M) ............. 27
Q. “Recombinant DNA technology is pivotal in combating global health challenges”. Examine
its applications in vaccine development and genetic disorder treatment. (10 M) ................... 29
Q. “The discovery of graphene has been a game-changer in material science”. Analyze the
unique properties of graphene and discuss its potential applications in developing sustainable
technologies. (15 M) .............................................................................................................. 32
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and
developing new technology. .................................................................................................... 34
Q. Explain the working principles of Li-Fi technology and its potential applications in high-
security environments such as defence and healthcare. (10 M) .............................................. 34
Q. The deployment of artificial satellites has increased manifold, leading to concerns
regarding space debris management”. Evaluate India's preparedness in tackling this
emerging challenge. (10 M) ................................................................................................... 36
Q. “The integration of smart grids and renewable energy sources is crucial for India's energy
transition”. Examine the challenges in implementing smart grids in India and suggest policy
measures to overcome them. (15 M) ...................................................................................... 38
Q. What are scramjet engines, and how do they contribute to the development of hypersonic
technology? Discuss their significance for India's defence capabilities. (10 M) ...................... 40

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 Q. Critically analyze the feasibility of India developing its own Large Language Model (LLM)
in the backdrop of global competition and economic constraints. What should be India’s
strategic focus in AI development? (15 M) ............................................................................ 42
Q. Discuss the significance of the Draft Legal Metrology (Indian Standard Time) Rules, 2025
in ensuring uniformity and precision in timekeeping across India and its impact on critical
sectors. (10 M) ....................................................................................................................... 44
Q. Discuss the significance of India's decision to develop a domestic Large Language Model
(LLM) under the India AI Mission. How can this initiative impact technological sovereignty
and digital economy? (10 M) ................................................................................................. 46
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-technology, bio-
technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights. .............................................. 48
Q. What is the Van Allen Radiation Belt? Discuss its impact on satellite operations and
manned space missions. (10 M) ............................................................................................. 48
Q. What is dark matter, and how does it influence the behaviour of galaxies? Discuss the
scientific significance of studying dark matter and analyze the challenges in its detection and
research. (15 M) .................................................................................................................... 50
Q. “Fuel cell technology is considered a game-changer for clean mobility, but its
commercialization in India remains limited”. Analyze the reasons and propose a roadmap for
its integration. (15 M) ............................................................................................................ 52
Q. “Renewable energy, while environmentally friendly, has significant lifecycle
environmental cost”. Examine this statement with respect to solar panel production and
disposal. (10 M) ..................................................................................................................... 54
Q. “AI in healthcare is transforming the way professionals work, but its responsible use
remains a challenge”. Comment. (10 M) ............................................................................... 56
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
.................................................................................................................................................. 58
Q. Discuss the concept of ecological carrying capacity and its relevance in managing India's
growing urbanization and resource consumption. (10 M) ..................................................... 58
Q. “The Arctic is a bellwether for global climate change, with its transformations carrying
cascading impacts worldwide”. Discuss. (15 M) .................................................................... 59
Q. Discuss the role of industrial safety frameworks in mitigating disasters in high-risk sectors
such as chemicals and petrochemicals. Highlight the challenges and suggest ways to improve
India’s approach to industrial safety. (15 M) ........................................................................ 61
Q. Discuss the implications of shifting climate responsibilities onto developing nations due to
weak commitments from developed countries. How can developing nations balance climate
action with their developmental needs? (10 M) ..................................................................... 63
Disaster and disaster management. ........................................................................................ 65
Q. Analyze the socio-economic and environmental challenges posed by disaster-induced
displacement in India. Suggest policy interventions for climate-resilient rehabilitation. (15 M)
.............................................................................................................................................. 65
Linkages between development and spread of extremism. .................................................... 67

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 Q. Analyze the role of development in addressing left-wing extremism (LWE) in India. Can
development alone eradicate the root causes of extremism? (10 M)....................................... 67
Q. Evaluate the role of guerrilla warfare tactics in sustaining Left-wing extremism (LWE) in
India and suggest measures to counter them effectively. (10 M) ............................................ 69
Q. “Insurgency in India’s North-East cannot be resolved without addressing the region's
ethnic diversity and cultural autonomy”. Comment (15 M) .................................................. 70
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security. ..... 73
Q. “Internal security challenges in India are no longer confined to borders but are
increasingly influenced by external and transnational factors”.Discuss. (15 M) .................... 73
Q. “India's internal security threats are increasingly interconnected with global geopolitical
developments”. Discuss. (15 M) ............................................................................................. 75
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-
laundering and its prevention. ................................................................................................ 77
Q. Explain the concept of Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) and its importance in
ensuring national security. Highlight the threats posed to CII in India. (10 M) ..................... 77
Q. “Money laundering undermines economic stability and national security”. Discuss the
processes involved in money laundering and evaluate the legislative and institutional
measures taken by India to combat it. (15 M) ....................................................................... 79
Q. “Media and social networking sites are increasingly used as instruments of information
warfare”.Examine the implications for internal security in India and suggest measures to
counter this emerging threat. (15 M) ..................................................................................... 81
Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime
with terrorism. ......................................................................................................................... 83
Q. How has the abrogation of Article 370 impacted the security scenario and
counterterrorism efforts in Jammu and Kashmir? (10 M) .................................................... 83
Q. “Terrorism is not confined to physical violence but includes economic destabilization and
psychological warfare”. Discuss. (15 M) ................................................................................ 85
Q. “The evolving nexus between organized crime and terrorism is undermining India’s
border security”. Discuss this linkage with contemporary examples and its implications for
national security. (10 M) ....................................................................................................... 87
Q. “Effective border management requires a multi-dimensional approach encompassing
defence, diplomacy, and development”. Comment (15 M) ..................................................... 89
Q. “Urban terrorism is an evolving threat to India's internal security architecture”. Analyze
the factors contributing to it and suggest countermeasures. (10 M)....................................... 91
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate. .................................................... 93
Q. “Paramilitary forces are the backbone of India’s internal security, yet they face significant
structural and operational challenges”. Discuss. (15 M) ........................................................ 93
Q. Analyze the role of India’s specialized agencies, such as CERT-In and NTRO, in
mitigating threats emerging from communication networks. (10 M) ..................................... 95

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Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of
resources, growth, development and employment.
Q. Discuss the significance of Gross Value Added (GVA) in understanding the
structural transformation of the Indian economy. How does it complement GDP
as an economic indicator? (10 M)

Introduction

Gross Value Added (GVA) provides a granular view of economic activity, making it
critical to understanding sectoral dynamics and structural transformations within the Indian
economy.

Body

Significance of GVA in understanding the structural transformation of the Indian

economy

1. Tracks sectoral contributions: GVA highlights the contributions of primary,

secondary, and tertiary sectors individually, enabling better assessment of structural
transitions.
o Eg: Services sector’s share in GVA rose to 54% in FY23, reflecting India's
shift to a service-dominated economy (Source: MoSPI).
2. Focuses on productivity: GVA emphasizes productivity by excluding intermediate
consumption, offering a clearer picture of sectoral efficiency.
o Eg: Agricultural GVA grew by just 1.5% in FY23, despite employing over
45% of the workforce.
3. Monitors regional disparities: Disaggregated GVA data helps identify regional
economic disparities.
o Eg: Gujarat accounted for 15% of India’s industrial GVA in FY22,
showcasing its manufacturing strength.
4. Drives policy interventions: Insights from GVA data guide targeted fiscal and
sectoral interventions.
o Eg: PLI schemes were expanded in 2022 to cover 14 sectors based on
lagging GVA trends in manufacturing.
5. Assesses resilience to shocks: GVA measures economic resilience by tracking sector-
specific recovery trends.
o Eg: Post-pandemic, industrial GVA rebounded by 4.5% in FY22,
highlighting recovery in core sectors (Source: RBI).

How GVA complements GDP as an economic indicator

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 1. Explains sectoral dynamics: While GDP shows aggregate growth, GVA offers
sectoral breakdowns, revealing underlying drivers and bottlenecks.
o Eg: Despite 7.2% GDP growth in FY23, GVA data showed stagnation in
manufacturing due to global supply chain issues.
2. Supports inflation-adjusted analysis: GVA at basic prices isolates sectoral
performance from the effects of taxes and subsidies, aiding in inflation analysis.
o Eg: In FY22, 8.1% GVA growth signalled economic recovery after adjusting
for tax-induced inflation.
3. Informs taxation and fiscal policy: GVA data aids in designing tax policies by
highlighting sector-specific growth or decline.
o Eg: Increased excise duty on petroleum products in 2021 was based on
GVA trends in energy and manufacturing.
4. Aligns with global standards: GVA conforms to the UN System of National
Accounts (SNA), improving comparability with international data.
o Eg: India's GVA methodology aligns with that of OECD countries, ensuring
accurate global benchmarking.
5. Aids in employment generation: GVA insights into labour-intensive sectors guide
job creation policies.
o Eg: Agriculture and MSMEs, identified as low-GVA contributors, received
priority in PMEGP to boost employment in FY23.

Conclusion

GVA complements GDP by providing a nuanced understanding of sectoral dynamics and

supporting targeted policymaking. Leveraging these insights effectively can ensure inclusive
and sustainable growth, aligning with India's long-term economic goals.

Q. “The dichotomy between urban and rural employment in India reflects

deeper structural inequalities”. Analyze how fiscal and monetary policies can be
synchronized to address these disparities. (15 M)

Introduction

The urban-rural employment divide in India underscores significant structural inequalities,

including sectoral imbalances, infrastructure deficits, and disparities in education and skills.
Addressing these challenges is essential for achieving inclusive and sustainable growth.

Body

Dichotomy between urban and rural employment in India reflects deeper structural
inequalities

1. Sectoral Imbalance: Rural areas are predominantly dependent on agriculture, which

employs a significant portion of the workforce but contributes a smaller share to GDP.

6
 o Eg: Agriculture employs approximately 45% of the workforce but
contributes only about 16% to GDP.
2. Infrastructure Deficit: Rural regions often lack adequate infrastructure, limiting
economic opportunities and access to markets.
o Eg: Urban areas receive a disproportionate share of industrial investments,
exacerbating regional disparities.
3. Educational and Skill Disparities: Limited access to quality education and
vocational training in rural areas restricts employment opportunities.
o Eg: Rural youth constitute a significant portion of the unskilled labour
force, highlighting the need for targeted skill development programs.
4. Migration and Informal Employment: Rural-to-urban migration often leads to
employment in the informal sector, lacking job security and benefits.
o Eg: The 2020 migrant crisis highlighted the vulnerabilities of rural migrants
in urban areas.
5. Limited access to technology and innovation: Rural areas lack exposure to
advanced technology and innovation, hindering productivity and employment growth.
o Eg: Only 17% of rural enterprises use modern technology compared to 45%
of urban enterprises, as reported by NITI Aayog in 2023

Fiscal and monetary policies can be synchronized to address these disparities

Fiscal Policy Measures:

1. Investment in Rural Infrastructure: Allocating funds for the development of rural

infrastructure to enhance connectivity and economic activities.
o Eg: The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) has significantly
improved rural road connectivity.
2. Support for Rural Enterprises: Providing financial incentives and support to
promote rural entrepreneurship and small businesses.
o Eg: Schemes like the Prime Minister's Employment Generation
Programme (PMEGP) have facilitated the creation of rural employment
opportunities.
3. Enhancing Educational and Skill Development: Investing in education and
vocational training tailored to rural needs to improve employability.
o Eg: The Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-
GKY) focuses on skill development for rural youth.
4. Strengthening Social Security for Migrant Workers: Implementing policies to
provide social security and support for migrant workers.
o Eg: The One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) scheme ensures food
security for migrant workers across states.

Monetary Policy Measures:

7
 1. Priority Sector Lending: Mandating banks to allocate a portion of their lending to
sectors that generate rural employment.
o Eg: The Reserve Bank of India's guidelines on Priority Sector Lending
(PSL) include targets for agriculture and micro-enterprises.
2. Facilitating Access to Credit: Ensuring availability of affordable credit to rural
entrepreneurs and small businesses.
o Eg: Initiatives like the Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency
(MUDRA) provide loans to micro and small enterprises.
3. Promoting Financial Inclusion: Expanding banking services in rural areas to
facilitate savings, credit, and insurance.
o Eg: The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) has significantly
increased the number of bank accounts in rural regions.
4. Supporting Rural Employment through Refinance Schemes: Providing refinance
facilities to financial institutions lending to rural employment sectors.
o Eg: The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) offers refinance support for rural infrastructure projects.

Synchronization of Fiscal and Monetary Policies:

1. Coordinated Development Programs: Aligning fiscal spending on infrastructure

with monetary support for credit availability to maximize impact.
o Eg: Joint efforts in rural housing schemes where fiscal subsidies are
complemented by affordable housing loans.
2. Integrated Skill Development and Employment Initiatives: Combining fiscal
investments in education with monetary incentives for industries to employ skilled
rural youth.
o Eg: Programs that link skill development centers with micro-financing options
for self-employment.
3. Unified Social Security Frameworks: Developing comprehensive policies that
provide both fiscal support and financial products to safeguard migrant workers.
o Eg: Collaborative schemes offering pension plans and insurance products
tailored for the informal sector.

Way Forward

1. Integrated Rural-Urban Development Planning: Implementing policies that

promote balanced regional development to reduce disparities.
2. Leveraging Technology for Education and Employment: Utilizing digital
platforms to provide education, skill development, and employment opportunities in
rural areas.
3. Strengthening Cooperative Federalism: Encouraging collaboration between central
and state governments to tailor policies addressing specific regional employment
challenges.

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Conclusion

Addressing the urban-rural employment divide requires a synchronized approach, integrating

fiscal and monetary policies to tackle structural inequalities. Such coordinated efforts are
essential for fostering inclusive growth and ensuring equitable economic development across
India.

Q. Examine the role of External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) in India's

financing structure. Discuss their potential in bridging investment gaps and
ensuring financial stability, along with the associated risks in the current
economic scenario. (15 M)

Introduction
External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) provide Indian corporates with access to global
capital markets, enabling long-term financing at competitive rates. Prudent regulation by the
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) ensures that ECBs contribute to economic growth while
maintaining financial stability.

Body

Role of ECBs in India's financing structure

1. Infrastructure development: ECBs support large-scale infrastructure projects with

long gestation periods, reducing fiscal burden on domestic lenders.
o Eg: The Mumbai Trans Harbour Link (MTHL) leveraged ECBs from
Japanese banks, ensuring uninterrupted financing for project execution.
2. Technology upgradation: ECBs enable the import of advanced technologies,
enhancing productivity and global competitiveness.
o Eg: Tata Steel used ECBs to adopt state-of-the-art manufacturing
technologies, improving operational efficiency.
3. Diversification of funding sources: ECBs reduce reliance on domestic credit
markets, enhancing financial resilience.
o Eg: In FY25, Indian firms raised $33.8 billion via ECBs, ensuring diversified
capital inflows (SBI Report, 2025).
4. Cost-effective capital: Lower global interest rates allow Indian companies to borrow
at competitive rates compared to domestic borrowings.
o Eg: The average ECB borrowing cost in November 2024 was 5.8%,
significantly lower than domestic loan rates of 8-10%.
5. Support for private sector growth: ECBs provide liquidity for corporate expansion,
helping businesses scale operations and invest in new ventures.
o Eg: Reliance Industries utilized ECBs to expand its telecom and retail
operations, supporting business diversification.
6. Boost to forex reserves: ECB inflows help stabilize foreign exchange reserves,
strengthening macroeconomic fundamentals.

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 o Eg: India’s forex reserves surged to $645 billion in 2024, supported by steady
ECB inflows, enhancing investor confidence.

Potential of ECBs in bridging investment gaps and ensuring financial stability

1. Bridging infrastructure deficits: ECBs provide long-term funding for capital-

intensive projects critical for economic development.
o Eg: ECBs funded the expansion of NH44, India's longest highway, facilitating
better connectivity and economic activity.
2. Fostering self-reliance: ECBs complement domestic financing under initiatives like
Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat, boosting manufacturing capabilities.
o Eg: ECBs funded the establishment of defense manufacturing units,
reducing dependence on imports.
3. Enhancing corporate liquidity: ECBs offer businesses immediate liquidity for
operational expansion and working capital needs.
o Eg: Bharti Airtel raised ECBs to meet operational costs and fund 5G
infrastructure deployment across India.
4. Mitigating domestic credit constraints: ECBs help corporates bypass domestic
credit limitations and meet their funding needs without crowding out smaller
borrowers.
o Eg: MSME sector benefited indirectly as ECBs reduced large corporates'
reliance on domestic banks.
5. Encouraging foreign direct investment (FDI): Stable ECB inflows boost investor
confidence and attract further foreign investments.
o Eg: India's increased ECB inflows contributed to FDI inflows reaching $84
billion in 2024, according to the Department for Promotion of Industry and
Internal Trade (DPIIT).
6. Strengthening financial stability: RBI’s regulatory framework ensures ECBs do not
pose systemic risks to the economy.
o Eg: ECB borrowings are closely monitored, with hedging requirements
protecting firms from currency fluctuations.

Risks associated with ECBs in the current economic scenario

1. Currency depreciation risk: A weakening rupee can increase the cost of ECB
repayment, affecting profitability.
o Eg: Rupee depreciation to ₹83.50/USD in 2024 led to a rise in debt servicing
costs for Indian firms.
2. Interest rate volatility: Rising global interest rates can make ECBs more expensive,
impacting corporate debt obligations.
o Eg: The US Federal Reserve's rate hike to 5.25% in 2023 increased
borrowing costs for Indian firms.
3. Liquidity risks: Heavy ECB reliance may lead to refinancing difficulties during
economic downturns.

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 o Eg: Several infrastructure firms faced repayment challenges during the
COVID-19 pandemic, straining their cash flows.
4. Regulatory risks: Stricter regulations or sudden policy changes in source countries
could impact ECB availability.
o Eg: Tightening of global lending norms post the 2023 financial crisis limited
ECB options for emerging economies.
5. Hedging cost burden: While hedging mitigates currency risk, it adds to the overall
cost of borrowing.
o Eg: Indian firms hedging 74% of their ECB exposure resulted in higher
financial costs despite lower interest rates.
6. End-use violations: Misutilization of ECB funds for speculative activities can invite
regulatory action and penalties.
o Eg: RBI penalized real estate firms in 2023 for misusing ECBs meant for
project financing.

Conclusion
To harness the full potential of ECBs while ensuring financial stability, a strategic approach
is required. This includes strengthening hedging frameworks, promoting sector-specific
ECB utilization, and enhancing RBI’s monitoring mechanisms to prevent over-reliance.
With proper regulation and strategic deployment, ECBs can continue to be an effective tool
for India's economic growth.

Q. Despite being a major employment provider, the unincorporated sector

suffers from low capital investment and limited access to institutional credit.
Examine the reasons behind this and suggest policy measures for financial
resilience and growth. (15 M)

Introduction

The unincorporated sector is vital to India’s economy, employing over 12 crore workers
and contributing significantly to GDP. However, it remains largely informal, capital-
starved, and credit-deficient, restricting its growth, productivity, and transition to the formal
economy.

Body

Issues of low capital investment and limited institutional credit

1. High informality and lack of credit history: The sector operates mostly outside
formal financial systems, making it difficult to access structured credit.
o Eg: Only 37.2% of unincorporated enterprises were registered with any
authority (ASUSE 2023-24).
2. Weak collateral base: Most enterprises lack tangible assets, making them ineligible
for collateral-based loans.

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 o Eg: Credit rejection rate for micro-enterprises is around 45% compared
to 25% for large businesses (RBI, 2023).
3. Dependence on informal credit sources: Due to complex banking procedures and
high rejection rates, businesses rely on moneylenders and local financiers at high
interest rates.
o Eg: Over 84% of MSMEs depend on informal credit, with interest rates
as high as 36% annually (NSSO, 2018-19).
4. Delayed payments and liquidity issues: Large corporations and government
agencies delay payments, disrupting working capital flow.
o Eg: Over ₹10,000 crore in pending MSME dues reported under MSME
Samadhaan (2021).
5. Low financial literacy and digital access: Many business owners lack awareness of
credit schemes, digital payments, and banking processes.
o Eg: Only 26.7% of unincorporated businesses used the internet for
entrepreneurial activities (ASUSE 2023-24).

Reasons behind financial constraints

1. Limited rural banking penetration: Lack of financial infrastructure and digital

banking solutions restricts credit access for rural enterprises.
o Eg: Only 8.9 bank branches per lakh population in rural areas compared to
28.2 in urban areas (RBI, 2023).
2. Risk-averse banking system: Banks hesitate to lend to micro-enterprises due to
uncertain revenues and high default risks.
o Eg: Credit-to-GDP ratio of Indian MSMEs is just 13% compared to 40% in
China (RBI, 2023).
3. Underutilization of financial schemes: Many government schemes remain
underutilized due to complex procedures and lack of awareness.
o Eg: Only 16% of eligible MSMEs accessed formal credit under CGTMSE
(2023).
4. Lack of customized financial products: Small businesses often require flexible
credit solutions suited to their business cycles.
o Eg: Only 5% of micro-businesses in India have access to venture capital
or structured financing options (Economic Survey, 2023).
5. Absence of credit rating mechanisms: Many enterprises lack credit ratings, making
it difficult to secure loans at reasonable interest rates.
o Eg: Only 10% of small businesses in India have formal credit scores under
CIBIL or equivalent agencies (SBI Research, 2023).

Policy measures for financial resilience and growth

1. Expansion of Udyam and GST registration: Promote easy digital registration and
link credit access to compliance records.

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 o Eg: Only 1.6 crore out of 6 crore MSMEs are Udyam-registered (MSME
Ministry, 2023).
2. Strengthening credit guarantee and microfinance schemes: Expand CGTMSE
coverage, Mudra Loans, and microfinance lending to high-risk enterprises.
o Eg: MUDRA loans disbursed ₹4.5 lakh crore in 2023, but outreach in rural
areas remains low.
3. Promoting fintech-based lending and digital credit scoring: Leverage UPI-based
transactions and Aadhaar-linked credit profiling to improve financing access.
o Eg: RBI’s Account Aggregator system aims to integrate small businesses
into formal credit networks.
4. Enforcement of MSME payment timelines: Strengthen legal mechanisms to ensure
timely payments from corporates and government entities.
o Eg: MSME Samadhaan scheme recovered ₹6,000 crore in delayed
payments since 2017 but needs stronger enforcement.
5. Encouraging alternative financing mechanisms: Develop crowdfunding, invoice
discounting, and venture capital models tailored for micro-enterprises.
o Eg: TReDS (Trade Receivables Discounting System) facilitates invoice
discounting for MSMEs but remains underutilized.

Conclusion

The unincorporated sector’s growth and employment potential remain constrained by capital
shortages and limited formal credit access. Strengthening financial inclusion, digital
lending, and timely payment enforcement is essential to ensure sustainable expansion and
economic resilience.

Q. Examine the relationship between household consumption expenditure and

fiscal policy. How can targeted government interventions enhance household
purchasing power without fuelling inflationary pressures? (15 M)

Introduction

Household consumption expenditure is a key driver of economic growth, influencing

demand, investment, and employment. Fiscal policy, through taxation, public spending,
and subsidies, directly affects purchasing power, necessitating targeted interventions to
prevent inflationary risks.

Body

Relationship Between Household Consumption Expenditure And Fiscal Policy

1. Direct impact on disposable income: Taxation and government transfers determine

household purchasing power.
o Eg: The PM Kisan Scheme (2019) provides income support to farmers,
boosting rural consumption (Economic Survey 2022-23).
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 2. Subsidies and welfare programs: Reduce essential expenses, allowing higher
discretionary spending.
o Eg: Food Security Act (2013) ensures low-cost food grains, reducing
inflationary stress on poor households.
3. Infrastructure and employment generation: Fiscal spending on infrastructure and
social sectors raises incomes.
o Eg: MGNREGA (2005) provides rural employment, leading to higher
consumption multipliers (Ministry of Rural Development, 2023).
4. Impact on inflation: Excessive spending can create demand-pull inflation,
necessitating balanced fiscal policy.
o Eg: The 2010 stimulus post-GFC led to high inflation and fiscal deficit
(RBI Report, 2015).
5. GST and consumption patterns: Tax reforms influence consumption trends by
altering product affordability.
o Eg: GST rate cuts on essential goods in 2019 improved rural demand and
FMCG sales (NITI Aayog, 2020).
6. Monetary-fiscal policy coordination: Ensuring fiscal prudence alongside monetary
tightening prevents overheating.
o Eg: RBI’s inflation targeting framework (2016) has helped maintain price
stability while ensuring demand growth (RBI, 2023).
7. Consumption-driven revenue generation: Higher consumption improves GST and
indirect tax revenues, supporting fiscal health.
o Eg: GST collections hit ₹1.87 lakh crore in December 2023, reflecting
strong domestic demand growth (Finance Ministry, 2024).

Targeted Government Interventions To Enhance Purchasing Power Without Inflation

1. Targeted direct benefit transfers (DBT): Income support without market distortions
ensures spending on essentials.
o Eg: DBT in LPG Subsidy (PAHAL Scheme, 2014) saved ₹50,000 crore in
leakages while ensuring affordability (Finance Ministry, 2021).
2. Counter-cyclical fiscal policies: Public spending during slowdowns and withdrawal
during booms prevent demand shocks.
o Eg: Atmanirbhar Bharat (2020) combined income support with supply-
side reforms, preventing excessive inflation.
3. Supply-side measures: Boosting domestic production and logistics efficiency
controls inflationary risks.
o Eg: PM Gati Shakti (2021) aims to reduce supply bottlenecks, keeping
price rises in check (Economic Survey 2022-23).
4. Progressive taxation to balance wealth distribution: Reduces regressive tax
burdens on low-income groups.
o Eg: Higher exemption limits in Budget 2023 provided ₹7 lakh tax-free
income under the new regime, enhancing middle-class spending.

14
 5. Public investment in essential services: Reduces out-of-pocket expenditure on
health and education.
o Eg: Ayushman Bharat (2018) covers ₹5 lakh per family, lowering
healthcare costs and increasing disposable income.
6. Expansion of rural non-farm employment: Reducing dependence on agriculture
diversifies income sources.
o Eg: PM Vishwakarma Yojana (2023) supports small artisans, increasing
rural disposable incomes (MoRD, 2023).
7. Strengthening PDS and social security nets: Ensures stable access to essentials,
preventing inflationary spikes from demand surges.
o Eg: One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC, 2020) has enhanced food
security for migrant workers (Ministry of Consumer Affairs, 2023).

Conclusion

A balanced fiscal policy combining targeted welfare, tax reforms, and infrastructure
investment can enhance purchasing power without overheating inflation, ensuring
sustainable and inclusive growth.

Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.

Government Budgeting.

Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, -

different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage,
transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and
related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Q. Despite its potential for sustainable growth and employment generation, the
Indian jute industry grapples with several challenges. Examine the factors
affecting the industry and suggest a roadmap for its revival. (15 M)

Introduction

Jute, known as the "golden fiber," holds immense potential for economic growth,
environmental sustainability, and rural employment. However, the industry is plagued by
various challenges, necessitating strategic interventions for its revival.

Body

Potential for Sustainable Growth and Employment Generation

1. Eco-friendly substitute for plastic: Jute's biodegradable nature aligns with India's
sustainability goals and global environmental commitments.

15
 o Eg: The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, encourage the use of eco-
friendly alternatives like jute-based packaging.
2. Employment generation in rural areas: The jute sector supports millions of farmers
and mill workers, particularly in states like West Bengal, Bihar, and Assam.
o Eg: Over 170,000 farmer households and about 4 lakh mill workers are
directly dependent on jute cultivation and processing.
3. Export potential: India is the largest producer of jute and has the opportunity to tap
into global demand for sustainable fiber products.
o Eg: India's jute exports stood at $350 million in 2023, primarily to countries
like the US, UK, and Australia.
4. Government support through policies: Various policies promote the growth of jute
through price assurance, research support, and marketing initiatives.
o Eg: The Jute Packaging Materials Act, 1987, mandates 100% packaging of
food grains in jute bags, ensuring steady demand.
5. Integration with sustainable industries: Jute can support emerging industries like
bio-composites, geotextiles, and agro-based packaging.
o Eg: The demand for jute geo-textiles in infrastructure projects like riverbank
protection and road construction is increasing.

Challenges Facing the Indian Jute Industry

1. Declining production and profitability: Farmers are shifting to other crops due to
low profitability, fluctuating prices, and high input costs.
o Eg: Raw jute production fell from 2.03 million tonnes in 2011-12 to 1.44
million tonnes in 2024-25 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2024).
2. Inadequate infrastructure and outdated technology: The majority of jute mills
operate with obsolete machinery, leading to low productivity and high operational
costs.
o Eg: Over 50% of jute mills are using pre-independence era machines,
reducing global competitiveness.
3. Competition from synthetic alternatives: The availability of cheap synthetic
substitutes such as polypropylene bags is a major challenge to jute demand.
o Eg: Plastic packaging continues to dominate despite government policies
favoring jute packaging.
4. Limited value addition and product diversification: Lack of innovation in product
development restricts jute’s market potential beyond packaging.
o Eg: The absence of R&D in high-value jute products like furnishings, fashion
items, and composites hampers market growth.
5. Inefficient procurement and marketing systems: Farmers often face delays in MSP
procurement and exploitation by intermediaries.
o Eg: Less than 30% of jute farmers benefit from direct government
procurement mechanisms.

Roadmap for Revival of the Jute Industry

16
 1. Modernization of jute mills: Upgrading infrastructure and adopting new
technologies to enhance productivity and reduce costs.
o Eg: The Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme (TUFS) should be extended
to jute mills for financial assistance.
2. Diversification of jute products: Expanding the product range to include eco-
friendly home decor, technical textiles, and fashion products to attract new markets.
o Eg: Promoting jute-based apparel and footwear through MSME clusters and
e-commerce platforms.
3. Policy support and financial incentives: Ensuring favourable policies, subsidies,
and credit access to farmers and entrepreneurs to encourage jute cultivation and
processing.
o Eg: Providing special incentives under NABARD’s Rural Infrastructure
Development Fund for jute clusters.
4. Enhancing marketing and global outreach: Strengthening branding and promotion
of Indian jute in international markets through trade fairs and export incentives.
o Eg: Establishing a ‘Brand India Jute’ initiative to boost export
competitiveness.
5. Sustainable farming practices: Introducing climate-resilient jute varieties and
organic farming methods to improve yield and sustainability.
o Eg: Collaboration with ICAR-Central Research Institute for Jute and
Allied Fibres to develop pest-resistant jute strains.

Conclusion

A holistic approach involving modernization, diversification, policy reforms, and

sustainable farming can revive India's jute industry and position it as a global leader in eco-
friendly fibres. Investing in innovation and enhancing market access will ensure long-term
growth and livelihood security.

Q. Evaluate the significance of the National Mission on Natural Farming

(NMNF) in India's agricultural transformation. What are the key challenges
faced in implementing the mission effectively? (10 M)

Introduction
Natural farming, through the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF), aims to
transform Indian agriculture by promoting chemical-free, climate-resilient, and sustainable
farming practices to ensure long-term food security and environmental sustainability.

Body

Significance of NMNF in India's agricultural transformation

1. Soil health improvement: Reduces dependence on synthetic fertilizers, restoring soil

fertility and microbial diversity.

17
 o Eg: NMNF targets to convert 7.5 lakh hectares to natural farming, improving
soil quality.
2. Cost reduction for farmers: Minimizes input costs by promoting indigenous
techniques like cow-based farming and bio-inputs.
o Eg: Studies by ICAR indicate a 25-30% reduction in input costs through
natural farming adoption.
3. Climate resilience: Enhances adaptability to climate change by improving soil
moisture retention and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
o Eg: The 2023 IPCC Report highlights natural farming's role in reducing
carbon footprints in agriculture.
4. Improved nutritional security: Provides chemical-free, safe food, enhancing public
health and reducing health-related expenditures.
o Eg: Gujarat’s natural farming initiatives have led to increased demand for
organic produce in local markets.
5. Self-reliance in agriculture: Aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat by reducing
dependency on imported chemical fertilizers.
o Eg: NMNF promotes 10,000 Bio-Input Resource Centers (BRCs) to
support local production of organic inputs (Source: Ministry of Agriculture).

Key challenges in implementing NMNF effectively

1. Lack of awareness and adoption resistance: Farmers are often hesitant to transition
from conventional methods due to deep-rooted practices.
o Eg: A 2024 study by NITI Aayog found that only 20% of farmers are aware
of the benefits of natural farming.
2. Yield concerns: Short-term yield reduction acts as a deterrent for farmers
transitioning to natural farming.
o Eg: Farmers in Punjab reported a 15-20% decline in yield during initial
years of natural farming adoption (Source: Punjab Agricultural University,
2023).
3. Market linkages and certification: Lack of proper certification and marketing
infrastructure affects the profitability of naturally grown produce.
o Eg: The absence of an accessible organic certification framework delays
market access for farmers.
4. Inadequate extension services: Limited outreach and insufficient technical support
hinder large-scale adoption.
o Eg: Currently, only 90 resource persons are available across 7 Centers of
Natural Farming (CoNF) for farmer training .
5. Policy and financial support: Financial incentives and subsidies predominantly
favor conventional farming methods, discouraging transition.
o Eg: The Union Budget 2024-25 allocated significantly higher subsidies for
chemical fertilizers compared to natural farming initiatives.

18
Conclusion
For NMNF to succeed, a multi-pronged approach involving policy support, farmer-centric
incentives, and robust market linkages is essential to ensure widespread adoption and long-
term sustainability in Indian agriculture.

Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum

support prices; Public Distribution System-objectives,
functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and
food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.

Q. “India has a rich diversity of indigenous cattle breeds, yet they are
underutilized compared to exotic breeds”. Examine the factors responsible for
this trend and suggest measures to promote their usage. (10 M)

Introduction
India possesses a diverse range of 43 registered indigenous cattle breeds, known for their
adaptability and resilience. However, their potential remains underutilized due to the
dominance of high-yielding exotic breeds, impacting sustainability and economic viability.

Body

Factors responsible for underutilization of indigenous breeds

1. Lower milk productivity: Indigenous breeds generally produce lower milk yields
compared to exotic breeds, making them less preferred for commercial dairy farming.
o Eg: Holstein Friesian cows produce an average of 20-25 liters/day, whereas
indigenous breeds like Gir yield around 10-12 liters/day.
2. Market-driven preferences: The dairy industry favours exotic breeds due to higher
milk output and better fat content, leading to reduced demand for indigenous breeds.
o Eg: Amul and other major cooperatives primarily source milk from high-
yield exotic breed farmers to meet commercial demand.
3. Lack of awareness: Farmers have limited knowledge about the long-term benefits of
indigenous breeds, such as disease resistance and lower maintenance costs.
o Eg: A study by National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
found that 70% of farmers lack awareness of indigenous breed advantages.
4. Inadequate breeding programs: Government and private sector efforts have focused
more on crossbreeding rather than the conservation and promotion of indigenous
breeds.
o Eg: The National Dairy Plan (NDP) emphasized crossbreeding to improve
productivity, side-lining pure indigenous breed programs.
5. Limited availability of quality genetic stock: Poor access to superior indigenous
breed germplasm and artificial insemination facilities restricts their wider adoption.

19
 o Eg: Indigenous breeds like Kankrej and Sahiwal face genetic dilution due to
crossbreeding practices.

Measures to promote usage of indigenous cattle breeds

1. Breed improvement programs: Implement focused genetic improvement initiatives

to enhance milk productivity while retaining the natural resilience of indigenous
breeds.
o Eg: The Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) aims to improve indigenous
breeds through scientific breeding and conservation efforts.
2. Financial incentives and subsidies: Provide direct financial assistance to farmers
adopting indigenous breeds to offset lower productivity and promote economic
viability.
o Eg: The government launched the Gokul Gram Yojana, offering subsidies to
indigenous cattle farmers.
3. Awareness and capacity building: Conduct farmer awareness programs on the long-
term benefits of indigenous breeds, including their disease resistance and adaptability.
o Eg: ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) organize awareness camps on
indigenous cattle rearing benefits.
4. Developing niche markets: Create premium branding for indigenous milk and milk
products, highlighting their nutritional and organic value to attract consumers.
o Eg: A2 milk from Gir cows is marketed as a healthier alternative and
commands a higher price in urban markets.
5. Strengthening veterinary infrastructure: Enhance healthcare and breeding facilities
to ensure better management and productivity of indigenous cattle.
o Eg: The National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP) focuses
on eradicating diseases like Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), benefiting
indigenous breeds.

Conclusion
Promoting indigenous cattle breeds requires a multi-pronged approach, combining genetic
conservation, market incentives, and awareness to ensure their economic viability and
sustainability. A balanced approach can safeguard India's livestock biodiversity while
contributing to sustainable rural growth.

20
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and
significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements,
supply chain management.
Land reforms in India.
Q. “India’s land reforms have failed to adapt to the modern challenges of
urbanization and industrialization”. Analyze the need for reimagining land use
policy in light of these trends”. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s land reforms, initially focused on agrarian equity and redistribution, have failed to
evolve with the changing dynamics of urbanization and industrialization, leading to
inefficiencies in land use and conflicts between competing needs.

Body

India’s land reforms have failed to adapt to the modern challenges of urbanization

1. Unplanned urban growth: Land reforms have not addressed the rapid pace of
urbanization, leading to haphazard development and slums.
o Eg: Mumbai’s Dharavi, one of the largest slums in Asia, highlights poor
urban land planning.
2. Encroachment on agricultural land: Urban sprawl often consumes fertile
agricultural land, threatening food security.
o Eg: Rapid urbanization in Haryana has encroached on productive agricultural
zones, impacting farm outputs.
3. Inadequate affordable housing: Existing land policies fail to prioritize land for
affordable urban housing, leading to housing shortages.
o Eg: The Affordable Housing Scheme (2015) has struggled due to
unavailability of land in urban centers.
4. Weak urban land governance: Lack of efficient urban land policies and record-
keeping fosters corruption and delays.
o Eg: Bengaluru’s land disputes often involve outdated records, stalling
critical infrastructure projects.

India’s land reforms have failed to adapt to the modern challenges of industrialization

1. Fragmented landholdings: Small and scattered land parcels hinder large-scale

industrialization.
o Eg: The Posco Project in Odisha was delayed due to fragmented land parcels
and resistance from local communities.

21
 2. Conflict between land uses: Absence of clear zoning laws creates disputes between
residential, agricultural, and industrial land use.
o Eg: Protests against Sterlite Copper Plant in Tamil Nadu highlighted
clashes between industrialization and residential safety.
3. Slow and complex acquisition processes: Bureaucratic hurdles in acquiring land for
industrial projects discourage investors.
o Eg: The Mumbai-Ahmedabad Bullet Train Project faced significant delays
due to land acquisition issues in Maharashtra.
4. Neglect of backward regions: Industrial corridors often focus on developed regions,
leaving backward areas underutilized.
o Eg: The Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) has concentrated on
developed areas, ignoring potential in less-developed states.

Need for reimagining land use policy in light of these trends

1. Integrated land use framework: A national policy integrating urban, industrial, and
agricultural needs is vital for balanced development.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Draft National Land Use Policy proposes spatial
planning for sustainable allocation.
2. Efficient and transparent land acquisition: Streamlined processes with fair
compensation and community participation reduce delays and conflicts.
o Eg: The Shah Commission recommendations suggest faster acquisition
through a consultative approach.
3. Digitization and modernization of land records: Accessible and updated digital
land records prevent disputes and facilitate planning.
o Eg: Telangana’s Dharani Portal provides real-time land transaction
monitoring.
4. Promotion of mixed-use zoning: Flexible zoning policies ensure synergy between
housing, industries, and green spaces.
o Eg: Amaravati Master Plan (Andhra Pradesh) emphasizes mixed-use zones
for holistic urban growth.
5. Focus on sustainable practices: Policies should promote eco-industrial parks and
urban green belts to balance growth with environmental preservation.
o Eg: Draft National Resource Efficiency Policy 2019 encourages sustainable
industrial practices.
6. Redistribution of industrial growth: Allocating industries to backward regions
reduces regional imbalances while preserving fertile agricultural land.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh’s industrial growth policy focuses on using barren lands
for industries.

Conclusion

Reimagining land use policy is essential to meet the modern challenges of urbanization and
industrialization while ensuring sustainable and equitable growth. A robust framework

22
prioritizing spatial planning, transparency, and sustainability can drive India’s
development in harmony with social and environmental needs.

Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial

policy and their effects on industrial growth.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Investment models.
Q. Discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating private
investment into India's port and maritime sector under public-private
partnership (PPP) models. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s strategic location and 7,500 km-long coastline provide immense potential for the port
and maritime sector. However, integrating private investment through Public-Private
Partnership (PPP) models faces both challenges and opportunities in modernizing the sector.

Body

Challenges of integrating private investment into India's port and maritime sector

1. Policy and regulatory hurdles: Conflicting regulations and lack of streamlined

policies create uncertainty for investors.
o Eg: Mumbai Port Trust redevelopment was delayed for three years due to
conflicting Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) and Environmental Protection Act
guidelines.
2. Infrastructure bottlenecks: Poor connectivity and inadequate last-mile infrastructure
reduce operational efficiency.
o Eg: Paradip Port faces logistical delays due to limited rail connectivity,
increasing turnaround times for shipments.
3. Revenue-sharing disputes: Ambiguities in concession agreements lead to conflicts
between the government and private investors.
o Eg: The Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT) experienced delays in
terminal expansion due to disagreements over revenue-sharing terms with
private operators.
4. Environmental clearances: Lengthy and cumbersome processes discourage private
participation.
o Eg: Vizhinjam Port Project in Kerala was delayed for years due to protests
and complex environmental clearance requirements.
5. High financial risks: Many smaller or underutilized ports fail to attract investments
due to uncertain returns.

23
 o Eg: Dighi Port in Maharashtra remained loss-making, discouraging further
private investments in the region.

Opportunities of integrating private investment into India's port and maritime sector

1. Enhanced operational efficiency: Private players bring expertise, technology, and

modern practices to improve port performance.
o Eg: Mundra Port, operated by Adani Ports, became India’s largest
commercial port, reducing turnaround time significantly.
2. Global trade competitiveness: Upgraded ports attract international shipping lines,
boosting trade.
o Eg: The Sagarmala Programme projects logistics cost reduction by 30%,
improving export competitiveness.
3. Adoption of advanced technology: Private partnerships introduce automation and
digital solutions for efficient operations.
o Eg: Krishnapatnam Port implemented AI-based cargo handling systems,
improving throughput and reducing costs.
4. Employment generation: Large-scale projects create job opportunities directly and
indirectly in allied sectors.
o Eg: Kakinada SEZ Port, under PPP, is expected to generate 10,000 jobs by
2025 through expanded operations.
5. Sustainability and green initiatives: Private investment drives eco-friendly practices
and renewable energy use in ports.
o Eg: Kamarajar Port adopted solar power systems and implemented green
port initiatives, reducing its carbon footprint.

Conclusion

By addressing policy bottlenecks, ensuring transparency in agreements, and leveraging

private sector expertise, India can transform its port and maritime sector into a globally
competitive hub, aligning with blue economy goals and economic sustainability.

Science and Technology- developments and their applications and

effects in everyday life.
Q. “Neutrinos are often referred to as "ghost particles”. Why are they significant
in understanding the universe, and how is India contributing to their research?
(10 M)

Introduction
Neutrinos, called “ghost particles” due to their weak interaction with matter, are crucial
to understanding cosmic mysteries like the Big Bang, dark matter, and astrophysical
phenomena. Their elusive nature makes them both a challenge and an opportunity for
research.

24
Body

Significance of neutrinos in understanding the universe

1. Probing the early universe: Neutrinos provide a window into the universe's
conditions shortly after the Big Bang.
o Eg: Neutrinos from the SN1987A supernova helped understand stellar
explosions and neutron star formation.
2. Understanding dark matter and energy: Neutrinos play a critical role in studying
the composition and expansion of the universe.
o Eg: Research on sterile neutrinos explores their potential as candidates for
dark matter, addressing 27% of the universe’s mass-energy composition.
3. Particle physics breakthroughs: Observing neutrino oscillation—where neutrinos
change types—reveals physics beyond the Standard Model.
o Eg: The discovery of neutrino oscillation by Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B.
McDonald earned the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics.
4. Astrophysical insights: High-energy neutrinos serve as cosmic messengers from
extreme events like gamma-ray bursts and black holes.
o Eg: The IceCube Neutrino Observatory traced neutrinos to a blazar 4 billion
light-years away, identifying their origin.
5. Earth’s interior studies: Geo-neutrinos reveal heat production from radioactive
decay in the Earth’s core, aiding geothermal research.
o Eg: KamLAND experiment in Japan detected geo-neutrinos, advancing
knowledge of Earth's energy dynamics.

India’s contributions to neutrino research

25
1. India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO): INO will be among the world's largest
underground labs to study atmospheric neutrinos.
o Eg: INO’s 50,000-ton Iron Calorimeter (ICAL) in Tamil Nadu is designed
to detect neutrino mass hierarchy and properties.
2. Global collaborations: Indian scientists contribute to international neutrino research
projects, enhancing India’s scientific reputation.
o Eg: India’s involvement in the Super-Kamiokande experiment (Japan) and
CERN’s DUNE project highlights its global role.
3. Indigenous technology development: India is advancing in detector development for
neutrino experiments.
o Eg: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) developed key
components for INO’s instrumentation, ensuring self-reliance.
4. Scientific capacity building: INO will foster cutting-edge research and train future
scientists in particle physics.
o Eg: The INO is projected to train over 500 researchers, promoting innovation
in neutrino science.
5. Balancing development with environmental concerns: India is addressing
ecological concerns to ensure sustainable progress in neutrino research.

26
 o Eg: INO faced delays due to environmental clearance issues in Tamil Nadu,
underscoring the importance of sustainable practices.

Conclusion
Neutrinos unlock profound insights into the cosmos, offering answers to unsolved mysteries
like dark matter and stellar evolution. India's efforts, led by the India-based Neutrino
Observatory (INO) and global collaborations, position the nation as a key player in neutrino
research, bridging the gap between scientific ambition and sustainability.

Q. Analyze the challenges posed by emerging zoonotic diseases to India's

healthcare system. Suggest measures to strengthen the "One Health" approach
in the country. (15 M)

Introduction
Emerging zoonotic diseases such as Nipah, Zika, and COVID-19 underscore the
interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. India's dense population and
extensive interaction with animals amplify the risks, challenging its healthcare infrastructure.

Body

Challenges posed by emerging zoonotic diseases

1. Inadequate surveillance systems: Poor integration of animal and human health

monitoring systems delays early detection and containment of outbreaks.
o Eg: The 2018 Nipah outbreak in Kerala exposed the lack of systematic
monitoring of bats as disease reservoirs.
2. Limited laboratory infrastructure: Insufficient advanced diagnostic facilities delay
identification and management of zoonotic pathogens.
o Eg: Only a few labs like the National Institute of Virology (NIV) in Pune are
equipped to handle high-risk pathogens like Nipah and SARS-CoV-2.
3. Human-animal interaction in agriculture: Extensive farming and wet markets
heighten exposure to zoonotic pathogens.
o Eg: Unregulated wet markets in northeast India serve as potential hotspots
for disease spillovers.
4. Weak inter-sectoral coordination: Lack of collaboration between public health,
veterinary, and environmental sectors hinders integrated responses.
o Eg: Livestock disease mismanagement in Bihar contributed to outbreaks of
Japanese Encephalitis in humans.
5. Climate change and habitat destruction: Deforestation and urbanization force
wildlife into closer contact with human populations.
o Eg: Encroachments in Western Ghats have increased human-wildlife
interactions, heightening zoonotic risks.
6. Underfunded public health system: Resource constraints limit outbreak
preparedness and response capacities.

27
 o Eg: India’s health expenditure is only 1.28% of GDP (2023), far below the
WHO-recommended 4-5%.
7. Cultural practices and hygiene issues: Traditional practices like open-air meat
markets increase zoonotic risks.
o Eg: The unregulated poultry slaughter during avian flu outbreaks
exacerbates virus transmission risks.

Measures to strengthen the "One Health" approach

1. Integrated surveillance systems: Create a unified platform to monitor human,

animal, and environmental health data.
o Eg: Expand the National Digital Health Mission to include zoonotic disease
surveillance under "One Health."
2. Strengthening laboratory networks: Establish more regional BSL-3 and BSL-4 labs
to improve diagnostic capacity.
o Eg: Develop high-security labs in zoonotic hotspots like northeast India to
handle diseases like Japanese Encephalitis.
3. Policy alignment and collaboration: Formulate a National One Health
Framework to coordinate policies across agriculture, health, and environment
ministries.
o Eg: Align with the Standing Committee on Agriculture's 2021
recommendations on inter-sectoral coordination.
4. Capacity building and training: Train veterinarians, public health officials, and
environmental scientists in zoonotic disease management.

28
 o Eg: Conduct integrated workshops under ICMR-ICAR collaborations for
effective multi-sectoral responses.
5. Promoting sustainable practices: Encourage sustainable agriculture and restrict
deforestation to minimize human-animal interaction.
o Eg: Implement reforestation programs under CAMPA (Compensatory
Afforestation Management and Planning Authority) to restore habitats.
6. Community awareness programs: Educate communities about zoonotic risks and
preventive measures.
o Eg: Awareness campaigns in tribal areas about safe handling of bushmeat
to reduce spillover risks.
7. Enhanced funding for health: Increase public health investment to build robust
infrastructure for zoonotic disease management.
o Eg: Align budget allocations under the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission
to integrate zoonotic disease surveillance.
8. Global partnerships and research: Collaborate with international organizations like
WHO, FAO, and OIE for capacity building and research.
o Eg: India’s partnership with WHO’s Global Virome Project aids in
identifying and mitigating emerging zoonotic threats.

Conclusion
Strengthening India's response to zoonotic diseases requires an integrated One Health
approach that addresses gaps in surveillance, infrastructure, and inter-sectoral coordination.
Investing in awareness, policy alignment, and global collaborations will enhance India's
resilience to zoonotic outbreaks while ensuring sustainable health practices.

Q. “Recombinant DNA technology is pivotal in combating global health

challenges”. Examine its applications in vaccine development and genetic
disorder treatment. (10 M)

Introduction

Recombinant DNA technology has emerged as a pivotal tool in modern biotechnology,

enabling precise genetic modifications to address global health challenges such as infectious
diseases and genetic disorders, significantly advancing medical science.

Body

29
About recombinant DNA technology

1. Definition and principle: It involves combining DNA from different sources to

create new genetic combinations, enabling targeted solutions to health issues.
o Eg: Production of human insulin using recombinant E. coli (first approved in
1982 by the FDA).
2. Enabling genetic precision: Allows for targeted modifications at the molecular level,
offering high specificity and efficiency in therapeutic interventions.
o Eg: Creation of monoclonal antibodies for diseases like rheumatoid arthritis
and certain cancers.
3. Significance in scalability: Reduces dependency on animal models or traditional
biological sources, making treatments more affordable and scalable.
o Eg: Recombinant vaccines like Gardasil (HPV vaccine) have improved
global vaccination programs.

Applications in vaccine development

1. Subunit vaccines: Recombinant DNA technology enables the production of vaccines

using only specific antigens, reducing risks of adverse effects.
o Eg: The Hepatitis B vaccine, developed using yeast cells, was among the first
recombinant vaccines.
2. Rapid pandemic response: Accelerates vaccine development during emergencies by
reducing production timelines.
o Eg: The Covovax vaccine uses recombinant protein nanoparticles, approved
for COVID-19 globally.
3. Broad-spectrum vaccine production: Allows for scalable production of vaccines for
emerging pathogens.

30
 o Eg: Research on Ebola virus vaccines with recombinant vesicular stomatitis
virus (rVSV).
4. DNA and mRNA vaccines: The technology underpins innovations in mRNA
vaccines, allowing rapid production with adaptability to mutations.
o Eg: Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines are based on
recombinant mRNA.
5. Customizable solutions: Enables precise antigen identification and vaccine tailoring
for specific populations or pathogens.
o Eg: Trials for personalized cancer vaccines using recombinant neoantigens.

Applications in genetic disorder treatment

1. Gene therapy: Provides tools to replace or repair defective genes in patients with
genetic disorders.
o Eg: Zolgensma, a recombinant AAV-based therapy, treats spinal muscular
atrophy, approved in 2019.
2. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT): Facilitates the production of specific enzymes
for metabolic disorders.
o Eg: Recombinant Gaucher enzyme (imiglucerase) treats Gaucher’s
disease.
3. Production of therapeutic proteins: Enables mass production of proteins that
replace missing or defective ones.
o Eg: Recombinant clotting factor VIII for hemophilia A patients.
4. Stem cell engineering: Improves genetic modifications in stem cells to correct
hereditary diseases.
o Eg: CRISPR-engineered stem cells used in beta-thalassemia trials (ongoing
in the US and Europe, 2023).
5. Targeted therapies for rare diseases: Development of treatments for orphan genetic
diseases that lacked cures.
o Eg: Recombinant treatment for cystic fibrosis using CFTR-modifying
drugs.
6. Somatic cell gene editing: Modifies genes in specific tissues, reducing systemic
risks.
o Eg: CRISPR-based gene therapy for sickle cell anemia showing promising
results in 2023.

Conclusion

Recombinant DNA technology has proven instrumental in addressing some of the most
pressing global health challenges, from rapid vaccine development to curing genetic
disorders. As tools like CRISPR-Cas9 and synthetic biology evolve, its potential to
transform healthcare solutions and make them more accessible will only expand, paving the
way for a healthier and more equitable future.

31
Q. “The discovery of graphene has been a game-changer in material science”.
Analyze the unique properties of graphene and discuss its potential applications
in developing sustainable technologies. (15 M)

Introduction

The discovery of graphene in 2004 by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, which earned
them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010, revolutionized material science. Its unique
combination of exceptional strength, conductivity, and flexibility has opened new frontiers in
technology, enabling innovative solutions to global challenges.

Body

Graphene as a game-changer in material science

1. Revolutionary physical properties: Graphene is 200 times stronger than steel but
incredibly lightweight, making it ideal for various applications.
o Eg: Used in aerospace components, reducing aircraft weight and improving
fuel efficiency, a major step toward sustainable aviation.
2. Unmatched electrical conductivity: With an electron mobility 10 times that of
silicon, graphene has become a cornerstone for advanced electronics.
o Eg: Used in high-speed processors for quantum computing and AI systems.
3. Exceptional thermal properties: Graphene can conduct heat at rates up to 5000
W/m·K, far surpassing copper.
o Eg: Used in heat management systems for 5G and electric vehicles, ensuring
optimal performance.
4. Two-dimensional structure: Graphene is just one atom thick, making it both
lightweight and flexible, with applications in wearable technology.
o Eg: Flexible graphene-based touchscreens for foldable smartphones and
fitness wearables.
5. Broad applicability: Its ability to integrate seamlessly across various technologies
has made it indispensable for modern innovation.
o Eg: Used in photonic devices, biosensors, and energy storage solutions.

Unique properties of graphene

1. High mechanical strength: Graphene's tensile strength exceeds 130 GPa, making it
stronger than steel while maintaining flexibility.
o Eg: Utilized in bulletproof vests and protective gear, offering lightweight and
robust safety solutions.
2. Superior electrical conductivity: Graphene's zero bandgap and high electron
mobility make it ideal for next-gen electronic circuits.
o Eg: Enables ultra-fast transistors that operate at GHz frequencies, crucial for
6G communications.

32
 3. Optical transparency: It allows 97.7% of light to pass through, enabling its use in
optical and photovoltaic devices.
o Eg: Graphene transparent conductive films are replacing indium tin oxide
in solar cells, boosting efficiency and durability.
4. Impermeability to gases: Graphene forms a perfect barrier, blocking even the
smallest helium atoms.
o Eg: Used in graphene membranes for industrial gas separation and water
purification.
5. Exceptional thermal properties: It prevents overheating in compact electronic
systems due to its superior heat conduction.
o Eg: Graphene-cooled batteries in electric vehicles extend battery life and
efficiency.
6. Surface reactivity: Despite being chemically stable, graphene's surface can be
modified for specific applications.
o Eg: Used in targeted drug delivery systems, where drugs are bound to
graphene oxide for precise release.

Potential applications in developing sustainable technologies

1. Clean energy storage and generation:

o Eg: Graphene-based supercapacitors offer quick charge-discharge cycles
and high energy density, aiding in renewable energy storage for solar and
wind power grids.
2. Water purification and desalination:
o Eg: Graphene oxide membranes are being tested by MIT (2021) for low-
cost desalination, addressing the global freshwater crisis.
3. Sustainable transportation: Graphene composites reduce vehicle weight, enhancing
fuel efficiency and reducing carbon emissions.
o Eg: Graphene-enhanced EV batteries increase range and durability, used by
companies like Tesla and Tata Motors.
4. Agricultural innovation: Enhances soil health and precision farming through
nanofertilizers and pest control systems.
o Eg: Trials in India’s Green Revolution 2.0 initiatives use graphene-based
pesticides for eco-friendly farming.
5. Waste recycling and management: Plastic waste can be converted into graphene
using pyrolysis.
o Eg: Indian startups like Log9 Materials are exploring this process to address
plastic pollution.
6. Air quality improvement: Adsorption of greenhouse gases like CO₂ to combat
climate change.
o Eg: Graphene aerogels used in carbon capture pilot projects in the UK.
7. Renewable construction materials: Enhances strength and reduces cement use,
lowering the carbon footprint of buildings.

33
 o Eg: Graphene-enhanced cement by Nationwide Engineering in the UK
reduces emissions by up to 30%.
8. Low-energy electronics: Graphene-based circuits require less energy, paving the way
for sustainable electronics.
o Eg: Used in low-power IoT devices, promoting energy efficiency in smart
cities.

Conclusion

Graphene, with its transformative properties and vast applications, stands as a beacon of hope
for addressing sustainability challenges. With nations investing in material science R&D,
including India's National Mission on Nanotechnology, graphene could drive innovations
across sectors, heralding a future that is both technologically advanced and environmentally
sustainable.

Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization

of technology and developing new technology.
Q. Explain the working principles of Li-Fi technology and its potential
applications in high-security environments such as defence and healthcare. (10
M)

Introduction

Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) technology uses visible light communication (VLC) for ultra-fast,
interference-free, and secure data transmission, offering transformative potential in high-
security sectors like defence and healthcare.

Body

Working principles of Li-Fi technology

34
 1. Use of light waves: Li-Fi transmits data using visible light emitted from LED bulbs,
modulating light intensity at high speeds.
o Eg: LED bulbs modulate light signals, enabling data transmission up to
100 times faster than Wi-Fi (Source: Harald Haas’ Li-Fi research,
University of Edinburgh).
2. Photodetector reception: The modulated light signals are captured by a
photodetector and converted into digital data.
o Eg: Photoelectric sensors decode signals, enabling real-time transmission
in secure environments.
3. GPS augmentation: Li-Fi complements GPS for navigation in enclosed or signal-
restricted areas, like tunnels or bunkers.
o Eg: Military bases and submarines can use Li-Fi for local navigation where
GPS signals are weak (Source: Defence Technology Research, 2023).
4. Bidirectional communication: LEDs equipped with data transmission and reception
capabilities allow simultaneous data transfer.
o Eg: Li-Fi prototypes showcased at CES 2022 demonstrated two-way data
flow, improving speed and reliability in communication systems.
5. Line-of-sight dependency: Li-Fi’s reliance on direct light paths ensures minimal
interference, enhancing data security.
o Eg: This characteristic makes it suitable for secure hospital rooms and
military zones.

Applications in high-security environments

Defence

1. Secure military communication: Light-based transmission restricts data to physical

spaces, reducing interception risks.
o Eg: Naval command rooms on INS Vikramaditya tested Li-Fi for secure
inter-departmental communication (Source: DRDO pilot, 2022).
2. GPS-independent navigation: Li-Fi augments GPS, enabling navigation in signal-
blocked environments.
o Eg: Li-Fi trials in submarines like INS Kalvari showed enhanced
underwater communication (Source: DRDO, 2021).
3. Underwater data transfer: Li-Fi ensures communication for underwater drones and
naval units.
o Eg: US Navy experiments with underwater drones using Li-Fi highlight its
potential for seamless operations (Source: Naval Research Laboratory,
2022).

Healthcare

1. Interference-free medical devices: Li-Fi avoids RF interference, ensuring

uninterrupted device operation.

35
 o Eg: AIIMS Delhi is experimenting with Li-Fi for ICUs and critical care
units (Source: AIIMS Report, 2023).
2. Real-time data sharing: Li-Fi supports rapid transfer of large files like MRI and CT
scans, improving diagnostics.
o Eg: Apollo Hospitals trialed Li-Fi systems to accelerate cross-departmental
data transmission (Source: Hospital Research Journal, 2023).
3. Enhanced data privacy: Li-Fi’s confined light-based communication protects patient
data from unauthorized access.
o Eg: Li-Fi-equipped smart wards in Medanta Hospital, Gurugram
improved data security and real-time communication (Source: Medanta
Internal Report, 2022).

Conclusion

Li-Fi technology promises secure, high-speed communication in critical sectors like

defence and healthcare, addressing current gaps in wireless systems. By scaling infrastructure
and reducing costs, Li-Fi can complement existing systems to create a more robust and secure
communication network.

Q. The deployment of artificial satellites has increased manifold, leading to

concerns regarding space debris management”. Evaluate India's preparedness in
tackling this emerging challenge. (10 M)

Introduction
The surge in satellite launches, propelled by advancements in space technology and
increased private sector participation, has intensified concerns over space debris, posing
significant risks to operational spacecraft and the sustainability of outer space.

Body

Deployment of artificial satellites and concerns about space debris

1. Proliferation of satellite launches: The advent of cost-effective launch technologies

and miniaturization has led to a substantial increase in satellite deployments.
o Eg: India's PSLV-C56 mission (2023) successfully placed multiple satellites
into orbit.
2. Accumulation of defunct objects: Non-functional satellites and spent rocket stages
contribute to the growing space debris problem.
o Eg: The European Space Agency (ESA) estimates over 36,500 objects larger
than 10 cm are currently in orbit.
3. Collision hazards: The dense orbital environment heightens the risk of collisions,
potentially creating more debris.
o Eg: The 2009 collision between Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 satellites
resulted in significant debris.

36
 4. Operational challenges: Space debris threatens the safety and longevity of active
satellites, affecting services like communication and navigation.
o Eg: ISRO conducts regular collision avoidance maneuvers for its satellites.
5. Environmental and safety risks: Uncontrolled re-entry of debris poses hazards to
both space operations and terrestrial life.
o Eg: Debris from China's Long March 5B rocket re-entered Earth's
atmosphere unpredictably in 2020.

India’s preparedness in tackling space debris

Positives Challenges
1. Pending legislation: The Space
1. Project NETRA: ISRO's Network for
Activities Bill, intended to regulate space
Space Object Tracking and Analysis
activities and ensure compliance with
(NETRA) aims to enhance space situational
international standards, is still under
awareness by tracking debris and safeguarding
consideration and has not been enacted.
Indian satellites.

2. IS4OM initiative: The ISRO System for

2. Limited active debris removal
Safe and Sustainable Space Operations
capabilities: India currently lacks
Management (IS4OM) focuses on spaceflight
indigenous technologies for active debris
safety and debris mitigation, consolidating
removal, relying primarily on tracking and
efforts to manage space congestion.
avoidance measures.

3. International collaborations: India has 3. Resource constraints: Allocating

engaged in agreements for space situational sufficient funding and resources for
awareness data sharing, enhancing global comprehensive space debris mitigation
cooperation in debris management. remains a challenge.
4. Growing private sector participation:
4. Adherence to international guidelines:
The increasing involvement of private
ISRO follows the Inter-Agency Space Debris
entities in satellite launches necessitates
Coordination Committee (IADC) guidelines
robust regulatory frameworks to manage
for debris mitigation in its missions.
potential debris generation.
5. Public awareness and policy advocacy:
5. Development of collision avoidance
There is a need for greater public awareness
protocols: ISRO has established standard
and policy advocacy regarding space debris
operating procedures for collision avoidance,
issues to foster a culture of responsibility
ensuring timely maneuvers to protect assets.
among stakeholders.

Conclusion
While India has initiated significant measures like Project NETRA and IS4OM to address
space debris challenges, the enactment of comprehensive legislation such as the Space

37
Activities Bill and the development of active debris removal technologies are imperative to
enhance preparedness and ensure the long-term sustainability of space operations.

Q. “The integration of smart grids and renewable energy sources is crucial for
India's energy transition”. Examine the challenges in implementing smart grids
in India and suggest policy measures to overcome them. (15 M)

Introduction
India's ambitious renewable energy targets and commitment to net-zero emissions by 2070
necessitate the integration of smart grids, which can enhance efficiency, reliability, and
sustainability in power distribution.

Body

Importance of integrating smart grids and renewable energy for India's energy
transition

1. Enhanced grid reliability: Smart grids can manage the variability of renewable
energy, ensuring a stable power supply.
o Eg: India's Green Energy Corridor Project aims to strengthen grid stability.
2. Reduction in transmission and distribution losses: Automation and real-time
monitoring reduce technical and commercial losses.
o Eg: India's aggregate technical and commercial (AT&C) losses stand at 17%
(CEA, 2023).
3. Decentralized energy generation: Facilitates distributed renewable energy sources
like rooftop solar and microgrids.
o Eg: KUSUM scheme supports decentralized solar energy production for
farmers.
4. Peak load management: Smart grids optimize demand-side management, reducing
stress on the grid.
o Eg: Time-of-Day (ToD) tariffs encourage off-peak power usage.
5. Climate resilience: Helps in adapting to climate change impacts by ensuring energy
efficiency and reducing fossil fuel dependence.
o Eg: India's commitment to reducing carbon intensity by 45% by 2030
(UNFCCC, 2022).

Challenges in implementing smart grids in India

1. High capital investment: Deployment of advanced grid infrastructure requires

substantial funding.
o Eg: India requires $30 billion for smart grid infrastructure by 2030 (IEA,
2022).
2. Outdated infrastructure: Existing power transmission systems are not compatible
with modern smart grid technologies.

38
 o Eg: India's aging grid infrastructure leads to frequent power outages.
3. Cybersecurity threats: Increased digitization poses risks of cyberattacks and data
breaches.
o Eg: The CERT-In 2023 report highlighted vulnerabilities in India's energy
sector.
4. Regulatory inconsistencies: Different state-level policies and lack of a unified
framework create implementation hurdles.
o Eg: States have varying policies on smart meter rollouts and grid
modernization.
5. Limited consumer awareness: Resistance to smart meters and ToD tariffs due to
lack of understanding and trust.
o Eg: Low adoption rates of smart meters under the Smart Meter National
Programme (SMNP).

Policy measures to overcome challenges

1. Financial support and incentives: Providing subsidies, low-interest loans, and PPP
models to boost smart grid investments.
o Eg: Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) with ₹3 lakh crore
allocation for grid modernization.
2. Standardized regulatory framework: Establishing a national policy for uniform
implementation of smart grids across states.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s National Energy Policy recommends uniform grid
regulations.
3. Capacity building and skill development: Training programs for workforce
development in smart grid technology.
o Eg: Initiatives like Skill India Mission to train personnel in energy
management systems.
4. Strengthening cybersecurity: Implementing robust cybersecurity protocols and
regular audits to prevent cyber threats.
o Eg: National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC)
guidelines for power sector.
5. Consumer awareness programs: Nationwide campaigns to educate consumers on
the benefits of smart grids and dynamic pricing models.
o Eg: Ujjwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) includes consumer
engagement initiatives.

Conclusion
Smart grids are pivotal for India's energy transition, but their successful implementation
requires a multi-pronged approach involving financial, regulatory, and technological
interventions to ensure a sustainable and resilient energy future.

39
Q. What are scramjet engines, and how do they contribute to the development of
hypersonic technology? Discuss their significance for India's defence capabilities.
(10 M)

Introduction

Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet) engines are an advanced propulsion technology

that enables air-breathing hypersonic flight, crucial for enhancing military strike
capabilities and space exploration. Their development is a significant step in India's pursuit
of self-reliance in cutting-edge defense technologies.

Body

What Are Scramjet Engines?

1. Definition and working principle: Scramjets are air-breathing engines that compress
incoming air at supersonic speeds and achieve combustion without slowing down the
airflow.
o Eg: Unlike traditional ramjets, scramjets operate efficiently beyond Mach 5,
making them ideal for hypersonic applications.
2. No moving parts: Scramjets operate without rotating components like compressors
and turbines, relying solely on air compression via high-speed intake.
o Eg: This design improves reliability and reduces mechanical complexity
compared to conventional jet engines.
3. Dependence on atmospheric oxygen: Scramjets eliminate the need for onboard
oxidizers, reducing weight and improving fuel efficiency.
o Eg: This allows for a higher payload-to-weight ratio in military and
aerospace applications.

40
 4. Challenges in ignition and flame stability: Achieving sustained combustion in
supersonic airflow requires precise control of fuel injection and flame stabilization
techniques.
o Eg: DRDO developed innovative flame stabilization techniques for
continuous combustion at airspeeds exceeding 1.5 km/s.
5. Applications of scramjets: Scramjets have potential applications in hypersonic
missiles, space launch systems, and rapid global transportation.
o Eg: The technology is integral to the development of India's Hypersonic
Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV).

Scramjet Engines and Their Role in Hypersonic Technology

1. Achieving hypersonic speeds: Scramjets enable sustained flight at speeds greater

than Mach 5, significantly reducing travel time and increasing strike capabilities.
o Eg: Hypersonic weapons using scramjets can travel at speeds exceeding 5,400
km/hr, making them highly effective for strategic deterrence.
2. Improved fuel efficiency: The air-breathing nature of scramjets reduces the need for
carrying oxidizers, allowing for extended operational ranges.
o Eg: Indigenous development of endothermic scramjet fuel by DRDO offers
better ignition properties and cooling effects.
3. Enhanced maneuverability: Hypersonic vehicles equipped with scramjets can
perform evasive maneuvers at high speeds, making interception difficult.
o Eg: Hypersonic cruise missiles with scramjets can evade existing missile
defence systems.
4. Thermal management solutions: The extreme heat generated at hypersonic speeds is
managed using advanced materials and cooling techniques.
o Eg: Development of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) by DRDO allows
scramjet engines to withstand temperatures beyond the melting point of steel.
5. Potential for reusability: Scramjet-powered systems can be used multiple times,
reducing costs for both defence and space applications.
o Eg: Future Indian space missions aim to incorporate scramjet technology for
low-cost satellite deployment.

Significance for India's Defence Capabilities

1. Strategic deterrence enhancement: Hypersonic missiles powered by scramjets

provide India with rapid response capabilities against emerging threats.
o Eg: Integration of hypersonic missiles with scramjets into India's nuclear
triad enhances second-strike capability.
2. Self-reliance in defense technology: Developing indigenous scramjet technology
aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat, reducing dependency on foreign defense imports.
o Eg: DRDO's success in developing scramjets positions India alongside nations
like the US, Russia, and China in hypersonic capabilities.

41
 3. Asymmetric warfare advantage: Hypersonic weapons can penetrate modern air
defense systems, offering India a significant tactical edge.
o Eg: Hypersonic cruise missiles can be a countermeasure to China's growing
military capabilities in the Indian Ocean region.
4. Boost to aerospace industry: Successful development of scramjet technology can
lead to spin-off benefits in space exploration and commercial aviation.
o Eg: Collaboration between DRDO and ISRO could accelerate low-cost
access to space using scramjet-powered vehicles.
5. Deterrence against regional adversaries: Hypersonic missiles can serve as a
credible deterrent against conventional and nuclear threats from neighboring
countries.
o Eg: Hypersonic platforms could provide India with the capability to conduct
precision strikes deep inside enemy territory.

Conclusion

Scramjet technology represents a paradigm shift in India's defense and aerospace sectors,
enhancing strategic deterrence and self-reliance. Moving forward, increased investments in
R&D, collaborations with private industry, and international partnerships will be crucial in
achieving full operational capability.

Q. Critically analyze the feasibility of India developing its own Large Language
Model (LLM) in the backdrop of global competition and economic constraints.
What should be India’s strategic focus in AI development? (15 M)

Introduction
India's ambition to develop an indigenous Large Language Model (LLM) is driven by the
need for technological self-reliance and addressing unique socio-linguistic challenges.
However, it faces several constraints in terms of infrastructure, investment, and competition
from global tech giants.

Body

Feasibility of India developing its own LLM

1. High financial investment: Developing an LLM requires substantial capital for

computing infrastructure and R&D.
o Eg: The US-based Stargate Project has planned a $500 billion investment,
while India's AI mission is allocated ₹13,370 crore (Source: MeitY, 2024).
2. Hardware dependency: India relies on foreign semiconductor firms for high-
performance GPUs, with recent US export restrictions posing a challenge.
o Eg: The Biden administration’s AI hardware export policy limits GPU
procurement for India (Source: US Department of Commerce, 2024).

42
 3. Data availability and quality: India's diverse languages and dialects require
extensive data curation, which is scattered and non-uniform.
o Eg: India has 22 scheduled languages and over 19,500 dialects, making data
collection complex (Source: Census 2011).
4. Talent and expertise gaps: While India has a large IT workforce, specialized AI
research and development expertise is still limited.
o Eg: India ranks 8th globally in AI skill availability, far behind China and the
US (Source: Global AI Index, 2024).
5. Scalability challenges: LLMs demand vast computing resources and energy
consumption, posing challenges for sustainability and scaling.
o Eg: Training a model like GPT-4 requires megawatts of power, which may
stress India's energy infrastructure.

Positive aspects supporting feasibility of India developing its own LLM

1. Strong IT and AI ecosystem: India has a robust tech industry with companies
capable of contributing to AI model development.
o Eg: Firms like TCS, Infosys, and Wipro are investing in AI capabilities and
cloud computing infrastructure.
2. Government initiatives: Policy support and financial investment through schemes
like the IndiaAI Mission provide a strong foundation.
o Eg: The government has earmarked ₹13,370 crore to support AI data
centers and infrastructure (Source: MeitY, 2024).
3. Indigenous language diversity: Developing an India-centric LLM can cater to
regional needs, providing a competitive edge in the vernacular market.
o Eg: Platforms like Bhashini AI are already working on digitizing Indian
languages to bridge the linguistic gap.
4. Growing startup ecosystem: India has a thriving AI startup landscape that can
collaborate on specialized applications.
o Eg: Startups like Karya AI and Sarvam AI are leveraging AI to solve
localized challenges.
5. Cost-effective talent pool: Despite gaps, India's AI workforce offers cost advantages
compared to Western markets.
o Eg: India's AI talent costs are 50% lower than those in the US and Europe,
making large-scale development economically viable.
6. Geopolitical collaborations: India's participation in multilateral tech partnerships
provides access to resources and expertise.
o Eg: Partnerships under the Quad AI Initiative can provide technological
cooperation with countries like the US and Japan.

India’s strategic focus in AI development

1. Leveraging open-source models: India should build upon existing LLMs like
DeepSeek and fine-tune them for local applications to reduce development costs.

43
 o Eg: Customizing open-source models for healthcare and education in
vernacular languages.
2. Developing domain-specific AI models: Focus should be on AI applications in
critical sectors such as healthcare, agriculture, and governance.
o Eg: AI-based solutions for smart farming under Digital India Initiatives.
3. Public-private collaboration: Encouraging joint efforts between the government,
academia, and industry to scale AI innovation.
o Eg: Collaboration between IITs and AI companies to build sector-specific AI
tools.
4. Infrastructure investment: Strengthening domestic semiconductor and cloud
computing capabilities to support large-scale AI training.
o Eg: The government's Semicon India Program aims to boost chip
manufacturing.
5. Skill development programs: Upskilling the workforce through AI-specific training
initiatives to close the expertise gap.
o Eg: The FutureSkills PRIME initiative targets AI upskilling for
professionals.
6. Ensuring ethical AI development: Establishing a regulatory framework to ensure
transparency, accountability, and data privacy in AI use.
o Eg: The proposed National AI Policy 2024 will regulate AI adoption across
sectors.

Conclusion
India should pursue a hybrid approach, focusing on leveraging open-source AI models
while developing indigenous solutions tailored to its unique socio-economic landscape. With
strategic investment and collaboration, India can position itself as a global leader in AI for
emerging economies.

Q. Discuss the significance of the Draft Legal Metrology (Indian Standard Time)
Rules, 2025 in ensuring uniformity and precision in timekeeping across India and
its impact on critical sectors. (10 M)

Introduction

Accurate and uniform timekeeping is crucial for national security, economic efficiency, and
technological development. The Draft Legal Metrology (Indian Standard Time) Rules,
2025, aim to synchronize time across India with microsecond-level accuracy to enhance
operational efficiency across various sectors.

Body

Significance of the draft rules in ensuring uniformity and precision in timekeeping

44
 1. National synchronization: Ensuring all sectors follow a single time standard for
seamless coordination and governance.
o Eg: Adoption of IST-based timestamps in government records to prevent
discrepancies in legal documentation.
2. Technological precision: Enhancing the accuracy of time-sensitive operations in
telecommunications and financial transactions.
o Eg: 5G network rollout requires synchronized time for latency-free
operations and uninterrupted connectivity (Source: DoT, 2024).
3. Regulatory compliance: Mandating a legal framework for IST adherence across
sectors, ensuring standardization and accountability.
o Eg: Compliance audits conducted under the Legal Metrology Act, 2009, to
monitor synchronization adherence.
4. Cybersecurity enhancement: Strengthening national cybersecurity by reducing
reliance on foreign time sources and mitigating cyber threats.
o Eg: Adoption of Precision Time Protocol (PTP) to counter cybersecurity
vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure like power grids.
5. Operational efficiency: Synchronization improves operational efficiency across
transportation, logistics, and emergency response systems.
o Eg: Indian Railways implementing real-time train tracking to improve
scheduling accuracy.
6. Judicial and administrative efficiency: Uniform time helps in maintaining precise
legal records and avoiding disputes in courts and administrative processes.
o Eg: Courts and police records will have a common time stamp to ensure
accuracy in crime investigations.

Impact on critical sectors

1. Banking and financial services: Ensuring accurate timestamps for seamless financial
transactions and fraud prevention.
o Eg: Stock market operations (NSE, BSE) rely on accurate time
synchronization for trading integrity.
2. Telecommunications: Providing precise time references to enable seamless data
transfer and network efficiency.
o Eg: Telecom operators mandated to follow IST-based synchronization to
avoid call drop issues.
3. Power grid management: Enabling efficient power distribution and reducing grid
failures by ensuring real-time synchronization.
o Eg: Power Grid Corporation of India implementing synchronized
monitoring to avoid cascading failures.
4. Scientific and research applications: Enhancing precision in astronomical studies
and deep-space navigation.
o Eg: ISRO’s Chandrayaan missions require precise IST synchronization for
trajectory calculations.

45
 5. Public transport and logistics: Improving scheduling accuracy and passenger
convenience in road, rail, and air transportation.
o Eg: Airports Authority of India (AAI) uses IST-based scheduling to manage
air traffic efficiently.
6. Digital governance: Ensuring accurate timestamps in e-governance services for
better public service delivery.
o Eg: Aadhaar authentication systems depend on synchronized timestamps to
prevent identity fraud.

Conclusion
The Draft Legal Metrology (Indian Standard Time) Rules, 2025, will enhance India's
technological and economic landscape by ensuring precision, uniformity, and security
across sectors. Their effective implementation will foster global competitiveness and
national resilience in the digital era.

Q. Discuss the significance of India's decision to develop a domestic Large

Language Model (LLM) under the India AI Mission. How can this initiative
impact technological sovereignty and digital economy? (10 M)

Introduction:

India’s decision to develop a domestic Large Language Model (LLM) under the ₹10,370
crore IndiaAI Mission is a landmark step toward technological self-reliance. It aims to
reduce dependence on foreign AI, enhance data sovereignty, and make AI inclusive for
India’s diverse languages.

Body

Significance of India’s decision to develop a domestic LLM

1. Data Sovereignty and Security: Prevents sensitive national data from being
processed by foreign AI models.
o Eg: EU AI Act (2024) mandates strict data governance to protect national
interests.
2. Linguistic and Cultural Representation: Addresses the needs of 22 official
languages and multiple dialects.
o Eg: Existing LLMs lack regional language capabilities, limiting digital
inclusion for rural users.
3. Reduced Dependence on Foreign AI: Minimizes risks associated with monopoly of
Western AI firms (OpenAI, Google, etc.).
o Eg: China’s DeepSeek R1 launched a low-cost AI model to compete
globally.
4. Strategic Autonomy in Critical AI Tech: Reduces external control over defense,
governance, and financial sectors.

46
 o Eg: US restrictions on China’s AI chip access (2023) highlight risks of
dependency.
5. Lower Cost and Higher Accessibility: Provides subsidized AI compute power to
Indian startups and researchers.
o Eg: ₹115.85/hour GPU cost post-subsidy, while global rates exceed
$3/hour.

Impact on Technological Sovereignty

1. Control Over AI Ethics and Regulations: Aligns AI with Indian constitutional

values and judicial rulings on privacy.
o Eg: Justice K.S. Puttaswamy Case (2017) upheld the Right to Privacy,
making data localization crucial.
2. Indigenous AI Development Ecosystem: Encourages IITs, IIITs, and startups to
build AI solutions suited for India.
o Eg: Government’s partnership with 10 firms to develop 18,693 GPUs for AI.
3. Support for India’s Digital Infrastructure: Enhances AI-driven governance under
Digital India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
o Eg: AI models aiding real-time monitoring of government schemes.
4. Preventing Bias in AI Models: Ensures AI aligns with India’s social, economic, and
legal frameworks.
o Eg: Foreign AI models often exhibit Western bias, making them less
effective for Indian legal and policy contexts.

Impact on Digital Economy

1. Boost to AI Startups and Enterprises: Reduces entry barriers for AI innovation

by providing subsidized compute power.
o Eg: NASSCOM estimates AI will contribute $500 billion to India's GDP by
2025.
2. Enhancing AI in Key Sectors: Drives agriculture, healthcare, education, and
fintech growth.
o Eg: AI-driven weather predictions for farmers to improve crop yield.
3. Job Creation and Skill Development: Increases demand for AI engineers, data
scientists, and policy analysts.
o Eg: AI for All Initiative (2021) aims to train 1 million+ Indians in AI skills.
4. Global Competitiveness in AI: Positions India as a leading AI power competing
with China and the US.
o Eg: India aims to rival ChatGPT, DeepSeek R1, and Google Gemini with
its indigenous model.

Conclusion

47
India’s domestic LLM initiative will shape its AI sovereignty, making AI more
affordable, accessible, and locally relevant. With strong policy support, indigenous
innovation, and strategic investments, India is set to become a global AI powerhouse,
driving economic and technological growth.

Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-

technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual
property rights.
Q. What is the Van Allen Radiation Belt? Discuss its impact on satellite
operations and manned space missions. (10 M)

Introduction

The Van Allen Radiation Belt, discovered in 1958 by James Van Allen, is a region of
charged particles trapped by Earth’s magnetic field. It significantly influences space
operations and requires mitigation strategies for satellite and human space missions.

Body

What is the Van Allen Radiation Belt?

48
 1. Structure and composition: The belt comprises two main zones of high-energy
particles trapped by Earth’s magnetic field—the inner belt (protons) and outer belt
(electrons).
o Eg: The inner belt ranges from 1,000 to 12,000 km, while the outer belt
extends from 13,000 to 60,000 km above Earth.
2. Formation process: It forms due to the interaction of solar wind particles and cosmic
rays with Earth's magnetosphere.
o Eg: The Van Allen Probes (2012–2019) studied how solar storms influence
belt dynamics.
3. Dynamic nature: The intensity and structure of the belts vary during solar storms and
geomagnetic activity.
o Eg: During Carrington-like solar events, the belts can expand, affecting low-
Earth orbit satellites.
4. Role in space weather: The belt serves as a natural laboratory for studying the
interaction between Earth’s magnetosphere and solar activity.
o Eg: Data from the NASA THEMIS mission (2020) enhanced space weather
forecasting.

Impact on satellite operations

1. Damage to electronics: High-energy particles cause degradation of microprocessors

and circuitry.
o Eg: The Anik E2 satellite failure (1994) was attributed to charged-particle
damage from radiation.
2. Reduced lifespan: Persistent radiation exposure decreases satellite operational
lifespan.
o Eg: The GOES weather satellites are equipped with radiation-hardened
systems to withstand prolonged exposure.
3. Operational disruptions: Radiation affects signal transmission, leading to
communication blackouts and navigation errors.
o Eg: GPS accuracy decreases during solar storms that energize the belts.
4. Anomalous charging events: Charging on spacecraft surfaces can result in sudden
discharges, damaging systems.
o Eg: Intelsat 511 failure (1997) was caused by surface charging in the belt
region.
5. Shielding challenges: Designing radiation-resistant satellites increases mission costs
and complexity.
o Eg: ESA’s Galileo satellites employ multi-layer shielding to endure belt
crossings.

Impact on manned space missions

1. Radiation exposure risks: High-energy particles increase the risk of cancer, central
nervous system damage, and acute radiation sickness.

49
 o Eg: Apollo missions minimized exposure by limiting transit time through the
belts to a few hours.
2. Shielding requirements: Adequate protection increases payload mass and
complicates spacecraft design.
o Eg: The Artemis mission spacecraft uses advanced shielding materials to
protect astronauts.
3. Impact on space station operations: Spacecraft in higher orbits like the ISS require
enhanced radiation management.
o Eg: The ISS shielding layers protect astronauts from high-energy particle
exposure.
4. Implications for long-duration missions: Prolonged exposure is a major challenge
for missions to Mars or beyond.
o Eg: NASA is developing innovative radiation-proof materials, such as
hydrogen-rich polymers, for deep space travel.
5. Trajectory optimization: Space missions require precise planning to limit time spent
in the belts.
o Eg: The Orion spacecraft’s trajectory during Artemis I avoided prolonged
exposure to the belts.

Conclusion

The Van Allen Radiation Belt represents a critical challenge for advancing satellite
technology and manned space exploration. Continued innovation in shielding materials,
real-time space weather forecasting, and adaptive spacecraft design will ensure the
success and safety of future space endeavours.

Q. What is dark matter, and how does it influence the behaviour of galaxies?
Discuss the scientific significance of studying dark matter and analyze the
challenges in its detection and research. (15 M)

Introduction

Dark matter is an invisible and non-luminous form of matter that constitutes about 27% of
the universe’s total mass-energy content. Its existence is inferred from its gravitational
effects on visible matter, radiation, and the large-scale structure of the universe.

Body

Influence of dark matter on the behaviour of galaxies

1. Galactic rotation curves: Stars at the edges of galaxies rotate at nearly the same
velocity as those near the center, defying Newtonian predictions.
o Eg: Vera Rubin’s research on spiral galaxies in the 1970s revealed the
“missing mass” problem, providing evidence for dark matter.

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 2. Gravitational lensing: Dark matter bends the light from distant celestial objects,
confirming its gravitational influence.
o Eg: Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope (2021) detected dark
matter halos around galaxy clusters like Abell 1689.
3. Formation of cosmic structures: Dark matter acts as a gravitational scaffold for
galaxies and galaxy clusters to form.
o Eg: The Planck Mission (2018) demonstrated how dark matter influences the
large-scale cosmic web.
4. Prevention of galactic disintegration: Dark matter prevents galaxies from flying
apart due to rotational forces.
o Eg: Studies of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) showed that without dark
matter, stars in the outer regions would escape its gravitational pull.
5. Cosmic microwave background (CMB) evidence: Irregularities in the CMB
patterns reflect dark matter’s role in the early universe.
o Eg: The WMAP and Planck missions confirmed how dark matter influenced
the density fluctuations in the early universe.

Scientific significance of studying dark matter

1. Understanding cosmic evolution: Dark matter plays a key role in galaxy formation
and clustering, helping explain the structure of the universe.
o Eg: The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) confirmed dark matter’s
contribution to the distribution of galaxies.
2. Advancing fundamental physics: Dark matter could validate the existence of new
particles like WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) or axions.
o Eg: The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments are testing theories
beyond the Standard Model of Physics.
3. Improving cosmological models: Dark matter is integral to the Lambda-CDM
model, which explains the evolution of the universe.
o Eg: The Euclid Mission (2023) by the European Space Agency aims to refine
our understanding of dark matter and dark energy.
4. Driving technological innovation: The quest to detect dark matter has led to the
development of highly sensitive detectors.
o Eg: The XENONnT experiment (2021) advanced particle detection
technologies for dark matter research.
5. Revolutionizing our understanding of gravity: Studying dark matter may lead to
breakthroughs in theories of gravity and quantum mechanics.
o Eg: Ongoing research into dark matter interactions could help bridge
quantum mechanics and general relativity.

Challenges in detection and research

1. Non-interacting nature: Dark matter does not interact with electromagnetic forces,
making it undetectable by traditional methods.

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 o Eg: The XENON1T experiment (2020) reported inconclusive results despite
being one of the most sensitive dark matter detectors.
2. Dependence on indirect evidence: Research relies on indirect gravitational effects
rather than direct observations.
o Eg: The Bullet Cluster study (2006) provided evidence for dark matter
through the separation of visible matter and gravitational effects.
3. Technological limitations: Current detectors lack the precision to conclusively detect
dark matter particles.
o Eg: The LUX-ZEPLIN detector (2023) improved detection capabilities but
still has not confirmed dark matter particles.
4. Theoretical challenges: Competing theories like Modified Newtonian Dynamics
(MOND) challenge the existence of dark matter.
o Eg: MOND proposes alternative explanations for galaxy rotation curves,
creating scientific debate.
5. Global collaboration and funding issues: Dark matter research requires substantial
funding and international cooperation, which are often inconsistent.
o Eg: India’s INO Project (2023), aimed at detecting dark matter, has faced
delays due to funding and policy hurdles.

Conclusion

Dark matter is central to understanding the universe’s hidden mysteries and advancing
modern astrophysics. Innovative technologies, global collaboration, and sustained research
efforts are essential to unravel this profound cosmic enigma.

Q. “Fuel cell technology is considered a game-changer for clean mobility, but its
commercialization in India remains limited”. Analyze the reasons and propose a
roadmap for its integration. (15 M)

Introduction

Fuel cell technology is a transformative solution for clean mobility, capable of addressing
environmental challenges and aligning with India’s National Hydrogen Mission (2021) to
achieve net-zero by 2070. Its potential lies in its high efficiency and scalability across
multiple sectors.

Body

Fuel cell technology is a game-changer for clean mobility

1. Zero greenhouse gas emissions: Fuel cells emit only water vapor, significantly
reducing air pollution.
o Eg: Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo demonstrate zero-emission transport
globally.

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 2. High energy efficiency: Efficiency levels of 60-70% make fuel cells more energy-
efficient than traditional internal combustion engines (~25-30%).
o Eg: Used in hydrogen buses in South Korea, reducing fuel consumption
compared to diesel buses.
3. Versatility across sectors: Applicable in heavy-duty transport, marine vessels, and
even aviation.
o Eg: Airbus is developing hydrogen-powered planes for commercial use by
2035.
4. Energy storage and grid stability: Hydrogen storage allows for the integration of
renewable energy sources, providing stability to grids.
o Eg: Japan uses fuel cells to store surplus energy from solar and wind farms.
5. Long range and rapid refuelling: Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer longer driving
ranges (up to 500-800 km) and faster refueling (under 5 minutes) than battery EVs.
o Eg: California's hydrogen refueling network supports efficient FCV
operations.

Commercialization of fuel cell technology in India remains limited

1. High production costs: Electrolysis of water, the preferred method for green
hydrogen production, is expensive, with hydrogen costing ₹300-400/kg.
o Eg: Platinum catalysts in fuel cells significantly increase costs; India lacks
large-scale indigenous production.
2. Lack of infrastructure: Minimal hydrogen refuelling stations, storage facilities, and
dedicated pipelines hinder adoption.
o Eg: As of 2023, India has only two hydrogen refuelling stations, compared
to over 150 in Japan.
3. Dependence on fossil fuel-based hydrogen: Over 90% of hydrogen in India is grey
hydrogen, which emits CO₂ during production.
o Source: International Energy Agency (IEA) Hydrogen Report (2023).
4. Policy and regulatory gaps: Absence of targeted incentives, unclear safety
guidelines, and lack of long-term roadmap for hydrogen adoption.
o Eg: Unlike EU's Hydrogen Strategy (2020), India’s policies lack detailed
timelines for green hydrogen integration.
5. Public safety and awareness concerns: Hydrogen's flammability raises public
apprehensions, and safety protocols are underdeveloped.
o Eg: Safety issues during trials in South Korea have delayed broader adoption
of hydrogen technologies.

Roadmap for integrating fuel cell technology in India

1. Develop green hydrogen production hubs: Promote green hydrogen production

using renewable energy, reducing reliance on grey hydrogen.
o Eg: Announced green hydrogen hubs in Rajasthan and Gujarat in the 2024
Union Budget.

53
 2. Build hydrogen infrastructure: Establish pipelines, storage units, and a nationwide
hydrogen refueling network.
o Eg: MNRE targets 50 hydrogen corridors by 2030, connecting major
highways and industrial clusters.
3. Provide fiscal incentives: Reduce costs through subsidies and tax rebates for fuel cell
vehicles, hydrogen production, and R&D.
o Eg: Introduce a scheme modeled on FAME-II, offering subsidies for green
hydrogen and fuel cells.
4. Promote domestic manufacturing: Develop indigenous capacity for fuel cell and
hydrogen storage technologies to reduce import dependency.
o Eg: Leverage the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for green
energy technology.
5. Enhance public-private partnerships (PPPs): Encourage collaborations between
government and industry to fund and scale projects.
o Eg: Indian Oil’s collaboration with Hyundai Motors (2022) to develop
hydrogen infrastructure.

Conclusion

Fuel cell technology represents a crucial pillar for India’s clean energy transition. With
targeted policies, robust infrastructure, and global collaboration, India can lead the global
hydrogen economy while achieving its sustainable development goals (SDGs) and net-zero
ambitions.

Q. “Renewable energy, while environmentally friendly, has significant lifecycle

environmental cost”. Examine this statement with respect to solar panel
production and disposal. (10 M)

Introduction
While renewable energy sources like solar power are environmentally friendly in their usage
phase, the lifecycle—from production to disposal—reveals significant environmental costs,
raising concerns about long-term sustainability.

Body

Renewable energy-environmentally friendly but with significant lifecycle environmental

cost

1. High material demand: Solar panel production requires mining rare earth elements
like silicon, silver, and cadmium, which leads to habitat destruction and groundwater
depletion.
o Eg: Mining in China's Inner Mongolia for polysilicon production has caused
severe environmental degradation, including hazardous silicon tetrachloride
waste.

54
 2. Energy-intensive manufacturing: Solar panel production involves significant energy
input, often powered by fossil fuels, creating a carbon footprint.
o Eg: Fraunhofer Institute (2023) found that polysilicon production in coal-
dominated regions offsets emissions only after 2-3 years of usage.
3. Chemical usage in production: Use of hazardous chemicals like cadmium telluride
and lead poses risks of soil and water contamination during manufacturing.
o Eg: Improper disposal from solar panel manufacturing units in Vietnam has
contaminated local water sources, affecting agriculture.
4. Short lifespan of panels: Panels typically last 20-25 years, after which they
contribute to electronic waste (e-waste).
o Eg: India is projected to generate over 200,000 tonnes of solar waste by 2030
(source: IRENA, 2022).
5. Global supply chain emissions: Transportation of raw materials and finished panels
across continents adds to the lifecycle carbon footprint.
o Eg: Importing panels from China to India increases emissions, undermining
environmental goals.

Solar panel production and disposal

1. Environmental cost of material extraction: Mining quartz and rare earth materials
for solar cells depletes natural resources and damages ecosystems.
o Eg: Quartz mining in Australia has caused groundwater depletion and soil
erosion in mining regions.
2. Disposal challenges: End-of-life solar panels release toxic materials like cadmium
and selenium if not disposed of properly.
o Eg: Informal solar panel disposal units in India (2021) released harmful
cadmium into rivers, affecting aquatic life.
3. Recycling inefficiencies: Recycling of solar panels is complex, costly, and
underdeveloped, leading to their accumulation in landfills.
o Eg: Only 10% of solar panels globally are recycled due to high costs and
lack of efficient technology (source: IEA, 2022).
4. Energy losses during production: High energy input during manufacturing offsets
some of the emissions saved during operation.
o Eg: A study by Stanford University (2023) highlighted 30% energy
inefficiency in silicon panel production processes.
5. Emerging waste crisis: Many developing countries lack robust waste management
infrastructure to handle imported and domestic solar waste.
o Eg: African nations face rising solar waste due to imports of low-quality
panels from developed countries.

What can be done

1. Invest in advanced recycling technologies: Develop cost-effective methods to

recover silicon, silver, and other rare materials from discarded panels.

55
 o Eg: The PV Cycle Program (EU) recycles over 90% of materials from end-
of-life solar panels.
2. Adopt green manufacturing practices: Use renewable energy and non-toxic
alternatives in solar panel production to reduce environmental costs.
o Eg: Kyocera Corporation (Japan) runs solar panel manufacturing facilities
powered entirely by renewable energy.
3. Mandate extended producer responsibility (EPR): Manufacturers should be made
accountable for collecting and recycling discarded panels.
o Eg: India’s Draft E-Waste Rules (2023) propose integrating solar waste
under EPR frameworks.
4. Develop policy frameworks for solar waste: Enforce robust policies to regulate
disposal and recycling of solar panels.
o Eg: EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive mandates
recycling of solar panels by producers.
5. Encourage public-private partnerships (PPP): Collaborate with private companies
to establish recycling plants and promote innovation in waste management.
o Eg: Adani Solar and MNRE are planning solar waste management systems
for India.

Conclusion
While renewable energy like solar power is essential for a sustainable future, addressing
its lifecycle environmental costs through robust policies, advanced technologies, and
global collaboration will ensure its long-term viability and environmental integrity.

Q. “AI in healthcare is transforming the way professionals work, but its

responsible use remains a challenge”. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming healthcare by enhancing efficiency, precision,

and accessibility, but its integration also poses significant challenges such as data privacy,
accuracy, and equity, requiring responsible and regulated adoption.

Body

Transformative potential of AI in healthcare

1. Enhanced diagnostics: AI improves accuracy in early disease detection and

personalized treatments.
o Eg: Google's DeepMind AI achieved 94% accuracy in detecting breast
cancer, surpassing radiologists (2023).
2. Administrative automation: AI reduces the burden of repetitive tasks, such as
medical documentation and patient records.

56
 o Eg: AI transcription tools implemented in AIIMS for faster medical record-
keeping (2024).
3. Knowledge dissemination: AI simplifies complex medical literature and accelerates
professional education for doctors and trainees.
o Eg: ChatGPT is widely used by doctors for creating medical presentations
(Somita Pal, 2025).
4. Improved patient interaction: AI-based tools provide customized responses and
patient education, enhancing treatment compliance.
o Eg: AI chatbots like Ada Health improve patient awareness and engagement.
5. Resource optimization: AI supports healthcare delivery in remote and underserved
areas.
o Eg: AI-driven telemedicine platforms like Practo bridge healthcare access
gaps in rural India.

Challenges in the responsible use of AI

1. Accuracy and biases: AI may deliver flawed or biased outputs if trained on

inadequate or non-diverse datasets.
o Eg: Lancet (2022) reported AI biases in skin cancer diagnostics due to limited
training data diversity.
2. Data privacy concerns: AI tools handling sensitive patient data face risks of breaches
and misuse.
o Eg: Concerns emerged about data misuse in the Cambridge Analytica
scandal.
3. Ethical dilemmas: Over-reliance on AI could replace human judgment, especially in
critical healthcare decisions.
o Eg: WHO’s 2023 report warned against AI autonomy in surgical procedures
without oversight.
4. Regulatory gaps: Lack of global and national legal frameworks for AI integration in
healthcare exacerbates risks.
o Eg: India lacks a comprehensive AI governance policy specific to healthcare.
5. Digital divide: AI adoption is uneven, with rural healthcare providers lacking
infrastructure and access.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2022) noted a 74% specialist shortage in rural areas,
limiting AI benefits.

Conclusion

To harness AI’s transformative potential in healthcare, India must focus on robust

regulatory frameworks, ethical AI use, and data privacy safeguards. Additionally,
investments in capacity-building programs and rural infrastructure can ensure equitable
access to AI tools. By integrating AI responsibly, healthcare can become more efficient,
inclusive, and patient-centric, paving the way for a sustainable and innovative healthcare
system.

57
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation,
environmental impact assessment.
Q. Discuss the concept of ecological carrying capacity and its relevance in
managing India's growing urbanization and resource consumption. (10 M)

Introduction
Ecological carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size that an environment can
sustain indefinitely without degrading natural resources. In the context of India's rapid
urbanization, maintaining this balance is critical to sustainable development.

Body

Concept of ecological carrying capacity

1. Definition and significance: It determines the sustainable limit of resource

consumption and waste generation to prevent ecological collapse.
o Eg: The concept is central to the United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).
2. Factors influencing carrying capacity: Population growth, technological
advancement, resource extraction, and waste management impact ecological
sustainability.
o Eg: The 2019 NITI Aayog report on water stress highlights over-extraction
leading to declining groundwater levels.

Relevance in managing India's growing urbanization

1. Urban sprawl management: Excessive urban expansion strains natural resources,

leading to unsustainable growth patterns.
o Eg: Unplanned growth in Delhi NCR has resulted in high air and water
pollution levels.
2. Infrastructure planning: Sustainable urban planning based on carrying capacity
ensures efficient resource utilization and reduced environmental degradation.
o Eg: The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) focuses on improving urban infrastructure in a sustainable manner.
3. Waste management and pollution control: Overburdening of urban ecosystems
leads to waste accumulation and pollution beyond sustainable limits.
o Eg: Mumbai generates 7,000 tonnes of waste daily, exceeding its waste
management capacity (CPCB report, 2021).
4. Water resource sustainability: Rapid urbanization leads to excessive groundwater
extraction and water scarcity.
o Eg: Chennai faced an acute ‘Day Zero’ water crisis in 2019, highlighting the
unsustainable water consumption pattern.

Relevance in managing resource consumption

58
 1. Sustainable resource allocation: Ensuring resource efficiency through sustainable
policies and consumption patterns.
o Eg: The National Resource Efficiency Policy (2019) aims to optimize
resource use across sectors.
2. Renewable energy transition: Managing ecological capacity through a shift from
fossil fuels to sustainable energy sources.
o Eg: India's target to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy by 2030 under the
Paris Agreement.
3. Carrying capacity-based industrial policies: Promoting eco-sensitive
industrialization to balance resource consumption with ecological health.
o Eg: The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) guidelines regulate industries in
fragile coastal areas.
4. Behavioral change initiatives: Encouraging responsible consumption patterns
through awareness and policy interventions.
o Eg: The Swachh Bharat Mission has promoted sustainable waste disposal
and cleanliness practices.

Conclusion
Integrating ecological carrying capacity into urban planning and resource policies is crucial
for ensuring a balance between development and environmental sustainability, securing a
livable future for upcoming generations.

Q. “The Arctic is a bellwether for global climate change, with its transformations
carrying cascading impacts worldwide”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

The Arctic, warming at twice the global average, serves as an early warning system for
climate change, influencing weather patterns, sea-level rise, and global ecosystems. Its rapid
transformations have far-reaching consequences for both the environment and human
societies.

Body

Why the Arctic is a bellwether for global climate change

1. Accelerated warming: Arctic amplification results in higher warming rates, leading

to drastic changes in ice cover and permafrost thawing.
o Eg: The IPCC AR6 report (2023) states that Arctic temperatures have risen
by 3°C since pre-industrial times, affecting global climate stability.
2. Permafrost thawing: Releases large quantities of methane and CO2, accelerating
global warming and triggering feedback loops.
o Eg: According to NOAA (2023), Arctic permafrost stores 1,500 gigatons of
carbon, which, if released, could significantly raise global temperatures.

59
 3. Sea ice loss and albedo effect: Reduction in Arctic ice lowers Earth's reflectivity,
causing further heat absorption and warming.
o Eg: The NSIDC (2024) reported a 13% decrease per decade in Arctic sea
ice extent, intensifying the global energy imbalance.
4. Changing oceanic currents: Melting Arctic ice alters the Atlantic Meridional
Overturning Circulation (AMOC), impacting global climate systems.
o Eg: Studies from NASA (2023) indicate disruptions in the Gulf Stream,
contributing to extreme weather events in Europe and North America.
5. Disruption of polar vortex: Warming Arctic conditions weaken the polar vortex,
leading to extreme cold events in mid-latitudes.
o Eg: The US winter storm (2021) was linked to Arctic warming-induced
disruptions in atmospheric circulation patterns.

Cascading global impacts of Arctic transformations

1. Rising sea levels: Melting Greenland ice sheets contribute significantly to rising sea
levels, threatening coastal communities worldwide.
o Eg: According to IPCC (2023), Greenland's ice sheet loss accounts for 20%
of global sea-level rise since 2000.
2. Extreme weather events: Arctic changes intensify hurricanes, droughts, and floods
globally due to shifts in jet streams and atmospheric rivers.
o Eg: The Pakistan floods (2022) were linked to Arctic-induced shifts in the
monsoon patterns.
3. Loss of biodiversity: Changing Arctic ecosystems disrupt global migratory patterns
and food chains, impacting marine and terrestrial biodiversity.
o Eg: The WWF Arctic Programme (2023) highlighted disruptions in polar
bear and fish populations affecting global marine industries.
4. Geopolitical and economic consequences: Melting ice opens new shipping routes,
leading to competition for Arctic resources and strategic interests.
o Eg: The Arctic Council (2024) reported increased military and economic
activities in the region by global powers like the USA and Russia.
5. Threat to indigenous communities: Traditional livelihoods of Arctic indigenous
populations are at risk due to loss of hunting and fishing grounds.
o Eg: Reports by UNEP (2023) show rising displacement of Inuit communities
due to vanishing ice and changing climate patterns.

Way forward to mitigate Arctic climate change impacts

1. Strengthening global climate policies: Enforcing stringent carbon reduction

commitments under agreements like the Paris Accord to curb Arctic warming.
o Eg: The COP28 summit (2023) emphasized achieving net-zero emissions by
2050 to protect polar ecosystems.
2. Enhanced Arctic monitoring and research: Utilizing satellite technologies and
climate models for better understanding and response strategies.

60
 o Eg: The EU Copernicus Program provides real-time Arctic data to track
climate changes.
3. Promoting renewable energy: Transitioning from fossil fuels to sustainable energy
sources to minimize Arctic emissions.
o Eg: The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) targets a 50%
renewable share by 2040.
4. Adaptation measures for vulnerable communities: Providing financial and
technological support to mitigate socio-economic disruptions.
o Eg: The UN Green Climate Fund (2023) supports indigenous Arctic
communities in adapting to climate impacts.
5. Conservation of Arctic biodiversity: Strengthening international cooperation for the
protection of Arctic flora and fauna.
o Eg: The Arctic Biodiversity Congress (2024) proposed measures for
sustainable fishing and habitat protection.

Conclusion

The Arctic's transformations are a global concern that necessitates urgent, collective action
to mitigate cascading environmental, economic, and social impacts. Proactive measures
focusing on climate adaptation, emission reductions, and sustainable development are
crucial to safeguarding the planet’s future.

Q. Discuss the role of industrial safety frameworks in mitigating disasters in

high-risk sectors such as chemicals and petrochemicals. Highlight the challenges
and suggest ways to improve India’s approach to industrial safety. (15 M)

Introduction

Industrial safety frameworks are critical in mitigating disasters in high-risk sectors like
chemicals and petrochemicals. They ensure a proactive approach to risk identification and
disaster prevention, safeguarding lives, property, and the environment.

Body

Role of industrial safety frameworks in mitigating disasters

1. Regulatory oversight and compliance: Frameworks like the Chemical Accidents

Rules, 1996, mandate safety audits, hazard identification, and emergency response
planning.
o Eg: Post the Vizag gas leak (2020), authorities mandated stricter compliance
for MAH units.
2. Process safety management: These frameworks focus on eliminating operational
hazards through systems like hazard operability (HAZOP) studies.
o Eg: Adoption of HAZOP techniques in ONGC's petrochemical units has
reduced major accidents.
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 3. Emergency response mechanisms: Frameworks emphasize mock drills and disaster
response teams to mitigate the impact of disasters.
o Eg: CIPET Chennai’s mock drill (2025), coordinated with Kothari
Petrochemicals, demonstrated effective onsite crisis management.
4. Incident reporting and risk analysis: Frameworks ensure post-incident analyses and
safety enhancements through reporting mechanisms.
o Eg: Post-incident assessments after the Jaipur IOC depot fire (2009) led to
updated fire safety norms for oil and chemical industries.
5. Technological integration: The use of AI and IoT under safety frameworks enables
real-time monitoring of chemical processes and leakages.
o Eg: The Hazira Industrial Zone uses IoT-based monitoring systems to detect
early signs of gas leaks.
6. Community risk reduction: Frameworks encourage industries to educate
surrounding communities about risks and safety measures.
o Eg: Tirupur Industrial Belt initiated community awareness programs for
chemical safety after minor incidents.
7. Environmental safeguards: Guidelines for hazardous waste management, spill
prevention, and pollution control reduce ecological harm.
o Eg: Adoption of zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) systems in industries in
Gujarat industrial corridors has minimized water pollution.

Challenges in implementation

1. Weak enforcement mechanisms: Regulatory bodies often lack the resources to

monitor compliance comprehensively.
o Eg: Bhilai Steel Plant accident (2018) revealed lapses in enforcement despite
existing norms.
2. Aging infrastructure: Many industrial units in India still use outdated equipment,
heightening risks.
o Eg: The Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) remains a reminder of outdated and
neglected safety systems.
3. Limited workforce training: Insufficient training in safety protocols leads to human
errors in handling hazardous materials.
o Eg: The NIDM report (2022) highlighted a shortage of trained safety
personnel in MAH units.
4. Overlapping jurisdiction: Coordination between different regulatory bodies, such as
the NDMA and state disaster authorities, is often ineffective.
o Eg: Disjointed responses during the Sterlite Copper protests (2018) revealed
gaps in regulatory cooperation.
5. Lack of real-time monitoring systems: Many industrial zones lack advanced
technology for early detection of hazards.
o Eg: Reports by the CPCB (2023) highlighted the absence of IoT sensors in
over 50% of MAH units.

62
Suggestions to improve India’s approach

1. Updating legal frameworks: Revise the Factories Act, 1948, and align it with global
safety standards to address modern industrial risks.
o Eg: Adoption of recommendations from the NDMA guidelines (2022) can
significantly enhance safety standards.
2. Specialized safety training: Regular, sector-specific safety training for workers,
managers, and disaster response teams.
o Eg: The Action Plan under Viksit Bharat@2047 aims to train personnel in
2393 MAH units across India.
3. Integrated safety monitoring systems: Deploy AI, IoT, and GIS-based tools for
real-time safety monitoring and disaster prediction.
o Eg: IoT-based gas detectors have reduced incidents in industrial hubs like
Dahej SEZ.
4. Stronger enforcement mechanisms: Strengthen regulatory inspections with trained
manpower and periodic third-party audits.
o Eg: Japan's model of external safety audits is a global best practice India can
adopt.
5. Public-private partnerships (PPP): Foster collaboration between industries and the
government for safety innovations and funding.
o Eg: PPPs in Tamil Nadu’s Petrochemical Industrial Zone have enhanced
spill management and hazardous waste disposal systems.
6. Community-based disaster management: Involve local communities in planning
and drills to enhance resilience against disasters.
o Eg: Community disaster preparedness programs in Visakhapatnam’s
industrial belt have minimized risks.

Conclusion

A robust industrial safety framework is pivotal for achieving sustainable industrial growth
and protecting both people and the environment. By integrating modern technology,
strengthening enforcement, and promoting community collaboration, India can set global
benchmarks in industrial safety.

Q. Discuss the implications of shifting climate responsibilities onto developing

nations due to weak commitments from developed countries. How can developing
nations balance climate action with their developmental needs? (10 M)

Introduction

The principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) under the

UNFCCC acknowledges that developed nations, having historically contributed the most to
global emissions, must take the lead in climate action. However, weak commitments and

63
withdrawal from climate agreements have shifted the burden onto developing nations,
affecting their economic growth, energy security, and social equity.

Body

Implications of shifting climate responsibilities onto developing nations

1. Increased economic burden: Developing nations must divert limited resources

toward climate mitigation, impacting poverty alleviation and infrastructure
development.
o Eg: India’s renewable energy transition requires $10 trillion by 2070 (CEA,
2023), but climate finance commitments remain unfulfilled.
2. Energy security challenges: Pressuring developing countries to reduce fossil fuel
dependence prematurely can hinder industrialization and energy access.
o Eg: Africa’s electrification rate is just 43% (IEA, 2023), yet global funding
for fossil fuel projects is being restricted.
3. Reduction in climate finance and technology transfer: Developed nations have
failed to meet their $100 billion per year climate finance commitment, limiting
green technology access for developing countries.
o Eg: At COP29 (2024, Baku), only $300 billion was committed, far below
the required levels.
4. Loss of carbon space and just transition concerns: Developing nations have limited
historical emissions but are being forced to decarbonize rapidly, limiting industrial
competitiveness.
o Eg: The U.S. has emitted over 25% of historical global emissions, while
India contributes just 4% (World Bank, 2024).
5. Food security and adaptation gaps: Climate change impacts like extreme weather
and erratic rainfall affect agricultural productivity, increasing vulnerability.
o Eg: India lost 5 million hectares of crops in 2023 due to extreme climate
events (IMD, 2024).

Strategies for balancing climate action with developmental needs

1. Strengthening climate finance mechanisms: Developing nations must push for

legally binding climate finance commitments and transparent disbursal mechanisms.
o Eg: India has advocated for a Loss and Damage Fund at COP28 (Dubai,
2023) to compensate vulnerable nations.
2. Leveraging domestic green finance: Scaling up sovereign green bonds, blended
finance, and public-private partnerships to fund renewable transitions.
o Eg: India issued ₹16,000 crore in green bonds in 2023 to finance clean
energy projects.
3. Phased energy transition with flexibility: Developing economies must adopt a mix
of renewables, clean coal, and natural gas to balance growth with sustainability.

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 o Eg: India’s Energy Transition Roadmap (2023) allows coal use till 2040,
while increasing renewables to 50% by 2030.
4. Technology transfer and local innovation: Strengthening domestic R&D and
international cooperation for clean technologies like hydrogen and carbon capture.
o Eg: India and the U.S. launched the U.S.-India Strategic Clean Energy
Partnership (2023) to enhance green technology transfer.
5. Resilience-focused adaptation policies: Investing in climate-resilient agriculture,
water conservation, and disaster mitigation to protect vulnerable communities.
o Eg: The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC, ₹3,500
crore) supports climate adaptation in India’s rural regions.

Conclusion

Developing nations cannot bear the climate burden alone, and equitable global
cooperation is essential. A just transition, backed by strong climate finance, technology
access, and policy flexibility, is crucial to achieving sustainable and inclusive growth
while meeting climate commitments.

Disaster and disaster management.

Q. Analyze the socio-economic and environmental challenges posed by disaster-
induced displacement in India. Suggest policy interventions for climate-resilient
rehabilitation. (15 M)

Introduction

Disaster-induced displacement in India, driven by climate change and natural hazards,

disrupts livelihoods, exacerbates vulnerabilities, and strains resources, demanding urgent
policy responses.

Body

Socio-economic challenges

1. Loss of livelihoods: Displaced communities lose access to stable income sources,

leading to economic insecurity.
o Eg: Cyclone Amphan (2020) displaced thousands of coastal fishermen in
West Bengal.
2. Housing and infrastructure deficits: Inadequate shelter and lack of essential
services create long-term dependency on relief measures.
o Eg: Post-2018 Kerala floods, rehabilitation struggles due to housing
shortages.
3. Health vulnerabilities: Poor living conditions and lack of healthcare access increase
disease burden among displaced populations.

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 o Eg: NIDM report (2023) highlighted rising waterborne diseases in flood-
prone areas.
4. Education disruption: Displacement often leads to dropouts, affecting children's
long-term development and future employment opportunities.
o Eg: Post-Uttarakhand floods (2013), thousands of students dropped out due
to school destruction.
5. Social integration issues: Cultural dislocation and loss of social networks hinder
effective community reintegration.
o Eg: Tribal displacement in Odisha post-cyclone Fani (2019) faced challenges
in integrating with host communities.

Environmental challenges

1. Ecological degradation: Displaced populations exert pressure on fragile ecosystems,

leading to deforestation and resource depletion.
o Eg: Encroachments in Sundarbans due to recurrent cyclones have worsened
mangrove loss.
2. Waste management issues: Unplanned settlements contribute to pollution and health
hazards in resettlement areas.
o Eg: Waste accumulation post-Chennai floods (2015) worsened sanitation
crises.
3. Water resource stress: Over-extraction and contamination of water sources occur in
temporary settlements.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2021) reported acute groundwater depletion in refugee
camps post-2020 Assam floods.
4. Climate vulnerability: Temporary settlements are often in hazard-prone areas,
exacerbating future disaster risks.
o Eg: Frequent flash floods in Himalayan settlements post-2013 Kedarnath
disaster.

Policy interventions for climate-resilient rehabilitation

1. Sustainable housing solutions: Climate-resilient housing using local materials and

eco-friendly designs.
o Eg: Kerala's ‘Rebuild Kerala’ initiative after 2018 floods promotes eco-
friendly housing.
2. Livelihood diversification: Skill development programs and alternative employment
opportunities to reduce vulnerability.
o Eg: NDMA guidelines advocate livelihood restoration programs post-
disasters.
3. Health and nutrition support: Mobile healthcare units and targeted nutritional
programs for displaced populations.
o Eg: The Ayushman Bharat scheme expanded health coverage post-cyclone
Fani (2019).

66
 4. Community participation: Involving local communities in planning and
implementation of rehabilitation projects.
o Eg: Sendai Framework (2015) emphasizes community-driven risk reduction
measures.
5. Legal and policy framework: Strengthening legal mechanisms to recognize
displaced populations' rights.
o Eg: Draft National Policy on Internal Displacement (2019) focuses on long-
term rehabilitation measures.
6. Infrastructure resilience: Building disaster-resistant infrastructure in high-risk
zones.
o Eg: Bihar’s ‘Jal-Jeevan-Hariyali’ mission integrates flood-resilient
infrastructure.
7. Environmental restoration: Reforestation and ecosystem-based approaches in
resettlement planning.
o Eg: Odisha’s post-cyclone restoration of coastal ecosystems to combat
erosion.

Conclusion
A holistic, community-driven, and climate-resilient approach, integrating sustainable policies
and robust implementation mechanisms, is crucial to safeguard displaced populations and
ensure long-term resilience.

Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

Q. Analyze the role of development in addressing left-wing extremism (LWE) in
India. Can development alone eradicate the root causes of extremism? (10 M)

Introduction
Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) affects 38 districts in India and stems from socio-economic
inequalities, governance deficits, and alienation of marginalized communities. Development
plays a crucial role in addressing the root causes, but its success depends on complementing it
with governance and security reforms.

Body

Role of Development in Addressing LWE

1. Economic opportunities and livelihood generation: Development projects create

jobs and reduce poverty, limiting Maoist recruitment.
o Eg: PMGSY improved road connectivity in LWE-affected areas like
Sukma (Chhattisgarh), enhancing access to markets and livelihoods.
2. Social empowerment through education and health: Investments in education and
healthcare improve living standards and address grievances stemming from neglect.

67
 o Eg: Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) provided quality education
to tribal youth, reducing their vulnerability to extremism.
3. Strengthening state presence: Development initiatives bring governance and public
services to remote areas, countering the Maoist narrative of neglect.
o Eg: Under the Aspirational Districts Programme, Dantewada
(Chhattisgarh) improved governance and service delivery.
4. Land reforms and tribal rights: Recognizing tribal land and forest rights reduces
exploitation and fosters trust in the state.
o Eg: The Forest Rights Act (2006) granted land titles to tribal communities
in Odisha and Jharkhand.

Why Development Alone is Not Enough

1. Lack of inclusive governance: Development without political empowerment cannot

address alienation or build trust in state institutions.
o Eg: The absence of tribal leaders in governance perpetuates mistrust in
LWE regions.
2. Need for security measures: Development requires complementary security
frameworks to restore law and order in insurgency-prone areas.
o Eg: The SAMADHAN strategy integrates development and security to
combat LWE effectively.
3. Addressing ideological indoctrination: Maoist propaganda sustains recruitment and
support, which development alone cannot counter.
o Eg: Rehabilitation programs in Jharkhand for surrendered Maoists have
helped reduce recidivism.
4. Administrative inefficiency and corruption: Mismanagement and diversion of
development funds weaken the impact of welfare schemes.
o Eg: Reports of corruption in PDS distribution in LWE regions fuel
grievances among tribal communities.

What Can Be Done

1. Strengthen governance and political inclusion: Empower tribal communities

through representation and governance reforms.
o Eg: Effective implementation of the PESA Act has strengthened self-
governance in tribal areas.
2. Integrate development with security measures: Expand the SAMADHAN strategy
to include localized security frameworks alongside targeted development programs.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s Greyhounds force combines security and local
development initiatives.
3. Counter Maoist propaganda: Launch de-radicalization programs and community-
driven awareness campaigns to counter extremist narratives.
o Eg: Tribal leaders and NGOs have played key roles in awareness
campaigns in Chhattisgarh.

68
 4. Promote skill development and entrepreneurship: Introduce tailored skill programs
to engage tribal youth in productive activities.
o Eg: Skill India Mission has trained youth in LWE-affected states like
Jharkhand and Odisha.

Conclusion
Development is a vital tool in combating LWE, but it must be integrated with inclusive
governance, security measures, and ideological de-radicalization. A comprehensive
approach, aligned with SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions), is essential to
achieve long-term peace and development in insurgency-affected regions.

Q. Evaluate the role of guerrilla warfare tactics in sustaining Left-wing

extremism (LWE) in India and suggest measures to counter them effectively. (10
M)

Introduction

Guerrilla warfare, with its hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and use of terrain, has allowed
Left-Wing Extremists (LWE) to evade superior state forces and sustain their movement. It
thrives in India due to challenging geographies and socio-economic grievances in tribal areas.

Body

Role of guerrilla warfare tactics in sustaining LWE

1. Exploitation of terrain: Dense forests and hilly regions offer strategic cover and
mobility for Maoists.
o Eg: The Dandakaranya region, covering Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and
Maharashtra, serves as a Maoist stronghold due to its impenetrable forests and
poor road infrastructure.
2. Decentralized command structure: Independent operational cells provide flexibility
and continuity.
o Eg: The People's Liberation Guerrilla Army (PLGA) is divided into zonal
and sub-zonal units, allowing uninterrupted operations even when leaders are
captured or killed.
3. Ambushes and IEDs: Guerrilla tactics focus on ambushing security forces and using
improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
o Eg: In the Sukma ambush (2017), Maoists used human shields and forested
terrain to kill 25 CRPF personnel, demonstrating their tactical sophistication.
4. Psychological warfare: Attacks on high-profile targets and infrastructure create fear
among security forces and local administrators.
o Eg: In Dantewada (2023), Maoists ambushed a convoy, killing 10 security
personnel and damaging road construction vehicles, disrupting local
development projects.

69
 5. Community support: Maoists embed themselves within tribal communities,
leveraging grievances like displacement and land alienation.
o Eg: In Chhattisgarh, Maoists exploit the displacement due to mining
projects in Bastar to recruit locals into their ranks.

Measures to counter guerrilla warfare tactics effectively

1. Advanced surveillance and intelligence: Deploy drones, satellite imagery, and

human intelligence networks to track Maoist movements.
o Eg: In Gadchiroli (2022), drones helped identify Maoist camps in dense
forests, leading to successful anti-Maoist operations.
2. Specialized counter-insurgency forces: Training and deploying region-specific
forces for jungle warfare.
o Eg: Greyhounds in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, trained in guerrilla
tactics, drastically reduced Maoist influence, forcing them to retreat to
neighboring states.
3. Development-driven strategies: Address underlying grievances through welfare
schemes focused on education, employment, and infrastructure.
o Eg: The Aspirational Districts Program has significantly improved
education and healthcare metrics in LWE-affected districts like Sukma and
Dantewada.
4. Empowering local governance: Strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) to
address grassroots issues and counter Maoist narratives.
o Eg: In Odisha’s Malkangiri district, improved PRI participation through
Mission Shakti initiatives reduced Maoist influence by empowering tribal
women.
5. Psychological and digital warfare: Use social media and local platforms to counter
Maoist propaganda and promote government schemes.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh’s community radio programs, such as "Radio Bastar,"
create awareness about government initiatives and encourage youth to
abandon extremism.

Conclusion

A sustainable solution to LWE requires intelligence-driven security operations combined

with socio-economic reforms to address root grievances. Balancing security measures with
inclusive development can help dismantle the guerrilla warfare machinery and restore peace
in the affected regions.

Q. “Insurgency in India’s North-East cannot be resolved without addressing the

region's ethnic diversity and cultural autonomy”. Comment (15 M)

Introduction

70
The North-East, with its 200+ ethnic groups and rich cultural diversity, remains vulnerable
to insurgency due to historical neglect, ethnic marginalization, and autonomy-related issues.
Addressing these requires balancing ethnic diversity, cultural autonomy, and socio-
economic inclusion.

Body

Reasons for insurgency in the North-East

1. Ethnic marginalization: Perceived neglect and lack of representation in decision-

making drive alienation.
o Eg: The NSCN (IM) demands a "Greater Nagalim" to unify Naga-inhabited
areas spanning across Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh,
citing ethnic marginalization.
2. Migration-led demographic shifts: Unchecked cross-border migration has disrupted
ethnic balances, fueling identity-based tensions.
o Eg: In Assam, the fear of losing native Assamese identity due to large-scale
migration from Bangladesh triggered the Assam Agitation (1979-85), leading
to the contentious Assam Accord (1985).
3. Inadequate autonomy provisions: The Sixth Schedule's limited autonomy often fails
to address local governance aspirations.
o Eg: The Karbi Anglong unrest in Assam persists despite being under the
Sixth Schedule, with repeated demands for a separate state.
4. Resource-based conflicts: Competition over control of land and forests escalates
ethnic tensions.
o Eg: The Naga-Kuki clashes in Manipur (1990s) arose due to competing
claims over land and territorial boundaries.
5. Cultural neglect: Failure to protect tribal languages, traditions, and rituals
exacerbates grievances.
o Eg: The Meitei-ST status demand in Manipur stems from fears of cultural
and economic marginalization by other ethnic groups.

Insurgency cannot be resolved without addressing ethnic diversity and cultural

autonomy

1. Strengthening Sixth Schedule provisions: Expanding autonomy frameworks

tailored to specific ethnic needs can empower local governance.
o Eg: The Bodoland Territorial Region Accord (2020) granted enhanced
autonomy to Bodo groups, reducing violent insurgency in Assam.
2. Recognition of ethnic identities: Legal safeguards under Article 29 and
constitutional protection of minority rights must be enforced.
o Eg: The Mizoram Peace Accord (1986) successfully preserved the identity of
Mizos while addressing insurgency.

71
 3. Facilitating inter-ethnic reconciliation: Ethnic groups must resolve boundary
disputes and cultural tensions through dialogue.
o Eg: The Bru-Reang Agreement (2020), which resolved a 23-year-long
conflict, rehabilitated over 30,000 displaced Brus in Tripura while respecting
Mizo identity.
4. Preservation of tribal land rights: Protecting tribal land ownership under the Forest
Rights Act, 2006 ensures socio-economic equity.
o Eg: In Arunachal Pradesh, tribal opposition to land allotment for industrial
projects has highlighted the need for FRA enforcement.
5. Inclusive governance: Political and economic empowerment through community
participation can foster trust.
o Eg: The North Eastern Council (NEC), since its inception in 1971, has
played a significant role in funding region-specific projects to empower
marginalized communities.

What more can be done?

1. Regional development councils: Setting up region-specific councils with legislative

backing for grievance redressal.
o Eg: A proposed North-East Regional Development Authority can address
state disputes while focusing on cohesive development planning.
2. Cross-border cooperation: Strengthening ties with neighbors to curb arms supply
and insurgent safe havens.
o Eg: Joint military operations like Operation Sunrise (2019) with Myanmar
dismantled militant camps along the Indo-Myanmar border.
3. Timely implementation of peace accords: Building trust through transparent and
time-bound delivery.
o Eg: The delay in implementing the Naga Peace Accord (2015) continues to
escalate tensions and mistrust among Naga factions.
4. Economic integration via Act East Policy: Expanding regional trade and
connectivity to boost local economies.
o Eg: Projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project
enhance connectivity between Mizoram and Myanmar, fostering economic
opportunities.
5. Empowering youth through education and employment: Addressing radicalization
and alienation by creating opportunities.
o Eg: The Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-
GKY) has trained over 50,000 youths in the North-East, providing them with
alternative livelihoods.

Conclusion

A lasting resolution to insurgency in the North-East requires a bottom-up approach,

balancing ethnic and cultural aspirations with inclusive development. Collaborative

72
governance and targeted regional initiatives can pave the way for peace and prosperity in this
geopolitically sensitive region.

Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges

to internal security.
Q. “Internal security challenges in India are no longer confined to borders but
are increasingly influenced by external and transnational factors”.Discuss. (15
M)

Introduction
India's internal security has evolved to encompass not just domestic issues but also external
and transnational factors like cross-border terrorism, cyber threats, and illegal migration.
These challenges demand a multi-dimensional security framework integrating domestic
and international responses.

Body

External and transnational factors influencing internal security

1. Cross-border terrorism: India faces terrorism sponsored by external states and non-
state actors, aimed at destabilizing its border areas and beyond.
o Eg: The Pulwama attack (2019) by Pakistan-based Jaish-e-Mohammed
highlights cross-border terrorism targeting Jammu & Kashmir.
2. Illegal migration and demographic shifts: Influx of illegal immigrants creates
resource pressures, demographic changes, and communal tensions, particularly in
sensitive regions.
o Eg: The arrival of Rohingya refugees in Assam and West Bengal has led to
significant socio-political unrest (MHA, 2023).
3. Narco-terrorism: Smuggling of drugs from the Golden Crescent and Golden
Triangle funds extremist groups and undermines internal stability.
o Eg: The seizure of 3,000 kg heroin at Mundra Port (2021) underscores the
growing role of transnational drug cartels in India.
4. Cyber threats and misinformation: External actors use cyberattacks to disrupt
critical infrastructure, spread misinformation, and manipulate public opinion.
o Eg: The Mumbai power grid cyberattack (2020), attributed to Chinese
hackers, disrupted essential services, showcasing the vulnerability of critical
infrastructure.
5. Radicalization via social media: External extremist groups exploit social media
platforms to recruit youth and propagate divisive ideologies.
o Eg: ISIS-inspired modules in India, fueled by online propaganda, have been
uncovered in several states (NIA, 2021).
6. Human trafficking and organized crime: Transnational trafficking networks exploit
porous borders, targeting vulnerable populations and weakening internal law
enforcement.
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 o Eg: Trafficking routes from Bangladesh and Nepal into India are major
sources of illegal migration and exploitation (UNODC, 2023).
7. Climate-induced migration: Environmental degradation and climate change in
neighboring countries, like Bangladesh, lead to migration and resource conflicts in
India.
o Eg: Rising sea levels in the Sundarbans have displaced communities,
increasing migration into West Bengal (IPCC, 2023).

Measures to address external and transnational threats

1. Modernizing border management: Deploying smart border solutions, including

CIBMS (Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System), drones, and
thermal imaging, to prevent infiltration and smuggling.
o Eg: Smart fencing along the India-Bangladesh border has significantly
reduced illegal migration and trafficking.
2. Enhancing intelligence-sharing networks: Collaborating with international allies for
real-time intelligence on terrorism, trafficking, and cyber threats.
o Eg: The Quad Cybersecurity Initiative (2022) enhances India’s
preparedness against transnational cyberattacks.
3. Strengthening counter-radicalization programs: Implementing de-radicalization
and community engagement initiatives targeting vulnerable groups.
o Eg: De-radicalization programs in Jammu & Kashmir, under the MHA,
have rehabilitated youth exposed to extremist propaganda.
4. Combating narco-terrorism: Strengthening ties with neighbours and global
organizations like the UNODC to dismantle drug trafficking networks.
o Eg: The India-UNODC MoU (2023) focuses on combating drug smuggling
from the Golden Crescent.
5. Cybersecurity resilience: Building advanced defences through the National Cyber
Security Strategy, monitoring misinformation, and securing critical infrastructure.
o Eg: The CERT-In team has mitigated major attacks on Indian financial and
defence sectors in the past decade.
6. Leveraging multilateral platforms: Using forums like SAARC, ASEAN, and
UNODC to tackle transnational organized crime and terrorism.
o Eg: The SAARC Terrorism Offences Monitoring Desk helps track cross-
border terror activities.
7. Integrated resource and climate strategies: Collaborating with neighbouring
countries to address resource conflicts and climate-induced migration.
o Eg: India’s joint initiatives with Bangladesh under the Bonn Challenge
address environmental migration from the Sundarbans.

Conclusion
India’s internal security is deeply influenced by external and transnational factors, requiring a
comprehensive approach combining border modernization, intelligence collaboration,
and technological interventions. Addressing these challenges not only strengthens internal

74
stability but also enhances India’s global standing in combating security threats, aligning with
SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions).

Q. “India's internal security threats are increasingly interconnected with global

geopolitical developments”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction
In an increasingly interconnected world, India's internal security landscape is profoundly
shaped by global geopolitical shifts, ranging from cross-border terrorism to cyber
warfare and economic dependencies. Addressing these challenges requires a nuanced
understanding of their transnational nature and strategic policy interventions.

Body

Interconnection between India's Internal Security and Global Geopolitics

1. Cross-border terrorism and insurgency: India's security is affected by state-

sponsored terrorism and insurgencies influenced by geopolitical rivalries.
o Eg: The 2016 Uri attack linked to Pakistan-based groups like Jaish-e-
Mohammed, escalating tensions.
2. Cybersecurity threats from foreign actors: Hostile nations and non-state actors
exploit cyber vulnerabilities to target India's critical infrastructure.
o Eg: The 2020 China-linked cyberattack on Indian power grids during the
Ladakh border crisis (Source: Recorded Future).
3. Radicalization through global networks: Extremist ideologies spread through
digital platforms with external influence, posing a domestic security risk.
o Eg: The ISIS-inspired modules uncovered by the NIA in Kerala in 2022.
4. Economic dependencies and vulnerabilities: Trade dependencies, especially in
strategic sectors like energy and defence, impact India's security autonomy.
o Eg: India's reliance on Chinese imports for pharmaceutical raw materials
amid geopolitical tensions.
5. Maritime security in the Indo-Pacific: Regional power struggles impact India's
maritime trade routes and strategic interests.
o Eg: China's activities in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), including the
development of ports in neighbouring countries.
6. Illegal migration and demographic shifts: Influx of migrants from conflict zones in
neighbouring countries poses internal security challenges.
o Eg: The Rohingya refugee influx in north-eastern India raising security
concerns.
7. Drug trafficking and organized crime: Transnational crime syndicates exploit
India's geographic position to smuggle narcotics and arms.
o Eg: The seizure of 2,500 kg heroin from an Iranian vessel off Gujarat in 2023
(Source: NCB).

75
 8. Hybrid warfare and misinformation campaigns: Adversarial states use social
media and disinformation to destabilize India's internal environment.
o Eg: Pakistan-based misinformation campaigns during the 2019 Pulwama
attack crisis.

Strategies to Strengthen India's Internal Security

1. Enhanced border security measures: Deployment of advanced surveillance systems

and smart fencing to secure porous borders.
o Eg: Implementation of Comprehensive Integrated Border Management
System (CIBMS) along the western border.
2. Strengthening cyber defence infrastructure: Establishing AI-driven threat
detection mechanisms and stringent cyber regulations.
o Eg: Formation of Defence Cyber Agency (DCA) for military cyber
operations.
3. Community-based deradicalization programs: Engaging local communities to
counter extremist ideologies through awareness campaigns.
o Eg: The 'Operation Chakravyuh' by intelligence agencies to identify
radicalized individuals.
4. Strengthening maritime surveillance: Enhancing naval capabilities and fostering
regional cooperation through strategic alliances.
o Eg: Collaboration under the QUAD framework for maritime security.
5. Boosting economic self-reliance: Reducing dependence on foreign imports through
policies like Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
o Eg: Development of indigenous semiconductor manufacturing hubs with
government incentives.
6. Coordinated intelligence sharing: Strengthening institutional coordination between
security agencies to counter evolving threats.
o Eg: The Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) facilitating real-time intelligence
sharing.

Conclusion
India's internal security challenges require a multi-dimensional approach involving
technological advancements, intelligence collaboration, and strategic international
partnerships to effectively address evolving geopolitical threats.

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Challenges to internal security through communication networks,
role of media and social networking sites in internal security
challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its
prevention.
Q. Explain the concept of Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) and its
importance in ensuring national security. Highlight the threats posed to CII in
India. (10 M)

Introduction

Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) comprises systems and assets vital to a nation’s
economy, governance, and security. Protecting CII ensures the uninterrupted functioning of
critical sectors, making it central to national security.

Body

Concept of Critical Information Infrastructure

1. Definition and legal basis: CII refers to systems whose disruption can severely affect
national security, public health, and the economy.
o Eg: Defined under Section 70 of the IT Act, 2000, with protection overseen
by the National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre
(NCIIPC).
2. Examples of CII sectors: Telecommunications, financial systems, power grids,
transportation, healthcare, and defense networks are classified as CII in India.
o Eg: Aadhaar, RBI servers, and the Indian Energy Exchange are critical CII
components.
3. Global standards: Internationally, frameworks like the US Cybersecurity and
Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) and EU NIS Directive offer models for CII
protection.

Importance of CII in ensuring national security

1. Economic stability: Securing financial systems prevents disruptions in trade,

banking, and digital payment ecosystems.
o Eg: A cyberattack on the RBI’s payment systems could paralyze India’s UPI
network and impact economic transactions.
2. Defense readiness: CII underpins defense communications and real-time decision-
making during conflicts.
o Eg: The Network for Spectrum (NFS) ensures secure communication for
Indian armed forces.
3. Public service continuity: Safeguarding essential services like electricity, healthcare,
and transportation ensures societal stability.

77
 o Eg: Cyberattacks on India’s power grids in 2020, reportedly linked to China,
targeted electricity supply during border tensions.
4. Preventing data breaches: Protecting citizen data from breaches ensures public trust
in governance and services.
o Eg: The Aadhaar database faced multiple cyberattack attempts but remains
critical for welfare delivery.
5. Global interdependence: As India integrates with global digital systems, robust CII
protection is essential to maintaining international trust and competitiveness.

Threats posed to CII in India

1. State-sponsored cyberattacks: Hostile nations use cyberattacks to disrupt critical

infrastructure.
o Eg: The Red Echo cyberattack (2021), attributed to China, targeted Indian
power grids during Ladakh tensions.
2. Ransomware attacks: Criminals exploit vulnerabilities in CII for financial extortion.
o Eg: The Ransomware attack on AIIMS (2022) disrupted healthcare services
and exposed patient data.
3. Insider threats: Employees or contractors with privileged access pose significant
risks.
o Eg: Data breaches in public sector banks (2023) were linked to insider
negligence.
4. Dependency on foreign technology: Reliance on imported hardware and software
increases vulnerabilities to espionage.
o Eg: Concerns over Chinese-origin 5G equipment compromising India’s
telecom networks.
5. Legacy systems: Outdated infrastructure in key sectors lacks robust cybersecurity
protocols.
o Eg: Vulnerable SCADA systems in India’s water and energy sectors.
6. Global malware campaigns: Malware like WannaCry exploits vulnerabilities in
outdated systems.
o Eg: WannaCry ransomware affected critical healthcare and banking
systems globally in 2017, including in India.

Conclusion

The protection of CII is paramount for India’s security and economic stability in an
increasingly digital world. Leveraging indigenous technologies, AI-driven threat
monitoring, and global partnerships can bolster India's resilience against growing threats.
Proactive measures will ensure the robustness of CII and secure India’s critical assets.

78
Q. “Money laundering undermines economic stability and national security”.
Discuss the processes involved in money laundering and evaluate the legislative
and institutional measures taken by India to combat it. (15 M)

Introduction

Money laundering disrupts the economic fabric of nations, facilitating organized crime
and terrorism, which directly challenges national security and weakens financial systems.

Body

Money laundering undermines economic stability and national security

1. Threat to financial systems: Laundering corrupts legitimate financial institutions and

reduces foreign investor confidence.
o Eg: IL&FS crisis (2018) exposed irregularities linked to fund diversions,
impacting the financial sector.
2. Funding for terrorism: Laundered money is often routed to terror outfits, amplifying
threats to national security.
o Eg: Hawala networks in India have been used to fund terrorist groups like
Lashkar-e-Taiba.
3. Economic inequality: Undeclared wealth leads to unequal resource distribution and
promotes a parallel economy.
o Eg: The Paradise Papers (2017) revealed offshore accounts that evaded
Indian tax laws, impacting equitable wealth distribution.
4. Loss of revenue: Tax evasion through laundering reduces government resources,
affecting public services.
o Eg: According to a 2022 CBI report, India loses approximately ₹1 lakh crore
annually due to tax fraud linked to laundering.

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Processes involved in money laundering

1. Placement: Injecting illegal money into the financial system through cash-intensive
businesses, casinos, or trade.
o Eg: Delhi Gold Smuggling Case (2020), where illicit cash was introduced
into the system through gold imports.
2. Layering: Complex financial transactions are used to obscure the origin of funds,
such as creating shell companies or fake invoices.
o Eg: The Punjab National Bank scam (2018) involved multiple fake letters of
undertaking to launder funds abroad.
3. Integration: Laundered money is reinvested into legitimate sectors like real estate,
luxury assets, or stock markets.
o Eg: The Mumbai real estate market (2021) witnessed a significant
crackdown on properties bought using laundered money.

Legislative and institutional measures taken by India to combat money laundering

1. Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002: Provides mechanisms for

confiscating properties and punishing offenders.
o Eg: 2022 amendments allowed attachment of assets linked to crypto
laundering cases like the WazirX probe.
2. Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND): Tracks suspicious financial transactions to
assist enforcement agencies.
o Eg: FIU flagged ₹12,000 crore in suspicious banking transactions in 2023
(MoF report).

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 3. Fugitive Economic Offenders Act (FEOA), 2018: Enables seizure of properties of
offenders fleeing the country.
o Eg: Properties worth over ₹18,000 crore of Vijay Mallya, Nirav Modi, and
Mehul Choksi confiscated under FEOA.
4. Role of Enforcement Directorate (ED): Investigates money laundering and enforces
PMLA provisions.
o Eg: In 2023, the ED attached properties worth ₹21,000 crore in laundering
cases across sectors, including real estate and financial fraud.
5. Global compliance with FATF: India adopted FATF recommendations for
strengthening its anti-money laundering framework.
o Eg: In 2023, FATF lauded India for increased scrutiny on shell companies.
6. Use of advanced technology: AI and blockchain are used to monitor suspicious
transactions in real time.
o Eg: RBI's pilot blockchain system (2024) helps track illicit fund movements
in banking networks.
7. Committee recommendations: The Malhotra Committee on Financial Reforms
(1997) emphasized tighter regulation of cash-intensive sectors to prevent laundering.
o Eg: Steps to improve reporting standards in sectors like real estate and gold
trade were adopted in 2022.

Conclusion

A multi-faceted approach, combining stringent enforcement, global cooperation, and

innovative technology, is essential to combat money laundering, safeguard financial stability,
and secure India’s national interests.

Q. “Media and social networking sites are increasingly used as instruments of

information warfare”.Examine the implications for internal security in India and
suggest measures to counter this emerging threat. (15 M)

Introduction

Media and social networking platforms have become tools for disinformation, propaganda,
and psychological manipulation, threatening internal security and social cohesion in
democratic nations like India.

Body

Media and social networking sites as instruments of information warfare

1. Misinformation and fake news: Disinformation campaigns spread false narratives,

creating confusion and distrust.
o Eg: Deepfake videos used during the 2020 US elections influenced public
opinion.

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 2. Psychological operations (PsyOps): Platforms are weaponized for mass
manipulation and shaping narratives.
o Eg: China’s influence operations through fake accounts targeting Indian
audiences on Twitter (source: 2021 MoD report).
3. Election manipulation: Bot-generated fake news influences electoral outcomes,
undermining democracy.
o Eg: Alleged manipulation through bots in India’s 2019 elections, flagged by
Election Commission observers.
4. Radicalization and recruitment: Terror groups exploit platforms to indoctrinate and
mobilize individuals.
o Eg: ISIS recruiting youth in Kerala through Telegram and encrypted
messaging apps (NIA report, 2020).
5. Cyber espionage: Malicious actors use fake profiles and phishing to steal sensitive
data.
o Eg: Chinese malware detected in India’s power grid (2020) (source:
NTRO).

Implications for internal security in India

1. Communal tensions and polarization: Disinformation targeting religious and ethnic

groups triggers violence.
o Eg: Social media rumours fuelled the 2020 Delhi riots, escalating communal
tensions (Delhi Police report).
2. Threat to democratic integrity: Fake news and targeted propaganda disrupt electoral
processes and public trust.
o Eg: Allegations of foreign influence in the 2019 Indian elections through
social media platforms.
3. Economic disruption: Misinformation causes panic and disrupts markets, impacting
public confidence.
o Eg: Rumors of bank insolvencies during COVID-19 led to large-scale panic
withdrawals (source: NCRB).
4. Support for organized crime: Criminal networks use social media for planning and
coordination.
o Eg: Dark web platforms used in drug trafficking cases detected by DRI in
2021.
5. Mob violence: Fake news about crimes such as kidnapping leads to mob attacks and
killings.
o Eg: WhatsApp rumors in 2018 caused over 20 mob lynching incidents
across India (NCRB report).

Measures to counter this emerging threat

1. Stronger regulatory frameworks: Amend the IT Act, 2000 to hold platforms

accountable for hosting fake news and harmful content.

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 o Eg: The IT Rules 2021 introduced obligations for platforms to trace origins of
flagged messages.
2. Real-time fact-checking mechanisms: Institutionalize public and private fact-
checking initiatives to counter misinformation.
o Eg: Expansion of PIB Fact Check Unit and partnerships with Alt News.
3. Cybersecurity enhancement: Adopt the National Cyber Security Strategy 2021 to
strengthen critical digital infrastructure.
o Eg: Recommendations by the Lt. Gen. Rajesh Pant Committee include
building cyber forensics capabilities.
4. Public awareness campaigns: Educate citizens about recognizing and reporting fake
news to build digital literacy.
o Eg: Google’s ‘#StaySafeOnline’ campaign educates users about online
threats.
5. International collaboration: Partner with global initiatives to combat transnational
cyber threats and propaganda.
o Eg: India’s participation in the Global Internet Forum to Counter
Terrorism (GIFCT) to address extremist content.

Conclusion

Media and social networking sites, while empowering, can be misused for malicious
purposes. A multi-stakeholder approach, combining technology, governance, and citizen
awareness, is vital to protect India’s internal security and ensure a safe digital ecosystem.

Security challenges and their management in border areas -

linkages of organized crime with terrorism.

Q. How has the abrogation of Article 370 impacted the security scenario and
counterterrorism efforts in Jammu and Kashmir? (10 M)

Introduction
The abrogation of Article 370 on August 5, 2019, sought to fully integrate Jammu and
Kashmir into India’s constitutional framework, with significant effects on security and
counterterrorism measures in the region.

Body

Impact on the security scenario

1. Decline in terror incidents: The number of terror incidents has significantly reduced
due to proactive measures by security forces.

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 o Eg: Terror incidents dropped by 70% between 2019 and 2022, as per
official data.
2. Reduction in local recruitment: Targeted deradicalization programs have led to
fewer youths joining terror groups.
o Eg: Recruitment dropped from 219 in 2018 to 89 in 2021, as reported by
J&K police.
3. Improved border security: Enhanced infrastructure, including modernized fencing
and surveillance, has reduced infiltration.
o Eg: Ceasefire violations fell by 35% in 2022 after a renewed border
agreement between India and Pakistan.
4. Civilian safety: With reduced militant activity, civilian casualties in terror incidents
have declined.
o Eg: Civilian deaths dropped from 191 (2016-2018) to 110 (2019-2021),
according to the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Impact on counterterrorism efforts

1. Unified governance and laws: Direct applicability of central laws has enhanced legal
action against terrorism.
o Eg: The Unlawful Activities Prevention Act (UAPA) was used to convict
1,000+ suspects between 2019-2022.
2. Weakened separatist networks: Crackdowns on separatist leaders and funding
sources have curtailed anti-India propaganda.
o Eg: NIA investigations in 2020 led to the seizure of ₹223 crore linked to
terror financing through hawala networks.
3. Improved intelligence coordination: The formation of new intelligence agencies has
streamlined counterterrorism operations.
o Eg: The State Investigation Agency (SIA), formed in 2021, cracked multiple
terror-related cases in its first year.
4. Development-led counterterrorism: Increased development spending and
employment opportunities have reduced discontent.
o Eg: The Back to Village (B2V) program generated employment for 20,000
youths by 2022.

Challenges

1. Cross-border terrorism: Pakistan-backed groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-

e-Mohammed continue to operate, posing a threat.
o Eg: The Nagrota encounter (2020) exposed infiltration by Jaish-e-
Mohammed operatives despite tighter border controls.
2. Radicalization via digital platforms: Extremist propaganda on encrypted platforms
continues to attract vulnerable youth.
o Eg: Al-Qaeda-affiliated groups increased recruitment via Telegram and
WhatsApp post-abrogation.

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 3. Public alienation: Perceived disenfranchisement post-abrogation has fueled
discontent among some sections of the population.
o Eg: Protests over the delimitation commission’s recommendations (2022)
highlighted local grievances.
4. Restoration of political process: Delayed assembly elections have hindered inclusive
governance.

Conclusion
The abrogation of Article 370 has significantly reduced terrorism and enhanced
counterterrorism measures in J&K. However, addressing cross-border threats, countering
radicalization, and restoring political processes are vital for lasting peace and stability in
the region. A focus on development and inclusivity will ensure the transformation of J&K
into a peaceful and prosperous region.

Q. “Terrorism is not confined to physical violence but includes economic

destabilization and psychological warfare”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction
Terrorism in its modern form transcends physical violence, targeting economic systems and
leveraging psychological tactics to destabilize nations and undermine societal confidence.

Body

Terrorism beyond physical violence

Economic destabilization

1. Disruption of infrastructure: Attacks on power grids, transportation, and

communication systems disrupt economies.
o Eg: The 2015 Ukraine power grid attack disrupted electricity for millions,
affecting economic activity.
2. Terror financing through illicit means: Terrorist groups use money laundering,
drug trafficking, and cryptocurrency for funding.
o Eg: ISIS generated $500 million annually from illegal oil trade during its
peak.
3. Impact on investments and trade: Persistent attacks deter foreign investments and
disrupt trade.
o Eg: Pakistan lost $123 billion in economic growth due to terrorism between
2002-2016 (Pakistan Economic Survey).
4. Tourism and livelihood disruptions: Targeting public spaces deters tourists and
affects local economies.
o Eg: The 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings led to a 70% drop in tourist
arrivals, severely impacting GDP.

Psychological warfare
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 1. Instilling fear and panic: Attacks in public spaces amplify fear, affecting societal
resilience and decision-making.
o Eg: The 9/11 attacks instilled global fear and altered perceptions of safety.
2. Radicalization via digital platforms: Social media is exploited to recruit youth and
spread extremist ideologies.
o Eg: ISIS recruited thousands globally using social media campaigns.
3. Exacerbating communal tensions: Terrorists exploit societal divisions to polarize
communities.
o Eg: The Pulwama attack (2019) intensified communal narratives in India.
4. Misinformation and propaganda: Fake news and digital manipulation erode trust in
institutions and society.
o Eg: The 2019 Christchurch shooting, live-streamed online, amplified
psychological impact and communal tensions.

Steps to counter the threat

1. Strengthen financial oversight: Enforce stringent anti-money laundering (AML) and

counter-terror financing (CFT) mechanisms.
o Eg: FATF grey-listed Pakistan, compelling reforms in its terror financing
mechanisms.
2. Protect critical infrastructure: Enhance cybersecurity and protect vital economic
systems from attacks.
o Eg: India’s National Cyber Security Strategy focuses on safeguarding
digital ecosystems.
3. Counter extremist propaganda: Develop counter-narratives to neutralize
recruitment and misinformation.
o Eg: India’s Cyber Swachhta Kendra combats fake news and radical content.
4. Community and international engagement: Foster communal harmony and global
collaboration to dismantle terror networks.
o Eg: The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006) promotes
coordinated global actions.
5. Education and awareness: Promote digital literacy and social cohesion to reduce
susceptibility to radicalization.
o Eg: Manipur’s community-driven anti-insurgency programs successfully
engage locals in preventing extremist activities.
6. Technological regulations: Enforce stringent content moderation on digital platforms
to curb online extremism.
o Eg: India’s IT Rules (2021) mandate platforms to remove harmful content
promptly.

Conclusion
Terrorism today is a complex threat targeting economies, societies, and minds. A
comprehensive strategy combining robust security frameworks, financial vigilance, and
societal resilience is vital to counter its multifaceted dimensions effectively

86
Q. “The evolving nexus between organized crime and terrorism is undermining
India’s border security”. Discuss this linkage with contemporary examples and
its implications for national security. (10 M)

Introduction

The nexus between organized crime and terrorism is a growing challenge, leveraging
illegal activities such as drug trafficking and arms smuggling to finance terror operations,
directly threatening India’s border security.

Body

The evolving nexus between organized crime and terrorism

1. Financial linkage: Organized crime funds terrorism through illegal trade and
extortion.
o Eg: The narcotics trade in Punjab is often linked to financing terrorist
activities.
2. Shared networks: Criminal syndicates provide logistical support to terror groups,
including arms and fake documents.
o Eg: Smuggling networks in North-East India aid insurgent groups like
ULFA.
3. Use of border vulnerabilities: Porous borders are exploited for human trafficking,
drug smuggling, and infiltration.
o Eg: Increased drone activity across the Punjab border for drugs and
weapons in 2023.
4. Money laundering and hawala: Terror groups use organized crime to launder
money through informal channels.
o Eg: The Terror Funding and Fake Currency (TFFC) operations uncovered
hawala networks linked to terror financing.
5. Weapon proliferation: Illegal arms trade is a critical enabler of terrorism, especially
in conflict zones.
o Eg: Recovery of arms smuggled via India-Myanmar border by militant
groups in Manipur.

Implications for national security

1. Undermining border integrity: Smuggling of drugs, arms, and fake currency

weakens border security and governance.
o Eg: Seizures along the Indo-Bangladesh border indicate increased
trafficking activities.
2. Threat to internal stability: Linkages between organized crime and terrorism fuel
insurgencies and communal tensions.

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 o Eg: Drug cartels in Punjab exacerbate youth addiction and fund extremist
elements.
3. Economic destabilization: Fake currency circulation disrupts financial systems,
affecting economic stability.
o Eg: RBI reports on counterfeit notes in 2023 highlight increased detection
of fake Rs. 500 notes.
4. Increase in hybrid threats: Technological advancements like drones amplify
transnational threats.
o Eg: Drone-based arms and narcotics drops reported in Jammu and Punjab.
5. Strain on law enforcement: Combating multi-layered threats diverts resources,
impacting other security priorities.
o Eg: National Investigation Agency's (NIA) focus on terror funding cases
reduces attention to other critical areas.

What can be done

1. Integrated border management: Enhance coordination among border forces and use
advanced technology like drones and sensors.
o Eg: Implementation of the Comprehensive Integrated Border Management
System (CIBMS) along sensitive borders.
2. Strengthening legal frameworks: Amend laws to tackle transnational crimes and
terror financing more effectively.
o Eg: Strengthening Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) to address
emerging threats.
3. Intelligence sharing and cooperation: Regional and international partnerships must
focus on intelligence sharing to counter organized crime.
o Eg: Cooperation with Interpol on trafficking networks and terror links.
4. Community engagement in border areas: Develop local economies and involve
communities to reduce dependence on illegal activities.
o Eg: Programs like Vibrant Villages Programme (2023) along the India-
China border.
5. Specialized agencies and task forces: Create dedicated units to counter organized
crime and terror funding.
o Eg: Formation of the Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) for coordinated
intelligence gathering.

Conclusion

Addressing the nexus between organized crime and terrorism demands a multi-pronged
strategy combining advanced technology, robust legal frameworks, and international
cooperation. Strengthening community engagement and focusing on socio-economic
development in border areas will ensure a sustainable solution to this evolving threat.

88
Q. “Effective border management requires a multi-dimensional approach
encompassing defence, diplomacy, and development”. Comment (15 M)

Introduction

Border management is a dynamic process, requiring an integrated approach that blends

defence, diplomacy, and development to counter evolving threats and ensure national
security.

Body

Role of defence in border management

1. Strengthening infrastructure and forces: Deployment of advanced technology,

fencing, and trained personnel enhances border security.
o Eg: CIBMS implemented along India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh borders
using smart fences.
2. Joint operations and coordination: Improved coordination between forces like BSF,
ITBP, and Indian Army tackles cross-border infiltration and terrorism.
o Eg: The success of surgical strikes (2016) highlighted operational synergy.
3. Cybersecurity integration: Cyber defence is crucial to protect sensitive data and
critical infrastructure from cross-border cyberattacks.
o Eg: Establishment of the Defence Cyber Agency (2018) to counter cyber
threats from adversaries.
4. Use of advanced surveillance technology: Drones, night-vision cameras, and
satellite imaging help monitor sensitive areas effectively.
o Eg: Deployment of Heron drones in Ladakh during the India-China standoff
(2020).

Importance of diplomacy in border management

1. Bilateral agreements: Diplomacy resolves disputes, reduces tensions, and ensures

peaceful co-existence.
o Eg: Indus Waters Treaty (1960) governs shared water resources with
Pakistan.
2. Confidence-building measures (CBMs): CBMs like hotline mechanisms and flag
meetings foster trust between neighbouring nations.
o Eg: Regular flag meetings between India and China post Doklam standoff
(2017).
3. Leveraging multilateral platforms: Regional forums like SAARC and BIMSTEC
aid in tackling transnational issues like trafficking.
o Eg: India’s active role in BIMSTEC’s Disaster Management and Security
Cooperation (2022).

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 4. Border-specific cooperation mechanisms: Agreements tailored to specific borders
address unique challenges.
o Eg: India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (2015) resolved decades-
old disputes and improved relations.

Development as a cornerstone of border management

1. Infrastructure development: Road, rail, and air connectivity improve both defence
readiness and civilian access in border areas.
o Eg: Completion of the Atal Tunnel (2020) reduced travel time to Ladakh’s
border regions.
2. Empowering local communities: Providing education, healthcare, and employment
reduces alienation and gains public support for security measures.
o Eg: Vibrant Villages Programme (2023) prioritizes socio-economic
development in border regions.
3. Economic integration: Border trade through regulated haats or markets fosters trust
and reduces illegal activities.
o Eg: Operationalization of India-Bangladesh border haats improved local
economies.
4. Telecom and digital inclusion: Providing internet access enhances governance,
connects isolated regions, and reduces insurgency risks.
o Eg: BharatNet project improved digital connectivity in border villages of
Arunachal Pradesh.

Challenges and gaps in implementation

1. Porous borders: Geographical and climatic conditions make fencing ineffective in

some areas.
o Eg: Persistent infiltration along the Indo-Bangladesh border despite the
fencing project.
2. Coordination issues: Overlapping jurisdictions of border forces and local law
enforcement lead to inefficiencies.
o Eg: Pathankot airbase attack (2016) exposed gaps in inter-agency
coordination.
3. Funding and resource constraints: Insufficient allocation for technology and
infrastructure hampers comprehensive security.
o Eg: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defence (2022) highlighted
underutilization of border management funds.
4. Increased hybrid threats: Emerging challenges like cyber infiltration, drones, and
smuggling complicate traditional security measures.
o Eg: Rising drone activity along the Punjab border for drug and arms
smuggling.

Conclusion

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Modernizing border infrastructure, integrating cutting-edge technology, and empowering
border communities through targeted development initiatives are vital for comprehensive
management. Institutional synergy and proactive diplomacy, supported by a National
Border Management Policy, are essential to create secure and resilient borders in the face of
evolving challenges.

Q. “Urban terrorism is an evolving threat to India's internal security

architecture”. Analyze the factors contributing to it and suggest
countermeasures. (10 M)

Introduction
The rapid urbanization and technological advancements in India have transformed
cities into potential targets for terrorism, exploiting vulnerabilities in infrastructure, public
spaces, and digital networks.

Body

Urban Terrorism as an Evolving Threat

1. Exploitation of urban complexity: Dense populations, diverse socio-economic

profiles, and extensive transportation networks offer cover and operational advantages
to terrorists.
o Eg: The 2008 Mumbai attacks, where attackers utilized urban transport hubs
and hotels to maximize impact.
2. Expansion of sleeper cells: Urban areas provide ideal conditions for radical elements
to remain dormant and strike at opportune moments.
o Eg: The 2014 Burdwan blast, which exposed an urban-based terror module
linked to foreign networks.
3. Targeting urban symbols of power: Cities house political, financial, and
technological institutions, making them lucrative targets for terrorism.
o Eg: The 2001 Parliament attack, which aimed at destabilizing national
governance.

Factors Contributing to Urban Terrorism

1. Unregulated urban expansion: Rapid growth of unplanned settlements and slums

creates security blind spots and logistical challenges.
o Eg: Terror suspects found hiding in Delhi's unauthorized colonies, as per
intelligence reports.
2. Digital radicalization and recruitment: Social media platforms facilitate the spread
of extremist propaganda, aiding recruitment in urban areas.
o Eg: Multiple arrests of youth radicalized via Telegram and WhatsApp
channels by global terror outfits.

91
 3. Availability of advanced logistics: Easy access to transportation, financial services,
and rental spaces enables terrorists to plan attacks discreetly.
o Eg: The use of ride-hailing apps and e-commerce platforms in the 2018
Hyderabad terror plot.
4. Gaps in urban policing: The overstretched law enforcement agencies struggle with
the scale and complexity of city-based threats.
o Eg: The lack of adequate counter-terror training for local police forces, as
observed in major metro cities.
5. Influence of global terrorist networks: Urban nodes are increasingly linked to
transnational terror groups, leveraging porous international connections.
o Eg: The arrest of urban operatives linked to Al-Qaeda's Indian Subcontinent
(AQIS) unit in 2021.

Suggested Countermeasures

1. Smart surveillance systems: Deploying AI-based facial recognition and predictive

analytics to monitor potential threats.
o Eg: The use of integrated CCTV networks in cities like Mumbai and
Bengaluru for early threat detection.
2. Urban counter-terrorism task forces: Dedicated units focusing on intelligence
gathering, risk assessment, and rapid response.
o Eg: The establishment of NSG hubs in major urban centers for immediate
action.
3. Strengthening legal frameworks: Updating urban-specific security policies to
counter evolving terror tactics effectively.
o Eg: The 2019 amendments to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
(UAPA) for individual designation.
4. Community engagement initiatives: Sensitizing citizens through awareness
programs and involving them in vigilance efforts.
o Eg: The Hyderabad Police's 'Know Your Neighbour' initiative, enhancing
community participation in security.
5. Securing critical urban infrastructure: Conducting vulnerability assessments and
improving resilience mechanisms in transport, energy, and communication networks.
o Eg: The deployment of Rapid Action Force (RAF) units to protect metro
systems during high-threat alerts.

Conclusion
A comprehensive urban security strategy, combining technological innovation, community
cooperation, and policy reforms, is essential to effectively counter the evolving threat of
urban terrorism in India.

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Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.
Q. “Paramilitary forces are the backbone of India’s internal security, yet they
face significant structural and operational challenges”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

Paramilitary forces form the backbone of India’s internal security architecture, addressing
challenges like insurgency, terrorism, and border protection. However, they face persistent
structural and operational issues that need immediate attention to ensure national stability and
preparedness.

Body

Paramilitary forces are the backbone of India’s internal security

1. Counter-terrorism and insurgency operations: Paramilitary forces are instrumental

in neutralizing terrorist activities and insurgencies, particularly in conflict-prone
regions.
o Eg: Assam Rifles has been pivotal in reducing insurgent activities in the
North-East, such as combating the National Socialist Council of Nagaland
(NSCN) factions.
2. Border management and surveillance: Forces like the BSF and ITBP ensure
national border security and prevent infiltration.
o Eg: BSF’s vigilance along the India-Pakistan border has prevented drug
smuggling and infiltration, particularly in Punjab in 2022.
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 3. Assistance during natural disasters: Paramilitary forces provide critical support
during disasters, rescuing civilians and delivering essential supplies.
o Eg: NDRF, under CISF personnel, carried out rescue operations during the
2022 Assam floods, evacuating over 25,000 people.
4. Ensuring election security: Paramilitary forces maintain law and order, enabling free
and fair elections in sensitive regions.
o Eg: CRPF’s deployment in 2023 Tripura elections ensured peaceful polling
in left-wing extremism-affected areas.
5. Restoration of law and order: Units like RAF respond rapidly to communal unrest
and riots.
o Eg: RAF’s intervention during the Delhi riots in 2020 helped restore peace
and prevent escalation of violence.

Significant structural and operational challenges

1. Overlapping jurisdictions: Role conflicts between paramilitary forces and state

agencies create inefficiencies.
o Eg: BSF and Punjab Police’s conflicting jurisdiction on counter-infiltration
operations in border areas led to delays in the 2022 Fazilka drug seizure case.
2. Modernization deficits: Outdated weapons and surveillance systems reduce
operational efficiency.
o Eg: The 2022 CAG report on BSF highlighted inadequate procurement of
night-vision devices, leaving 40% of border areas poorly monitored.
3. Workforce stress and mental health: Prolonged deployments and lack of support
systems have led to high attrition rates and suicides.
o Eg: According to NCRB (2023), over 120 paramilitary personnel died by
suicide, citing work stress and limited leave as contributing factors.
4. Inadequate training: Limited exposure to modern counter-insurgency methods and
cyberwarfare techniques impacts readiness.
o Eg: The Shekatkar Committee (2016) emphasized the need for specialized
training programs for paramilitary forces in high-tech warfare.
5. Poor infrastructure: Substandard living conditions and lack of basic amenities affect
morale and preparedness.
o Eg: A Parliamentary Committee report (2021) highlighted the poor
condition of ITBP border posts, with inadequate heating in Ladakh’s sub-zero
temperatures.
6. Coordination challenges: Poor communication between paramilitary forces and local
police reduces operational efficiency.
o Eg: Lack of coordination during the 2019 Pulwama attack investigation
delayed critical responses and intelligence-sharing.

What needs to be done

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 1. Prioritize modernization: Invest in advanced equipment like drones, surveillance
systems, and automated weaponry.
o Eg: The Defence Acquisition Procedure (2020) recommends fast-tracked
procurement for critical operations.
2. Enhanced training: Provide forces with cyberwarfare and counter-terrorism training
through partnerships with global security institutions.
o Eg: Collaborative training programs with Israel’s counter-terrorism forces
can enhance expertise.
3. Strengthen welfare measures: Implement stress management programs, increase
leave availability, and provide psychological support.
o Eg: The CAPF Plan 2023 includes proposals for mental health helplines and
mandatory counseling sessions.
4. Improve infrastructure: Upgrade facilities in border outposts and camps to meet
modern operational standards.
o Eg: The India-China Border Infrastructure Development Plan (2022)
upgraded ITBP camps along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
5. Enhance coordination mechanisms: Establish clear communication protocols
between paramilitary and state forces to avoid delays.
o Eg: The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2008) emphasized
joint operational planning and resource-sharing frameworks.
6. Role clarity and restructuring: Clearly delineate jurisdictions of paramilitary forces
to avoid conflicts with state and central agencies.
o Eg: Implementation of Shekatkar Committee recommendations (2016) for
rationalizing roles across forces.

Conclusion

Paramilitary forces are indispensable for India’s internal security, but addressing their
challenges through modernization, welfare reforms, and strategic coordination is essential. A
reformed and well-equipped paramilitary force will ensure a more secure and resilient India.

Q. Analyze the role of India’s specialized agencies, such as CERT-In and NTRO,
in mitigating threats emerging from communication networks. (10 M)

Introduction

The expanding communication networks have increased India's vulnerability to cyber

threats such as espionage, ransomware, and data breaches. Agencies like CERT-In and
NTRO play a critical role in safeguarding the nation's digital infrastructure and ensuring
cyber resilience.

Body

Role of CERT-In in mitigating threats

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 1. Incident response and advisories: CERT-In acts as the nodal agency for handling
cyber incidents, providing real-time solutions to mitigate their impact.
o Eg: Issued urgent guidelines during the WannaCry ransomware attack
(2017) to control its spread in India.
2. Vulnerability assessments: Conducts security audits and regular vulnerability
testing for key sectors such as telecom, energy, and banking.
o Eg: Issued alerts on Microsoft Exchange Server vulnerabilities (2021) to
prevent widespread exploitation.
3. Threat intelligence and alerts: Disseminates threat intelligence and real-time alerts
to stakeholders, enabling preventive actions.
o Eg: Published COVID-19 phishing alerts (2020) to safeguard against
fraudulent schemes targeting healthcare data.
4. Public awareness campaigns: Promotes cyber hygiene through initiatives aimed at
educating individuals and organizations about secure practices.
o Eg: Launched the Cyber Swachhta Kendra to combat malware and secure
devices.
5. Global collaboration: Collaborates with international organizations like APCERT
and FIRST to combat transnational cyber threats.
o Eg: Participated in the APCERT Cyber Drill 2022, enhancing India's
readiness against global cyberattacks.

Role of NTRO in mitigating threats

1. Cyber threat intelligence: Provides technical intelligence to preempt cyberattacks

by adversarial entities, focusing on strategic areas like defense and energy.
o Eg: Detected and countered Chinese malware targeting Indian power grids
(2020).
2. Securing critical communication networks: Protects classified communication
systems and sensitive government networks from breaches.
o Eg: Played a vital role in securing DRDO’s communication channels during
critical projects.
3. Offensive cyber operations: Engages in proactive cyber defense, identifying and
neutralizing malicious actors targeting national security.
o Eg: Neutralized cyber-espionage attempts in India's defense and telecom
sectors (2022).
4. Counter-terrorism intelligence: Tracks terrorist communication networks,
including the darknet, to disrupt their activities.
o Eg: Assisted in identifying and dismantling terrorist operations during
Pulwama investigations (2019).
5. Capacity building and R&D: Develops indigenous cybersecurity tools and
conducts training programs to bolster India’s cyber defense ecosystem.
o Eg: Trained armed forces personnel on cyber warfare preparedness and
secure network protocols.

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Conclusion

India’s cybersecurity ecosystem relies heavily on specialized agencies like CERT-In and
NTRO for proactive threat mitigation. To counter evolving challenges, their capacity must be
enhanced through policy support, resource allocation, and global collaborations, ensuring
robust protection of the nation’s communication networks.

97
 Secure Synopsis compilation for February-2025
General Studies-3

Table of contents

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth,

development and employment.-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Q. Discuss the potential macroeconomic impact of the recent personal income tax cuts
announced in the Union Budget 2025-26. How might it influence consumption, investment,
and economic growth in India? (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Q. “While Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) have traditionally focused on credit
delivery, their transformation into multi-purpose societies can catalyze rural economic
growth”. Discuss. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Q. “The shift from subsistence agriculture to agribusiness is crucial for India’s rural
economic transformation”. Examine the role of farmer-producer organizations (FPOs) and
private sector investments in this transition. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------- 9
Q. Examine the economic implications of the increasing reliance on cesses and surcharges in
India’s tax structure. How does this trend impact fiscal federalism and State revenues? (15
M)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Q. Examine the recent trends of FII outflows from Indian markets. Discuss the underlying
causes and their impact on market stability and domestic investment sentiment. (15 M) ------ 14
Q. The Income Tax Bill, 2025, aims to simplify tax laws by reducing redundancies and
restructuring provisions while maintaining continuity in direct taxation. Critically examine
whether this reform is substantive or merely procedural. (15 M)-------------------------------------- 16
Q. The ‘last mile’ of disinflation is becoming increasingly challenging in the current global
economic environment. Discuss the implications of this phenomenon for India’s monetary
policy. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Q. Why does India lag behind in textile exports despite being a global leader in fibre
production? How do fragmented supply chains and high production costs affect
competitiveness? What measures can enhance efficiency and integration? (15 M) -------------- 22
Q. Ensuring financial sustainability in Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) requires
reducing subsidy dependence through innovative revenue models. Discuss how alternative
financial instruments can enhance their long-term viability and analyze the challenges in
their rural implementation. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24

1
 Q. Explain the concept of forex buy-sell swaps and analyze how the RBI is using them as a
liquidity management tool. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Q. Examine the role of tax buoyancy in achieving sustainable economic growth. Analyze the
challenges in maintaining a stable tax-to-GDP ratio. Suggest measures to enhance revenue
mobilization while ensuring fiscal discipline. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------- 27
Q. Examine the impact of reciprocal tariffs on the global trade order. Analyze how tariff wars
and global trade disruptions shape India’s economic strategy. Assess India’s policy options to
maintain competitiveness amid rising protectionism. (15 M) -------------------------------------------- 30
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. --------------------------------------------------------32
Q. What are aspiration-centric jobs, and why are they crucial for India’s youth in the context
of rural development and demographic dividend? Suggest strategies to promote such jobs.
(15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Q. The North-South economic divide in India is not just a question of per capita income but
also structural development disparities. Comment. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------- 34
Government Budgeting. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, - different types of irrigation
and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues
and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers. -------------------------------------37
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public
Distribution System-objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks
and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. ----------------------37
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and significance, location,
upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. -------------------------37
Land reforms in India. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Q. "The gig economy can be a catalyst for economic growth, but without proper regulation, it
risks creating a new class of precarious labour”. Discuss how India's labour policies can
balance gig work flexibility with social security entitlements. (15 M) -------------------------------- 37
Q. What are the major changes introduced in the Boilers Bill, 2024? How do they aim to
improve industrial safety and compliance? (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------- 39
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. -----------------------------------42
Q. The PM Suryagarh Muft Bijli Yojana aims to empower ordinary citizens as energy
producers. Discuss its significance in decentralizing energy production and its potential
impact on rural livelihoods. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 42
Q. Transmission infrastructure is often considered the ‘Achilles' heel’ of India’s power sector.
Evaluate the challenges in power transmission and distribution, and suggest reforms to
enhance efficiency and reliability. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Q. Ports act as strategic gateways for trade but are often constrained by inefficiencies.
Examine the key challenges in Indian port infrastructure and how the “One Nation-One
Port” initiative can address them. (10 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------- 45

2
Investment models. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Q. What is an Einstein Ring? Explain its formation with the concept of gravitational lensing
and its implications in modern astrophysics .(10 M) ------------------------------------------------------- 47
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and
developing new technology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------49
Q. Despite having multiple launch vehicles, ISRO faces constraints in launching heavy
payloads and scientific missions. Analyze the deficiencies in India’s launch vehicle ecosystem
and suggest measures to enhance India's competitiveness in the global space market. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-technology, bio-
technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights. -----------------------------------51
Q. Throw light on the current asteroid detection and tracking systems, highlighting their key
features. How can emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and space-based
observatories enhance their effectiveness? (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------- 51
Q. “The vulnerability of AI chatbots to indirect prompt injection attacks raises concerns over
their security and reliability”. Examine the implications of such attacks on digital trust and
cybersecurity. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Q. What is a biosimilar? How do biosimilars contribute to affordable healthcare, and what
are the key barriers to their large-scale adoption in India? Suggest reforms to make Indian
biosimilars globally competitive. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
Q. Examine how new materials like topoconductors are improving quantum computing.
Discuss their role in making quantum processors more stable. Evaluate the potential of these
materials for large-scale quantum computing. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------- 57
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
Q. “Wetland ecosystems are increasingly vulnerable due to anthropogenic pressures”.
Analyze the key challenges in wetland conservation in India and suggest innovative strategies
for their sustainable management. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
Q. “Conservation strategies must adapt to the dual challenges of biodiversity loss and climate
change”. Analyze how International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) can serve as a model for
integrated conservation approaches. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 61
Q. “Sacred groves are not merely ecological hotspots but also living repositories of cultural
heritage and traditional knowledge”. Examine their role in promoting sustainable
development and biodiversity conservation. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------- 62
Q. How does habitat fragmentation create ‘ecological traps’ for wildlife? Discuss its
implications for conservation. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Q. How does the textile industry contribute to environmental pollution in India, and what
role can sustainable consumer choices play in reducing its impact? (10 M) ------------------------ 66
Q. Examine the significance of international carbon market mechanisms in achieving global
climate goals. How can India leverage these mechanisms to accelerate its low-carbon

3
 transition? Discuss the risks associated with emissions trading for developing nations. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Q. Analyze why protected areas alone are insufficient for wildlife conservation. Suggest
alternative strategies for effective biodiversity protection. (10 M) ------------------------------------- 70
Q. What is emissions intensity, and why is it critical for India’s industrial sector? Analyze the
potential challenges and opportunities of implementing emissions intensity targets in carbon-
intensive industries. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
Disaster and disaster management.-------------------------------------------------------------------74
Q. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has formulated a National
Framework for Heatwave Mitigation and Management. Evaluate its key provisions and
effectiveness in enhancing India's heatwave resilience. (15 M) ----------------------------------------- 74
Q. Why has India not been able to develop a robust seismic preparedness strategy despite
being located in an active tectonic zone? Identify the key gaps in disaster risk reduction. (10
M)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
Q. A disaster is rarely the result of a single factor; rather, it is an outcome of multiple
vulnerabilities converging at a point. Discuss. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------- 78
Linkages between development and spread of extremism. ---------------------------------------80
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security. ----80
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-
laundering and its prevention.-------------------------------------------------------------------------80
Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime
with terrorism. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80
Q. Analyze the challenges faced by India’s border management forces in combating drug
trafficking. Suggest technological and strategic solutions. (10 M) ------------------------------------- 80
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate. ----------------------------------------82
Q. While the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) plays a crucial role in India’s internal
security, its expanding mandate raises concerns of operational overstretch. Examine the
implications of this trend. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of

resources, growth, development and employment.
Q. Discuss the potential macroeconomic impact of the recent personal income tax
cuts announced in the Union Budget 2025-26. How might it influence
consumption, investment, and economic growth in India? (15 M)

Introduction:
The Union Budget 2025-26 introduced significant personal income tax cuts aimed at
revitalizing India's economy amidst concerns of sluggish consumption, low private

4
investment, and stagnant economic growth, marking a pivotal shift towards a demand-
driven fiscal strategy.

Body:

Potential macroeconomic impact of the recent personal income tax cuts

1. Boost in disposable income: Increased take-home pay enhances the purchasing

power of individuals, potentially stimulating aggregate demand.
o Eg: The government estimates an additional ₹1 lakh crore in the hands of
taxpayers, potentially boosting household consumption (Union Budget 2025-
26).
2. Reduction in household debt stress: Higher disposable income may help in reducing
dependence on personal loans, thereby lowering household debt burdens.
o Eg: RBI data (FY24) indicates household debt at 41% of GDP; tax cuts may
ease this financial strain.
3. Fiscal implications for government revenue: Short-term reduction in tax revenues
may widen the fiscal deficit, necessitating adjustments in expenditure or borrowing.
o Eg: The government anticipates a revenue foregone of ₹1 lakh crore,
impacting fiscal consolidation targets.
4. Potential inflationary pressures: Increased demand without corresponding supply-
side adjustments could lead to demand-pull inflation.
o Eg: Concerns about inflationary trends in core goods and services due to
sudden demand surges (Economic Survey 2025).
5. Shift towards a consumption-led growth model: Indicates a strategic pivot from
supply-side measures (like corporate tax cuts) to strengthening domestic demand.
o Eg: Acceptance of the limited impact of the 2019 corporate tax cut on
private sector investments (The Indian Express, 2025).

Influence on consumption

1. Increase in discretionary spending: Households are likely to spend more on non-

essential goods and services, boosting sectors like retail and hospitality.
o Eg: Expected growth in FMCG and consumer durables sectors post-tax cuts
(Motilal Oswal Economic Outlook, 2025).
2. Revival of rural demand: Tax cuts may indirectly stimulate rural consumption
through remittances and employment multiplier effects.
o Eg: Higher remittances from urban to rural households can boost demand for
rural goods and services.
3. Support for service sector growth: Enhanced consumption expenditure can drive
growth in sectors like travel, tourism, and entertainment.
o Eg: Tourism sector recovery post-pandemic, benefiting from increased
discretionary incomes.

5
 4. Positive consumer sentiment: Psychological impact of tax relief fosters consumer
confidence, leading to higher spending tendencies.
o Eg: Consumer Confidence Survey (RBI, 2025) predicts improved
sentiments in urban centers post-tax cuts.

Influence on investment

1. Crowding-in private investment: Higher consumption creates demand for goods

and services, incentivizing businesses to invest in expanding production capacities.
o Eg: Auto sector companies planning capacity expansions anticipating higher
demand (Auto Expo Insights, 2025).
2. Reduction in cost of capital: Increased savings may enhance liquidity in financial
markets, reducing interest rates and encouraging investments.
o Eg: Lower lending rates projected by banks due to improved deposit growth
(RBI Monetary Policy Review, 2025).
3. Improved business confidence: Strong domestic demand reduces business risks,
attracting both domestic and foreign direct investments (FDI).
o Eg: Surge in FDI inflows into consumer-driven sectors like e-commerce post-
economic stimulus measures.
4. Revival of MSMEs: Enhanced consumption fuels demand for MSME products,
encouraging reinvestment and business expansion.
o Eg: Growth in textiles and handicrafts MSMEs post-increased domestic
demand during festival seasons.

Influence on economic growth in India

1. Acceleration of GDP growth: Higher consumption and investment can trigger a

multiplier effect, boosting GDP growth.
o Eg: Multiplier effect estimated at 1.01 for income tax cuts, meaning ₹1
reduction in tax increases GDP by ₹1.01 (Madras School of Economics
Study, 2025).
2. Shift towards a demand-driven growth model: Corrects the earlier over-reliance on
supply-side measures like corporate tax cuts.
o Eg: Transition from the 2019 corporate tax-led growth strategy to a
consumer demand-led model in Budget 2025.
3. Balanced regional growth: Consumption-driven growth tends to be more
geographically spread, benefiting both urban and rural areas.
o Eg: Increased spending in tier-2 and tier-3 cities, driving regional economic
development.
4. Reduction in unemployment: Demand-led growth stimulates job creation in labor-
intensive sectors, reducing unemployment rates.
o Eg: Potential increase in retail and construction sector employment post-
boost in consumption expenditure.

6
Conclusion
While the personal income tax cuts in Budget 2025-26 offer a short-term stimulus to
consumption and investment, their long-term impact on economic growth will depend on
complementary reforms addressing structural issues such as job creation, income inequality,
and supply-side constraints. A balanced fiscal strategy integrating both demand and
supply-side measures is essential for sustainable growth.

Q. “While Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) have traditionally

focused on credit delivery, their transformation into multi-purpose societies can
catalyze rural economic growth”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

PACS, the lowest tier of the cooperative credit structure, have been instrumental in providing
short-term credit to farmers. However, with evolving rural economic needs, their transition
into multi-purpose entities aligns with the vision of financial inclusion and rural
development.

Body

Traditional role of PACS in credit delivery

1. Short-term agricultural credit: PACS provide affordable credit for seeds,

fertilizers, and farm inputs, ensuring timely access to capital.
o Eg: PACS disbursements under the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme
facilitate crop loans for small and marginal farmers.
2. Link between farmers and cooperative banks: Act as a bridge between farmers and
District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) for credit disbursement.
o Eg: In states like Maharashtra, PACS streamline credit flow to rural areas
through DCCBs.
3. Support during agricultural distress: Offer credit during natural disasters like
droughts and floods, helping farmers recover.
o Eg: PACS in Odisha provided emergency credit post-Cyclone Fani (2019).
4. Credit for allied activities: Limited credit for activities like dairy, poultry, and
fisheries in some regions.
o Eg: PACS under the PM Matsya Sampada Yojana support fishery-related
credit needs.

Transformation into multi-purpose societies catalysing rural economic growth

1. Diversification beyond credit: Involvement in activities like input supply, storage,

processing, and marketing reduces dependency on middlemen.
o Eg: PACS in Gujarat manage agro-processing units, adding value to
agricultural produce.

7
 2. Promotion of rural entrepreneurship: Provide credit and infrastructure for micro-
enterprises, fostering self-employment opportunities.
o Eg: PACS in Kerala support local entrepreneurs under the Kudumbashree
Mission.
3. Improved financial inclusion: Offering services like insurance, pension schemes,
and digital banking enhances rural financial access.
o Eg: Integration with Jan Dhan Yojana has enabled PACS to provide basic
banking services in remote villages.
4. Boost to organic and sustainable agriculture: Facilitate procurement, certification,
and marketing of organic products.
o Eg: Collaboration with National Cooperative Organics Limited (NCOL)
promotes organic farming in Uttarakhand.
5. Employment generation through rural infrastructure: Engaging in warehousing,
cold storage, and logistics creates direct and indirect rural jobs.
o Eg: PACS-led storage infrastructure under the Gramin Bhandaran Yojana
in Punjab supports rural employment.

Challenges in transforming PACS into multi-purpose societies

1. Lack of professional management: Inadequate managerial skills hinder effective

diversification and expansion.
o Eg: The Vaidyanathan Committee (2004) highlighted governance issues in
PACS operations.
2. Technological gaps: Limited access to digital infrastructure affects the
implementation of ERP-based systems.
o Eg: Slow ERP adoption in northeastern states due to poor internet
connectivity.
3. Financial constraints: Many PACS face issues of low capital base and high non-
performing assets (NPAs).
o Eg: As per NABARD’s 2023 report, over 30% of PACS are under financial
stress.
4. Regulatory and legal hurdles: Overlapping jurisdiction between state and central
authorities causes policy ambiguities.
o Eg: Issues in cooperative regulation post the 97th Constitutional
Amendment leading to legal disputes.

Way forward

1. Capacity building and professional training: Training PACS members in financial

management, marketing, and digital literacy.
o Eg: NABARD’s Cooperative Development Fund supports training
programs for PACS.
2. Technological upgradation: Strengthening ERP-based systems for transparent and
efficient operations.

8
 o Eg: ₹2,516 crore PACS computerization project aims to digitize over
50,000 PACS nationwide.
3. Policy reforms for autonomy: Revising cooperative laws to grant greater
operational autonomy while ensuring accountability.
4. Convergence with government schemes: Aligning PACS with schemes like PM
Fasal Bima Yojana, PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, and DIDF for holistic rural
development.
o Eg: PACS functioning as nodal agencies under PM Kisan Samman Nidhi in
several states.

Conclusion

PACS hold the potential to become growth engines of rural India if empowered with the
right mix of technology, governance reforms, and financial autonomy. Their
transformation can drive inclusive rural development, ensuring resilience and
sustainability in the agricultural economy.

Q. “The shift from subsistence agriculture to agribusiness is crucial for India’s

rural economic transformation”. Examine the role of farmer-producer
organizations (FPOs) and private sector investments in this transition. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s agriculture sector must transition from low-yield subsistence farming to agribusiness-
driven, value-chain-based agriculture to ensure higher incomes, employment generation,
and rural development. The National Commission on Farmers (Swaminathan Report,
2006) emphasized the need for FPOs and private investments to facilitate this shift.

Body

The shift from subsistence agriculture to agribusiness is crucial for rural economic
transformation

1. Income diversification and risk reduction: Agribusiness ensures farmers move

beyond crop cultivation to processing, packaging, and marketing, reducing
dependence on monsoon and commodity price fluctuations.
o Eg: PM-Formalization of Micro Food Enterprises (PM-FME), 2020
supports agribusiness ventures.
2. Higher farm productivity and efficiency: Agribusiness promotes modern
technologies, better inputs, and mechanization, increasing yield and reducing
wastage.
o Eg: Adoption of precision farming in states like Punjab and Haryana has
boosted yields by 20-30%.

9
 3. Integration with global value chains: Agribusiness facilitates exports, contract
farming, and agri-exports, helping farmers access higher-paying international
markets.
o Eg: APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority) supports agricultural exports.
4. Generation of rural employment: Agribusiness involves food processing, logistics,
and warehousing, creating non-farm employment in rural areas.
o Eg: Operation Greens (2018) aims to create agri-processing zones for
employment generation.
5. Improved access to institutional credit: Shift to agribusiness reduces dependence
on informal moneylenders as banks prefer lending to structured business entities.
o Eg: Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme now covers agribusiness activities
like dairy, fisheries, and poultry.

Role of farmer-producer organizations (FPOs) in this transition

1. Collective bargaining power: FPOs pool small farmers, reducing input costs and
negotiating better prices for produce.
o Eg: SFAC (Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium) has promoted over
10,000 FPOs under the National Agriculture Policy, 2020.
2. Better market linkages and reduced exploitation: FPOs help farmers directly sell
their produce, bypassing middlemen.
o Eg: Amul Dairy Cooperative ensures farmers receive 80% of consumer
price, compared to 20-30% in traditional markets.
3. Access to technology and training: FPOs facilitate training in modern farming
techniques, post-harvest processing, and packaging.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu Banana Farmers FPO introduced vacuum packing
technology, reducing spoilage and boosting exports.
4. Facilitating agri-processing and value addition: FPOs encourage processing of
raw produce into finished goods, increasing profitability.
o Eg: Mahila Umang Producers Company, Uttarakhand, empowers rural
women through organic food processing.
5. Integration with government schemes and financial support: FPOs benefit from
schemes like Equity Grant and Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme.
o Eg: NABARD’s PRODUCE Fund (2014) offers financial aid to emerging
FPOs.

Role of private sector investments in this transition

1. Expansion of agri-infrastructure: Private investments in cold storage,

warehousing, and logistics ensure better farm-gate pricing and reduced wastage.
o Eg: Reliance Fresh and BigBasket have set up direct procurement
channels from farmers.

10
 2. Boosting food processing industries: Private sector enhances value addition,
reducing post-harvest losses and increasing profits.
o Eg: ITC’s e-Choupal initiative provides direct market access to 4 million
farmers.
3. Technology adoption and digital agriculture: Private players introduce AI, IoT,
and data-driven farming solutions, increasing productivity.
o Eg: Microsoft and CropData use AI-driven weather prediction for farmers.
4. Contract farming and assured pricing models: Private sector partnerships with
farmers ensure guaranteed purchase agreements, reducing price volatility.
o Eg: PepsiCo’s contract farming model with potato farmers in Punjab has
enhanced incomes.
5. Integration with agri-fintech and credit access: Private banks, NBFCs, and fintech
firms provide easy credit, crop insurance, and digital payments.
o Eg: Samunnati Agri-Finance provides customized credit solutions for FPOs.

Conclusion

The future of Indian agriculture lies in agribusiness, with FPOs empowering small
farmers and private investments ensuring scalability and efficiency. By integrating these
approaches, India can achieve a sustainable, high-income rural economy, reducing
dependency on traditional farming.

Q. Examine the economic implications of the increasing reliance on cesses and

surcharges in India’s tax structure. How does this trend impact fiscal federalism
and State revenues? (15 M)

Introduction

The growing reliance on cesses and surcharges, which are not part of the divisible tax
pool, has altered India's tax structure and reduced States’ share in central tax revenues.
This trend has significant economic, fiscal, and governance consequences, impacting
resource distribution, fiscal federalism, and State revenues.

Body

Economic Implications of Increasing Reliance on Cesses and Surcharges

1. Distortion of revenue distribution: Cesses and surcharges bypass the Finance

Commission-mandated devolution, reducing equitable tax distribution.
o Eg: Cesses and surcharges formed 13.5% of gross tax revenue in 2021-22,
limiting the tax pool for States (Union Budget 2023-24).
2. Increased revenue centralization: Since these levies do not have revenue-sharing
obligations, the Centre retains full control over fund allocation, reducing fiscal
decentralization.

11
 o Eg: 15th Finance Commission Report (2020) found that States’ actual
share in central taxes fell below 30% due to the rise in cesses and
surcharges.
3. Reduced fiscal predictability: Unlike shareable taxes, cess-based revenues are
discretionary and unpredictable, making State financial planning difficult.
o Eg: The discontinuation of GST compensation cess in June 2022 disrupted
many States’ budgetary planning (CAG Report 2023).
4. Weak linkage between revenue and expenditure: Many cesses are not fully utilized
for their intended purpose, leading to inefficient resource allocation.
o Eg: ₹2.19 lakh crore of collected cesses (FY20-FY22) was not transferred
to designated Reserve Funds, violating fund utilization norms (CAG 2023).
5. Violation of cooperative federalism principles: The increasing use of cesses
contradicts the spirit of revenue-sharing enshrined in the Constitution, tilting power
towards the Centre.
o Eg: Finance Commission recommendations have been diluted as the
divisible pool shrinks, despite their mandate to ensure equitable tax
distribution (15th Finance Commission Report).

Impact on Fiscal Federalism

1. Weakening of Finance Commission’s role: The increasing use of cesses reduces

the effectiveness of Finance Commission recommendations on tax devolution.
o Eg: Despite the 15th Finance Commission recommending 41%
devolution, the actual transfer fell to 35.2% in 2023 (Union Budget
Analysis, PRS 2024).
2. Disparity in State finances: States contributing more to central taxes receive
disproportionately lower shares, worsening regional fiscal imbalances.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s share in the divisible pool declined from 5.46% (FY02)
to 4.02% (FY26 BE) despite its high tax contribution (Union Budget 2025).
3. Politicization of fund allocation: Unlike formula-based tax devolution, cess-based
revenues can be allocated arbitrarily, leading to political bias in financial
transfers.
o Eg: States ruled by opposition parties, such as Kerala and Punjab, have
raised concerns over lower financial allocations (Economic Survey 2023).
4. Lack of accountability in cess utilization: The absence of a clear framework for
cess spending creates inefficiencies and financial opacity.
o Eg: Education Cess of ₹94,660 crore (2020-21) was underutilized, affecting
education funding and school infrastructure (CAG Report 2022).
5. Imbalance in fiscal decision-making: The Centre’s unilateral control over cess and
surcharge revenues diminishes State autonomy, impacting policy implementation.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s demand for increased tax devolution was rejected in
2023, citing cess-based revenue limitations (State Budget 2024).

Impact on State Revenues

12
 1. Reduction in States’ fiscal space: The rise in cesses and surcharges lowers States'
revenue share, forcing them to rely more on borrowings.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s fiscal deficit widened to 3.26% of GSDP in 2023-24,
partly due to reduced central tax transfers (State Budget 2024).
2. Increased dependence on market borrowing: Lower tax devolution forces States to
raise funds through market borrowing, increasing debt burden.
o Eg: Karnataka’s borrowing rose by 12% in FY24, as tax devolution fell
short of expectations (State Economic Review 2024).
3. Lower spending on critical sectors: With less tax revenue, States reduce
allocations for infrastructure, health, and education, affecting growth.
o Eg: West Bengal had to cut health sector expenditure by 8% in 2023 due
to reduced tax devolution (State Budget 2023-24).
4. Erosion of fiscal autonomy: As States become financially dependent on the
Centre, their ability to design and implement policies independently is affected.
o Eg: Punjab sought special financial assistance in 2023 due to declining tax
devolution, impacting fiscal autonomy (Finance Ministry Report 2024).
5. Mismatch between revenue contribution and allocation: Many States argue that
their higher contribution to central taxes is not reflected in their tax devolution
share.
o Eg: Karnataka contributes over 6% of India’s GDP but receives only
3.6% of the divisible pool (FY26 BE), highlighting fiscal inequity (Union
Budget 2025).

Way Forward

1. Include major cesses in the divisible pool: Key cesses like education and health
cess should be partially shared with States to ensure equitable distribution.
2. Enforce transparency in cess utilization: The government should implement a
structured accountability mechanism, ensuring funds are used for their intended
purpose.
3. Ceiling on cess and surcharge revenue: The Finance Commission should
recommend a maximum limit on cess and surcharge collection to prevent revenue
centralization.
4. Revise the tax devolution formula: The Finance Commission should revise the
devolution formula to reflect actual revenue contribution, reducing regional
disparities.
5. Strengthen States’ taxation powers: States should be allowed to levy additional
local taxes to counterbalance reduced central transfers and enhance fiscal autonomy.

Conclusion

The rising reliance on cesses and surcharges is weakening fiscal federalism and restricting
State revenues, affecting development, governance, and financial autonomy. India must adopt

13
a rule-based, transparent tax devolution framework to ensure equitable fiscal transfers
and balanced economic growth.

Q. Examine the recent trends of FII outflows from Indian markets. Discuss the
underlying causes and their impact on market stability and domestic investment
sentiment. (15 M)

Introduction

Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) have been pulling out funds from Indian stock markets
at an alarming pace, reflecting global economic uncertainty and domestic structural
challenges. This trend has triggered volatility, currency depreciation, and liquidity
constraints, impacting market stability.

Body

Recent trends in FII outflows

1. Sustained selling pressure: FIIs have withdrawn ₹93,907 crore in 2025 so far,
leading to market corrections.
o Eg: Data from NSDL, February 2025 shows FIIs have been net sellers for
almost every trading session this year.
2. Shift towards US bonds: Rising US Treasury yields have made American assets
more attractive.
o Eg: 10-year US bond yield touched 4.5% in January 2025, pulling
investments from emerging markets.
3. Weak rupee depreciation impact: Continuous capital outflow weakens the rupee,
increasing forex market volatility.
o Eg: INR depreciated to ₹84.2 per USD in February 2025 (RBI data).
4. Sectoral impact – Mid & Small caps hit hardest: FIIs are exiting high-valuation
mid and small caps, causing correction.
o Eg: Nifty Midcap 100 fell by 9% in January 2025 due to liquidity shift.
5. Lackluster earnings growth: Weak corporate earnings have dampened foreign
investor confidence.
o Eg: JSW Steel Q3 2024-25 reported a fall in Net Smelting Return by ₹1,800
per tonne.

Underlying causes of FII outflows

1. US trade policy tightening: Tariff hikes by the US on steel and aluminium have
raised fears of trade war escalation.
o Eg: Donald Trump’s directive (Feb 2025) to increase aluminium tariffs to
25% impacted metal stocks.
2. Higher bond yields in developed markets: Investors shift capital where risk-
adjusted returns are better.
14
 o Eg: US Fed’s hawkish stance in January 2025 signaled further rate hikes,
making bonds attractive.
3. Persistent inflation concerns: Inflation exceeding RBI’s 4% target affects
purchasing power and investment sentiment.
o Eg: CPI inflation remained at 5.3% in December 2024 (MOSPI data).
4. Mid & Small cap valuation correction: Overvalued stocks triggered a liquidity
shift to large caps.
o Eg: Asit C Mehta Research (Jan 2025) reported small-cap PE ratios
exceeding 30x, leading to sell-off.
5. Political and economic uncertainty: Pre-election uncertainty and global recession
fears have affected sentiment.
o Eg: 2024 US Elections and India’s 2024 General Elections created
uncertainty in policy direction.
6. Geopolitical tensions: Ongoing conflicts impact global capital flows and risk
appetite.
o Eg: Russia-Ukraine crisis and Middle East tensions (2024-25) caused
commodity price fluctuations.

Impact on market stability and domestic investment sentiment

Impact on market stability

1. Stock market volatility: Heavy sell-offs lead to frequent swings in indices.

o Eg: BSE Sensex fell 1200 points in a week (Jan 2025) due to FII exits.
2. Rupee depreciation pressure: Continuous outflows weaken currency, raising import
costs.
o Eg: INR depreciation from ₹81 to ₹84 per USD (2024-25) affecting trade
deficit.
3. Liquidity constraints: Reduced foreign capital limits market depth, affecting long-
term investments.
o Eg: HDFC Securities report (Jan 2025) flagged reduced liquidity in mid-
caps.
4. Sectoral sell-offs: High FII exposure in IT, metals, and financials leads to deep
corrections.
o Eg: Nifty IT index lost 5% in Jan 2025 due to FIIs pulling out funds.

Impact on domestic investment sentiment

1. Mutual fund flows under pressure: Domestic investors fear losses, affecting SIP
inflows.
o Eg: AMFI data (Jan 2025) shows a 12% drop in new SIP registrations.
2. Investor confidence erosion: Frequent corrections shake retail and institutional
confidence.

15
 o Eg: Market VIX rose by 20% (Jan 2025) indicating heightened risk
perception.
3. Shift to safer asset classes: Investors move towards gold and government bonds.
o Eg: Gold prices hit ₹65,000 per 10g (Feb 2025) amid market uncertainties.
4. Dampening corporate investments: Market instability reduces business expansion
and IPO plans.
o Eg: LIC postponed its ₹20,000 crore follow-on public offer in January
2025.

Conclusion

FII outflows have intensified due to global tightening, domestic uncertainties, and
overvalued markets. India must focus on macroeconomic stability, improving corporate
earnings, and easing policy uncertainties to regain investor confidence. A robust domestic
institutional base can help absorb these shocks in the long run.

Q. The Income Tax Bill, 2025, aims to simplify tax laws by reducing
redundancies and restructuring provisions while maintaining continuity in direct
taxation. Critically examine whether this reform is substantive or merely
procedural. (15 M)

Introduction

Taxation reforms must balance simplicity, stability, and compliance while ensuring
economic efficiency. The Income Tax Bill, 2025, aims to simplify India's tax structure,
removing outdated provisions and reducing complexity. However, whether it is a
transformative reform or merely a procedural restructuring remains debated.

Body

Major reforms introduced in the Income Tax Bill, 2025

1. Simplification of legal provisions: The Bill removes 1,200 provisos and 900
explanations, reducing ambiguity and word count from 5.12 lakh to 2.60 lakh.
o Eg: The new Bill consolidates fragmented provisions on capital gains
taxation, streamlining exemptions.
2. Introduction of ‘tax year’ instead of ‘assessment year’: Aligns tax assessment with
economic activity, making compliance easier.
o Eg: A newly set-up business will now be taxed based on its operational year
rather than the conventional AY-PY system.
3. Expanded digital oversight: Tax authorities can now access virtual digital spaces
(emails, cloud storage, social media accounts) for enforcement.
o Eg: The new provisions will enable real-time tracking of crypto transactions
on offshore platforms.

16
 4. Clarity in dispute resolution: The Dispute Resolution Panel (DRP) is restructured
with explicit guidelines on issuing directions.
o Eg: The 2025 Bill codifies best practices from the Justice Easwar
Committee Report (2016) on reducing tax litigation.
5. Formal classification of cryptocurrencies as capital assets: Strengthens taxation
and reduces regulatory ambiguity in digital assets.
o Eg: Cryptocurrencies are now treated similarly to shares and securities under
capital gains taxation.
6. Removal of outdated exemptions: Sections like 54E (capital gains before 1992) are
deleted, aligning tax laws with modern economic realities.
o Eg: The Kelkar Committee (2002) had earlier recommended removing
redundant exemptions to improve tax efficiency.
7. Increased use of tabular formats: Key provisions, including TDS/TCS rates,
deductions, and exemptions, are now structured in easy-to-read tables.
o Eg: Unlike the Income-tax Act, 1961, which had scattered provisions, the
new Bill presents 57 tables (up from 18) for clarity.

Is the reform substantive or merely procedural?

A. Substantive aspects of the reform

1. Enhancing tax transparency: Clearer structuring of provisions reduces legal

ambiguities, making tax compliance more predictable.
o Eg: Standardized deduction clauses for salaried taxpayers now explicitly list
gratuity, leave encashment, and PF contributions.
2. Encouraging digital compliance: Digital enforcement through virtual asset
tracking improves tax administration and discourages black money circulation.
o Eg: The Bill enables real-time tracking of offshore crypto wallets to prevent
tax evasion.
3. Strengthening ease of doing business: Simplified provisions reduce compliance
burden, improving India's taxpayer satisfaction rankings.
o Eg: World Bank’s Doing Business Report (2020) ranked India 63rd, citing
tax complexity as a bottleneck.
4. Codification of dispute resolution: The Bill provides detailed points of
determination and reasoning, reducing scope for subjective tax assessments.
o Eg: The Justice BN Srikrishna Committee (2018) had recommended
codified tax dispute frameworks to curb litigation.

B. Procedural nature of the reform

1. Retains the core structure of the 1961 Act: While the Bill streamlines provisions,
the fundamental taxation principles remain unchanged.
o Eg: Corporate taxation, personal income tax deductions, and capital gains tax
structures remain largely intact.

17
 2. Does not introduce bold structural reforms: The Bill does not incorporate direct
tax code (DTC) principles, which experts have long advocated.
o Eg: The Parthasarathi Shome Committee (2012) had suggested phasing
out exemptions for a simpler tax system.
3. Lack of focus on wealth and inheritance tax: Unlike global trends, the Bill does not
introduce progressive wealth taxation.
o Eg: OECD countries like France and Germany levy wealth tax on high-
net-worth individuals (HNWIs), which India has avoided.
4. No major shift in capital gains taxation structure: While outdated exemptions are
removed, the core capital gains tax slabs and indexation norms remain the same.
o Eg: Unlike the 2018 proposal to align LTCG tax with global trends, this
Bill does not introduce major capital gains tax restructuring.

Conclusion

While the Income Tax Bill, 2025, simplifies and streamlines taxation, its core framework
remains structurally unchanged. The reform is procedurally significant but lacks
substantive overhauls like direct tax code adoption, inheritance tax reforms, or wealth
taxation. Future reforms should focus on progressive taxation, digital tax governance, and
inheritance tax frameworks for a modernized and equitable tax system.

Q. Thermal power-producing States bear a disproportionate pollution burden without

adequate compensation. Examine the associated challenges of this imbalance and
suggest a viable compensation mechanism. (15 M)

Introduction

Thermal power-producing states suffer from severe environmental degradation while

consuming states benefit without bearing its ecological cost. This imbalance in pollution
burden necessitates a structured compensation mechanism to ensure fiscal and
environmental justice.

Body

Thermal power-producing states bear a disproportionate pollution burden

1. High carbon emissions: Thermal plants contribute to 60% of India’s total CO₂
emissions (CEA 2023), worsening air pollution.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha have some of the highest PM2.5
levels due to coal-fired power plants (MoEFCC 2023).
2. Severe health hazards: Power plant emissions cause respiratory illnesses, lung
cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.
o Eg: Singrauli region (MP) reports high COPD and lung disease rates due
to excessive SO₂ emissions (CSE 2023).

18
 3. Water depletion and contamination: Coal-based plants use 60% of India’s total
industrial water consumption, leading to depletion and pollution.
o Eg: NTPC Korba (Chhattisgarh) reported excessive fluoride levels in
groundwater (CPCB 2023).
4. Land degradation and displacement: Coal mining and ash disposal lead to
deforestation and loss of agricultural land.
o Eg: Over 20,000 people displaced in Odisha due to coal mining (EPW
2023).
5. Economic underdevelopment despite energy production: Producing states
consume less electricity per capita despite high production.
o Eg: Jharkhand’s per capita electricity consumption (988 kWh) is much
lower than Maharashtra (1,512 kWh) (CEA 2024).

Challenges associated with this imbalance

1. Uncompensated environmental externalities: Producing states bear the entire

pollution cost, while consuming states enjoy cheap electricity.
o Eg: Delhi imports electricity from Chhattisgarh but faces minimal
pollution impact (MoEFCC 2023).
2. No financial incentives for clean energy transition: Lack of central funding for
modernizing thermal plants or shifting to renewables.
o Eg: Only ₹4,000 crore from the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF)
allocated for thermal plant modernization (CAG 2023).
3. Absence of a thermal power generation tax: States can tax electricity
consumption but not generation, limiting their revenue.
o Eg: Ministry of Power (2023) prohibited states from imposing generation-
based taxes, affecting Jharkhand and Odisha.
4. Failure of regulatory enforcement: Thermal plants continue violating pollution
norms due to weak regulatory oversight.
o Eg: Only 10% of thermal plants complied with Flue Gas Desulfurization
(FGD) norms by 2023 (MoEFCC).
5. Lack of an inter-state compensation framework: Unlike GST compensation, there
is no mechanism to redistribute pollution burdens.
o Eg: Power-producing states receive no financial relief for environmental
damage caused by cross-state electricity consumption.

Suggested compensation mechanism

1. Thermal power generation tax: Introduce a carbon tax or green cess on power
generation, with revenue transferred to producing states.
o Eg: Sweden’s carbon tax model funds environmental restoration.
2. Pollution burden-sharing fund: Establish a compensation fund under the Finance
Commission to transfer resources to affected states.

19
 o Eg: 16th Finance Commission should include an environmental
compensation criterion in tax devolution.
3. Revenue-sharing model: A portion of electricity tariffs should be allocated to
power-producing states, similar to GST compensation.
o Eg: Coal-rich states should receive a share of power tariff proceeds from
consuming states.
4. Mandatory corporate social responsibility (CSR) contributions: Thermal plants
should increase CSR spending on environmental restoration.
o Eg: NTPC should increase its CSR allocation for pollution-affected areas
from 2% to 5%.
5. Incentives for clean energy transition: Fiscal support for renewables and cleaner
coal technologies should be increased.
o Eg: Germany’s Just Transition model provided economic relief to coal-
dependent regions.

Conclusion

A robust fiscal and regulatory framework is needed to ensure pollution burden-sharing

while accelerating the transition to cleaner energy sources.

Q. The ‘last mile’ of disinflation is becoming increasingly challenging in the

current global economic environment. Discuss the implications of this
phenomenon for India’s monetary policy. (10 M)

Introduction

Global disinflation is slowing due to persistent supply chain disruptions, trade policy
shifts, and volatile energy prices. For India, this complicates the RBI’s inflation-targeting
approach, making policy decisions more challenging.

Body

Challenges in the ‘Last Mile’ of Disinflation

1. Sticky core inflation: Rising services costs and wage pressures keep core inflation
elevated despite falling food inflation.
o Eg: Core inflation remains above 4% even as headline inflation eased to
5.1% in January 2025 (RBI Bulletin).
2. Global trade disruptions: New trade barriers and supply shocks contribute to
imported inflation, reducing the effectiveness of domestic monetary measures.
o Eg: U.S. tariff hikes on Chinese goods (2024) led to higher input costs for
Indian industries.
3. Strong U.S. dollar and capital outflows: A robust dollar raises import costs and
fuels capital flight from emerging markets, worsening inflation.

20
 o Eg: FPI outflows of $4.7 billion in Q4 2024 weakened the rupee, raising
import-led inflation (SEBI Data).
4. Climate-related supply shocks: Erratic weather and extreme climate events impact
food prices, causing inflation volatility.
o Eg: Unseasonal rains in December 2024 led to a 15% surge in onion prices
(Ministry of Agriculture).
5. Geopolitical uncertainties and energy volatility: Wars and production cuts by oil-
exporting nations push up fuel prices, affecting inflation stability.
o Eg: Brent crude surged to $95 per barrel after OPEC+ output cuts (Feb
2025), impacting India’s import bill.

Implications for India’s Monetary Policy

1. Delayed rate cuts by RBI: Persistent inflationary pressures force the RBI to
maintain a tight monetary stance, delaying policy easing.
o Eg: MPC kept repo rate at 6.5% in February 2025, citing inflation
concerns (RBI Minutes).
2. Exchange rate management: RBI may intervene in forex markets to stabilize the
rupee and curb imported inflation.
o Eg: RBI’s $5 billion dollar swap intervention (Jan 2025) helped prevent
excessive rupee depreciation.
3. Balancing growth and inflation control: A prolonged tight monetary policy could
slow credit growth and investment, affecting GDP expansion.
o Eg: Credit growth dipped to 14.2% in Q3 2024-25, down from 16% in Q2
(RBI Data).
4. Focus on supply-side interventions: Coordinated fiscal policies like targeted
subsidies and food stock management become essential to complement monetary
measures.
o Eg: Government released 2 lakh tonnes of wheat (Feb 2025) to curb food
inflation (Department of Food and Public Distribution).
5. Strengthening inflation forecasting models: Enhanced data analytics and real-time
tracking of price trends are crucial for effective policy responses.
o Eg: RBI’s AI-based inflation monitoring system (2025) integrates supply-
chain analytics for better prediction.

Conclusion

India’s monetary policy must balance inflation control with growth objectives while
adapting to global shocks and domestic vulnerabilities. Strengthening supply-side
interventions and forex management will be key in managing inflation risks.

21
Q. Why does India lag behind in textile exports despite being a global leader in
fibre production? How do fragmented supply chains and high production costs
affect competitiveness? What measures can enhance efficiency and integration?
(15 M)

Introduction

Despite being a global leader in fibre production, India’s textile sector faces structural
inefficiencies, high production costs, and regulatory bottlenecks, leading to lower export
competitiveness. Strengthening supply chain integration, cost optimization, and policy
reforms is crucial to enhancing India’s position in global textile trade.

Body

Reasons for India’s lag in textile exports

1. High production costs: Rising raw material, labour, and power costs make Indian
textiles expensive compared to Vietnam and Bangladesh.
o Eg: Polyester fibre in India is 33-36% costlier than in China (CITI Report,
2024).
2. Lack of free trade agreements (FTAs): Competing nations benefit from
preferential trade access to key markets, unlike India.
o Eg: Vietnam’s FTA with the EU offers zero-duty access, while Indian
exports face 9.6% tariff barriers.
3. Rigid labour laws: Stringent regulations increase compliance costs and reduce
flexibility in workforce management.
o Eg: Vietnam’s flexible hiring policies enhance its cost-effectiveness in the
apparel sector.
4. Low investment in modern technology: Outdated looms, processing units, and
high reliance on manual work reduce efficiency.
o Eg: Power loom penetration in India (47%) is lower than China (80%),
impacting productivity.
5. Limited branding and market penetration: Indian textiles lag in global branding,
design innovation, and retail presence.
o Eg: Bangladesh’s garment industry aggressively markets “Made in
Bangladesh” apparel globally.

Impact of fragmented supply chains and high production costs on competitiveness

1. Increased logistical costs: Cotton production is spread across states, increasing

transportation and warehousing expenses.
o Eg: Surat’s synthetic fabric units depend on polyester from Gujarat,
while garment units are in Tiruppur, increasing costs.

22
 2. Delays in production cycles: Lack of vertically integrated ‘fibre-to-fashion’
facilities slows down delivery timelines.
o Eg: China’s integrated parks ensure faster turnaround times, reducing
lead time by 30-40%.
3. Quality inconsistencies: Fragmentation leads to variations in dyeing, processing,
and finishing standards, affecting exports.
o Eg: Global brands prefer Vietnam for consistent quality control across
their supply chains.
4. Higher dependency on imports: Domestic industries rely on expensive local MMF
or imported synthetic fibres due to Quality Control Orders (QCOs).
o Eg: Viscose fibre in India is 14-16% costlier than in China due to
restricted imports (CITI, 2024).
5. Limited economies of scale: Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) dominate the
sector, leading to high unit costs and lower competitiveness.
o Eg: 80% of India’s textile industry is MSME-based, making it harder to
scale like large firms in China.

Measures to enhance efficiency and supply chain integration

1. Developing mega textile parks: Establish integrated textile parks with common
infrastructure, warehousing, and plug-and-play facilities.
o Eg: PM MITRA scheme launched in 2021 aims to create seven mega parks
for economies of scale.
2. Expanding FTAs and trade policies: Strengthening trade agreements with key
markets like the EU and the US to reduce tariff barriers.
o Eg: India’s ongoing negotiations for an FTA with the UK could enhance
textile exports.
3. Incentivizing domestic MMF production: Reduce import restrictions, lower GST
on synthetic fibres, and boost indigenous manufacturing.
o Eg: PLI scheme for MMF textiles (2021) aims to increase local production
and exports.
4. Labour law reforms and skilling initiatives: Introduce flexible work policies and
large-scale skill development programs.
o Eg: Samarth Scheme (Ministry of Textiles) focuses on skilling workers in
garment and textile manufacturing.
5. Investing in green and sustainable textiles: Promote circular economy models,
recycling, and compliance with global sustainability norms.
o Eg: Bharat Tex 2024 emphasized textile recycling, with India’s market
projected to reach $400 million.

Conclusion

23
India must streamline supply chains, improve trade policies, and enhance infrastructure
to boost textile exports. By focusing on vertical integration, cost optimization, and
sustainability, India can emerge as a global leader in textile manufacturing.

Q. Ensuring financial sustainability in Primary Agricultural Credit Societies

(PACS) requires reducing subsidy dependence through innovative revenue
models. Discuss how alternative financial instruments can enhance their long-
term viability and analyze the challenges in their rural implementation. (15 M)

Introduction

PACS, the backbone of India's rural credit system, often suffer from financial instability due
to excessive reliance on government subsidies. A shift towards innovative financial models is
imperative to ensure their long-term sustainability and competitiveness in a market-driven
economy.

Body

Reducing subsidy dependence in PACS

1. Over-reliance on subsidies weakens autonomy: Dependence on state aid reduces

financial discipline and operational efficiency.
o Eg: RBI Report (2023) highlighted that 60% of PACS rely on government
support, making them vulnerable to policy shifts.
2. Encouraging self-sufficiency: PACS must diversify revenue streams to reduce
dependence on state grants.
o Eg: Maharashtra PACS model linked credit with agri-processing, ensuring
financial sustainability.
3. Market-driven interest rates: Subsidized credit often leads to inefficiencies and loan
waivers, weakening PACS’ financial health.
o Eg: MS Swaminathan Committee (2004) recommended risk-based lending
rather than politically driven subsidies.
4. Cooperative autonomy: Excessive government control over PACS’ pricing and
operations hinders competitiveness.
o Eg: NITI Aayog's Strategy for New India @75 (2018) recommended
reducing state interference in cooperatives.
5. Shift to business-oriented models: PACS should adopt profit-driven approaches
while retaining their social mandate.
o Eg: Amul’s cooperative structure, which thrives without significant
government subsidies.

Alternative financial instruments for PACS’ long-term viability

24
 1. Cooperative bonds: Raising funds through bonds can reduce dependency on
government grants.
o Eg: Kerala’s Cooperative Development Fund, which raised ₹200 crore
through cooperative bonds.
2. Microfinance integration: PACS can act as microfinance intermediaries, offering
small loans with flexible repayment options.
o Eg: SEWA Cooperative Bank provides micro-loans to rural women,
ensuring financial self-sufficiency.
3. Revenue-sharing models: Encouraging partnerships where PACS share revenue with
agribusinesses can ensure steady income.
o Eg: Karnataka PACS model, where revenue-sharing agreements with FPOs
boosted earnings.
4. Value-added services: PACS can enter agro-processing, warehousing, and digital
lending to generate sustainable income.
o Eg: Punjab’s PACS cold storage units, which increased farmer incomes
while ensuring PACS' profitability.
5. Technology-driven credit assessment: AI-based credit risk analysis can reduce loan
defaults and enhance financial stability.
o Eg: NABARD’s E-Shakti Project uses AI to assess creditworthiness in
PACS lending.

Challenges in implementing financial models in rural cooperatives

1. Lack of financial literacy: Many PACS members lack awareness of modern

financial instruments.
o Eg: RBI’s Financial Inclusion Survey (2022) found that 68% of rural
cooperative members have minimal financial literacy.
2. Regulatory constraints: Stringent cooperative laws make it difficult for PACS to
raise private capital.
o Eg: Vaidyanathan Committee Report (2004) noted excessive regulations as
a barrier to PACS modernization.
3. Political interference: Local political leaders often influence PACS decisions,
leading to mismanagement.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh’s PACS corruption scandal (2021) revealed political
manipulation in loan disbursals.
4. Weak digital infrastructure: Many rural PACS lack the technological framework for
modern financial operations.
o Eg: Only 30% of PACS have adopted digital accounting systems, as per
NABARD (2023).
5. Limited risk management mechanisms: PACS are vulnerable to loan defaults due
to the absence of robust risk-mitigation strategies.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu PACS crisis (2022) saw major defaults due to poor credit
risk assessment.

25
Conclusion

A financially resilient PACS network can transform rural credit ecosystems, reducing
reliance on subsidies and fostering innovation. Strengthening financial literacy, easing
regulatory constraints, and leveraging technology will be key to ensuring the long-term
viability of PACS in India.

Q. Explain the concept of forex buy-sell swaps and analyze how the RBI is using
them as a liquidity management tool. (10 M)

Introduction

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has increasingly relied on forex buy-sell swaps as a
liquidity management tool, particularly in times of tight liquidity conditions. These swaps
allow the RBI to temporarily inject rupee liquidity into the banking system while ensuring
stability in the foreign exchange market.

Body

Concept of forex buy-sell swaps

1. Definition: It is a two-legged currency transaction where the RBI buys/sells

dollars from banks and agrees to reverse the transaction at a future date at a pre-
decided premium.
o Eg: In the February 2025 swap, RBI will buy $10 billion and return it in
March 2028.
2. Purpose: These swaps are primarily used to manage rupee liquidity without
permanently affecting money supply or forex reserves.
o Eg: Unlike Open Market Operations (OMOs), which permanently adjust
liquidity, swaps have a reversible impact.
3. Types of swaps:
o Buy-sell swap: RBI buys dollars and injects rupee liquidity, reversing it
later.
o Sell-buy swap: RBI sells dollars to absorb liquidity, reversing later.
o Eg: The January 2025 $5 billion swap was a buy-sell swap aimed at
injecting rupee liquidity.
4. Impact on exchange rate: Forex swaps help in stabilizing the rupee without directly
intervening in the forex spot market, avoiding unnecessary volatility.
o Eg: If the rupee appreciates sharply, RBI may use sell-buy swaps to absorb
excess liquidity.
5. Global best practices: Many central banks, including the Federal Reserve (USA)
and European Central Bank (ECB), use forex swaps for short-term liquidity
management.
o Eg: China’s PBOC used similar swaps in 2023 to stabilize the yuan.

26
How RBI is using forex swaps for liquidity management

1. Addressing liquidity deficit: Banks have faced a prolonged liquidity deficit due to
higher credit demand and government cash balances. The RBI’s swaps help ease
short-term liquidity stress.
o Eg: RBI’s $15 billion forex swaps (Jan & Feb 2025) injected approximately
₹1.3 lakh crore into the system.
2. Supporting monetary transmission: Repo rate cuts alone do not ensure credit
availability unless liquidity is adequate. Swaps help in effective transmission of
policy rates.
o Eg: RBI’s February 2025 rate cut required liquidity infusion through forex
swaps for better transmission.
3. Managing March liquidity tightness: March sees higher tax outflows (advance
tax, GST) and credit push by banks. The three-year tenure swap helps banks
better plan liquidity.
o Eg: Banks have to repay $10 billion in March 2028, avoiding short-term
stress.
4. Cheaper liquidity tool: Unlike OMOs, which require permanent bond purchases,
swaps are short-term and cost-effective for banks.
o Eg: The January 2025 swap was oversubscribed 5 times, showing banks
prefer swaps over OMOs.
5. Reducing external vulnerability: Instead of selling forex reserves, swaps ensure
liquidity support without depleting reserves, maintaining India’s external
stability.
o Eg: India’s forex reserves stood at $624 billion (Feb 2025, RBI data), and
swaps help manage rupee liquidity without impacting reserves.

Conclusion

Forex buy-sell swaps provide the RBI with a flexible and efficient tool to balance liquidity
needs and exchange rate stability. As India deepens its monetary policy toolkit, these
swaps can play a key role in ensuring smooth financial conditions while maintaining
macroeconomic stability.

Q. Examine the role of tax buoyancy in achieving sustainable economic growth.

Analyze the challenges in maintaining a stable tax-to-GDP ratio. Suggest
measures to enhance revenue mobilization while ensuring fiscal discipline. (15 M)

Introduction

Tax buoyancy is essential for sustained economic growth, as it ensures steady revenue
generation in proportion to GDP growth. A strong tax system reduces fiscal deficits, supports
public investment, and enhances macroeconomic stability.

27
Body

Role of tax buoyancy in achieving sustainable economic growth

1. Revenue growth for public investment: A buoyant tax system enables greater
spending on infrastructure, health, and education.
o Eg: India’s gross tax revenue growth has funded key projects under the
National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP).
2. Macroeconomic stability: Higher tax revenues reduce fiscal deficits, lowering
borrowing needs and ensuring financial stability.
o Eg: The FRBM Act mandates a fiscal deficit target to control excessive
debt.
3. Reduction in income inequality: A well-structured tax system facilitates
redistribution, supporting welfare programs.
o Eg: Higher direct tax collections post-2016 helped fund schemes like PM-
KISAN and Ayushman Bharat.
4. Encouraging private investment: A predictable tax regime fosters investor
confidence, boosting FDI and capital inflows.
o Eg: Post- GST implementation, India witnessed an increase in FDI due to
improved tax transparency.
5. Alignment with long-term growth goals: Higher tax buoyancy ensures sustainable
funding for developmental programs.
o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission emphasized tax-to-GDP ratio
improvement for long-term economic stability.

Challenges in maintaining a stable tax-to-GDP ratio

28
 1. Tax evasion and compliance issues: Weak enforcement and loopholes result in
significant revenue loss.
o Eg: The CAG (2023) highlighted tax evasion as a key factor behind India’s
lower tax-to-GDP ratio.
2. High reliance on indirect taxes: Over-dependence on GST and excise duties makes
the tax system regressive.
o Eg: Indirect taxes contribute over 50% of total tax revenue, placing a
higher burden on lower-income groups.
3. Slow expansion of the tax base: A large informal sector and limited direct tax
penetration hinder revenue growth.
o Eg: Only about 6% of India’s population pays income tax despite a vast
workforce.
4. Tax policy unpredictability: Frequent changes and complex tax laws create
uncertainty in business environments.
o Eg: The retrospective tax issue led to disputes with global firms like
Vodafone and Cairn Energy.
5. State-level fiscal imbalances: Variations in tax collection efficiency among states
lead to uneven revenue distribution.
o Eg: States like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu contribute significantly,
while others lag due to lower industrial activity.

Measures to enhance revenue mobilization while ensuring fiscal discipline

1. Widening the direct tax base: Strengthening TDS tracking, rationalizing

exemptions, and enforcing compliance.
o Eg: The Direct Tax Code proposed a simplified structure to improve tax
collection.
2. Strengthening GST efficiency: Reducing rate complexities, enhancing compliance
monitoring, and curbing fraud.
o Eg: GST e-invoicing and AI-based analytics have reduced tax evasion and
boosted collections.
3. Rationalizing subsidies and tax expenditures: Eliminating non-merit subsidies and
reducing unnecessary tax exemptions.
o Eg: The Economic Survey (2023) recommended better targeting of
subsidies through Aadhaar-linked DBT.
4. Boosting non-tax revenue: Enhancing disinvestment, asset monetization, and
optimizing public sector efficiency.
o Eg: The National Monetization Pipeline (NMP) aims to generate
significant revenue by leasing public assets.
5. Ensuring fiscal discipline through FRBM adherence: Strengthening fiscal rules
and enhancing budget transparency.
o Eg: The NK Singh Committee (2017) recommended reducing fiscal deficit
to 3% of GDP for long-term stability.

29
Conclusion

A buoyant tax system is key to India's economic resilience and fiscal stability. A balanced
approach involving tax reforms, better compliance, and prudent expenditure
management is essential to strengthen India's long-term fiscal foundation.

Q. Examine the impact of reciprocal tariffs on the global trade order. Analyze
how tariff wars and global trade disruptions shape India’s economic strategy.
Assess India’s policy options to maintain competitiveness amid rising
protectionism. (15 M)

Introduction

Reciprocal tariffs challenge the principles of free trade and multilateralism, leading to
economic fragmentation. Their cascading impact on supply chains, global trade flows, and
economic diplomacy has made nations rethink trade strategies.

Body

Impact of reciprocal tariffs on the global trade order

1. Weakening of WTO and multilateral trade mechanisms – Reciprocal tariffs

undermine WTO’s dispute resolution system, leading to unilateral actions.
o Eg: US-China trade war bypassed WTO mechanisms, resulting in $550
billion worth of tariffs (USTR, 2023).
2. Shift towards bilateral and regional trade agreements – Countries seek
preferential trade agreements (PTAs) to bypass tariffs and ensure market access.
o Eg: India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement
(ECTA) (2022) to counter trade losses from US tariffs.
3. Disruption of global supply chains – Tariffs increase production costs, leading to
realignment of manufacturing hubs.
o Eg: Apple shifting production from China to India to avoid US tariffs
(DPIIT, 2023).
4. Retaliatory trade wars and economic instability – Countries impose counter-
tariffs, escalating economic uncertainty.
o Eg: EU’s counter-tariffs on US steel and aluminium in 2018 led to global
price surges.
5. Rising inflation and cost of living crisis – Higher import costs increase inflation,
reducing global purchasing power.
o Eg: US-China trade war increased consumer prices in both countries, adding
$1,300/year per household (Peterson Institute, 2023).

How tariff wars and global trade disruptions shape India’s economic strategy

30
 1. Diversification of export markets – India is expanding trade beyond the US to
ASEAN, Africa, and Latin America to reduce dependency.
o Eg: India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in negotiation to secure new
export markets.
2. Atmanirbhar Bharat and import substitution – Focus on domestic production
and reducing dependency on imported raw materials.
o Eg: PLI scheme in electronics led to Samsung and Apple’s increased local
manufacturing (2023).
3. Strategic partnerships with friendly economies – Strengthening trade ties with EU,
Japan, UAE, reducing reliance on the US and China.
o Eg: India-UAE CEPA (2022) increased bilateral trade by 22% in one year
(Ministry of Commerce, 2023).
4. Enhancing trade competitiveness through logistics and infrastructure –
Development of port connectivity, supply chain efficiency, and lower trade costs.
o Eg: PM Gati Shakti initiative improving logistics infrastructure to reduce
trade delays.
5. Strengthening domestic manufacturing and R&D – Encouraging high-tech, value-
added manufacturing to compete globally.
o Eg: Semiconductor mission (2023) with ₹76,000 crore investment to boost
India’s chip industry.

India’s policy options to maintain competitiveness amid rising protectionism

1. Negotiating favourable trade agreements – Prioritizing bilateral and regional

FTAs to reduce tariff barriers.
o Eg: India-EU FTA negotiations restarted in 2022 after a decade-long gap.
2. Boosting domestic industrial competitiveness – Strengthening MSMEs, increasing
ease of doing business, and incentivizing tech adoption.
o Eg: India moved from 142 (2014) to 63 (2020) in World Bank’s Ease of
Doing Business rankings.
3. Enhancing trade finance and export incentives – Providing low-cost credit, tax
benefits, and facilitating export-oriented investments.
o Eg: RoDTEP scheme (Remission of Duties and Taxes on Export Products) to
offset local taxes for exporters.
4. Leveraging digital trade and e-commerce – Expanding cross-border digital trade
and B2B e-commerce exports.
o Eg: ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce) aims to integrate Indian
MSMEs into global supply chains.
5. Strengthening dispute resolution at WTO and global forums – Advocating for
fair trade practices and challenging unfair tariff measures.
o Eg: India filed a WTO complaint against US steel tariffs in 2018,
highlighting its commitment to multilateral trade rules.

Conclusion

31
Reciprocal tariffs have disrupted global trade, pushing economies toward regionalism and
self-reliance. For India, the way forward lies in strategic trade agreements, domestic
industrial growth, and leveraging digital transformation to remain globally competitive.

Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.

Q. What are aspiration-centric jobs, and why are they crucial for India’s youth
in the context of rural development and demographic dividend? Suggest
strategies to promote such jobs. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s demographic dividend, with over 65% of the population under 35 years, offers an
unprecedented opportunity to drive economic growth. To harness this potential, aspiration-
centric jobs—aligned with the evolving goals and ambitions of the youth, especially in rural
areas—are critical for sustainable development.

Body

What are aspiration-centric jobs?

1. Jobs aligned with personal growth and ambition: These jobs offer opportunities
for skill development, career progression, and self-fulfillment, beyond basic
income.
o Eg: The rise of startups and digital entrepreneurship among rural youth
through platforms like Meesho and Flipkart Samarth.
2. Technology-driven and future-ready employment: Roles in sectors like IT,
renewable energy, e-commerce, and AI attract the tech-savvy youth.
o Eg: Rural youth participating in digital marketing and app development
under the Digital India initiative.
3. Jobs with social recognition and impact: Employment that provides social
mobility, respect, and recognition, addressing youth aspirations for meaningful
careers.
o Eg: Growing interest in environmental conservation roles through green
jobs under the National Solar Mission.
4. Entrepreneurial opportunities: Youth-driven businesses foster innovation,
creativity, and independence, aligning with the entrepreneurial spirit of the new
generation.
o Eg: Agri-tech startups like DeHaat and Farmizen are led by rural
entrepreneurs, revolutionizing agriculture.
5. Flexible and diverse career options: The gig economy and freelancing allow youth
to pursue multiple income streams and flexible work arrangements.
o Eg: Growth in freelance content creation and e-commerce reselling in rural
areas post-pandemic.

32
Aspiration-centric jobs crucial for rural development and demographic dividend

A. Importance for Demographic Dividend

1. Maximizing economic potential: Without suitable jobs, the demographic dividend

could turn into a demographic burden, leading to youth discontent.
o Eg: Unemployment protests in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (2023) reflect the
urgency for meaningful job creation.
2. Enhancing productivity: Aspiration-centric jobs lead to a skilled, motivated
workforce, driving productivity and economic growth.
o Eg: India’s IT sector contributes over 7% to GDP, driven largely by young
talent.
3. Preventing brain drain: Creating high-quality jobs domestically reduces the need for
talented youth to migrate abroad.
o Eg: Initiatives like Startup India are helping retain young entrepreneurs
within the country.
4. Fostering innovation: A large, young population engaged in creative jobs leads to a
culture of innovation and entrepreneurship.
o Eg: The growth of AI and tech startups in Bengaluru and Hyderabad, led by
young entrepreneurs.
5. Reducing youth dependency: Employment reduces economic dependency on
families and the government, fostering self-reliance.
o Eg: Increased participation of youth in freelance tech platforms like Upwork
and Fiverr.

B. Importance for Rural Development

1. Reducing rural-urban migration: Attractive local jobs help curb distress

migration, promoting balanced regional development.
o Eg: Rural BPOs under the Digital India initiative have created jobs in Tier-2
and Tier-3 cities.
2. Empowering rural youth: Aspiration-centric jobs boost confidence, income levels,
and decision-making power among rural youth.
o Eg: PM Vishwakarma Scheme (2024) modernizes traditional crafts,
increasing youth participation.
3. Promoting rural entrepreneurship: Local businesses foster economic self-
sufficiency and reduce reliance on agriculture alone.
o Eg: FPOs (Farmer Producer Organizations) enable rural entrepreneurs to
scale agri-businesses.
4. Developing local economies: Jobs in rural industries, tourism, and renewable
energy stimulate local markets and infrastructure development.
o Eg: Eco-tourism initiatives in the Northeast have created employment while
preserving cultural heritage.

33
 5. Bridging the urban-rural divide: Technology-driven jobs promote digital literacy
and integration with national economic trends.
o Eg: The BharatNet Project aims to connect 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats with
high-speed internet, fostering digital jobs.

Strategies to promote aspiration-centric jobs

1. Skill development and vocational training: Strengthen programs like Skill India
Mission with a focus on future-ready skills in AI, data analytics, and renewable
energy.
o Eg: Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) has trained over 1.2
crore youth (as of 2024).
2. Rural infrastructure development: Invest in digital connectivity, logistics, and
rural industrial hubs to support local businesses.
o Eg: The BharatNet project aims to bridge the digital divide, enabling rural
entrepreneurship.
3. Promoting rural entrepreneurship: Expand support under Startup India and
Mudra Yojana to foster rural enterprises.
o Eg: Mudra loans have supported over 70% women entrepreneurs, boosting
rural enterprises.
4. Public-private partnerships (PPP): Collaborate with private sectors for industry-
linked jobs, apprenticeships, and skill-building programs.
o Eg: Tata STRIVE provides skill development tailored for industry needs in
rural areas.
5. Modernizing agriculture: Promote value-added agriculture, food processing, and
agri-tech innovations to make farming aspirational.
o Eg: Agri-tech startups like AgNext and Bijak are transforming traditional
farming practices.
6. Rebranding rural employment: Use social media and success stories to change
perceptions about rural jobs.
o Eg: One District One Product (ODOP) campaign showcases rural products
globally, creating aspirational jobs.

Conclusion

Aspiration-centric jobs are key to unlocking India’s demographic potential and fostering
inclusive rural development. By aligning employment strategies with youth aspirations,
India can ensure sustainable growth, economic resilience, and social stability, paving the
way for a Viksit Bharat by 2047.

Q. The North-South economic divide in India is not just a question of per capita
income but also structural development disparities. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

34
India’s regional economic divide extends beyond per capita income (PCI), reflecting stark
differences in industrialization, infrastructure, governance, and human development.
Addressing these disparities is crucial for sustainable national growth.

Body

Structural development disparities between North and South India

1. Economic structure and industrialization: Southern states have higher industrial

and service sector contributions, whereas the North remains agrarian-dependent.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s manufacturing GDP share (21%) vs. UP’s (11%) (RBI,
2023).
2. Infrastructure and urbanization: Better roads, ports, power supply, and urban
planning drive economic growth in the South.
o Eg: Chennai Metro expansion vs. Patna’s limited urban transport
infrastructure (NITI Aayog, 2023).
3. Human development and healthcare: The South ranks higher in life expectancy,
literacy, and maternal health.
o Eg: Kerala’s IMR (6 per 1,000 births) vs. UP’s (41 per 1,000 births)
(NFHS-5, 2021).
4. Fiscal capacity and financial management: South India generates higher tax
revenues, leading to better public welfare investments.
o Eg: Karnataka’s own tax revenue (8.5% of GSDP) vs. Bihar’s (3.6%)
(15th Finance Commission, 2020).
5. Governance efficiency and institutional capacity: The South ranks higher in
corruption control, public service delivery, and administrative efficiency.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s 3rd rank vs. UP’s 12th in Ease of Doing Business
(DPIIT, 2023).
6. Demographic trends and workforce readiness: Higher fertility rates in the North
do not translate into productive labor force due to education and skill gaps.
o Eg: Kerala’s GER in higher education (38.8%) vs. Bihar’s (14.5%)
(AISHE, 2022).
7. Gender and social inclusion disparities: Despite economic growth, gender
inequality and caste discrimination persist in both regions.
o Eg: Female workforce participation: Kerala (24.8%), Bihar (4.1%) (PLFS,
2022).

Way Forward

1. Targeted industrial and economic decentralization: Promoting manufacturing

clusters, skill development centers, and investment hubs in North India.
o Eg: PM MITRA textile parks in UP and Bihar for industrial growth (2023).
2. Equitable fiscal devolution: Reforming Finance Commission criteria to ensure that
resource redistribution encourages state-level reforms.

35
 o Eg: Performance-linked grants for states implementing governance
reforms (15th Finance Commission, 2020).
3. Infrastructure-led growth: Strengthening Road, rail, and digital connectivity to
bridge the regional divide.
o Eg: Bharatmala Project’s focus on Eastern Economic Corridor for better
North-South integration.
4. Human capital development: Investing in healthcare, education, and skill
development to enhance economic productivity.
o Eg: Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan expansion in UP and Bihar for higher
literacy rates.

Conclusion

Bridging the North-South divide requires targeted governance reforms, industrial

decentralization, and equitable fiscal policies. Strengthening human capital and
infrastructure will drive balanced and inclusive national growth.

36
Government Budgeting.
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, -
different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage,
transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and
related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum
support prices; Public Distribution System-objectives,
functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and
food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and
significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements,
supply chain management.
Land reforms in India.
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial
policy and their effects on industrial growth.
Q. "The gig economy can be a catalyst for economic growth, but without proper
regulation, it risks creating a new class of precarious labour”. Discuss how
India's labour policies can balance gig work flexibility with social security
entitlements. (15 M)

Introduction

The gig economy is reshaping India's labour market by creating flexible employment
opportunities, but the lack of formal regulation leaves workers vulnerable to income
instability, lack of benefits, and job insecurity. Balancing flexibility with social security is
crucial to ensure inclusive and sustainable growth.

Body

Gig economy as a catalyst for economic growth

1. Employment generation and workforce expansion – The gig economy provides

jobs for youth, women, and semi-skilled workers, bridging employment gaps in
traditional sectors.

37
 o Eg: NITI Aayog Report 2022 estimates gig workers in India will reach
23.5 million by 2029-30, significantly contributing to labour market
expansion.
2. Boost to digital and platform-based industries – The rise of e-commerce, ride-
hailing, and delivery services is driving economic activity and innovation.
o Eg: Economic Survey 2024 projects India’s e-commerce market to grow
from $83 billion (2022) to $150 billion (2026), fuelled by gig work.
3. Enhancing economic productivity and efficiency – Gig work reduces operational
costs for businesses while providing quick services and on-demand labour.
o Eg: India’s logistics sector, valued at $250 billion, increasingly relies on gig
workers for last-mile deliveries.
4. Increased workforce participation of marginalized groups – The gig economy
enables greater female workforce participation and employment in Tier-2 and
Tier-3 cities.
o Eg: Swiggy’s ‘Step Ahead’ Initiative (2023) introduced female-friendly
work models to increase women’s participation in gig work.
5. Contribution to GDP and income diversification – Gig workers contribute to
consumption-led growth by increasing disposable incomes and driving demand for
services.
o Eg: Gig economy contributes nearly 1.25% of India’s GDP (NASSCOM
2023), with potential for further growth.

Risks of an unregulated gig economy and precarious labour conditions

1. Lack of stable income and job security – Gig workers face fluctuating wages,
algorithmic bias, and lack of minimum earnings, leading to economic
vulnerability.
o Eg: Fairwork India Report 2023 found that 85% of gig workers have no
assured income or minimum wage protections.
2. Absence of social security benefits – Most gig workers lack health insurance,
pension, and paid leave, leaving them unprotected during financial shocks.
o Eg: Code on Social Security 2020 recognizes gig workers, but
implementation of welfare schemes remains weak.
3. Exploitation through algorithmic control – Digital platforms dictate work
conditions, pricing, and job allocation, often without transparency or grievance
redressal mechanisms.
o Eg: ILO Report 2023 highlights "algorithmic oppression" in gig work,
where workers face random deactivation without rights to appeal.
4. Exclusion from labour rights and collective bargaining – Gig workers fall outside
traditional labour laws, making it difficult for them to negotiate fair contracts and
better working conditions.
o Eg: Zomato and Swiggy delivery riders’ protests (2023-24) demanding fair
wages and better work conditions remain unresolved.

38
 5. Gendered vulnerabilities and safety concerns – Women gig workers face
workplace harassment, lack of maternity benefits, and safety issues, reducing their
participation.
o Eg: Ola and Uber’s safety policies for female drivers remain inadequate
despite rising concerns over gender-based harassment.

Balancing gig work flexibility with social security entitlements

1. Mandatory minimum wage and income stability – Implement platform-specific

minimum wage laws to ensure fair remuneration while maintaining work flexibility.
o Eg: UK’s Supreme Court ruling (2021) recognized Uber drivers as
"workers" entitled to minimum wage and benefits.
2. Universal social security coverage for gig workers – Expand health insurance,
accident cover, and pension schemes under the e-Shram portal and PM Jan Arogya
Yojana.
o Eg: The 2025 Budget includes health insurance for gig workers, but a
comprehensive benefits package is needed.
3. Regulatory framework for platform accountability – Introduce mandatory
employer contributions to gig worker welfare funds, ensuring financial sustainability.
o Eg: Indonesia mandates platform aggregators to contribute to workers'
social security funds, setting a precedent for India.
4. Collective bargaining and legal protection mechanisms – Recognize gig workers
as formal workers under labour laws, granting them rights to form unions and
negotiate contracts.
o Eg: California’s Proposition 22 (2020) allows gig workers limited benefits
while maintaining flexible work models.
5. Gender-inclusive policies for gig work – Introduce women-specific welfare
measures like maternity benefits, safety protocols, and flexible work arrangements.
o Eg: Singapore’s ‘Fair Work Framework’ mandates safety measures for
female gig workers, ensuring gender-sensitive policies.

Conclusion

A balanced regulatory approach that preserves work flexibility while ensuring job security is
essential for sustained economic growth and worker welfare. Strengthening legal
protections, universal benefits, and fair wages will enable the gig economy to be an
inclusive and equitable contributor to India’s labour market.

Q. What are the major changes introduced in the Boilers Bill, 2024? How do they
aim to improve industrial safety and compliance? (10 M)

Introduction

39
The Boilers Bill, 2024, which replaces the Boilers Act, 1923, aims to modernize regulatory
mechanisms while ensuring uniformity in boiler safety standards. It seeks to address
compliance challenges, incorporate technology, and provide flexibility to states.

Body

Major changes introduced in the Boilers Bill, 2024

1. Increased role of third-party inspections: Allows competent authorities to

conduct inspections, reducing bureaucratic delays.
o Eg: Recognized third-party agencies in sectors like petroleum and chemical
industries have expedited certification processes.
2. Digitalization of inspection and certification: Introduces online registration,
monitoring, and real-time tracking of boiler conditions.
o Eg: The Make in India initiative has emphasized digital reforms to improve
the ease of doing business.
3. Autonomy to state governments: States can exempt certain areas from the Act based
on industrial requirements.
o Eg: States like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have large industrial hubs
requiring specific safety adaptations.
4. Higher penalties for non-compliance: Imprisonment of up to two years and fines up
to ₹1 lakh for violations such as unauthorized structural alterations.
o Eg: 2022 Bhilai Steel Plant explosion highlighted gaps in penalty
enforcement under the previous Act.
5. Risk-based safety framework: Shifts from periodic inspections to risk-based
assessment models for better safety monitoring.
o Eg: Adopted in European Union boiler regulations, leading to fewer
industrial accidents.
6. Clearer definitions and scope of applicability: Excludes small-capacity boilers
(<25L, <100°C) and those used by the armed forces to avoid unnecessary regulation.
o Eg: Hospitals using small sterilization boilers are now exempted from
complex compliance procedures.
7. Mandatory accident reporting within 24 hours: Ensures rapid response and
accountability in case of boiler explosions or failures.
o Eg: Karnataka’s Nandi Sugar Factory boiler accident (2023) was delayed
in reporting, affecting rescue efforts.
8. Strengthening of the Central Boilers Board (CBB): Enhances its powers to update
safety regulations, approve new technologies, and set compliance norms.
o Eg: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) sets industry-specific safety
norms, similar to CBB’s expanded role.

Impact on industrial safety and compliance

40
Positive Aspects Negative Aspects

1. Faster inspections and certifications: 1. Risk of regulatory capture: Third-party

Reduces bureaucratic delays by allowing inspections may lead to compromised safety if
third-party inspections. inspectors are not independent.

Eg: Similar third-party models in the

Eg: Weak oversight in real estate led to
chemical industry have expedited
safety violations despite third-party audits.
certification processes.

2. Enhanced accountability and

2. State-level exemptions may dilute safety
transparency: Digital records reduce
norms: Different states may have varying
corruption and improve regulatory
enforcement levels, creating gaps.
oversight.

Eg: GST e-invoicing system ensures tax Eg: Different labor laws in states have led to
compliance through digital monitoring. compliance disparities in industries.

3. Increased safety in high-risk industries: 3. High compliance costs for small

Mandatory accident reporting improves industries: Increased penalties may burden
emergency response. MSMEs, impacting their operations.

Eg: Karnataka’s Nandi Sugar Factory Eg: Many small-scale industries struggled
boiler accident (2023) saw delays in with initial GST compliance due to high
response, which this Bill seeks to prevent. costs.

4. Better alignment with global safety 4. Limited focus on environmental impact:

standards: Moves towards international Does not address emissions control from
risk-based assessment models. industrial boilers.

Eg: The USA’s ASME Boiler & Pressure Eg: Thermal power plants contribute
Vessel Code follows similar third-party significantly to pollution, and boiler emissions
inspection models. remain a major concern.

5. Greater flexibility for industries: State- 5. Challenges in digital implementation:

level autonomy allows region-specific Many industries lack the infrastructure to
adaptations. transition to digital inspections.

Eg: Small industries in Tier-2 and Tier-3

Eg: Gujarat’s petrochemical industry
cities face challenges in digitizing compliance
benefits from customized safety protocols.
records.

Conclusion

41
The Boilers Bill, 2024 is a progressive step toward industrial safety and regulatory
efficiency, but its success depends on strict implementation and regular updates. Moving
forward, adopting AI-driven predictive maintenance and global risk assessment models
can further strengthen boiler safety in India.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Q. The PM Suryagarh Muft Bijli Yojana aims to empower ordinary citizens as
energy producers. Discuss its significance in decentralizing energy production
and its potential impact on rural livelihoods. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s energy transition relies on decentralized solar power to enhance self-sufficiency

and sustainability. The PM Suryagarh Muft Bijli Yojana seeks to empower citizens as
energy producers, fostering economic growth while strengthening rural livelihoods and
energy security.

Body

Significance in Decentralizing Energy Production

1. Democratizing energy generation: Enables households and farmers to generate

and sell electricity, reducing state monopoly on power production.
o Eg: Net metering systems in Gujarat have allowed 2.5 lakh households to sell
excess solar power (MNRE, 2024).
2. Minimizing transmission losses: Locally generated power reduces grid congestion
and prevents distribution losses, improving energy efficiency.
o Eg: India’s transmission losses stand at 17%, one of the highest globally;
decentralized solar can lower this (CEA, 2024).
3. Enhancing resilience against power shortages: Reduces dependency on coal-
based thermal plants, ensuring stable electricity supply in remote areas.
o Eg: Odisha’s decentralized solar microgrids provided 24x7 electricity to
30,000 households during cyclone-related outages (SECI, 2023).
4. Boosting renewable energy targets: Supports India’s goal of 500 GW renewable
capacity by 2030, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
o Eg: India’s rooftop solar capacity surged from 2 GW (2014) to 12 GW
(2024), with a target of 40 GW (MNRE, 2024).
5. Reducing electricity costs for citizens: Solar power eliminates dependence on
high-tariff grid electricity, lowering household expenses.
o Eg: Households in Rajasthan saved ₹9,000 annually after shifting to solar
energy under subsidy schemes (TERI, 2023).

Potential Impact on Rural Livelihoods

42
 1. Increasing farmer incomes: Farmers can install solar panels on barren land or
rooftops to earn additional revenue from electricity sales.
o Eg: Under KUSUM Yojana, farmers earned ₹50,000–₹1 lakh annually by
selling surplus solar power to DISCOMs (MNRE, 2024).
2. Creating green jobs in rural areas: Generates employment in solar panel
manufacturing, installation, and maintenance, benefiting youth and skilled
workers.
o Eg: India’s solar sector created 2.5 lakh new jobs in 2023, projected to
double by 2030 (CSE, 2024).
3. Enabling energy access for rural industries: Reliable solar power supports small-
scale industries, agro-processing units, and cold storage, reducing operational
costs.
o Eg: Solar-powered cold storage in Bihar helped farmers extend fruit and
vegetable shelf life, increasing profits by 30% (FAO, 2024).
4. Lowering irrigation and agricultural costs: Solar-powered pumps reduce reliance
on expensive diesel-powered irrigation, lowering input costs for farmers.
o Eg: Over 17 lakh farmers in Maharashtra adopted solar irrigation
pumps, cutting fuel expenses by 40% (ICAR, 2024).
5. Improving rural education and healthcare: Uninterrupted solar power ensures
lighting in schools and electricity for rural health centers, improving service
delivery.
o Eg: In Jharkhand, solar-powered schools reported a 25% increase in
student attendance due to improved infrastructure (World Bank, 2023).

Conclusion

The PM Suryagarh Muft Bijli Yojana is a game-changer for decentralized solar energy,
ensuring energy self-reliance and economic empowerment. Effective implementation,
financial incentives, and skill development will be crucial in realizing its full potential for
a sustainable and inclusive energy future.

Q. Transmission infrastructure is often considered the ‘Achilles' heel’ of India’s

power sector. Evaluate the challenges in power transmission and distribution,
and suggest reforms to enhance efficiency and reliability. (15 M)

Introduction

Despite achieving energy surplus, India faces severe transmission and distribution (T&D)
inefficiencies, leading to regional disparities, high losses, and unreliable power supply.
Strengthening T&D is crucial for energy security and economic growth.

Body

Challenges in power transmission and distribution

43
 1. Inadequate transmission capacity: Growth in power generation is outpacing
transmission infrastructure, leading to localized shortages.
o Eg: Jharkhand had a peak deficit of 7.5% (2021-22), despite national
surplus (Power Ministry, 2025).
2. High AT&C losses: Technical inefficiencies and power theft result in financial stress
for DISCOMs.
o Eg: India’s AT&C losses remain at 17% (CEA, 2024), global benchmark
6-8%.
3. Green energy integration bottlenecks: Weak transmission networks lead to
renewable energy curtailment.
o Eg: Delays in Green Energy Corridor project (MNRE, 2024).
4. Financial distress of DISCOMs: High debt, cross-subsidization, and delayed
payments impact efficiency.
o Eg: DISCOM dues to power generators ₹1.4 lakh crore (RBI, 2024).
5. Regulatory and policy inconsistencies: State-level regulations create inefficiencies
in transmission planning.
o Eg: Electricity (Amendment) Bill, 2022 pending.
6. Aging infrastructure and slow upgrades: Many networks operate beyond designed
capacity, causing breakdowns.
o Eg: Only 30% of transformers meet modern efficiency standards (CEA,
2024).
7. Political interference in power tariffs: Subsidized tariffs burden DISCOMs and
discourage private investment.
o Eg: Punjab & Rajasthan provide free electricity (Power Ministry, 2025).
8. Delay in smart metering adoption: Poor implementation affects billing efficiency &
revenue collection.
o Eg: Only 5.5 crore installed vs. 25 crore target under RDSS (2024).

Reforms to enhance efficiency and reliability

1. Expansion of national transmission network: Strengthening Green Energy

Corridors & HV transmission lines.
o Eg: ₹2.44 lakh crore transmission plan for renewables (MoP, 2024).
2. Reducing AT&C losses through technology: Smart grids, AI-based demand
forecasting, modern transformers.
o Eg: Gujarat’s smart grid cut AT&C losses to 8%.
3. Financial restructuring of DISCOMs: Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme
(RDSS) to cut losses below 12%.
o Eg: RDSS allocated ₹3.03 lakh crore (2024).
4. Policy stability for renewable integration: Strengthen RPO compliance, remove
transmission charges for green power.
o Eg: ISTS charges waived for renewables till 2030 (MoP, 2024).
5. Independent system operators: Establish National Transmission Authority for
unified grid management.

44
 o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Electricity Market Report, 2024.
6. Incentivizing private investment: Public-private partnerships (PPP) in T&D to
reduce financial burden.
o Eg: Tata Power’s PPP model in Odisha improved billing by 20% (2024).
7. Smart metering for real-time monitoring: Accelerate pan-India smart meter
deployment to reduce power theft.
o Eg: Bihar cut AT&C losses by 10% after smart meters (2024).
8. Tariff rationalization & subsidy reforms: Shift to Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT)
for electricity subsidies.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s DBT model reduced DISCOM losses (2024).

Conclusion

Strengthening power transmission and distribution is essential for India’s energy

security. Urgent infrastructure, financial, and smart grid reforms will ensure a reliable,
efficient, and resilient power sector.

Q. Ports act as strategic gateways for trade but are often constrained by
inefficiencies. Examine the key challenges in Indian port infrastructure and how
the “One Nation-One Port” initiative can address them. (10 M)

Introduction

Ports are critical to India's economic growth, international trade competitiveness, and
supply chain efficiency. However, inefficiencies in port infrastructure hinder their full
potential, necessitating reforms like the "One Nation-One Port" initiative to ensure
standardization, reduce costs, and improve operational effectiveness.

Body

Key challenges in Indian port infrastructure

1. Infrastructure bottlenecks: Insufficient deep-draft berths, outdated cargo handling

equipment, and inadequate hinterland connectivity limit efficiency.
o Eg: JNPT, India’s largest container port, faces congestion due to limited
rail-road connectivity.
2. High logistics costs: Indian logistics cost is ~13-14% of GDP, higher than the
global average of ~8-10%. Poor port connectivity and long turnaround times inflate
trade expenses.
o Eg: World Bank’s LPI 2023 ranks India 38th in port infrastructure
quality, highlighting inefficiencies.
3. Lengthy documentation & clearance delays: Multiple agencies, redundant
paperwork, and lack of process standardization slow down cargo movement.
o Eg: India's EXIM trade requires ~55 hours for documentation clearance,
compared to ~10 hours in Singapore.
45
 4. Operational inefficiencies & capacity underutilization: Low productivity in
cargo handling, delays in dredging, and inefficient berth management affect
competitiveness.
o Eg: India’s average turnaround time for ships is ~2.5 days, while China
achieves ~1 day.
5. Lack of digital integration & automation: Absence of AI-driven port
management, blockchain-based trade clearance, and real-time tracking affect
efficiency.
o Eg: Only ~20% of Indian ports have fully implemented Port Community
Systems (PCS) for digital documentation.

How the “One Nation-One Port” initiative can address these challenges

1. Standardization of processes: Uniform documentation, digitized approvals, and

automated cargo clearances will reduce delays and improve efficiency.
o Eg: ONOP has already cut down container operation documents from
143 to 96, streamlining processes.
2. Enhanced multimodal connectivity: Integration with the PM Gati Shakti Master
Plan will improve last-mile rail, road, and inland waterway linkages.
o Eg: Sagarmala project’s multimodal corridors are expected to reduce
logistics costs by ~5%.
3. Port digitization & automation: Use of AI, blockchain, and IoT will enable
seamless cargo movement, reduce human intervention, and enhance security.
o Eg: MAITRI initiative aims to create a ‘Virtual Trade Corridor’ for real-
time tracking and clearance.
4. Performance benchmarking through LPPI: Introduction of Logistics Port
Performance Index (LPPI) will rank ports based on efficiency metrics, fostering
competition.
o Eg: LPPI evaluates turnaround time, berth idle time, and container dwell
time, improving accountability.
5. Green and smart port development: Focus on sustainability through
electrification, cleaner fuels, and carbon reduction initiatives will enhance global
competitiveness.
o Eg: The National Centre of Excellence in Green Port and Shipping
(NCoEGPS) is promoting decarbonization strategies.

Conclusion

The "One Nation-One Port" initiative is a game-changer in standardizing India’s port sector,
aligning with Viksit Bharat 2047 goals. By integrating digital solutions, multimodal
logistics, and sustainability measures, it can transform India into a global maritime hub.

46
Investment models.
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and
effects in everyday life.
Q. What is an Einstein Ring? Explain its formation with the concept of
gravitational lensing and its implications in modern astrophysics .(10 M)

Introduction

A rare celestial phenomenon, the Einstein Ring results from gravitational lensing, a
concept predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (1915). This discovery has
revolutionized astrophysics, offering insights into dark matter, cosmic expansion, and
deep-space objects.

Body

What is an Einstein Ring?

1. Definition: An Einstein Ring is a perfectly circular halo of light formed when light
from a distant galaxy is bent by the gravitational field of a massive foreground object
(like another galaxy or black hole).
2. Predicted by General Relativity: Einstein’s theory states that massive objects warp
spacetime, causing light to curve around them, leading to gravitational lensing.

47
 3. First discovery (1987): The first confirmed Einstein Ring, MG 1131+0456, validated
the concept of gravitational lensing.
4. Requires precise alignment: A complete Einstein Ring forms only when the source
galaxy, lensing galaxy, and observer on Earth are perfectly aligned along a single
line of sight.

Formation of Einstein Ring

1. Gravitational lensing effect: A massive celestial body bends and magnifies light
from a distant source due to its strong gravitational field.
o Eg: The Einstein Ring around NGC 6505, discovered by ESA’s Euclid
telescope (2023).
2. Perfect alignment of objects: The source galaxy, lensing object, and observer must
align along a single line of sight for a complete ring to form.
o Eg: The Einstein Ring SDSS J2329-0134, observed in Sloan Digital Sky
Survey (SDSS) data.
3. Amplification of distant objects: The bending of light magnifies the background
galaxy, making it appear brighter and larger than usual.
o Eg: The James Webb Space Telescope (2023) used an Einstein Ring to study
a galaxy 12 billion light-years away.

Implications in modern astrophysics

1. Mapping dark matter distribution: Since dark matter does not emit light but has
a gravitational effect, Einstein Rings help in indirect detection.
o Eg: Hubble Space Telescope’s Einstein Ring SDSS J2141-0001 (2014)
provided dark matter mapping data.
2. Understanding cosmic expansion: Measuring how light bends through gravitational
lensing helps estimate the expansion rate of the universe (Hubble Constant).
o Eg: Observations from H0LiCOW collaboration (2020) refined the Hubble
Constant value.
3. Observing distant galaxies: Einstein Rings act as natural telescopes, magnifying
distant galaxies that would otherwise be too faint to observe.
o Eg: James Webb Space Telescope (2023) used an Einstein Ring to study a
galaxy 12 billion light-years away.
4. Testing fundamental physics: By analyzing how light bends, scientists test alternate
theories of gravity and deviations from General Relativity.
o Eg: Study of Einstein Rings in Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)
framework challenges dark matter’s role.
5. Advancing space-based telescopes: Future missions like NASA’s Nancy Grace
Roman Space Telescope (2027) aim to find more Einstein Rings to study dark
matter.
o Eg: ESA’s Euclid mission (2023) already detected multiple new Einstein
Rings, expanding the catalog.

48
Conclusion

The Einstein Ring is not just a cosmic spectacle but a powerful scientific tool. It offers
deep insights into the nature of dark matter, cosmic evolution, and fundamental
physics. With advanced telescopes and AI-driven data analysis, future discoveries will
unlock more secrets of the universe.

Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization

of technology and developing new technology.
Q. Despite having multiple launch vehicles, ISRO faces constraints in launching
heavy payloads and scientific missions. Analyze the deficiencies in India’s launch
vehicle ecosystem and suggest measures to enhance India's competitiveness in the
global space market. (15 M)

Introduction

Despite possessing multiple launch vehicles, ISRO faces limitations in launching heavy
payloads and complex scientific missions, affecting India’s ambitions in space exploration
and global competitiveness. Addressing these challenges is crucial for India to emerge as a
leading space power.

Body

Constraints in launching heavy payloads and scientific missions

1. Absence of a super-heavy lift vehicle: India lacks a launch vehicle capable of

carrying payloads above 8-10 tonnes, limiting deep-space and high-capacity satellite
missions.
o Eg: NASA’s SLS (130 tonnes) and SpaceX’s Starship (150 tonnes) far
surpass India’s LVM-3 (4 tonnes to GTO, 8 tonnes to LEO).
2. Dependence on foreign launchers for heavy payloads: India still relies on
Arianespace and SpaceX for launching communication satellites heavier than 6
tonnes.
o Eg: GSAT-24 was launched aboard Ariane-5, showcasing India’s
dependency.
3. Limited launch frequency: The current launch infrastructure allows only 5-6
launches per year, leading to mission delays and backlog accumulation.
o Eg: Chandrayaan-3 was delayed due to prioritization of commercial
launches like OneWeb in 2022.
4. Technological limitations in human spaceflight: While Gaganyaan is under
development, India lacks crew-rated launch escape systems, regenerative cooling
engines, and space habitats.
o Eg: China’s Tiangong Space Station (2021) already operates with crewed
missions, while India plans its first space station post-2035.

49
 5. Lack of fully reusable launch systems: Unlike SpaceX’s Falcon 9, India’s launch
vehicles are expendable, raising costs and reducing commercial viability.
o Eg: ISRO’s RLV-TD (2023) is in testing, but operational readiness is years
away.

Deficiencies in India’s launch vehicle ecosystem

1. Fragmented industrial production capacity: Delays in private sector participation

lead to slow rocket manufacturing cycles (8-12 months per LVM-3).
o Eg: NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL) is still in early stages of taking over PSLV
and SSLV production.
2. Lack of a dedicated military launch vehicle: India lacks a dedicated defense-
oriented launch system, limiting rapid satellite deployment for security needs.
o Eg: USA’s X-37B is a dedicated spaceplane for defense and reconnaissance.
3. High per-launch costs compared to global competitors: ISRO’s LVM-3 launch
costs $60-70M, while Falcon 9 costs $67M with reuse, reducing India’s commercial
competitiveness.
o Eg: SpaceX dominates 60% of global launches, while India’s share is below
2% (IN-SPACe, 2024).
4. Inefficient regulatory environment for private sector: IN-SPACe is both
promoter and regulator, creating a conflict of interest and regulatory bottlenecks.
o Eg: Lack of an independent space tribunal delays dispute resolution for
private companies.
5. Delays in Next-Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV): ISRO’s NGLV (planned
reusable rocket) is still in the conceptual phase, while competitors already operate
similar vehicles.
o Eg: China’s Long March 9 (first flight in 2030) is far ahead in super-heavy
lift capability.

Measures to enhance India’s competitiveness in the global space market

1. Accelerating NGLV and super-heavy lift vehicle development: Fast-tracking

NGLV and fully reusable launch vehicles is critical to compete globally.
o Eg: ISRO’s SCE-200 engine for NGLV must be operational by 2030.
2. Increasing launch frequency with private partnerships: Encouraging private
sector-led rocket manufacturing will reduce costs and improve launch cadence.
o Eg: Skyroot Aerospace’s Vikram-I (2024) successfully demonstrated private
launch capabilities.
3. Developing cost-efficient reusable technology: R&D in reusable boosters and
cryogenic stages will cut launch costs and enhance commercial viability.
o Eg: RLV-TD's landing test (2023) was a step towards reusability but needs
scaled deployment.
4. Expanding global partnerships for launch access: India should collaborate with
NASA, ESA, and JAXA to share heavy-lift launch resources.

50
 o Eg: NASA-ISRO NISAR (2024) utilized a US-built payload with an Indian
radar system.
5. Legislative and policy reforms: Implementing a dedicated space law, an
independent regulatory authority, and clear FDI policies will boost private investment.
o Eg: The Draft Space Activities Bill (2017) is still pending; its passage is
crucial for industry growth.

Conclusion:

India stands at a critical juncture in its space ambitions. Bridging launch vehicle gaps,
strengthening private sector participation, and enhancing policy frameworks will be key
to positioning India as a global space leader. A decisive shift towards reusable, high-
capacity launchers will determine India’s future space competitiveness.

Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-

technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual
property rights.
Q. Throw light on the current asteroid detection and tracking systems,
highlighting their key features. How can emerging technologies like artificial
intelligence and space-based observatories enhance their effectiveness? (10 M)

Introduction

The increasing detection of near-Earth objects (NEOs), like asteroid 2024 YR4, highlights
the need for robust asteroid detection and tracking systems to prevent potential catastrophic
impacts on Earth.

Body

Current asteroid detection and tracking systems

1. Ground-based optical telescopes: Use reflected sunlight to detect and track

asteroids.
 Eg: ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) detects small
asteroids days before impact.
2. Radar observation systems: Provide precise data on asteroid size, shape, and
trajectory.
 Eg: Goldstone Solar System Radar enhances accuracy in tracking asteroid
paths.
3. Space-based infrared observatories: Detect asteroids using thermal emissions,
effective even for dark objects.
 Eg: NEOWISE (Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer)
monitors NEOs via infrared imaging.

51
 4. International asteroid monitoring networks: Facilitate global data sharing and
coordinated responses.
 Eg: International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) under UN
COPUOS coordinates global asteroid threat assessments.
5. Planetary defence coordination programs: Integrate detection with mitigation
strategies.
 Eg: NASA’s Planetary Defence Coordination Office (PDCO) leads U.S.
efforts for planetary defence.
6. Automated sky survey systems: Continuously scan the sky to identify new asteroids
efficiently.
 Eg: Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response
System) automates sky surveys for faster detection.

Enhancing effectiveness through emerging technologies

1. Artificial intelligence for data processing: AI analyzes large datasets to improve

asteroid detection rates.
 Eg: NASA’s Frontier Development Lab used AI to boost detection
efficiency by 15%.
2. Advanced space-based infrared telescopes: Overcome atmospheric limitations for
early asteroid detection.
 Eg: The upcoming NEO Surveyor Mission (launch planned for 2027) will
enhance hazardous asteroid tracking.
3. Machine learning in automated sky surveys: Enables real-time detection and
classification of NEOs.
 Eg: Pan-STARRS integrates machine learning for efficient identification of
asteroid threats.
4. Real-time global tracking systems: AI-driven systems provide early warnings with
high accuracy.
 Eg: ESA’s Flyeye Telescope (Italy) offers real-time NEO monitoring and
rapid alerts.
5. Quantum computing for complex modelling: Enhances simulation of asteroid
trajectories under uncertain conditions.
 Eg: D-Wave quantum computing platforms are being explored for advanced
NEO trajectory predictions.
6. Big data analytics for predictive modelling: Improves the accuracy of impact
probability assessments.
 Eg: AI-based models in NASA’s planetary defence systems predict potential
collision courses more precisely.

Conclusion

52
The integration of artificial intelligence, space-based observatories, and advanced
computing technologies with existing detection systems will significantly strengthen
planetary defense capabilities, ensuring timely responses to cosmic threats.

Q. “The vulnerability of AI chatbots to indirect prompt injection attacks raises

concerns over their security and reliability”. Examine the implications of such
attacks on digital trust and cybersecurity. (10 M)

Introduction

AI chatbots, powered by large language models (LLMs), are increasingly integrated into
critical domains. However, indirect prompt injection attacks exploit their instruction-
following nature, threatening cybersecurity, digital trust, and ethical AI deployment.

Body

Vulnerability of AI chatbots to indirect prompt injection attacks

1. Embedded malicious instructions: Attackers plant hidden prompts in digital

content, tricking chatbots into executing unauthorized actions.
o Eg: Johann Rehberger demonstrated how Google’s Gemini chatbot could be
manipulated via embedded prompts in documents.
2. Long-term memory corruption: False instructions can persist across sessions,
making the AI unreliable over time.
o Eg: In a proof-of-concept (PoC) attack, Gemini Advanced was tricked into
storing and acting on false information indefinitely.
3. Bypassing security measures: Attackers use delayed tool invocation, triggering
actions only under specific conditions, evading detection.
o Eg: A document can direct the chatbot to extract data only when a user
responds with predefined words.
4. Undermining AI reliability: These attacks compromise the accuracy and neutrality
of chatbot responses, leading to misinformation.
o Eg: AI chatbots in customer support and healthcare could unknowingly
give misleading or harmful recommendations.
5. Exploitation for cyber warfare: Hostile entities can use chatbots to spread
propaganda, misinformation, or execute cyberattacks.
o Eg: Deepfake-enhanced AI chatbots were flagged by cybersecurity experts
as potential tools for election manipulation (2024 US Elections concerns).

Implications on digital trust and cybersecurity

A. Digital trust

1. Erosion of user confidence: Repeated AI failures make people skeptical about

chatbot-generated responses.

53
 o Eg: Microsoft’s Tay chatbot (2016) started generating hate speech within
hours due to adversarial manipulation.
2. Manipulation of public opinion: AI-driven misinformation can sway political
discourse and financial markets.
o Eg: AI-generated fake news influenced narratives during the Russia-
Ukraine conflict (2022).
3. Threat to ethical AI deployment: Businesses and governments may hesitate to adopt
AI solutions due to security risks.
o Eg: Concerns over biased AI decisions led to bans on facial recognition AI in
cities like San Francisco (2019).

B. Cybersecurity threats

1. Data privacy breaches: Attackers can manipulate chatbots to extract sensitive user
information.
o Eg: Cybersecurity firm Symantec (2023) identified LLM vulnerabilities that
exposed confidential corporate data.
2. Expansion of attack vectors: Unlike traditional cyberattacks, prompt injections do
not require hacking infrastructure, making them easier to execute.
o Eg: Hackers hijacking Chrome extensions (2024) to inject hidden AI
prompts.
3. Regulatory challenges: Existing cybersecurity laws do not specifically address AI
attacks, creating enforcement gaps.
o Eg: The IT Rules (2021) in India regulate social media but lack provisions
for AI-based manipulations.
4. Financial fraud risks: Manipulated AI assistants can mislead users into scams or
unauthorized transactions.
o Eg: AI-powered voice scams (2023) duped victims into transferring millions
of dollars by mimicking human voices.

Conclusion

AI’s increasing role in digital infrastructure demands robust safeguards against adversarial
manipulations. Governments and tech companies must implement real-time AI auditing,
adversarial training, and regulatory reforms to enhance AI security and protect digital
trust.

Q. What is a biosimilar? How do biosimilars contribute to affordable healthcare,

and what are the key barriers to their large-scale adoption in India? Suggest
reforms to make Indian biosimilars globally competitive. (15 M)

Introduction

54
Biosimilars are revolutionizing medical treatments, particularly for chronic and life-
threatening diseases, by offering cost-effective alternatives to expensive biologic drugs.
However, India’s regulatory and policy ecosystem remains a significant hurdle in unlocking
their full potential.

Body

What is a biosimilar?

1. Definition and nature: Biosimilars are biologic medical products highly similar to an
already approved reference biologic, with no clinically meaningful differences in
efficacy or safety.
o Eg: Trastuzumab biosimilars used in breast cancer treatment.
2. Difference from generics: Unlike generics, biosimilars are derived from living cells
and require complex processes, making exact replication impossible.
o Eg: Paracetamol (generic) vs. Adalimumab (biosimilar for arthritis).
3. Regulatory approval: Biosimilars undergo stringent clinical trials to establish
similarity in function, purity, and safety with the reference biologic.
o Eg: U.S. FDA’s Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act, 2009
mandates rigorous testing.
4. Global significance: As patents for major biologics expire, biosimilars are emerging
as a key driver in making advanced therapies affordable worldwide.
o Eg: EU and Japan have well-defined biosimilar regulatory pathways,
boosting global access.

How do biosimilars contribute to affordable healthcare?

1. Lower cost than biologics: Biosimilars are priced 30-70% lower than original
biologics, making essential treatments more accessible.
o Eg: India’s Bevacizumab biosimilar (Zybev) costs 40% less than Roche’s
Avastin.
2. Increased market competition: The entry of multiple biosimilars forces biologic
manufacturers to reduce prices.
o Eg: After the introduction of biosimilars for Trastuzumab, the price
dropped significantly in India.
3. Reduced out-of-pocket expenditure: In India, where over 60% of healthcare
spending is out-of-pocket (NSSO 2018-19), biosimilars make life-saving drugs more
affordable.
o Eg: Rituximab biosimilars used in cancer treatment reduced treatment
costs by ₹1 lakh per cycle.
4. Potential for government procurement: Large-scale biosimilar adoption under
schemes like Ayushman Bharat can make expensive treatments accessible for lower-
income groups.

55
 o Eg: Tamil Nadu Medical Services Corporation (TNMSC) includes
biosimilars in state procurement.

What are the key barriers to their large-scale adoption in India?

1. Weak regulatory framework: India lacks a strong biosimilar-specific law, relying

only on non-binding guidelines, affecting market confidence.
o Eg: The 2012 Biosimilar Guidelines lack legal enforceability, unlike the
U.S. or EU regulations.
2. High manufacturing and clinical trial costs: Biosimilars require extensive Phase
III clinical trials, increasing costs and limiting competition.
o Eg: The cost of developing a biosimilar in India is around $100-200
million, compared to $1-2 million for generics (McKinsey Report, 2023).
3. Limited doctor and patient awareness: Many physicians hesitate to prescribe
biosimilars due to misinformation or aggressive marketing by biologic manufacturers.
o Eg: A 2022 WHO report found that only 35% of oncologists in India were
confident in prescribing biosimilars.
4. Legal and patent battles: MNCs use patent evergreening and legal challenges to
delay biosimilar market entry.
o Eg: Roche’s lawsuit against Indian biosimilars of Trastuzumab delayed
competition.

Suggest reforms to make Indian biosimilars globally competitive

1. Enact a comprehensive biosimilar law: India must replace non-binding guidelines

with a statutory framework aligned with global best practices.
o Eg: Adopt a law similar to the U.S. Biologics Price Competition and
Innovation Act, 2009.
2. Reduce regulatory approval time: Establish fast-track approvals for biosimilars that
have undergone clinical trials in highly regulated markets.
o Eg: European Medicines Agency (EMA) has a fast-track biosimilar
approval system for WHO-prequalified drugs.
3. Promote R&D and domestic manufacturing: Offer tax incentives, subsidies, and
public-private partnerships (PPPs) to encourage biosimilar development.
o Eg: Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC)
funding helped develop India’s first biosimilar insulin.
4. Enhance awareness and training: Conduct mandatory biosimilar education
programs for healthcare professionals and the public to increase acceptance.
o Eg: France mandates physician training on biosimilars to improve
adoption rates.

Conclusion

56
Biosimilars hold the potential to revolutionize healthcare accessibility in India, but weak
regulations and high costs remain hurdles. A robust legal framework, R&D incentives, and
improved awareness can position India as a global biosimilar leader while ensuring
affordable healthcare for millions.

Q. Examine how new materials like topoconductors are improving quantum

computing. Discuss their role in making quantum processors more stable.
Evaluate the potential of these materials for large-scale quantum computing. (15
M)

Introduction

Quantum computing faces major challenges like qubit instability, error rates, and
scalability. Topoconductors, a new class of materials, offer a promising solution by
enabling topological qubits, which improve error resistance, stability, and computational
efficiency.

Body

How new materials like topoconductors are improving quantum computing

1. Unique topological properties: Topoconductors support Majorana particles,

allowing qubits to be encoded in a fault-resistant manner.
o Eg: Microsoft's Majorana 1 chip (2025) demonstrated quantum states that
resist environmental noise.
2. Intrinsic fault tolerance: Unlike traditional superconductors, topoconductors prevent
logical errors at the hardware level, reducing the need for software-based
corrections.
o Eg: Research at Delft University (2024) confirmed topological qubits
require 80% fewer error-correcting operations.
57
 3. Facilitation of hybrid superconductivity: These materials allow seamless
integration of semiconductor and superconducting properties, improving control
over qubit interactions.
o Eg: Harvard-MIT study (2024) proved that indium arsenide-aluminum
topoconductors enhance qubit performance.
4. Improved quantum coherence: Qubits built with topoconductors retain
information longer, leading to more stable computations.
o Eg: Stanford Quantum Lab (2024) recorded a 10-fold increase in qubit
coherence times using hybrid superconductors.
5. Reduction in quantum decoherence: The unique electron properties in
topoconductors reduce quantum state collapses, which disrupt calculations.
o Eg: IBM Quantum (2024) found that topological qubits show 70% lower
decoherence rates than superconducting qubits.

Role of topoconductors in making quantum processors more stable

1. Minimization of external disturbances: Topoconductors shield qubits from noise,

vibrations, and electromagnetic interference, ensuring better stability.
o Eg: Yale Quantum Institute (2023) demonstrated that Majorana-based
qubits maintained stability under external magnetic fields.
2. Stable qubit connectivity: They enable stronger, longer-lasting qubit
interconnections, which is crucial for large-scale computing.
o Eg: Oxford Quantum Research (2024) successfully demonstrated stable
quantum entanglement for 50+ qubits using topoconductors.
3. Increased operational temperature range: Unlike traditional superconductors,
topoconductors function at slightly higher temperatures, reducing cooling
requirements.
o Eg: Los Alamos National Lab (2024) found topological qubits remain
stable up to 20 mK, reducing cryogenic energy needs.
4. Reduction in cross-talk errors: These materials help isolate qubits from each other,
minimizing unintended quantum interactions.
o Eg: University of Maryland (2023) demonstrated that topoconductors cut
cross-talk errors by 60% in a multi-qubit system.
5. Precision in qubit control: Topoconductors enable more accurate quantum gate
operations, ensuring reliability in computations.
o Eg: European Quantum Flagship (2024) observed a 5x improvement in
gate fidelity using topological materials.

Potential of topoconductors for large-scale quantum computing

1. Facilitating million-qubit architectures: The stability and low error rates of

topoconductors make them ideal for scaling quantum computers.
o Eg: MIT Lincoln Laboratory (2024) projected that topological qubits could
enable million-qubit processors within a decade.

58
 2. Improving computational efficiency: These materials allow for faster qubit
operations and more complex quantum circuits.
o Eg: Intel’s Quantum Roadmap (2024) estimates a 5x improvement in
processing speeds using topoconductor-based quantum gates.
3. Reducing hardware complexity: Since topological qubits require fewer error-
correcting qubits, quantum computers can be built with less physical
infrastructure.
o Eg: Google Quantum AI (2024) found that topoconductor-based quantum
chips require 40% fewer control components.
4. Expanding real-world applications: More reliable quantum computers can tackle
high-impact problems in drug discovery, climate modeling, and materials
science.
o Eg: IBM’s Qiskit program (2024) is exploring topological quantum
simulations for designing advanced batteries.
5. Bridging quantum-classical computing: Topoconductors allow better integration
between quantum and classical processors, improving hybrid computing models.
o Eg: Intel’s Cryogenic Control Chips (2024) use topological materials to
link classical and quantum circuits seamlessly.

Conclusion

Topoconductors represent a breakthrough in quantum hardware, addressing stability,

scalability, and efficiency challenges. As research advances, they could pave the way for
fault-tolerant, commercially viable quantum computers, unlocking new scientific and
industrial frontiers.

Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation,

environmental impact assessment.
Q. “Wetland ecosystems are increasingly vulnerable due to anthropogenic
pressures”. Analyze the key challenges in wetland conservation in India and
suggest innovative strategies for their sustainable management. (10 M)

Introduction
Wetlands, often termed as the “kidneys of the ecosystem,” are vital for biodiversity
conservation, flood regulation, and carbon sequestration. However, intensified
anthropogenic pressures threaten their sustainability in India.

Body

Key challenges in wetland conservation in India

1. Urbanization and land-use change: Unplanned urban expansion leads to wetland

encroachment, disrupting natural hydrology.

59
 o Eg: Bhoj Wetland, Madhya Pradesh, faces encroachment due to Bhopal’s
rapid urban growth (Ramsar Site Report, 2023).
2. Pollution from domestic and industrial effluents: Discharge of untreated sewage
and industrial waste degrades water quality and aquatic life.
o Eg: Yamuna floodplain wetlands, Delhi, suffer from industrial pollution
and untreated sewage (CPCB Report, 2022).
3. Agricultural runoff and eutrophication: Excessive use of fertilizers causes nutrient
loading, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
o Eg: Chilika Lake, Odisha, experienced algal blooms due to fertilizer runoff,
impacting fisheries (Wetlands International, 2023).
4. Climate change impacts: Erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, and changing
hydrological cycles affect wetland ecosystems.
o Eg: Wular Lake, J&K, faces fluctuating water levels due to glacial melt and
climate variability.
5. Invasive species proliferation: Non-native species like water hyacinth choke
wetlands, harming biodiversity and local livelihoods.
o Eg: Vembanad Lake, Kerala, is overrun by water hyacinth, disrupting
aquatic ecosystems (Kerala Wetland Report, 2022).
6. Weak legal enforcement and governance gaps: Inadequate implementation of the
Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, weakens conservation
efforts.
o Eg: Poor enforcement in East Kolkata Wetlands, despite being a Ramsar
Site, has led to degradation.

Innovative strategies for sustainable wetland management

1. Integrated wetland management plans: Holistic approaches focusing on

biodiversity, hydrology, and community participation.
o Eg: Integrated Management Plan for Parvati Arga Ramsar Site (2025)
focuses on adaptive, ecosystem-based management.
2. Legal strengthening and policy reforms: Amending the Wetlands Rules, 2017, for
stricter protection, monitoring, and compliance.
o Eg: Rangarajan Committee (2021) recommended legal reforms for robust
wetland conservation.
3. Nature-based solutions (NbS): Eco-engineering methods like constructed wetlands
for wastewater treatment and flood mitigation.
o Eg: East Kolkata Wetlands serve as natural sewage treatment systems,
reducing pollution sustainably.
4. Community-led conservation models: Involving local communities through eco-
tourism and sustainable livelihood initiatives.
o Eg: Chilika Development Authority’s model integrates community
participation, boosting both conservation and tourism.
5. Leveraging technology for monitoring: Using remote sensing, GIS mapping, and
real-time water quality sensors for effective surveillance.

60
 o Eg: ISRO’s Wetland Inventory Atlas (2022) helps track wetland
degradation through satellite imagery.
6. Public-private partnerships (PPP): Engaging private entities in wetland restoration
and sustainable management through CSR.
o Eg: MoU between Amazon and ARGA (2025) supports women
entrepreneurs for eco-friendly wetland-based livelihoods.

Conclusion
For sustainable wetland conservation, India must adopt an ecosystem-based management
approach, emphasizing community participation, technological innovations, and strong
legal frameworks to secure the ecological and economic future of these critical habitats.

Q. “Conservation strategies must adapt to the dual challenges of biodiversity loss

and climate change”. Analyze how International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) can
serve as a model for integrated conservation approaches. (10 M)

Introduction

The interconnected crises of biodiversity loss and climate change threaten global
ecological stability, demanding integrated conservation strategies. The International Big
Cat Alliance (IBCA), with its global outreach, reflects such an adaptive approach to wildlife
conservation.

Body

Conservation strategies must adapt to biodiversity loss and climate change

1. Ecosystem-based adaptation: Conservation must focus on protecting entire

ecosystems, ensuring species survival while enhancing climate resilience.
o Eg: Mangrove restoration projects in the Sundarbans buffer against climate
impacts while preserving tiger habitats.
2. Climate-resilient corridors: Creating wildlife corridors allows species to migrate in
response to changing climates, reducing the risk of isolated populations.
o Eg: The Terai Arc Landscape project in India links protected areas, aiding
tiger movement amidst shifting habitats.
3. Integration of climate science in conservation planning: Utilizing climate models
to predict future habitat shifts and species vulnerabilities.
o Eg: The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) highlights the need for
adaptive management in conservation policies.
4. Community-based conservation: Involving local communities promotes sustainable
resource use, mitigating both biodiversity loss and climate vulnerability.
o Eg: The Joint Forest Management (JFM) program in India integrates
community participation in forest conservation.

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International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) can serve as a model for integrated conservation
approaches

1. Global collaboration platform: IBCA fosters transboundary cooperation among

27 countries, enhancing habitat connectivity across nations.
o Eg: The IBCA Framework Agreement (2025) includes countries like India,
Nicaragua, and Liberia, promoting cross-border big cat conservation.
2. Focus on multiple big cat species: IBCA’s holistic approach to conserving seven big
cat species supports diverse ecosystems globally.
o Eg: Conservation efforts for the snow leopard address fragile Himalayan
ecosystems sensitive to climate change.
3. Central repository for data and research: IBCA provides a shared platform for
scientific knowledge, improving adaptive management strategies.
o Eg: The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), as IBCA’s nodal
body, facilitates data-driven conservation planning.
4. Funding and resource mobilization: IBCA’s structure enables global financial
support for conservation, reducing reliance on limited national budgets.
o Eg: Global Environment Facility (GEF) partnerships can complement IBCA
funding for climate-resilient conservation projects.
5. Integration with climate change mitigation efforts: IBCA aligns with international
climate goals like the Paris Agreement, linking biodiversity with climate action.
o Eg: IBCA’s focus on habitat restoration contributes to carbon sequestration,
supporting climate mitigation targets.
6. Strengthening community participation: IBCA promotes inclusive conservation
models, engaging local communities for sustainable ecosystem management.
o Eg: Eco-development programs around tiger reserves in India reduce
human-wildlife conflict while securing livelihoods.

Conclusion

IBCA exemplifies an integrated conservation model by merging biodiversity protection

with climate resilience strategies. Its success can inspire global frameworks that balance
ecological preservation with sustainable development goals.

Q. “Sacred groves are not merely ecological hotspots but also living repositories
of cultural heritage and traditional knowledge”. Examine their role in promoting
sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. (15 M)

Introduction

Sacred groves, traditionally conserved forest patches, embody the fusion of ecological
sanctity with cultural heritage and traditional knowledge, serving as living models of
harmonious coexistence between nature and communities.

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Body

Sacred groves as ecological hotspots and cultural repositories

1. Biodiversity sanctuaries: They harbour endemic and rare species of flora and
fauna, often absent in surrounding areas.
o Eg: Sarpa Kavu in Kerala conserves rare snake species and medicinal plants.
2. Cultural identity symbols: Sacred groves are integral to the rituals, festivals, and
folklore of indigenous communities.
o Eg: ‘Orans’ in Rajasthan are associated with deities like Gogaji and Pabuji.
3. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) hubs: They preserve indigenous
knowledge of medicinal plants, sustainable harvesting, and conservation techniques.
o Eg: Gond tribes in Madhya Pradesh use plants from sacred groves for
traditional medicines.
4. Spiritual conservation ethos: The religious taboos against tree felling and hunting
foster natural preservation without formal enforcement.
o Eg: ‘Law Kyntang’ in Meghalaya is protected through strict customary laws
forbidding exploitation.
5. Oral heritage transmission: Myths, legends, and songs related to sacred groves
help transfer conservation values across generations.
o Eg: Bishnoi community’s folklore in Rajasthan emphasizes environmental
protection rooted in cultural teachings.
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Role in promoting sustainable development

1. Water resource management: Sacred groves often protect natural springs and
watersheds, supporting local agriculture.
o Eg: ‘Devrai’ groves in Maharashtra help maintain groundwater levels.
2. Climate resilience: Their dense vegetation acts as carbon sinks and buffers against
climate extremes like droughts and floods.
o Eg: ‘Jahera’ groves in Odisha mitigate soil erosion and microclimate
changes.
3. Livelihood support: They provide non-timber forest products (NTFPs) like honey,
fruits, and medicinal herbs sustainably.
o Eg: Tribal communities in Chhattisgarh rely on grove resources for
traditional healing practices and livelihoods.
4. Disaster risk reduction: Sacred groves help in flood control, landslide prevention,
and maintaining ecological stability.
o Eg: Coastal sacred groves in Tamil Nadu reduced tsunami impacts in 2004.
5. Promoting eco-tourism: They attract cultural and eco-tourism, promoting
environmental awareness and generating income.
o Eg: ‘Kavu’ groves in Kerala are part of eco-tourism circuits highlighting
Theyam rituals.

Role in biodiversity conservation

1. Genetic diversity reservoirs: Sacred groves preserve genetic material vital for
species conservation and crop resilience.
o Eg: ‘Devara Kadu’ in Karnataka conserves diverse species of endemic
medicinal plants.
2. Habitat for keystone species: They provide safe habitats for keystone and indicator
species, maintaining ecosystem health.
o Eg: Hornbill nesting sites in sacred groves of Arunachal Pradesh.
3. In-situ conservation models: Sacred groves are natural in-situ conservation areas,
protecting species within their ecosystems.
o Eg: ‘Sarna’ groves in Jharkhand protect indigenous plant species without
formal legal protection.
4. Ecological corridors: They act as biodiversity corridors, linking fragmented
habitats and aiding wildlife movement.
o Eg: Sacred groves in the Western Ghats serve as ecological corridors for
endemic species.
5. Pollinator conservation: The rich flora supports pollinators like bees and butterflies,
crucial for both wild and agricultural plants.
o Eg: ‘Devbani’ groves in Chhattisgarh support bee populations vital for local
agriculture.

Conclusion

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Sacred groves exemplify how traditional wisdom and community-led conservation can
foster sustainable development and biodiversity protection. Recognizing and integrating
these natural heritage sites into formal conservation frameworks while respecting community
rights is key to India’s environmental resilience.

Q. How does habitat fragmentation create ‘ecological traps’ for wildlife? Discuss
its implications for conservation. (10 M)

Introduction

Habitat fragmentation disrupts ecosystems, alters wildlife movement, and creates

ecological traps, where animals are drawn to seemingly suitable but ultimately harmful
habitats. This increases mortality risks, conflict, and biodiversity loss, necessitating urgent
conservation interventions.

Body

How habitat fragmentation creates ‘ecological traps’ for wildlife

1. Deceptive resource availability: Fragmented areas may provide food, water, or

shelter, misleading wildlife into settling in suboptimal habitats where survival is
compromised.
o Eg: Leopards in urban fringes of Mumbai are attracted by stray dogs but
face high mortality due to vehicle collisions (WII Study, 2023).
2. Increased human-wildlife conflict: Animals move into human-dominated
landscapes, leading to crop damage, livestock predation, and retaliatory killings.
o Eg: Elephants in Chhattisgarh raid crops due to habitat fragmentation,
escalating conflict and casualties (WII Report, 2024).
3. Disrupted migratory corridors: Barriers like roads, railways, and fences block
wildlife corridors, forcing species to settle in unsuitable areas, leading to
malnutrition and genetic isolation.
o Eg: Linear infrastructure projects in the Western Ghats have isolated
tiger populations, reducing genetic diversity (NTCA, 2023).
4. Increased predation and mortality: Wildlife in fragmented areas face higher
predation risks from other species or human-related hazards like poaching and
roadkill.
o Eg: Amphibians in Assam's tea plantations experience high predation
rates due to loss of forest cover (IUCN Report, 2022).
5. Disrupted breeding and social structures: Fragmentation limits mate availability,
leading to inbreeding depression and lower reproductive success.
o Eg: Lion populations in Gir face genetic bottlenecks, increasing
susceptibility to disease (WII, 2021).

Implications for conservation

65
 1. Increased species vulnerability: Small, isolated populations become more prone to
extinction due to environmental stressors and human pressures.
o Eg: Great Indian Bustard (Critically Endangered) faces collision threats
from power lines in fragmented grasslands (BNHS Report, 2023).
2. Need for habitat connectivity: Conservation efforts must focus on restoring
corridors and reducing habitat fragmentation to allow safe movement of wildlife.
o Eg: Kanha-Pench Tiger Corridor has been successfully revived through
afforestation and conflict mitigation (NTCA, 2022).
3. Higher costs of conservation interventions: Fragmented landscapes require
intensive monitoring, human-wildlife conflict management, and translocation
efforts, increasing conservation costs.
o Eg: Asiatic Lions' relocation to Kuno is delayed due to human settlement
conflicts and infrastructure challenges (SC Verdict, 2013).
4. Policy and legal challenges: Many protected areas are too small and isolated,
necessitating stronger environmental impact assessments and policy reforms.
o Eg: Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2022 strengthens penalties but
needs better implementation in land-use planning.
5. Balancing conservation with human development: Sustainable land-use strategies
must integrate wildlife conservation, local livelihoods, and ecological restoration.
o Eg: Kaziranga landscape planning incorporates buffer zones and eco-
sensitive areas, reducing conflict while ensuring conservation (MoEFCC,
2023).

Conclusion

Ecological traps from habitat fragmentation threaten wildlife survival and conservation
success. Strategies like corridor restoration, strict environmental regulations, and
community participation are essential to ensure long-term ecosystem stability and
biodiversity conservation.

Q. How does the textile industry contribute to environmental pollution in India,

and what role can sustainable consumer choices play in reducing its impact? (10
M)

Introduction

The textile industry, a key contributor to India’s economy, is also one of the largest
polluters, impacting water, air, and soil through waste discharge, toxic chemicals, and
excessive resource consumption. Sustainable consumer choices can significantly reduce
environmental damage by promoting eco-friendly production and ethical consumption.

Body

Environmental pollution caused by the textile industry

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 1. Water pollution from dyeing and processing: Textile dyeing and bleaching release
heavy metals and toxic chemicals into water bodies, contaminating groundwater and
rivers.
o Eg: Sanganer (Rajasthan) and Tirupur (Tamil Nadu) suffer from severe
groundwater contamination due to high TDS and heavy metal discharge.
2. Excessive water consumption: Cotton cultivation and fabric processing consume
large volumes of freshwater, leading to water stress.
o Eg: 1 kg of cotton requires 10,000 liters of water (Central Ground Water
Board, 2023), worsening water scarcity in Punjab and Maharashtra.
3. Air pollution from synthetic textile production: Manufacturing synthetic fibers like
polyester and nylon emits greenhouse gases such as CO2 and nitrous oxide,
contributing to climate change.
o Eg: The textile industry contributes 8-10% of global CO₂ emissions
(UNEP, 2023), surpassing the aviation and shipping sectors combined.
4. Land pollution from textile waste: Fast fashion results in massive textile waste, with
non-biodegradable fibers accumulating in landfills.
o Eg: India generates 1 million tonnes of textile waste annually (CPCB,
2024), with only 10% recycled.
5. Chemical hazards and worker health risks: Exposure to formaldehyde, azo dyes,
and lead in textiles causes serious health hazards, including cancer and respiratory
diseases.
o Eg: Bladder cancer cases in Sanganer textile workers (2023, NGT study)
highlight the impact of hazardous chemical exposure.

Role of sustainable consumer choices in mitigating damage

1. Demand for eco-friendly and organic fabrics: Consumers can shift towards organic
cotton, hemp, and bamboo fabrics, reducing chemical pollution.
o Eg: Khadi and Organic Cotton (KVIC initiative) promotes chemical-free
textiles with lower water usage.
2. Supporting ethical and sustainable brands: Choosing brands committed to fair
trade, low-impact dyes, and sustainable manufacturing encourages responsible
production.
o Eg: Reliance R|Elan’s sustainable fabric line reduces polyester waste and
microplastic pollution.
3. Promoting circular fashion and recycling: Consumers can adopt thrift shopping,
textile recycling, and upcycling to reduce waste and landfill burden.
o Eg: IKEA’s “Take-back Textile Recycling Program” promotes circular
economy in India.
4. Reducing fast fashion consumption: Opting for durable, timeless clothing over
cheap, mass-produced garments reduces demand for resource-intensive textiles.
o Eg: Project Drawdown (2023) states that a 50% reduction in fast fashion
purchases can cut emissions by 20%.

67
 5. Encouraging sustainable washing practices: Using cold water, natural detergents,
and low-energy drying reduces microfiber pollution and water consumption.
o Eg: Microfiber-catching laundry bags, such as Guppyfriend, prevent
synthetic fiber pollution in oceans.

Conclusion

A sustainable textile industry requires joint efforts from producers and consumers. By
shifting to ethical consumption and eco-friendly choices, consumers can drive the industry
towards lower pollution, resource efficiency, and environmental responsibility.

Q. Examine the significance of international carbon market mechanisms in

achieving global climate goals. How can India leverage these mechanisms to
accelerate its low-carbon transition? Discuss the risks associated with emissions
trading for developing nations. (15 M)

Introduction

International carbon market mechanisms are key instruments for reducing global emissions
efficiently by allowing countries and businesses to trade emission reductions. They
promote cost-effective decarbonization, incentivize clean technology investments, and
facilitate climate finance flows. India, as a developing nation, can strategically leverage
these mechanisms to finance its low-carbon transition.

Body

Significance of international carbon market mechanisms in achieving global climate

goals

1. Facilitating cost-effective emissions reduction: Carbon trading enables developing

nations to monetize surplus emission reductions, funding climate projects.
o Eg: Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), India generated
over 1,600 million Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) by 2020
(UNFCCC, 2023).
2. Enhancing climate finance availability: Helps bridge the $1 trillion climate
finance gap for developing countries by mobilizing private and international
funds.
o Eg: India demanded $1 trillion annually for climate finance at COP29 in
Baku (MoEFCC, 2025).
3. Accelerating renewable energy adoption: Enables large-scale investment in solar,
wind, and green hydrogen projects.
o Eg: India’s solar parks (Bhadla, Pavagada) attracted FDI under carbon
credit trading (MNRE, 2024).

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 4. Promoting technology transfer and innovation: Facilitates access to advanced
emission reduction technologies from developed nations.
o Eg: Japan’s Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) finances Indian industries
for energy-efficient technology adoption (JCM Secretariat, 2023).
5. Supporting developing nations’ NDC goals: Assists countries in meeting their
Paris Agreement commitments through flexible carbon credit transfers.
o Eg: Brazil, India, and South Africa benefit from South-South carbon
finance partnerships (UNEP, 2024).

How India can leverage carbon market mechanisms for a low-carbon transition

1. Operationalizing the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): India's 2023

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme aligns domestic emissions trading with
international carbon markets.
o Eg: CCTS integrates with India’s Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) for
industry-based carbon reduction (MoEFCC, 2023).
2. Developing renewable energy-linked ITMO trading: India can export surplus
carbon credits through Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes
(ITMOs).
o Eg: India-EU Green Hydrogen Cooperation involves ITMO-based carbon
finance (MEA, 2024).
3. Strengthening South-South climate cooperation: India can support African and
Asian nations with renewable projects while earning carbon credits.
o Eg: International Solar Alliance (ISA) promotes solar energy trade
between India and Africa (ISA, 2024).
4. Enhancing private sector participation in carbon trading: Strengthening
corporate carbon pricing strategies can help attract global investors.
o Eg: Reliance Industries and Tata Power participate in global voluntary
carbon markets (CII Report, 2023).
5. Expanding domestic carbon pricing mechanisms: India can link domestic ETS
with international carbon pricing frameworks.
o Eg: Carbon pricing under PAT Scheme aligns with EU Carbon Border
Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) (BEE, 2024).

Risks associated with emissions trading for developing nations

1. Risk of carbon colonialism: Developed nations may offload their decarbonization

burden onto developing countries.
o Eg: Criticism of EU’s Carbon Border Tax as unfair to India’s steel and
cement exports (WTO Report, 2024).
2. Lack of transparency and governance risks: Poor oversight may lead to fraudulent
carbon credit claims.
o Eg: UN’s Carbon Market Integrity Report (2024) flagged loopholes in
voluntary carbon credit verification.

69
 3. Opportunity cost for domestic mitigation: Selling ITMOs may reduce India’s own
ability to meet net-zero targets.
o Eg: India’s Net Zero Strategy (2070) emphasizes self-sufficiency over
excessive ITMO trading (NITI Aayog, 2023).
4. Market volatility affecting carbon price stability: Carbon credit values fluctuate,
impacting long-term financing.
o Eg: China’s ETS carbon prices fell by 30% in 2023, affecting investor
confidence (World Bank, 2024).
5. Equity concerns in South-South cooperation: Poorer developing nations may not
gain proportionate benefits from ITMO trades.
o Eg: African nations criticized ITMO imbalance favouring larger economies
like India and China (UNDP, 2024).

Conclusion

Carbon markets present a unique opportunity for India’s low-carbon transition, but
strong governance, equitable agreements, and strategic climate finance utilization are
essential to avoid dependency risks. India must balance carbon credit trade with long-term
domestic sustainability goals.

Q. Analyze why protected areas alone are insufficient for wildlife conservation.
Suggest alternative strategies for effective biodiversity protection. (10 M)

Introduction

India, with its vast biodiversity, has 990 protected areas (MoEFCC, 2023), yet species decline
continues due to threats beyond these zones. Effective conservation must address external
pressures to ensure long-term ecological balance.

Body

Why protected areas alone are insufficient for wildlife conservation

1. Forest fragmentation and habitat loss: Land-use changes outside protected areas
disrupt wildlife movement, leading to genetic isolation and local extinctions.
o Eg: Kaziranga National Park faces habitat loss due to deforestation along
migratory corridors (WII Report, 2022).
2. Human-wildlife conflict: Increasing human settlements near protected zones lead to
conflicts, reducing local support for conservation efforts.
o Eg: Bandipur Tiger Reserve reports frequent human-wildlife conflicts due to
habitat encroachment (NTCA, 2023).
3. Climate change impacts: Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns alter
ecosystems, making conservation efforts within static protected areas ineffective.
o Eg: Western Ghats species migration affected due to shifting climate zones
(IPCC, 2023).
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 4. Illegal wildlife trade and poaching: Weak enforcement outside protected areas
facilitates poaching networks and illegal wildlife trafficking.
o Eg: Great Indian Bustard faces poaching threats outside desert national
parks in Rajasthan (TRAFFIC India, 2022).
5. Limited connectivity and genetic diversity loss: Isolated protected areas hinder
species dispersal, affecting genetic diversity and resilience.
o Eg: Elephant corridors in central India are fragmented due to highways and
railways (WII, 2023).

Alternative strategies for effective biodiversity protection

1. Ecological corridors and landscape-level conservation: Establishing wildlife

corridors ensures species movement and genetic diversity beyond protected areas.
o Eg: Ken-Betwa River Link Project includes a corridor to mitigate habitat
fragmentation (MoEFCC, 2023).
2. Sustainable land-use planning: Buffer zones with agroforestry and eco-sensitive
development can reduce habitat destruction.
o Eg: Western Ghats Eco-Sensitive Zones regulate land-use change to protect
biodiversity (MoEFCC, 2022).
3. Community-led conservation models: Involving local communities through
participatory governance enhances conservation outside protected areas.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s Baiga Tribes contribute to sustainable tiger
conservation near Kanha National Park (UNDP, 2023).
4. Strengthening wildlife laws and enforcement: Expanding legal frameworks to
protect species beyond reserves through stricter penalties and surveillance.
o Eg: Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2022 enhances protection for
Schedule I species outside protected areas.
5. Integration of technology in monitoring: Satellite imaging, AI-based surveillance,
and drones help track biodiversity loss and human encroachments.
o Eg: Project Cheetah in Kuno National Park uses AI surveillance to monitor
movements beyond park boundaries (WII, 2023).

Conclusion

Conservation must evolve from a protected-area-centric approach to a holistic landscape-

level strategy. Strengthening corridors, engaging communities, and enforcing regulations
beyond boundaries are crucial for securing India's biodiversity future.

Q. What is emissions intensity, and why is it critical for India’s industrial sector?
Analyze the potential challenges and opportunities of implementing emissions
intensity targets in carbon-intensive industries. (10 M)

Introduction

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India’s industrial growth and sustainability goals are increasingly tied to emissions
intensity reduction, balancing economic expansion with environmental responsibility. The
implementation of emission intensity targets in carbon-intensive industries is both a
challenge and an opportunity in India’s transition to a low-carbon economy.

Body

What is emissions intensity?

1. Definition: Emissions intensity refers to the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs)

emitted per unit of economic output or production.
o Eg: India aims to reduce GDP emissions intensity by 45% from 2005
levels by 2030 under its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
2. Sectoral measurement: It is assessed for specific industries based on emissions per
unit of output, such as kg of CO₂ per tonne of steel or per kWh of energy
generated.
o Eg: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is setting sectoral emission intensity
targets under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023.
3. Global relevance: It is a key metric in climate commitments under the Paris
Agreement, helping countries track decarbonization without hampering
economic growth.
o Eg: EU Emission Trading System (ETS) follows emission intensity
benchmarks for industries to ensure efficiency.
4. Link to carbon markets: Emissions intensity forms the basis for carbon credit
trading, where industries that exceed efficiency targets can sell credits to those
failing to meet them.
o Eg: India’s carbon market is expected to launch full-fledged trading by
October 2026 (BEE, 2025).

Why is it critical for India’s industrial sector?

1. Industrial sector’s high emissions share: Industries contribute ~30% of India’s

total CO₂ emissions, making emissions reduction key for meeting climate goals.
o Eg: Steel, cement, and power plants are among the highest GHG emitters
(MoEFCC, 2024).
2. Regulatory and export competitiveness: Global markets are increasingly imposing
carbon tariffs and sustainability norms, affecting Indian exports.
o Eg: EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) 2026 will
impose carbon tariffs on high-emission imports, impacting India’s steel and
aluminum exports.
3. Energy security and efficiency: Reducing emissions intensity means less fossil fuel
dependency, improving cost efficiency and reducing import burden.
o Eg: Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP) promotes clean energy
transitions in industries (BEE, 2024).

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 4. Long-term cost benefits: Improving emissions intensity can lower energy costs,
enhance productivity, and attract green investments.
o Eg: Perform, Achieve & Trade (PAT) Scheme helped industries save 3.3
million tonnes of oil equivalent energy between 2012-2019 (BEE, 2023).

Challenges in implementing emissions intensity targets

1. High upfront investment: Transitioning to low-emission technology requires

significant capital, particularly for MSMEs.
o Eg: Decarbonizing steel via green hydrogen costs 30-50% more than
conventional production (NITI Aayog, 2024).
2. Lack of technical expertise: Many industrial clusters lack skilled manpower and
advanced emission tracking systems.
o Eg: India has only 5 carbon capture & storage (CCS) pilot projects,
compared to over 50 in China (IEA, 2024).
3. Fragmented supply chains: Industries depend on carbon-intensive supply chains,
making it difficult to transition to greener alternatives.
o Eg: Coal-based power still dominates industrial electricity supply, raising
emissions despite efficiency improvements.
4. Global competitiveness concerns: Stricter emission norms could increase
production costs, making Indian industries less competitive.
o Eg: Higher compliance costs in cement production may affect India’s
exports to South-East Asia and Africa.

Opportunities in implementing emissions intensity targets

1. Boosts global market access: Compliance with low-carbon production standards

can enhance India’s industrial exports.
o Eg: Green steel production incentives could help Indian firms access EU’s
low-carbon procurement schemes.
2. Accelerates green energy adoption: Industries shifting to renewable energy,
hydrogen, and energy-efficient technologies can lower long-term costs.
o Eg: National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) targets 5 MMT of green
hydrogen production to decarbonize industries.
3. Encourages innovation and investment: Attracts foreign and domestic investments
in clean technologies and carbon capture solutions.
o Eg: India received $10 billion in climate finance (2023-24) under the
International Solar Alliance (ISA) initiatives.
4. Creates green jobs and industries: Promotes low-carbon industrial growth, opening
opportunities in climate-tech, energy efficiency, and carbon finance sectors.
o Eg: A shift to circular economy models in textiles could generate 7 million
green jobs by 2030 (ILO Report, 2024).

Conclusion

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Emissions intensity reduction is a crucial strategy for India’s industrial sector to align with
climate goals, economic growth, and global trade standards. By leveraging clean
technologies, improving regulatory frameworks, and enhancing industry collaboration,
India can lead the global transition to a low-carbon economy

Disaster and disaster management.

Q. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has formulated a
National Framework for Heatwave Mitigation and Management. Evaluate its
key provisions and effectiveness in enhancing India's heatwave resilience. (15 M)

Introduction

Heatwaves have emerged as a major climate-induced disaster in India, affecting 90% of the
population (World Bank). In response, the National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) introduced the National Framework for Heatwave Mitigation and Management
(2024) to shift from reactive measures to long-term resilience.

Body

Key provisions of the national framework

1. Decentralized heat action plans (HAPs): Encourages state, district, and city-
specific HAPs tailored to local vulnerabilities.
o Eg: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (2013) reduced heatwave deaths by
50% through early warnings and public outreach (IIPH Study).
2. Heatwave as a notified disaster: Recommends states to notify heatwaves as a
disaster under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, ensuring better funding and
response mechanisms.
o Eg: Odisha notified heatwaves as a disaster in 2015, enabling quick relief
measures and improved preparedness.
3. Early warning and common alerting system: Strengthens IMD-NDMA
coordination for localized heat alerts using the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP).
o Eg: The 2023 IMD heatwave warning system improved accuracy, issuing
localized advisories to over 200 districts.
4. Urban heat mitigation strategies: Promotes cool roofs, green infrastructure, and
reflective surfaces to reduce heat absorption in cities.
o Eg: Telangana's Cool Roof Policy (2021) mandated reflective roofing in new
government buildings to reduce heat stress.
5. Public health preparedness and response: Establishes hospital heatwave
management protocols, cooling centers, and hydration points to reduce heat-
related morbidity and mortality.
o Eg: The 2022 Rajasthan Heatwave Response Plan set up ‘cool rooms’ in
hospitals to manage heatstroke cases.

74
Effectiveness in enhancing India’s heatwave resilience

Strengths

1. Institutionalized multi-sectoral coordination: Integrates health, urban planning,

labor, and water resources to ensure holistic heatwave management.
o Eg: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) collaboration with NDMA to
develop energy-efficient cooling solutions.
2. Empowerment of local governments: Provides states with technical and financial
support to formulate region-specific policies.
o Eg: Gujarat’s decentralized heat adaptation strategy enables local bodies
to independently issue heat advisories.
3. Focus on community awareness and behavioural change: Public outreach
campaigns enhance heatwave preparedness among vulnerable populations.
o Eg: The NDMA-UNDP collaboration (2023) developed heatwave
awareness modules for frontline health workers.
4. Integration of climate resilience in urban planning: Encourages heat-resilient
urban infrastructure, reducing urban heat island effects.
o Eg: Bhopal’s Smart City Initiative introduced heat-resistant pavements
and green corridors.
5. Improved mortality tracking and impact assessment: Establishes data-driven
monitoring to refine heatwave interventions.
o Eg: IMD and NDMA launched a heatwave impact database (2024) to track
heat-related deaths and hospitalizations.

Weaknesses

1. Gaps in implementation across states: Lack of uniform enforcement and delayed

adoption of HAPs in many states.
o Eg: As of 2024, only 15 out of 36 states/UTs have formally adopted a
heatwave management plan.
2. Limited financial allocation and resource mobilization: Insufficient funding for
large-scale implementation of heat adaptation measures.
o Eg: The NDMA’s 2024 budget for heatwave mitigation was only ₹500
crore, significantly lower than needed for pan-India implementation.
3. Lack of binding legal enforcement: The framework provides recommendations but
lacks mandatory compliance mechanisms.
o Eg: No penalty or accountability framework for states failing to implement
HAPs effectively.
4. Technological barriers in early warning dissemination: Poor last-mile
connectivity limits access to heatwave alerts in remote and rural areas.
o Eg: 2023 NDMA report found that only 60% of rural households receive
heat alerts on time due to network issues.

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 5. Inadequate focus on long-term adaptation: Prioritizes short-term relief measures
over sustainable adaptation strategies like water conservation and urban
redesign.
o Eg: Mumbai’s Climate Action Plan (2022) calls for permanent heat-
resilient urban planning, which is missing in NDMA’s approach.

Conclusion

The NDMA’s national framework is a significant step toward structured heatwave

mitigation, but implementation gaps, weak enforcement, and financial constraints
remain key challenges. Moving forward, a legally binding national policy, robust funding,
and state-level accountability mechanisms are essential to enhance India’s long-term
heatwave resilience.

Q. Why has India not been able to develop a robust seismic preparedness
strategy despite being located in an active tectonic zone? Identify the key gaps in
disaster risk reduction. (10 M)

Introduction

Despite being one of the most seismically active countries, India’s earthquake preparedness
remains inadequate, leaving millions vulnerable. The Himalayan seismic belt and Indo-
Gangetic plains are at extreme risk, yet policy gaps persist, increasing disaster exposure.

Body

Reasons for India’s weak seismic preparedness

1. Lack of stringent enforcement of building codes – Despite the Bureau of Indian

Standards (BIS) codifying IS 1893:2016 for earthquake-resistant construction,
compliance remains poor, especially in urban slums and high-risk zones.
o Eg: Delhi’s NCR region, which falls under Seismic Zone IV, has 80% of
buildings non-compliant (NDMA Report 2023).
2. Inadequate early warning and monitoring systems – India lacks an advanced real-
time earthquake prediction mechanism due to the unpredictability of seismic activity.
o Eg: Japan’s Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system has significantly
reduced casualties, whereas India still depends on post-event alerts.
3. Insufficient public awareness and preparedness drills – Disaster literacy remains
low, and earthquake drills are not institutionalized in schools, offices, or high-risk
communities.
o Eg: NDMA’s "Aapda Mitra" program (2017) has not been expanded
nationwide, leaving citizens untrained.
4. Infrastructure vulnerability in high-risk zones – Increasing unscientific
infrastructure projects in Himalayan states have exacerbated seismic fragility.

76
 o Eg: Frequent landslides and subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand (2023)
linked to unchecked development.
5. Limited funding and research in earthquake resilience – Seismology research is
underfunded, and institutions like the Indian National Centre for Seismology
(INCS) face resource constraints.
o Eg: Japan spends $1.5 billion annually on seismic research, while India's
2023-24 budget for seismic studies was only ₹285 crore (MoES Report).

Key gaps in disaster risk reduction

1. Weak regulatory compliance of seismic zoning laws – Despite India's seismic

zonation map, urban planning fails to integrate Zone III, IV, and V risks into
construction laws.
o Eg: The Bhuj earthquake (2001) revealed widespread violation of seismic
safety codes.
2. Lack of a nationwide earthquake insurance framework – India lacks mandatory
seismic risk insurance, leaving citizens financially vulnerable post-disaster.
o Eg: In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) ensures
risk-sharing, while India relies solely on NDMA relief funds.
3. Overreliance on reactive rather than proactive policies – Post-disaster relief is
prioritized over risk mitigation measures like retrofitting and community-based
preparedness.
o Eg: The Sendai Framework (2015) urges risk reduction over response, but
India still spends 80% of disaster funds on post-disaster relief (CAG
Report 2023).
4. Gaps in transnational cooperation on seismic risk – India lacks regional
coordination with Nepal, Bhutan, and China, despite shared Himalayan fault lines.
o Eg: The India-Nepal seismic risk project (2017) remains incomplete due to
diplomatic hurdles.
5. Limited community participation and local governance role – Disaster response
remains top-down, with minimal involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs) and urban local bodies (ULBs).
o Eg: Kobe, Japan (1995) earthquake recovery was community-led, whereas
India still depends on central/state relief efforts.

Conclusion

Seismic disasters demand proactive governance, strict enforcement of building codes, and
investment in early warning systems. India must shift from post-disaster response to pre-
disaster mitigation, ensuring resilience through science-driven policy and community
participation.

77
Q. A disaster is rarely the result of a single factor; rather, it is an outcome of
multiple vulnerabilities converging at a point. Discuss. (10 M)

Introduction

Disasters are not merely natural or accidental events but are often exacerbated by systemic
vulnerabilities in infrastructure, governance, and socio-economic conditions. The Hyogo
Framework for Action (2005-2015) and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2015-2030) emphasize a multi-dimensional approach to disaster risk reduction.

Body

Multiple vulnerabilities converging at a point

1. Geophysical and environmental factors: Unstable geology, seismic activity, and

climate change increase disaster risks.
o Eg: Joshimath land subsidence (2023)—Unregulated infrastructure
development worsened natural vulnerabilities.
2. Inadequate structural resilience: Poor engineering standards, outdated safety
protocols, and corruption in construction make infrastructure collapse likely.
o Eg: Morbi bridge collapse (2022)—Negligence in maintenance led to
structural failure.
3. Institutional failures: Weak regulations, poor enforcement, and lack of coordination
among agencies delay disaster mitigation.
o Eg: Delhi’s Yamuna floods (2023)—Delayed response and lack of drainage
infrastructure intensified the crisis.
4. Lack of disaster preparedness: Insufficient early warning systems, lack of trained
personnel, and weak community awareness worsen disaster impacts.
o Eg: Odisha Cyclone (1999) vs. Cyclone Fani (2019)—Better preparedness in
2019 reduced casualties significantly.
5. Socio-economic vulnerabilities: Poverty, unplanned urbanization, and informal
settlements make people more exposed to disasters.
o Eg: Mumbai floods (2005, 2017, 2023)—Encroachments on floodplains and
lack of drainage planning caused repeated urban flooding.
6. Technological and operational failures: Breakdowns in early warning systems,
rescue equipment, and communication can delay response efforts.
o Eg: Telangana tunnel collapse (2025)—Silt accumulation and lack of proper
safety audits complicated rescue operations.

What can be done?

1. Strengthening disaster-resilient infrastructure: Implement stringent NDMA

guidelines and enforce Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) codes for resilient
construction.

78
 o Eg: Kolkata’s East-West Metro tunnel adopted seismic-resistant technology
to prevent collapses.
2. Enhancing early warning and response systems: Develop AI-based predictive
models and integrate National Disaster Management Information System
(NDMIS) for real-time monitoring.
o Eg: IMD’s improved cyclone warnings (2023) significantly reduced
cyclone-related deaths in India.
3. Improving governance and accountability: Strengthen State Disaster Response
Funds (SDRF) and conduct regular risk audits of critical infrastructure.
o Eg: CAG report (2021) flagged the lack of structural audits in major cities,
worsening urban disaster risks.
4. Empowering local communities and capacity building: Train local communities,
involve Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in disaster mitigation, and promote
NDMA’s School Safety Programme.
o Eg: Bihar’s community-led flood response (2020) reduced casualties and
damage significantly.
5. Climate adaptation and sustainable planning: Enforce National Adaptation Fund
for Climate Change (NAFCC) projects and promote climate-resilient infrastructure.
o Eg: Kerala’s eco-sensitive flood management (post-2018 floods) integrates
nature-based solutions for mitigation.

Conclusion

Disasters are not merely natural events but failures of risk governance. Moving towards a
multi-hazard risk assessment approach and prioritizing disaster prevention over post-
disaster relief is essential for a resilient future. India must integrate disaster risk reduction
across all sectors to prevent repeated catastrophes.

79
Linkages between development and spread of extremism.
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges
to internal security.
Challenges to internal security through communication networks,
role of media and social networking sites in internal security
challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its
prevention.
Security challenges and their management in border areas -
linkages of organized crime with terrorism.
Q. Analyze the challenges faced by India’s border management forces in
combating drug trafficking. Suggest technological and strategic solutions. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s strategic location between the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle makes it
highly vulnerable to cross-border drug trafficking, posing serious threats to internal
security, public health, and economic stability.

Body

Challenges faced by India’s border management forces in combating drug trafficking

80
 1. Porous and difficult terrain: Extensive borders with rugged terrain make
surveillance challenging, especially along the India-Pakistan and India-Myanmar
borders.
o Eg: The India-Myanmar border in Manipur and Nagaland is used
extensively for drug smuggling due to dense forests and hilly terrain.
2. Use of advanced technology by smugglers: Smugglers use drones, encrypted
communication, and GPS for trafficking, outpacing traditional border surveillance
methods.
o Eg: In 2024, the BSF Punjab Frontier seized 294 drones used for smuggling
drugs from Pakistan.
3. Cross-border criminal networks and narco-terrorism: Strong networks involving
terror groups, organized crime syndicates, and insurgents complicate enforcement
efforts.
o Eg: The nexus between drug traffickers and terror outfits like Lashkar-e-
Taiba in Punjab indicates the threat of narco-terrorism.
4. Institutional gaps and corruption: Corruption within law enforcement weakens the
effectiveness of anti-drug operations.
o Eg: In 2023, the Punjab CM transferred over 10,000 police personnel linked
to drug-peddling networks.
5. Limited coordination among agencies: Overlapping jurisdiction of forces like BSF,
NCB, and State Police leads to coordination issues and operational delays.
o Eg: The 2022 MHA report emphasized the need for better synergy between
central and state agencies in border areas.

Technological and strategic solutions

1. Deployment of advanced surveillance technologies: Use of drones, thermal

imaging, ground sensors, and satellite surveillance for real-time border monitoring.
o Eg: The Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System
(CIBMS) has been deployed along the India-Bangladesh border for smart
surveillance.
2. Strengthening inter-agency coordination: Establishment of joint task forces and
integrated command centers for seamless intelligence sharing.
o Eg: The Narco Coordination Centre (NCORD) mechanism under MHA
(2019) has improved inter-agency collaboration.
3. Enhanced capacity building and training: Regular training for border security
personnel on handling cyber-enabled drug trafficking and advanced investigative
tools.
o Eg: The National Academy of Customs, Indirect Taxes, and Narcotics
(NACIN) conducts specialized training for anti-narcotics operations.
4. Community-based border vigilance: Engaging local communities through
awareness programs and incentivizing them to report suspicious activities.
o Eg: The Seema Darshan Program in Gujarat encourages community
participation in border vigilance.

81
 5. International cooperation and intelligence sharing: Strengthening ties with
neighboring countries for joint operations, intelligence exchange, and legal
frameworks.
o Eg: The India-Afghanistan-Pakistan trilateral dialogue (2023) focused on
combating transnational drug trafficking networks.
6. Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and big data analytics: Utilizing AI-
driven tools to predict trafficking patterns and identify high-risk zones.
o Eg: The Smart Fencing Project (2023) under CIBMS integrates AI for
predictive surveillance along sensitive borders.
7. Legal reforms and fast-track prosecution: Amending laws to ensure stricter
penalties and fast-track courts for quick prosecution of drug-related offenses.

Conclusion

Combating drug trafficking demands a multi-pronged strategy combining technological

innovations, institutional reforms, and international cooperation. A future-ready,
intelligence-driven border management system is key to securing India’s borders against this
evolving threat.

Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.

Q. While the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) plays a crucial role in India’s
internal security, its expanding mandate raises concerns of operational
overstretch. Examine the implications of this trend. (10 M)

Introduction

The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), India's largest Central Armed Police Force
(CAPF), plays a pivotal role in internal security, but its ever-expanding responsibilities raise
concerns about resource strain and operational efficiency. This issue needs urgent policy
attention to ensure national security preparedness.

Body

Crucial role of CRPF in India’s internal security

1. Counterinsurgency and anti-terror operations – CRPF is the lead force in tackling

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE), insurgency in the Northeast, and terrorism in
J&K.
o Eg: Operation Trisul (J&K, 2023) neutralized 19 terrorists (Source: MHA
Annual Report 2023).
2. Law and order management – CRPF is deployed for riot control, curbing
communal violence, and maintaining peace during civil unrest.
o Eg: CRPF played a key role in stabilizing Manipur during ethnic clashes in
2023 (Source: PIB).

82
 3. Election security – CRPF ensures peaceful elections across states, especially in
violence-prone areas.
o Eg: Deployed in 30,000+ polling booths during West Bengal Assembly
elections (2021) (Source: ECI).
4. Disaster response and crisis management – It provides relief and security during
natural disasters, pandemics, and emergencies.
o Eg: CRPF assisted in COVID-19 containment and relief operations (2020-21)
(Source: NDMA).

Expanding mandate and concerns of operational overstretch

1. Increasing VIP security duties – Large numbers of CRPF personnel are diverted for
SPG and NSG deputation, VIP security, and static protection duties.
o Eg: 1,000 CRPF personnel recently inducted for VIP security (2024)
(Source: MoHA).
2. Resource strain due to multi-theatre deployment – Continuous high-pressure
operations in J&K, Northeast, LWE areas, and urban policing lead to exhaustion
and inefficiency.
o Eg: CRPF battalions were overstretched due to back-to-back deployments
in J&K and LWE zones (Source: CAPF Review Committee, 2023).
3. High attrition and mental stress – Prolonged deployment without static postings
affects morale, mental health, and force retention.
o Eg: Over 450 suicides in CAPFs in the last five years (Source: NCRB, 2023).
4. Shortage of personnel and training gaps – The diversion of trained personnel to
VIP security affects recruitment and training in counterterrorism and insurgency
operations.
o Eg: Shortfall of 14,000+ CRPF personnel (2023) due to unfilled vacancies
(Source: MHA).

Implications of this trend

1. Compromised internal security response – Stretching CRPF thin weakens India's

response to LWE, insurgency, and urban extremism.
o Eg: Delay in reinforcement led to increased Maoist attacks in Chhattisgarh
(April 2023) (Source: IB Report).
2. Reduced combat readiness and training – Frequent deputations affect the
availability of personnel for specialized counterinsurgency training.
o Eg: CRPF’s CoBRA battalions had to operate with undertrained personnel
in recent LWE encounters (Source: MoHA).
3. Increased fatigue and casualties – Lack of rest cycles leads to higher casualties in
operations due to reduced alertness.
o Eg: CRPF’s Pulwama convoy attack (2019) highlighted risks of
overstretched logistics and security lapses (Source: NIA Report).

83
 4. Imbalance in national security priorities – Over-prioritizing VIP security may
divert resources from critical counterinsurgency zones.
o Eg: Withdrawal of NSG cover from political leaders in 2019 added more VIP
security duties to CRPF (Source: MoHA).
5. Strain on logistical and financial resources – Additional deployments increase
budgetary pressure and infrastructure constraints.
o Eg: Rising CAPF expenditure from ₹76,000 Cr (2020-21) to ₹99,000 Cr
(2023-24) (Source: Union Budget 2024).
6. Impact on force morale and efficiency – Frequent redeployments without proper
rest periods reduce operational effectiveness.
o Eg: 30% rise in stress-related illnesses among CRPF personnel (Source:
AIIMS Study, 2022).

Conclusion

To prevent operational overstretch, India must enhance CRPF’s strength, modernize

training, and optimize security role distribution. The Kargil Review Committee (1999)
and CAPF Review Committee (2023) have recommended a separate force for VIP
security—a step that can help CRPF focus on its primary internal security mandate.

84
 Secure Synopsis compilation for March-2025
General Studies-3

Table of contents

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth,

development and employment.-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Despite an increasing worker-population ratio in India, real wages for regular salaried
jobs have not kept pace with inflation. Examine the structural factors contributing to this
trend. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Q. Analyze the impact of frequent GDP revisions on economic policymaking. Assess their
implications for investor confidence. Suggest measures to improve data reliability. (15 M) ----7
Q. A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation. Analyze
whether the Income Tax Bill, 2025, achieves these goals. Suggest additional measures for
reform. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
Q. What are the major concerns of foreign investors regarding India’s current Bilateral
Investment Treaty framework? How might the ongoing revision address these concerns? (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Q. How can Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) initiatives provide Indian
companies a competitive advantage in the global market? Discuss the role of regulatory
frameworks in promoting ESG compliance in India. (10 M) --------------------------------------- 13
Q. Tourism can be a powerful tool for employment generation if integrated with capacity-
building initiatives. Comment. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Q. Discuss the challenges of balancing public investment with fiscal consolidation in India.
How can innovative financing mechanisms bridge this gap? (15 M) ------------------------------ 16
Q. Examine the factors contributing to India's trade resilience in the face of rising global
tariff uncertainties. Discuss how strategic diversification and regional partnerships have
enhanced India's export stability. Also, evaluate the role of digital trade in strengthening
India's economic stability. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
Q. The recent fluctuations in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate reveal underlying shifts in global
economic sentiment. Examine the causes of these fluctuations. Assess their potential impact
on emerging economies like India. (10 M) -------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Q. Evaluate how India's policy shift towards self-reliance has influenced the country's
economic resilience and industrial competitiveness. (10 M) ----------------------------------------- 21

1
 Q. Evaluate the significance of India's decision to abolish the Equalisation Levy in the context
of global digital taxation frameworks. What challenges may arise from this shift, and what
measures should India adopt to ensure revenue stability? (15 M) --------------------------------- 23
Q. How do foreign portfolio investments affect market depth and liquidity in India? What
role does regulatory design play in attracting such investments? How does the latest FPI
reform alter this ecosystem? (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Q. In what ways does India’s capital control regime restrict global diversification for retail
investors? How do such restrictions affect the efficiency and inclusiveness of the domestic
financial system? (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Q. Explain the key reasons behind the sustained decline in bank credit growth in recent
times. Suggest measures to ensure credit growth without compromising financial stability. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Q. Despite the robustness of GDP as a measure, it fails to capture the informal sector
adequately. Discuss the implications of this limitation. Suggest alternatives for more inclusive
national income accounting. (15 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
Q. Public sector banks have seen significant recapitalization, yet credit delivery to priority
sectors remains sluggish. Examine the reasons behind this paradox. Suggest structural
reforms to address it. (10M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. --------------------------------------------------------33
Q. What are the key factors behind the increase in women borrowers in India? Discuss its
significance for financial inclusion. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------- 33
Q. A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation. Analyze
whether the Income Tax Bill, 2025, achieves these goals. Suggest additional measures for
reform. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Government Budgeting. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Q. Despite increased allocations, underutilization of funds remains a major concern in India’s
gender budget framework. Analyze the key factors behind this inefficiency. Propose
institutional reforms to address this issue. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------- 37
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, - different types of irrigation
and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues
and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers. -------------------------------------39
Q. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) aims to modernize post-harvest management
and enhance farmer income. Critically examine its impact on agricultural value chains. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Q. Discuss the role of agricultural diversification in promoting regional economic growth.
How can saffron cultivation in Northeast India contribute to this? (10 M) ---------------------- 41
Q. Evaluate the impact of contract farming models on smallholder farmers in India. How
does the burden of production risks and cost deductions undermine their economic stability?
Propose alternative frameworks for better income security. (15 M) ------------------------------ 42
Q. Why is dependence on a few major crops problematic for global agricultural systems?
Analyse the role of policy and market forces in driving this trend. (10 M)----------------------- 44
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices -----------46

2
 Q. Assess the role of India’s agricultural credit system in mitigating climate risks. Evaluate
the effectiveness of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and Modified Interest Subvention Scheme
(MISS) in addressing farmer distress. Highlight key implementation challenges. (15 M) ----- 46
Public Distribution System- objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of
bufferstocks and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. ------48
Q. Light fishing has emerged as a major threat to India’s coastal marine ecosystems. Analyse
its cascading impact on the marine food chain. Suggest policy-level interventions to promote
sustainable and equitable fishing practices. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------- 48
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and significance, location,
upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. -------------------------50
Land reforms in India. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Q. Identify the key vulnerabilities in India's pharmaceutical supply chain. Evaluate the
impact of government policies in strengthening domestic production. Suggest strategic
measures to enhance India’s position in global pharmaceutical markets. (15 M)--------------- 50
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. -----------------------------------52
Q. The Oilfield (Regulatory and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024 addresses critical
investor concerns while ensuring India's energy security. Examine. (10 M) --------------------- 52
Q. The rapid expansion of renewable energy without corresponding storage capacity has
heightened grid instability risks in India. Discuss the implications of this for power security.
Suggest viable policy interventions to mitigate this challenge. (15 M) ---------------------------- 54
Investment models. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and
developing new technology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------56
Q. Despite India’s efforts to enhance domestic defense manufacturing, its status as the
second-largest arms importer persists. Critically examine the obstacles hindering India's self-
reliance in defense production. Suggest policy measures to address these challenges. (15 M) 56
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-technology, bio-
technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights. -----------------------------------58
Q. Describe the key features and objectives of NASA’s PUNCH mission. Compare its scope
with other solar missions, including Aditya L1 and Proba-3. Discuss how advancements in
solar observation technologies can contribute to space exploration. (15 M) --------------------- 58
Q. The success of India's AI ecosystem hinges on shared compute resources and indigenous
datasets. Discuss the significance of pooled Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) access and
localized datasets in building AI models. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------ 60
Q. Analyze the role of low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations in expanding global
internet coverage. Examine the challenges in deploying such services in remote regions.
Propose viable strategies to integrate these systems into India's digital infrastructure.(15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 61

3
 Q. Discuss the significance of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) in revolutionizing
wearable biomedical devices. How can this technology contribute to improved healthcare
monitoring systems? (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
Q. Coastal ecosystems are vulnerable to anthropogenic waste, impacting marine biodiversity
and livelihoods. Discuss the ecological consequences of poor waste management along India’s
coastlines and suggest sustainable clean-up models. (15 M)----------------------------------------- 66
Q. The expansion of offshore mining in India risks exacerbating marine biodiversity loss.
Critically evaluate the environmental implications and propose alternative approaches. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Q. Analyse the systemic flaws in global forest finance that perpetuate deforestation. Discuss
the environmental and socio-economic consequences of this imbalance. Suggest
comprehensive strategies to align financial flows with sustainable forest conservation. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 70
Q. The preservation of sacred groves reflects the convergence of ecological conservation and
cultural traditions. Discuss the contemporary challenges in protecting these ecological
reserves. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
Q. Deoxygenation in global lakes reflects the accelerating consequences of both long-term
climate change and short-term climatic extremes. Analyse the ecological implications. Suggest
long-term mitigation frameworks. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Disaster and disaster management.-------------------------------------------------------------------76
Q. Explain the concept of 'heat index' and its role in assessing heatwave severity. How does
the rise in night-time temperatures amplify the adverse effects of heatwaves on human
health? (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 76
Linkages between development and spread of extremism. ---------------------------------------78
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security. ----78
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-
laundering and its prevention. -------------------------------------------------------------------------78
Q. The Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme reflects the
Centre-State cooperative framework in tackling cyber crimes against vulnerable sections.
Elucidate. Also, assess the role of capacity-building initiatives under this scheme. (10 M) --- 78
Q. Assess the scientific principles behind infrasonic and ultrasonic weapons and evaluate
their potential as security threats in asymmetric warfare. (10 M) --------------------------------- 79
Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime
with terrorism. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------81
Q. Gold smuggling poses a multifaceted challenge to India’s economic stability, national
security, and law enforcement frameworks. Discuss. Also suggest comprehensive measures to
address these concerns. (15 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
Q. Terrorist groups are increasingly exploiting difficult terrains to establish hideouts, making
detection challenging for security forces. Examine the implications of this trend for India's

4
 internal security. What strategies should be adopted to strengthen surveillance in such areas?
(15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate. ----------------------------------------85

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of

resources, growth, development and employment.
Q. Despite an increasing worker-population ratio in India, real wages for regular
salaried jobs have not kept pace with inflation. Examine the structural factors
contributing to this trend. (10 M)

Introduction

India has witnessed a rising worker-population ratio (from 34.7% in 2017-18 to 43.7% in
2023-24, PLFS), yet real wages for regular salaried employees have remained stagnant.
This paradox reflects deeper structural inefficiencies in the labor market, impacting income
growth despite job expansion.

Body

Rising worker-population ratio but stagnant real wages

1. Mismatch between job creation and quality: While jobs are increasing, many are
low-wage, contractual, or gig-based, lacking wage progression.
o Eg: PLFS 2023-24 shows that casual worker wages increased, but salaried
job wages stagnated.
2. Inflation outpacing nominal wage growth: High inflation erodes purchasing power,
especially in urban areas where living costs are rising.
o Eg: CPI Inflation averaged 6.2% (2022-24, RBI), but wage increments in
many sectors lagged behind.
3. Decline in wage-formalization link: Many "regular jobs" are informal, without
statutory benefits or fixed wage hikes.
o Eg: CMIE (2024) reports that only 21% of salaried employees have
provident fund benefits.

Structural factors contributing to stagnant real wages

1. Skill deficit and low productivity: The supply of low-skilled labor exceeds demand,
limiting wage growth in white-collar jobs.
o Eg: Periodic Labour Force Survey (2022-23) found that only 4.2% of
India's workforce had formal vocational training.
2. Weak collective bargaining power: High labor force participation but low
unionization prevents effective wage negotiations.

5
 o Eg: NITI Aayog (2023) report highlights that only 12% of salaried workers
are unionized, weakening wage negotiations.
3. Rising contractualization of workforce: Firms increasingly hire on fixed-term
contracts to avoid long-term wage obligations.
o Eg: Labour Ministry Report (2023) shows a 37% rise in contract-based
hiring in IT and manufacturing sectors post-pandemic.
4. Service sector dominance without wage growth: The servicification of
manufacturing creates high-skill demand, but most workforce remains low-skilled.
o Eg: The IT sector contributes 8% to GDP (NASSCOM, 2024), yet wage
hikes are concentrated in top 5% of skilled roles.
5. Limited wage indexation mechanisms: Unlike countries with automatic wage
adjustments to inflation, India lacks universal COLA (Cost-of-Living
Adjustments).
o Eg: 7th Pay Commission (2016) implemented COLA for government
employees, but private-sector adoption remains minimal.
6. Urban-rural wage disparities: Higher urban cost of living but stagnant salary
adjustments reduce real incomes in metropolitan areas.
o Eg: Labour Bureau (2023) shows real wage decline of 2.1% in urban
areas vs. 1.3% in rural areas.

Way forward

1. Strengthening skill development and vocational training: Improve alignment

between education and industry needs through National Skill Development Mission
and district-level skilling programs.
o Eg: PM Vishwakarma Yojana (2023) aims to enhance skills among artisans
and traditional workers.
2. Enhancing wage protection and indexation: Introduce automatic inflation-linked
wage adjustments in key sectors, especially for salaried employees.
o Eg: Periodic Wage Revision Mechanism (as in the 7th Pay Commission)
should be expanded to private sectors.
3. Encouraging formalization and strengthening labor laws: Promote fixed-term
employment benefits, social security expansion, and gig-worker protections under the
Code on Wages, 2019.
o Eg: E-Shram Portal (2021) aims to register and provide benefits to informal
workers.
4. Boosting productivity through technological adoption: Promote automation, digital
skilling, and R&D investment to increase high-value job creation and productivity-led
wage growth.
o Eg: PLI (Production-Linked Incentive) schemes are attracting high-tech
industries, but workforce upskilling must complement this.

Conclusion

6
To boost real wages, India must enhance skill development (National Skill Development
Mission), strengthen wage bargaining, enforce labor reforms, and ensure inflation-
linked wage adjustments. A quality job market, not just job expansion, is key to
sustainable wage growth.

Q. Analyze the impact of frequent GDP revisions on economic policymaking.

Assess their implications for investor confidence. Suggest measures to improve
data reliability. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s GDP data plays a crucial role in guiding policy decisions, investor sentiment, and
economic planning. However, frequent and significant revisions in GDP estimates create
uncertainty, impacting economic policymaking and investor confidence. Strengthening data
reliability is essential to enhance trust and economic stability.

Body

Impact of frequent GDP revisions on economic policymaking

1. Policy uncertainty and delayed response: Sudden GDP revisions make it difficult
for policymakers to gauge the true economic situation, leading to delays or
misalignment in policy responses.
o Eg: The 2023-24 GDP growth estimate was revised from 7.3% to 9.2%,
impacting fiscal planning (NSO, 2025).
2. Challenges in fiscal planning: Budget estimates and tax revenue projections rely on
GDP figures, and major revisions can disrupt fiscal deficit targets and expenditure
planning.
o Eg: The fiscal deficit target for 2024-25 (4.8% of GDP) may be
miscalculated if GDP figures are significantly revised later (Union Budget
2025-26).
3. Impact on monetary policy: The RBI’s monetary policy depends on GDP trends to
determine rate hikes or cuts. Erroneous estimates can lead to inappropriate interest
rate decisions.
o Eg: The RBI cut repo rate to 6.25% in Feb 2025, but uncertainty over GDP
trends complicates further decisions (RBI MPC minutes, 2025).
4. Mismatch with ground realities: Large GDP revisions often fail to align with real
sectoral performance, making targeted interventions difficult.
o Eg: Asian Paints CEO (2024) and Nestlé India chairman (2024) questioned
GDP correlation with actual demand and consumption trends.
5. Distorted resource allocation: Government schemes and sectoral incentives rely on
GDP data, and sudden revisions can misallocate resources.

7
 o Eg: Higher-than-expected GDP growth may lead to premature withdrawal of
welfare support like PM Garib Kalyan Yojana despite ongoing demand
pressures.

Implications for investor confidence

1. Erosion of credibility in economic data: Frequent revisions raise doubts about data
reliability, discouraging long-term investors.
o Eg: Fitch Ratings (2024) noted concerns over India’s data consistency,
affecting investment outlook.
2. Volatility in financial markets: Sudden GDP revisions can trigger fluctuations in
stock and bond markets, affecting investor sentiment.
o Eg: The NIFTY 50 saw a dip after conflicting GDP data releases in Feb 2025,
reflecting investor uncertainty.
3. Foreign investment deterrence: Global investors require stable economic indicators
for long-term planning, and unreliable data can reduce FDI and FPI inflows.
o Eg: Morgan Stanley’s 2025 India Outlook flagged GDP inconsistencies as a
risk for sustained FDI growth.
4. Sectoral misjudgments by corporates: Inaccurate GDP figures can mislead
businesses about economic demand, affecting expansion and hiring decisions.
o Eg: Auto sector investments slowed in 2024, despite high GDP growth
projections, due to weak consumer demand signals.
5. Reduced effectiveness of credit rating assessments: GDP revisions affect sovereign
credit ratings, leading to potential borrowing cost fluctuations.
o Eg: Moody’s (2024) expressed concerns about India’s fiscal health due to
inconsistent GDP growth estimates.

Measures to improve data reliability

1. Strengthening data collection mechanisms: Improve real-time data gathering from

sectors like MSMEs and informal economy to reduce future revisions.
o Eg: National Statistical Commission (NSC) 2023 report recommended
improving survey methodologies for robust data collection.
2. Increasing transparency in methodology: Ensure greater public disclosure of GDP
estimation models to build credibility.
o Eg: Rangarajan Committee on GDP Estimation (2019) suggested periodic
disclosure of methodology changes.
3. Regular updates with better frequency: Moving towards quarterly real GDP
estimates rather than large-scale annual revisions can improve accuracy.
o Eg: UK’s ONS and US Bureau of Economic Analysis follow real-time data
revisions with better accuracy.
4. Independent statistical audits: Setting up a third-party audit mechanism to verify
GDP calculations before public release.

8
 o Eg: IMF’s Data Quality Assessment Framework (DQAF) recommends
external validation for national accounts.
5. Strengthening inter-agency coordination: Better integration of RBI, Finance
Ministry, and NSO data can reduce discrepancies.
o Eg: Economic Advisory Council (2024) proposed a Unified Economic Data
Framework to align sectoral indicators with GDP estimates.

Conclusion

Ensuring accurate and transparent GDP data is crucial for effective policymaking and
investor confidence. Strengthening data governance, aligning fiscal and monetary decisions
with ground realities, and adopting global best practices will enhance credibility and
economic planning in the long run.

Q. A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation.

Analyze whether the Income Tax Bill, 2025, achieves these goals. Suggest
additional measures for reform. (15 M)

Introduction

A well-designed tax system must ensure clarity, stability, and efficiency to enhance
compliance and minimize disputes. India’s Income Tax Bill, 2025, aims to simplify the tax
framework but faces challenges in achieving predictability and dispute reduction,
requiring further reforms.

Body

A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation

1. Simplicity in tax structure – A tax system should have clear provisions, minimal
cross-referencing, and easy compliance mechanisms to reduce taxpayer confusion.
o Eg: The UK’s tax reform model simplified income tax laws by consolidating
complex provisions into fewer sections.
2. Predictability for economic stability – Taxpayers and businesses must anticipate
future tax liabilities to plan investments and economic activities without uncertainty.
o Eg: OECD's Tax Certainty Report (2022) highlighted that predictable tax
laws boost foreign direct investment (FDI).
3. Litigation reduction for efficient administration – A tax system must minimize
ambiguities and disputes through fair and transparent adjudication mechanisms.
o Eg: India’s tax dispute backlog exceeded ₹10 lakh crore in 2023 (Source:
Ministry of Finance, India).

Analysis of the Income Tax Bill, 2025

A. Achievements of the Bill

9
 1. Textual and structural simplification – The bill removes obsolete provisions,
consolidates related sections, and eliminates excessive cross-referencing.
o Eg: Provisions related to exemptions and deductions have been
consolidated, reducing interpretational complexity.
2. Certainty in tax policy – No major policy changes or alterations in tax rates ensure
continuity and stability for businesses and individuals.
o Eg: The Finance Minister’s Budget Speech 2024 reaffirmed that tax rate
stability will be maintained.
3. Digital compliance framework – The law aligns with India’s digital tax
administration to enhance ease of compliance and minimize manual errors.
o Eg: The e-filing system and faceless assessment mechanisms streamline
compliance and reduce harassment.
4. Consolidation of transfer pricing provisions – The bill builds on multi-year
transfer pricing audits to prevent repetitive disputes.
o Eg: The Finance Bill, 2025 introduced multi-year audits to reduce
unnecessary litigation.
5. Alignment with global best practices – The bill adopts simplification models from
the UK and Australia, making tax administration more efficient.
o Eg: Australia’s Income Tax Assessment Act, 1997 is a globally recognized
model for streamlined tax laws.

B. Challenges and limitations

1. Lack of substantial tax reforms – The bill does not introduce major structural
reforms, limiting its impact on economic growth.
o Eg: The Direct Taxes Code (DTC) 2009 had proposed fundamental changes
but was never implemented.
2. Persistence of high litigation levels – The bill does not provide a comprehensive
framework for alternative dispute resolution (ADR) to reduce tax disputes.
o Eg: India’s tax litigation remains one of the highest globally, with over 5 lakh
pending cases in various courts (CBDT Data, 2024).
3. Insufficient clarity in delegated legislation – Many provisions depend on
subsequent rules, circulars, and notifications, leading to interpretational
ambiguities.
o Eg: Past instances like Angel Tax disputes (2023) arose due to unclear CBDT
circulars.
4. Failure to address corporate tax competitiveness – The bill does not make India’s
corporate tax regime globally competitive to attract investments.
o Eg: India’s corporate tax rate (25.17%) remains higher than that of
competing economies like Vietnam (20%).
5. No special provisions for tax technology adaptation – While digitalization is
emphasized, the bill does not mandate changes in corporate tax software or digital
compliance mechanisms.

10
 o Eg: Large corporations rely on automated tax computation tools, which may
require extensive modifications.

Additional measures for reform

1. Introduction of a structured alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanism –

A formalized mediation and arbitration process can reduce litigation.
o Eg: The Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme (2020) successfully resolved over 1.48
lakh tax disputes.
2. Sunset clause for tax exemptions – A predefined expiry period for tax exemptions
will reduce policy unpredictability and misuse.
o Eg: The Kelkar Committee (2002) recommended phasing out excessive
exemptions.
3. Linking transfer pricing audits with global benchmarks – A mechanism to align
India’s transfer pricing regime with OECD standards will prevent disputes.
o Eg: The BEPS (Base Erosion and Profit Shifting) framework by OECD
provides clear guidelines for transfer pricing norms.
4. Mandatory pre-legislative impact assessment – Every tax reform must undergo a
mandatory cost-benefit analysis before enactment.
o Eg: Australia’s Tax Reform Review Panel (2008) assesses tax policy
changes before implementation.

Conclusion

The Income Tax Bill, 2025, is a step towards simplification and predictability, but it does
not fully modernize India's tax system. To make taxation truly efficient, competitive, and
litigation-free, India must adopt structured ADR mechanisms, corporate tax
competitiveness measures, and robust digital compliance frameworks.

Q. What are the major concerns of foreign investors regarding India’s current
Bilateral Investment Treaty framework? How might the ongoing revision
address these concerns? (10 M)

Introduction

India’s Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) framework has faced criticism from foreign
investors due to restrictive provisions, lack of effective dispute resolution, and inadequate
protection mechanisms. The ongoing revision seeks to address these challenges while
balancing investor confidence with national regulatory autonomy.

Body

Major concerns of foreign investors regarding India’s current BIT framework

11
 1. Absence of broad investor protection: The 2016 model BIT narrowly defines
investment and excludes pre-establishment rights, reducing investor confidence.
o Eg: Foreign investors prefer BITs with broad definitions like in
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership
(CPTPP), which India lacks.
2. Weak investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) mechanism: The current BIT
requires exhausting domestic remedies for 5 years before approaching international
arbitration, delaying justice.
o Eg: Vodafone (2017) and Cairn Energy (2020) arbitration cases
challenged India’s retrospective taxation under the existing dispute settlement
model.
3. Lack of fair and equitable treatment (FET) clause: The removal of the FET clause
from the 2016 BIT model has weakened legal predictability for investors.
o Eg: The White Industries v. India (2011) case highlighted delays in Indian
courts, raising concerns about judicial efficiency.
4. High risk of regulatory unpredictability: Frequent policy changes such as
retrospective taxation and abrupt sectoral restrictions create uncertainty for
investors.
o Eg: Retrospective tax law (2012) on Vodafone and Cairn Energy led to
arbitration losses for India.
5. Limited acceptance by other nations: The rigid provisions of India's current BIT
model have deterred major economies from signing agreements.
o Eg: The European Union (EU) and the UK have expressed reservations
about India's BIT framework, delaying negotiations.

How the ongoing BIT revision might address these concerns

1. Broadening investment definitions: The revised BIT may include pre-

establishment rights and expand investment definitions to attract investors.
o Eg: India-UAE BIT (2024) expanded investment scope beyond just physical
assets, covering intellectual property and financial instruments.
2. Enhancing dispute resolution mechanisms: The revision may reduce mandatory
domestic litigation timelines and provide faster arbitration access.
o Eg: The UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial
Arbitration may influence India's new BIT dispute resolution framework.
3. Reintroducing fair and equitable treatment (FET) with safeguards: India may
redefine FET provisions while protecting regulatory autonomy.
o Eg: US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) allows FET but limits
investor claims against legitimate public interest policies.
4. Ensuring policy stability and transparency: The revised BIT may introduce clear
expropriation safeguards and a stability clause to prevent sudden regulatory
changes.
o Eg: Singapore’s BITs include policy stability clauses, ensuring investor
confidence.

12
 5. Making BIT terms more globally acceptable: The revision aims to align with
global best practices to increase treaty acceptability among major economies.
o Eg: India's ongoing BIT negotiations with the UK, EU, and Saudi Arabia
(2025) show a shift towards a more investor-friendly framework.

Conclusion

India’s BIT revision is a critical step toward balancing investor protection with sovereign
regulatory autonomy. A well-crafted framework, aligned with global best practices, will
enhance investment inflows while safeguarding national interests.

Q. How can Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) initiatives provide

Indian companies a competitive advantage in the global market? Discuss the role
of regulatory frameworks in promoting ESG compliance in India. (10 M)

Introduction

ESG initiatives are transforming business strategies globally, giving Indian firms a
competitive edge by enhancing investor trust, improving risk management, and aligning with
evolving global trade standards.

Body

ESG initiatives and competitive advantage in the global market

1. Access to global investments and funds: ESG-compliant companies attract larger

institutional investors and secure better financing terms.
o Eg: Tata Power secured ₹4,000 crore investment from BlackRock and
Mubadala Investment Company for renewable energy expansion.
2. Improved export opportunities: ESG alignment ensures compliance with
international sustainability standards, reducing trade barriers.
o Eg: The European Union’s CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment
Mechanism) will impose tariffs on carbon-intensive imports, benefiting ESG-
compliant Indian exporters.
3. Enhanced supply chain integration: Global firms increasingly prefer ESG-
compliant suppliers to mitigate risks.
o Eg: Maruti Suzuki implemented eco-friendly practices to align with
European partners' sustainability goals.
4. Better risk management and resilience: ESG policies help mitigate environmental
and social risks, reducing financial uncertainties.
o Eg: HDFC Bank integrated ESG risk assessments into its lending framework
to manage environmental risks.
5. Brand differentiation and consumer preference: ESG practices improve corporate
reputation, attracting conscious consumers.

13
 o Eg: ITC Limited's Wellbeing Out of Waste (WOW) initiative enhanced
consumer loyalty by promoting waste recycling.

Role of regulatory frameworks in promoting ESG compliance in India

1. SEBI’s BRSR (Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting): Mandates

India's top 1,000 listed companies to disclose ESG performance, ensuring
transparency.
o Eg: As per SEBI’s 2023 guidelines, firms must disclose value chain
emissions for better accountability.
2. Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022: Introduced the Carbon Credit
Trading Scheme, incentivizing corporates to adopt low-emission technologies.
o Eg: JSW Steel invested in energy-efficient technologies to benefit from
carbon credit trading.
3. National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct (NGRBC): Encourages
businesses to integrate ESG principles into their core operations.
o Eg: Larsen & Toubro incorporated ESG principles in its sustainable
infrastructure projects.
4. RBI’s Climate Risk Guidelines (2023): Mandates Indian banks to integrate climate-
related financial risks into risk management strategies.
o Eg: State Bank of India (SBI) introduced green bonds and loans aligned with
ESG goals.
5. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Mandate (2013): Ensures corporates
allocate 2% of profits for social and environmental causes, supporting ESG initiatives.
o Eg: Reliance Industries invested in the Jamnagar Green Energy Giga
Complex, a renewable energy hub.

Conclusion

By aligning ESG initiatives with strong regulatory frameworks, Indian companies can boost
global competitiveness, attract investments, and strengthen their reputation. Going forward,
expanding ESG integration in SMEs and strengthening compliance mechanisms will be
crucial for sustained success.

Q. Tourism can be a powerful tool for employment generation if integrated with

capacity-building initiatives. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

Tourism, as a labour-intensive sector, has immense potential to generate both direct and
indirect employment, especially when complemented by targeted capacity-building
initiatives that enhance skill development and service quality.

Body

14
Tourism as a powerful tool for employment generation

1. Labor-intensive sector: Tourism involves multiple service-based roles, creating

employment across accommodation, transport, and tour operations.
o Eg: The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) estimates that India's
tourism sector supported 40 million jobs in 2023.
2. Diverse employment avenues: Tourism creates varied roles in sectors like
hospitality, handicrafts, and adventure tourism.
o Eg: India's rural tourism initiatives have empowered local artisans through
cultural exchanges.
3. Regional development: Tourism growth enhances employment in remote and
underdeveloped areas.
o Eg: The Swadesh Darshan scheme has developed unexplored destinations in
Northeast India, boosting local livelihoods.
4. Encourages micro-entrepreneurship: Small-scale ventures such as homestays, tour
guides, and food outlets thrive in tourist hotspots.
o Eg: The Incredible India Tourist Facilitator (IITF) program trains
individuals for micro-enterprise roles in tourism.

Role of capacity-building initiatives in enhancing employment

1. Skill enhancement for locals: Training programs increase employability by

equipping locals with essential skills.
o Eg: The Capacity Building for Service Providers (CBSP) scheme offers
skill development for tourist guides and service staff.
2. Improved service quality: Structured training enhances visitor experience, attracting
repeat tourism and improving sector stability.
o Eg: The Paryatan Mitra initiative focuses on soft skills and hospitality for
improved tourist engagement.
3. Promotion of niche tourism: Specialized training supports sectors like eco-tourism,
wellness, and adventure tourism.
o Eg: The Ayush Visa initiative aims to develop Ayurveda-based wellness
tourism, opening new employment opportunities.
4. Focus on marginalized groups: Capacity-building programs empower women,
youth, and tribal communities.
o Eg: The Paryatan Didi initiative trains rural women in hospitality services to
expand tourism employment.
5. Global outreach through digital skills: Digital marketing training enables
entrepreneurs to promote destinations globally.
o Eg: The Incredible India Content Hub offers digital tools to market niche
tourist destinations.
6. Enhanced safety standards: Capacity-building programs educate workers on crisis
management and tourist safety protocols.

15
 o Eg: The Safe Tourism Destination for Women initiative trains female
guides to ensure safe tourism spaces.

Conclusion

Tourism’s employment potential can be fully realized when combined with targeted skill
development and capacity-building initiatives that improve service quality and expand
sectoral reach, ultimately fostering sustainable growth in India's tourism landscape

Q. Discuss the challenges of balancing public investment with fiscal consolidation

in India. How can innovative financing mechanisms bridge this gap? (15 M)

Introduction
Balancing public investment with fiscal consolidation is crucial for India's economic
stability. While investment drives growth, excessive spending can widen the fiscal deficit,
posing risks to macroeconomic stability.

Body

Challenges in balancing public investment with fiscal consolidation

1. Revenue shortfall: Limited tax buoyancy and shortfall in GST collections reduce
fiscal space for capital expenditure.
o Eg: FY 2023-24 witnessed a ₹1.2 lakh crore GST shortfall compared to
initial projections (Source: Ministry of Finance).
2. Rising debt burden: Higher borrowings to fund investment escalate debt servicing
costs, limiting fiscal flexibility.
o Eg: India's general government debt-to-GDP ratio stood at 81% in FY
2023-24 (Source: IMF).
3. Expenditure rigidity: High committed expenditures on interest payments, salaries,
and subsidies reduce space for discretionary spending.
o Eg: In FY 2023-24, committed expenditures formed nearly 50% of total
revenue receipts (Source: Union Budget 2024-25).
4. Global economic volatility: Uncertain geopolitical conditions and energy price
shocks strain government finances.
o Eg: The Russia-Ukraine conflict led to rising import costs, impacting India's
current account deficit.
5. State-level fiscal constraints: Many states face fiscal distress, restricting their ability
to contribute to infrastructure investment.
o Eg: RBI’s State Finances Report 2024 highlighted fiscal stress in states like
Punjab and West Bengal.
6. Off-budget borrowings: Reliance on off-budget borrowings increases fiscal risks and
lacks transparency.

16
 o Eg: The CAG Report 2023 flagged the Centre’s rising off-budget liabilities
impacting fiscal discipline.

Innovative financing mechanisms to bridge the gap

1. Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvITs): Monetizing public assets through

InvITs attracts private investment without fiscal strain.
o Eg: NHAI InvIT raised ₹10,200 crore in 2023, leveraging toll revenue for
road infrastructure.
2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Combining public oversight with private sector
efficiency mobilizes investment with reduced fiscal burden.
o Eg: The Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) in highways has effectively
attracted private investment.
3. Green and municipal bonds: Issuing targeted bonds for environmental and urban
development projects diversifies funding sources.
o Eg: India’s Sovereign Green Bonds issued in 2023 raised ₹16,000 crore for
clean energy projects.
4. Asset monetization: Unlocking the value of underutilized public assets helps raise
non-debt capital.
o Eg: The National Monetization Pipeline (NMP) aims to generate ₹6 lakh
crore by 2025.
5. Development Finance Institutions (DFIs): DFIs provide long-term, low-cost finance
for infrastructure without overburdening the fiscal deficit.
o Eg: The National Bank for Financing Infrastructure and Development
(NaBFID) was set up in 2021 for this purpose.
6. Viability Gap Funding (VGF): Direct government support in economically unviable
but socially crucial projects encourages private participation.
o Eg: The VGF scheme for renewable energy attracted significant investment
in solar and wind power.

Conclusion

Ensuring fiscal prudence while driving investment-led growth requires a strategic mix of
innovative financing mechanisms and enhanced revenue mobilization. By aligning
expenditure with growth priorities, India can achieve sustainable development while
maintaining fiscal discipline.

Q. Examine the factors contributing to India's trade resilience in the face of

rising global tariff uncertainties. Discuss how strategic diversification and
regional partnerships have enhanced India's export stability. Also, evaluate the
role of digital trade in strengthening India's economic stability. (15 M)

Introduction

17
India's trade resilience has strengthened despite rising global tariff uncertainties through
proactive strategies like export diversification, regional trade agreements, and digital
trade integration, ensuring stability amid evolving global trade dynamics.

Body

Factors contributing to India's trade resilience amid tariff uncertainties

1. Export diversification strategy: India's shift from traditional markets (e.g., USA,
EU) to emerging markets in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East has
reduced dependency.
o Eg: India's exports to UAE under the CEPA agreement rose by 16% in 2023
(Source: Ministry of Commerce, 2024).
2. Enhanced domestic manufacturing capabilities: Initiatives like PLI (Production
Linked Incentive) schemes have boosted export-oriented industries, reducing
vulnerability to tariff disruptions.
o Eg: India's electronics exports grew by 50% in 2023, driven by PLI
incentives.
3. Robust trade policy reforms: Measures such as RoDTEP (Remission of Duties
and Taxes on Exported Products) have ensured competitiveness despite rising
global tariffs.
o Eg: India’s textile exports maintained steady growth despite U.S. tariff
revisions in 2024.
4. Focus on value-added sectors: Emphasis on high-value sectors like
pharmaceuticals, IT services, and automobiles has enhanced resilience.
o Eg: India's pharmaceutical exports increased by 21% in 2023, led by value
addition.

Strategic diversification enhancing India’s export stability

1. Diversification in product categories: India has expanded exports in niche markets

like organic chemicals, marine products, and electronics to reduce risks.
o Eg: India’s organic chemical exports to ASEAN countries grew by 18% in
2024.
2. New trade corridors and supply chain realignment: India has actively developed
alternate trade routes to bypass tariff-affected zones.
o Eg: The India-Middle East-Europe Corridor (IMEC) offers alternative
trade pathways to Western markets.
3. Service sector focus: India has tapped into the growing demand for IT, financial
services, and healthcare outsourcing to offset declining goods exports.
o Eg: India's IT service exports surged to $194 billion in 2023 (NASSCOM
report).
4. Emphasis on regional niche markets: India’s growing focus on Eastern European
and Latin American markets has reduced dependence on Western economies.

18
 o Eg: India-Brazil trade saw a 12% increase in 2024, driven by value-added
goods.

Role of regional partnerships in strengthening India's export stability

1. Comprehensive trade agreements: India's FTAs with countries like UAE,

Australia, and Mauritius have secured preferential tariff benefits.
o Eg: The India-Australia ECTA boosted bilateral trade by 25% in 2023.
2. Strategic partnerships with growth regions: India's engagement with ASEAN,
GCC, and African Union has provided stable export markets.
o Eg: India's exports to Africa crossed $45 billion in 2023, diversifying India’s
export destinations.
3. Sectoral cooperation in key industries: India’s regional partnerships in
pharmaceuticals, automobiles, and green technology have created robust trade
links.
o Eg: The India-UAE CEPA includes dedicated cooperation in renewable
energy trade.
4. Focus on supply chain security alliances: Partnerships under initiatives like the
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) have improved trade resilience.
o Eg: India's collaboration with Japan and Australia under IPEF enhanced
semiconductor supply chain security in 2024.

Role of digital trade in strengthening India’s economic stability

1. Expanding e-commerce exports: India's growing presence in cross-border e-

commerce platforms has facilitated MSME participation in global trade.
o Eg: India's e-commerce exports crossed $7 billion in 2023 (Source: DGFT).
2. Digital infrastructure investments: Initiatives like ONDC (Open Network for
Digital Commerce) have enhanced digital trade ecosystems.
o Eg: The ONDC platform aims to integrate 1 million sellers by 2025.
3. Strengthening fintech services: India's rise in digital payment solutions has
improved financial inclusion and facilitated smoother trade.
o Eg: UPI cross-border payments have been established with Singapore,
UAE, and France in 2024.
4. Focus on data governance and cybersecurity: India’s emphasis on data
localization and digital privacy has enhanced trade credibility.
o Eg: The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 is set to improve India's
digital trade environment.

Conclusion

India’s proactive approach involving diversification, regional partnerships, and digital

trade integration has significantly improved trade resilience. Moving forward, strengthening

19
digital trade frameworks and expanding into non-traditional markets will further consolidate
India's economic stability.

Q. The recent fluctuations in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate reveal underlying

shifts in global economic sentiment. Examine the causes of these fluctuations.
Assess their potential impact on emerging economies like India. (10 M)

Introduction

The sharp fluctuations in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate reflect deeper economic shifts
triggered by policy changes, geopolitical developments, and monetary strategies in major
economies.

Body

Causes of Euro-Dollar Exchange Rate Fluctuations

1. US Tariff Policies and Trade Uncertainty: US aggressive tariff measures increased

market anxiety, reducing investor confidence in US stability.
o Eg: US reciprocal tariff threats (April 2025) heightened global trade volatility.
2. Divergent Monetary Policies: The US Federal Reserve's indication of potential
interest rate cuts discouraged dollar investments, while the European Central Bank
maintained stable policies.
o Eg: US Federal Reserve’s policy review on March 19, 2025, signaled rate
cuts, weakening the dollar.
3. Fiscal Stimulus in the EU: The EU’s shift from austerity to pro-growth fiscal
policies encouraged higher growth expectations, strengthening the euro.
o Eg: Germany and France’s coordinated stimulus plans post-Ukraine crisis.
4. Political Instability in the US: Uncertainty around domestic policies, legal disputes,
and leadership concerns have eroded investor confidence in the dollar.
o Eg: The OECD's March 17, 2025 report projected US growth to fall to 1.6%
by 2026, raising recession fears.
5. Improved EU Economic Prospects: Enhanced consumer spending and industrial
recovery in major EU nations bolstered euro strength.
o Eg: The EU’s GDP growth forecast revised upwards to 1.2% in 2026 (OECD
report, 2025).

Impact on Emerging Economies like India

1. Strengthening Rupee Against the Dollar: The weakening dollar has boosted the
rupee, improving India’s import affordability.
o Eg: The rupee strengthened from ₹87.5/USD (Feb 2025) to ₹86.5/USD
(March 2025).
2. Weaker Rupee Against the Euro: The strengthening euro has raised costs for Indian
exporters dealing with the EU market.
20
 o Eg: The rupee weakened from ₹87.4/Euro (Jan 2025) to ₹94.5/Euro (March
2025).
3. Impact on Inflation Control: A stronger rupee against the dollar helps reduce
imported inflation, especially for crude oil.
o Eg: India imports over 85% of its crude oil, making exchange rate stability
crucial.
4. Volatility in Capital Flows: Uncertain global markets may divert investments away
from emerging economies, increasing volatility in FDI and FPI inflows.
o Eg: India’s FPI outflows surged by ₹15,000 crore in February 2025 due to
global uncertainty.
5. Trade Deficit Risks: While a stronger rupee helps reduce import costs, it can
weaken India's export competitiveness, impacting sectors like textiles and IT
services.
o Eg: The IT sector’s export revenue in Europe is estimated to fall by 4% in
FY 2025.

Conclusion

India must adopt prudent monetary strategies, diversify trade relations, and promote export
competitiveness to mitigate currency risks and leverage global economic trends for
sustainable growth.

Q. Evaluate how India's policy shift towards self-reliance has influenced the
country's economic resilience and industrial competitiveness. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s shift towards self-reliance under initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and Production
Linked Incentives (PLI) has strengthened economic resilience and improved industrial
competitiveness. These reforms align with India's goal to reduce import dependency and
boost domestic capacity.

Body

Impact on economic resilience

1. Reduced import dependency: Policies promoting local manufacturing have reduced

reliance on key imports, enhancing economic stability.
o Eg: India's electronics production increased by 20% in FY 2023, reducing
mobile phone imports significantly (Ministry of Electronics & IT, 2024).
2. Strengthened supply chains: Encouraging domestic sourcing in strategic sectors has
minimized supply chain disruptions.
o Eg: The PLI scheme in pharmaceuticals reduced API (Active
Pharmaceutical Ingredient) dependency on China, ensuring supply security
during COVID-19.
21
 3. Boost to forex reserves: Enhanced exports from self-reliant sectors have improved
foreign exchange reserves.
o Eg: India's defence exports crossed ₹21,000 crore in FY 2023, the highest
ever (DRDO 2023).
4. Job creation and growth: Domestic manufacturing growth has generated
employment across sectors, ensuring economic stability.
o Eg: The automobile sector added over 8 lakh new jobs post-PLI rollout in
2023 (Department of Heavy Industries).

Impact on industrial competitiveness

1. Enhanced manufacturing base: Policies like the PLI scheme have improved
industrial productivity and attracted global investments.
o Eg: Apple, Samsung, and Foxconn expanded manufacturing in India under
PLI incentives (2024).
2. Rise in indigenous innovation: Focus on R&D funding has spurred technological
advancements.
o Eg: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
developed Pralay Missile, enhancing self-reliance in defence technology
(2024).
3. Global market penetration: Improved domestic production capabilities have
enhanced India's export profile.
o Eg: India’s solar PV exports increased by 58% in 2023 under PLI in
renewable energy (MNRE 2024).
4. Improved MSME competitiveness: Policies promoting MSME digitization and e-
commerce integration have boosted their global competitiveness.
o Eg: The Udyam Portal facilitated registration of over 2 crore MSMEs,
enhancing formalization and credit access (2024).

Challenges faced in the self-reliance model

1. Technological gaps: Despite progress, India still faces technology constraints in

sectors like semiconductors and aerospace.
o Eg: India remains heavily reliant on Taiwan for semiconductor imports.
2. Infrastructure deficiencies: Gaps in logistics, power supply, and transport networks
limit manufacturing efficiency.
o Eg: The Global Logistics Performance Index 2023 ranked India 38th,
reflecting gaps in supply chain infrastructure.
3. Regulatory bottlenecks: Complex compliance frameworks continue to discourage
foreign direct investment in some sectors.
o Eg: Delays in land acquisition have slowed major industrial projects.
4. Skill deficit in workforce: The labor force faces gaps in specialized skills, limiting
India's competitiveness in advanced manufacturing.

22
 o Eg: According to the India Skills Report 2024, only 48% of graduates are
employable in high-skill industries.

Conclusion

To sustain self-reliance, India must prioritize technology partnerships, infrastructure

expansion, and skilling initiatives. Strengthening global collaborations while boosting
indigenous capabilities will ensure India’s long-term economic resilience and industrial
competitiveness.

Q. Evaluate the significance of India's decision to abolish the Equalisation Levy

in the context of global digital taxation frameworks. What challenges may arise
from this shift, and what measures should India adopt to ensure revenue
stability? (15 M)

Introduction

The abolition of the Equalisation Levy marks a strategic shift aligning India with evolving
OECD digital tax norms while mitigating trade tensions with the U.S.. This move, however,
carries fiscal risks that demand robust alternative measures.

Body

Significance of India's decision to abolish the Equalisation Levy

1. Alignment with OECD's Two-Pillar Framework: Ensures India's compliance with

emerging global digital taxation rules, enhancing India's international credibility.
o Eg: The OECD’s Pillar One proposal mandates reallocation of taxing rights
to market jurisdictions like India.
2. Avoidance of Trade Retaliation: Reduces the risk of U.S. tariffs under Section 301
investigations, fostering better trade ties.
o Eg: The U.S. threatened 25% tariffs on Indian exports in response to the 2%
levy.
3. Boost for Digital Investment: Enhances India's attractiveness for global tech giants
by reducing tax burdens.
o Eg: Companies like Google, Meta, and Amazon had cited tax uncertainties in
investment decisions.
4. Improved Tax Certainty: Eliminates the risk of double taxation and legal disputes
stemming from unilateral tax regimes.
o Eg: The Equalisation Levy often resulted in conflicting interpretations with
established DTAA norms.
5. Strengthening Bilateral Relations: Demonstrates India's willingness to cooperate in
global tax negotiations, fostering diplomatic goodwill.

23
 o Eg: India’s proactive stance aligns with the India-U.S. Trade Policy Forum
(TPF) discussions.

Challenges arising from the removal of the Equalisation Levy

1. Revenue Loss for India: The Equalisation Levy contributed significant revenue; its
removal may impact India's digital tax base.
o Eg: In FY 2022-23, the 6% levy on ads alone generated ₹3,000 crore
(Source: Ministry of Finance).
2. Risk of Tax Evasion: Digital firms may exploit gaps before OECD frameworks are
fully operational, impacting revenue collection.
o Eg: Global firms may shift revenues to low-tax jurisdictions under Base
Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) strategies.
3. Delayed Implementation of OECD Norms: The OECD’s Pillar One framework is
yet to be ratified globally, potentially creating a regulatory void.
o Eg: G20 discussions on digital taxation have faced prolonged delays since
2021.
4. Increased Reliance on Conventional Tax Models: Traditional corporate tax regimes
may struggle to capture digital revenue efficiently.
o Eg: Digital businesses with minimal physical presence may evade India's tax
net.
5. Diplomatic Risks from Unilateral Actions: India may face pressure from smaller
trade partners to extend similar tax concessions, weakening its negotiating leverage.
o Eg: Countries like France and Italy faced similar diplomatic dilemmas after
suspending digital taxes.

Measures to ensure revenue stability

1. Accelerated OECD Framework Implementation: Proactively adopt the Pillar One

framework to ensure a smooth transition in digital taxation.
o Eg: India’s active participation in the OECD-G20 Inclusive Framework has
positioned it as a key stakeholder.
2. Strengthening GST on Digital Services: Broaden GST rules to comprehensively
cover digital transactions, ensuring indirect tax gains.
o Eg: The GST Council extended GST to OTT platforms in 2023, improving
tax collection.
3. Expanding TDS Framework for Digital Transactions: Introduce targeted Tax
Deducted at Source (TDS) measures to capture digital payments.
o Eg: Section 194O of the Income Tax Act mandates TDS on e-commerce
transactions.
4. Strengthening Transfer Pricing Regulations: Tighten transfer pricing norms to
prevent profit shifting by digital firms.
o Eg: The CBDT’s Safe Harbour Rules help regulate digital firm transactions
with global affiliates.

24
 5. Promoting Digital Infrastructure Investments: Encourage investments in domestic
data centers and digital platforms to improve tax visibility.
o Eg: The Digital India Programme incentivizes local technology expansion,
fostering taxable digital ecosystems.

Conclusion

While the removal of the Equalisation Levy aligns India with evolving global tax norms,
ensuring revenue stability demands proactive reforms. India must pursue a balanced strategy
that encourages investment while safeguarding its digital tax sovereignty.

Q. How do foreign portfolio investments affect market depth and liquidity in

India? What role does regulatory design play in attracting such investments?
How does the latest FPI reform alter this ecosystem? (15 M)

Introduction

Foreign portfolio investments (FPIs) play a pivotal role in augmenting India's financial
markets. However, their potential depends on a carefully calibrated regulatory framework
that enables transparency without deterring investment.

Body

Impact of foreign portfolio investments on market depth and liquidity

1. Boosts trading volumes and liquidity: FPI inflows enhance transaction volumes,
leading to efficient price discovery.
o Eg: NSDL (Feb 2024) reported FPIs holding ₹47.2 lakh crore in Indian
equities, driving daily volumes on NSE/BSE.
2. Broadens investor base: FPIs add diversification and reduce domestic market
concentration.
o Eg: In FY 2022–23, FPIs from over 60 countries were active in India’s
equity markets (SEBI Annual Report).
3. Improves sectoral capital distribution: FPIs allocate capital across undervalued and
emerging sectors.
o Eg: FPIs increased exposure to green energy and EV sectors in 2023,
promoting balanced sectoral growth.
4. Stabilises yield curves and bond pricing: FPI participation in debt markets improves
bond market depth.
o Eg: Post India’s JP Morgan bond index inclusion (2024), demand for G-
Secs rose, stabilising yields.
5. Accelerates capital formation: Foreign funds enable quicker resource mobilisation
for listed companies.
o Eg: Adani Ports and Zomato raised significant equity capital via FPI
participation post their listings.
25
Role of regulatory design in attracting such investments

1. Reduces entry barriers through compliance simplification: Investor-friendly

norms reduce procedural friction.
o Eg: SEBI (2025) increased the disclosure threshold to ₹50,000 crore,
reducing compliance for mid-size FPIs.
2. Provides legal clarity and certainty: Transparent rules prevent regulatory arbitrage
and instil confidence.
o Eg: The FPI Regulations, 2019, clarified KYC, beneficial ownership, and
permissible investments, reducing ambiguity.
3. Builds trust through enforcement consistency: Predictable regulatory actions
reduce perceived risk.
o Eg: SC in SEBI vs Sahara (2012) upheld strong regulatory enforcement,
reinforcing SEBI’s credibility.
4. Incorporates global norms: Aligning with international standards improves India’s
reputation.
o Eg: Adoption of IOSCO Principles (2020) helped SEBI update disclosure
norms to global benchmarks.
5. Facilitates technological integration: Digital KYC and registration ease onboarding
for global investors.
o Eg: Common Application Form (CAF) introduced in 2022 allowed seamless
registration with SEBI, RBI, and depositories.

How the latest FPI reform alters the investment ecosystem

1. Encourages larger and long-term FPI commitments: Reduces fear of excessive

scrutiny for genuine investors.
o Eg: Post-2025 reform, large FPIs like BlackRock and Norges Bank signalled
renewed interest in Indian markets.
2. De-risks mid-sized FPIs from over-compliance: Eases regulatory load for smaller
players.
o Eg: Funds managing ₹25,000–₹49,000 crore are now exempt from granular
disclosure, promoting ease of business.
3. Restores confidence after overregulation concerns: Course-corrects from the 2023
circular that triggered sell-offs.
o Eg: Khaitan & Co (2025) highlighted how some FPIs reduced holdings
earlier to escape heavy compliance.
4. Improves India's market competitiveness: Positions India better against peers like
Indonesia or Brazil.
o Eg: AIBI (2025) noted that India was the only emerging market with such
low disclosure thresholds pre-reform.
5. Enables tiered regulation based on investment exposure: Shifts from a one-size-
fits-all to risk-proportionate oversight.

26
 o Eg: Only FPIs above ₹50,000 crore now face detailed checks, aligning
regulation with market exposure.

Conclusion
As India aspires to become a global financial nerve centre, its regulatory compass must steer
toward clarity without rigidity. This reform marks a vital pivot to trust-based, investment-
enabling governance.

Q. In what ways does India’s capital control regime restrict global diversification
for retail investors? How do such restrictions affect the efficiency and
inclusiveness of the domestic financial system? (10 M)

Introduction
In an increasingly interconnected world, restricting capital mobility for ordinary investors
not only limits returns but also perpetuates a financial divide between the privileged and the
average citizen.

Body

Restrictions imposed by India’s capital control regime on global diversification

1. Capping of mutual fund foreign investments: Arbitrary limits restrict mutual funds
from investing beyond $7 billion in foreign equities.
o Eg: SEBI data (2022) shows that this cap was reached in Feb 2022, halting
new investments in global stocks.
2. Indirect exclusion through compliance barriers: Retail investors must navigate
complex rules, brokers, and documentation to invest abroad.
o Eg: Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) requires setting up foreign bank
accounts, increasing transaction burdens.
3. Inequitable access under current norms: Affluent individuals can use LRS, while
average investors lack similar access via mutual funds.
4. Static limits ignoring market growth: Regulatory limits have remained unchanged
since 2009 despite rapid growth in Indian financial markets.
o Eg: UBS report (2023) shows India holds only 2% of global market cap,
limiting investor exposure severely.
5. Overregulation despite negligible currency impact: These caps do little to stabilise
the rupee but impose significant opportunity costs.
o Eg: FPI inflows in 2022 were $18.7 billion, far exceeding mutual fund
foreign limits, yet not heavily scrutinised.

Impact on efficiency and inclusiveness of the domestic financial system

1. Limited portfolio diversification: Lack of international exposure increases systemic

risk for households.

27
 o Eg: Global Portfolio Diversification Report (2023) highlights that US
makes up 61% of global equities, inaccessible to most Indians.
2. Concentration of wealth opportunities: Capital control policies favour elite
investors, excluding small investors from global wealth creation.
o Eg: Google, Apple, Nvidia gains were inaccessible to Indian mutual fund
investors during tech booms.
3. Distorted domestic asset pricing: Artificial restriction inflates demand for domestic
assets, making them expensive.
o Eg: RBI’s interventions (2023) inflated domestic equity valuations, limiting
entry for small investors.
4. Violation of financial inclusion principles: Capital controls contradict objectives
under Article 38(2) to reduce inequalities in opportunities.
5. Inhibited financial sector innovation: Restrictions reduce competitive pressure on
domestic products to evolve and improve.
o Eg: SEBI halted new global ETF schemes in 2022, limiting innovation in
mutual fund offerings.

Conclusion
India’s capital control architecture needs urgent rebalancing—protecting the rupee must
not come at the cost of investor equity and efficiency. A data-driven, tiered relaxation
model can help bridge this gap sustainably.

Q. Explain the key reasons behind the sustained decline in bank credit growth in
recent times. Suggest measures to ensure credit growth without compromising
financial stability. (10 M)

Introduction
Credit growth is a key driver of economic momentum, but recent RBI data reflects a
deliberate slowdown due to regulatory tightening and liquidity constraints.

Body

Reasons behind the decline in bank credit growth

1. Tighter prudential norms by RBI: RBI increased capital requirements on unsecured

retail loans to manage systemic risk.
o Eg: In November 2023, RBI raised risk weights by 25% on personal loans,
credit cards, and NBFC lending (Source: RBI Circular, Nov 2023).
2. Drop in personal and consumer lending: High growth segments like personal loans
and credit cards saw deceleration.
o Eg: Credit card growth fell to 11.2% in Feb 2025 from 31% a year earlier
(Source: RBI Bulletin, Mar 2025).
3. Credit-deposit ratio imbalance: Banks struggled to maintain liquidity as deposit
growth lagged behind credit demand.

28
 o Eg: Banks like SBI and ICICI reported pressure on CD ratios, reducing
aggressive lending (Source: Bank earnings Q3 FY25).
4. Cautious lending to NBFCs and services: Regulatory concerns over shadow
banking led to risk-averse behaviour.
o Eg: Credit to NBFCs fell sharply, pulling down overall services sector
credit to 13% from 21.4% (Source: RBI Data, Feb 2025).
5. Global interest rate volatility and uncertainty: External financial tightening led to
cautious domestic credit expansion.
o Eg: US Fed’s hawkish stance in early 2024 impacted investment sentiment,
slowing credit off-take (Source: IMF Global Outlook 2024).

Measures to ensure credit growth without compromising financial stability

1. Counter-cyclical regulatory flexibility: RBI can periodically recalibrate capital

requirements to align with macro conditions.
o Eg: In Feb 2025, RBI eased norms under new Governor Sanjay Malhotra for
personal loans (Source: RBI Policy Statement, Feb 2025).
2. Enhance deposit mobilisation: Improve deposit growth through competitive interest
rates and incentivised savings schemes.
o Eg: Union Budget 2024 announced incentives for women-led Mahila
Samman Savings Certificates (Source: Ministry of Finance).
3. Strengthen credit risk assessment systems: Promote AI-based credit scoring to
avoid over-reliance on capital-based curbs.
o Eg: Public Sector Banks are piloting AI credit analytics with iSPIRT and
SIDBI support .
4. Diversify credit towards productive sectors: Shift focus from unsecured loans to
MSMEs, agriculture, and green projects.
o Eg: Priority sector lending to green finance was included under RBI
guidelines in October 2023 (Source: RBI Circular Oct 2023).
5. Improve NBFC-bank coordination: Introduce frameworks for co-lending and
regulated partnerships to ease risk and credit flow.
o Eg: RBI’s co-lending model (CLM) has seen uptake by HDFC and Ujjivan
in 2024 .

Conclusion
Credit must be both accessible and resilient. A calibrated, data-driven, and sector-specific approach
can drive sustainable credit growth while safeguarding systemic stability.

Q. Despite the robustness of GDP as a measure, it fails to capture the informal

sector adequately. Discuss the implications of this limitation. Suggest alternatives
for more inclusive national income accounting. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s vast informal economy, employing over 90% of the workforce, remains largely

29
outside formal GDP estimates—creating a blind spot in policy design and income distribution
assessment.

Body

Inadequacy of GDP in Capturing Informal Sector

1. Exclusion from Formal Records: Informal enterprises often lack documentation,

registration, or standard financial records.
o Eg: Periodic Labour Force Survey (2022-23) shows over 80% of workers
are in unregistered enterprises (MoSPI).
2. Cash-Based Transactions: GDP calculations rely on formal banking data, missing
cash-based informal trade.
o Eg: NSSO 2019 noted that over 70% of rural transactions occur outside
digital/banking channels.
3. Absence of Tax Data: Informal workers rarely file taxes, hence income from this
sector is unreported in GDP.
o Eg: CBDT report (2023) observed that only ~6.5 crore Indians file income
tax returns despite 47 crore informal workers.
4. Unrecognized Home-Based Work: Domestic, piece-rate, and unpaid family labour
are ignored in official GDP figures.
o Eg: ILO (2023) estimated that over 50% of female work in India is invisible
in national accounts.
5. Volatility and Seasonality: GDP's quarterly reporting cannot capture frequent
income fluctuations in informal jobs.
o Eg: CMIE (2023) recorded seasonal dips in rural employment, especially
post-harvest, which GDP misses.

Implications of This Limitation

1. Skewed Policy Prioritisation: Policies are designed on incomplete data, leading to

under-allocation for informal sector needs.
o Eg: PM SVANidhi (2020) initially targeted only 50 lakh street vendors, far
below the estimated 1 crore+ total.
2. Misjudged Employment Trends: Excluding informal jobs paints an unrealistic
picture of unemployment or underemployment.
o Eg: EPFO payroll data (2023) shows rising formal jobs, but doesn’t reflect
job losses in informal sectors post-COVID.
3. Undermines Gender Equity Metrics: Women’s unpaid work remains uncounted,
distorting gender-sensitive policy frameworks.
o Eg: Time Use Survey (2019) revealed over 75% of women’s labour is
unpaid and excluded from GDP.
4. Revenue Leakages and Fiscal Planning Gaps: Misestimation leads to lower tax
base and weak fiscal forecasting.

30
 oEg: 14th Finance Commission raised concern about inaccurate revenue
projections due to informal sector opacity.
5. Weak Social Security Targeting: Exclusion reduces effectiveness of welfare
schemes linked to income/occupation data.
o Eg: E-Shram portal (2021) aimed to enrol 38 crore informal workers, but
data gaps hindered delivery of PM-SYM pensions.

Alternatives for Inclusive National Income Accounting

1. Satellite Accounts for Informal Sector: Supplement GDP with parallel accounts
measuring informal contributions.
o Eg: NSC (National Statistical Commission) recommended satellite accounts
in its 2022 advisory note.
2. Incorporating Time Use Surveys: Recognize unpaid work, especially by women, in
national income calculations.
o Eg: Time Use Survey (2019) can be used to assign imputed values to
household work.
3. Use of Big Data and Mobile Analytics: Leverage telecom, UPI, and digital footprint
data to estimate informal activities.
o Eg: RBI Digital Payments Index (2023) shows increased informal merchant
digital activity, useful for GDP refinement.
4. Strengthening Labour and Enterprise Surveys: More frequent, granular surveys
can better capture informal economic activity.
o Eg: Economic Census 2020 included enumeration of unregistered
establishments, aiding better data.
5. Legal and Institutional Reforms: Mandate basic registration for informal workers
via simplified norms.
o Eg: Code on Social Security, 2020 provides a legal framework for universal
registration through E-Shram.

Conclusion
India’s real economic picture lies in its invisible majority. Capturing the informal sector
robustly in national accounts is not just statistical correction—it’s a foundational step towards
inclusive and responsive policymaking.

Q. Public sector banks have seen significant recapitalization, yet credit delivery
to priority sectors remains sluggish. Examine the reasons behind this paradox.
Suggest structural reforms to address it. (10M)

Introduction
Despite over ₹3.36 lakh crore recapitalization since 2017 (MoF), public sector banks continue
to underperform in meeting Priority Sector Lending (PSL) mandates, indicating deep-
rooted structural and institutional constraints.

31
Body

Reasons behind sluggish credit delivery to priority sectors

1. Risk-averse lending behaviour: Post-NPA surge and Prompt Corrective Action

(PCA) norms induced conservative lending strategies.
o Eg: As per RBI Financial Stability Report 2023, PSBs reduced exposure to
MSMEs and agriculture despite increased capital adequacy.
2. Inadequate credit appraisal capabilities: PSBs often lack robust sector-specific risk
assessment models.
o Eg: Narasimham Committee II (1998) emphasized skill enhancement in
credit appraisal and risk profiling, which remains under-implemented.
3. Operational inefficiencies and manpower shortage: Legacy systems and
insufficient field-level staff hinder timely credit disbursal.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance (2022) flagged delay in
Kisan Credit Card processing due to staff shortages.
4. Limited penetration of digital lending: PSBs lag in leveraging tech-driven credit
tools for informal and rural borrowers.
o Eg: A 2023 NITI Aayog paper noted that only 22% of PSB rural lending
applications were digitally processed, compared to 63% in private banks.
5. Stringent collateral requirements: Rigid norms discourage small borrowers with
limited assets from seeking credit.
o Eg: A 2022 SIDBI-TransUnion report showed 60% MSMEs cited
collateral issues as a barrier to accessing PSB loans.

Structural reforms to improve credit delivery

1. Revamp credit risk frameworks: Develop sector-specific and data-driven lending

models.
o Eg: UK Sinha Committee (2019) recommended MSME-specific risk models
using GST, utility, and bank data.
2. Expand digital credit infrastructure: Integrate AI/ML tools and Aadhaar-enabled
verification for faster processing.
o Eg: Public Credit Registry (PCR) pilot initiated by RBI in 2023 aims to
streamline credit histories for small borrowers.
3. Decentralized PSL targets: Assign region- and sector-specific sub-targets based on
local needs.
o Eg: Rangarajan Committee suggested district-level credit planning aligned
with regional development.
4. Strengthen last-mile banking support: Expand Business Correspondent (BC)
network and mobile banking units.
o Eg: PM Jan Dhan Yojana integration with BC model in Jharkhand led to
42% rise in rural credit flows (NABARD 2022).

32
 5. Incentivize priority sector lending via market-linked mechanisms: Strengthen
Priority Sector Lending Certificates (PSLCs) market.
o Eg: RBI’s PSLC transactions rose by 33% in FY 2022-23, highlighting
untapped potential for efficient PSL compliance.

Conclusion
A capital-rich balance sheet is ineffective without institutional agility. A shift toward
targeted, tech-enabled, and region-sensitive banking reforms is key to unlocking
inclusive credit delivery.

Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.

Q. What are the key factors behind the increase in women borrowers in India?
Discuss its significance for financial inclusion. (10 M)

Introduction

India has witnessed a 42% rise in women borrowers over the past year, reflecting a shift in
financial awareness and access. This surge is critical for economic growth and gender
empowerment, reinforcing the goals of financial inclusion and self-reliance.

Body

Key factors behind the increase in women borrowers

1. Expansion of digital financial services: The growth of FinTech platforms and

digital banking has eased access to credit for women, reducing paperwork and travel
requirements.
o Eg: UPI transactions crossed 100 billion in 2023 (NPCI), benefiting women
in rural areas.
2. Targeted government schemes: Special credit schemes have enhanced financial
inclusion by providing collateral-free loans and interest subvention.
o Eg: MUDRA Yojana disbursed ₹9.5 lakh crore loans to women as of 2024
(Ministry of Finance).
3. Self-help groups (SHGs) and microfinance expansion: Women’s participation in
SHGs has facilitated microcredit access and financial independence.
o Eg: DAY-NRLM linked 9 crore women to credit (MoRD, 2024), improving
rural women's borrowing power.
4. Credit monitoring awareness: More women are actively checking their credit
scores, indicating a shift towards financial responsibility.
o Eg: 27 million women self-monitored credit scores in 2024, a 42% increase
from the previous year (TransUnion CIBIL).

33
 5. Legal and policy support: Gender-sensitive banking policies and judicial
interventions have promoted financial inclusion.
o Eg: RBI’s 2022 directive to banks mandates gender-neutral lending policies
for MSME borrowers.

Significance for financial inclusion

1. Enhanced economic participation: Access to credit enables more women to engage

in entrepreneurship, boosting GDP growth.
o Eg: WEF estimates India’s GDP can rise by $770 billion if women’s
participation equals men’s.
2. Reduction in informal borrowing: Increased access to formal credit reduces
dependence on high-interest informal loans.
o Eg: Gold loans by women grew 6% in 2024, indicating a transition from
moneylenders to formal institutions (TransUnion CIBIL).
3. Regional financial inclusivity: Growth in women borrowers, especially in non-metro
regions, bridges urban-rural disparities.
o Eg: Rajasthan, UP, MP saw the highest CAGR in women borrowers in the
past five years (NITI Aayog, 2024).
4. Financial security and asset creation: Access to credit improves women’s ability to
invest in long-term assets and financial security.
o Eg: 35% of business loan borrowers in 2024 were women, promoting asset-
building and capital investment (NITI Aayog).
5. Social empowerment and decision-making: Economic independence through credit
access improves women’s role in household and community decisions.
o Eg: SEWA Bank model demonstrated that women with financial
independence had greater decision-making authority.

Conclusion

Ensuring gender-responsive financial policies and expanding digital credit access will
accelerate women’s financial inclusion. Strengthening collateral-free lending and financial
literacy initiatives can further bridge existing credit gaps and foster inclusive growth.

Q. A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation.

Analyze whether the Income Tax Bill, 2025, achieves these goals. Suggest
additional measures for reform. (15 M)

Introduction

A well-designed tax system must ensure clarity, stability, and efficiency to enhance
compliance and minimize disputes. India’s Income Tax Bill, 2025, aims to simplify the tax
framework but faces challenges in achieving predictability and dispute reduction,
requiring further reforms.

34
Body

A modern tax system should be simple, predictable, and reduce litigation

4. Simplicity in tax structure – A tax system should have clear provisions, minimal
cross-referencing, and easy compliance mechanisms to reduce taxpayer confusion.
o Eg: The UK’s tax reform model simplified income tax laws by consolidating
complex provisions into fewer sections.
5. Predictability for economic stability – Taxpayers and businesses must anticipate
future tax liabilities to plan investments and economic activities without uncertainty.
o Eg: OECD's Tax Certainty Report (2022) highlighted that predictable tax
laws boost foreign direct investment (FDI).
6. Litigation reduction for efficient administration – A tax system must minimize
ambiguities and disputes through fair and transparent adjudication mechanisms.
o Eg: India’s tax dispute backlog exceeded ₹10 lakh crore in 2023 (Source:
Ministry of Finance, India).

Analysis of the Income Tax Bill, 2025

A. Achievements of the Bill

6. Textual and structural simplification – The bill removes obsolete provisions,

consolidates related sections, and eliminates excessive cross-referencing.
o Eg: Provisions related to exemptions and deductions have been
consolidated, reducing interpretational complexity.
7. Certainty in tax policy – No major policy changes or alterations in tax rates ensure
continuity and stability for businesses and individuals.
o Eg: The Finance Minister’s Budget Speech 2024 reaffirmed that tax rate
stability will be maintained.
8. Digital compliance framework – The law aligns with India’s digital tax
administration to enhance ease of compliance and minimize manual errors.
o Eg: The e-filing system and faceless assessment mechanisms streamline
compliance and reduce harassment.
9. Consolidation of transfer pricing provisions – The bill builds on multi-year
transfer pricing audits to prevent repetitive disputes.
o Eg: The Finance Bill, 2025 introduced multi-year audits to reduce
unnecessary litigation.
10. Alignment with global best practices – The bill adopts simplification models from
the UK and Australia, making tax administration more efficient.
o Eg: Australia’s Income Tax Assessment Act, 1997 is a globally recognized
model for streamlined tax laws.

B. Challenges and limitations

35
 6. Lack of substantial tax reforms – The bill does not introduce major structural
reforms, limiting its impact on economic growth.
o Eg: The Direct Taxes Code (DTC) 2009 had proposed fundamental changes
but was never implemented.
7. Persistence of high litigation levels – The bill does not provide a comprehensive
framework for alternative dispute resolution (ADR) to reduce tax disputes.
o Eg: India’s tax litigation remains one of the highest globally, with over 5 lakh
pending cases in various courts (CBDT Data, 2024).
8. Insufficient clarity in delegated legislation – Many provisions depend on
subsequent rules, circulars, and notifications, leading to interpretational
ambiguities.
o Eg: Past instances like Angel Tax disputes (2023) arose due to unclear CBDT
circulars.
9. Failure to address corporate tax competitiveness – The bill does not make India’s
corporate tax regime globally competitive to attract investments.
o Eg: India’s corporate tax rate (25.17%) remains higher than that of
competing economies like Vietnam (20%).
10. No special provisions for tax technology adaptation – While digitalization is
emphasized, the bill does not mandate changes in corporate tax software or digital
compliance mechanisms.
o Eg: Large corporations rely on automated tax computation tools, which may
require extensive modifications.

Additional measures for reform

5. Introduction of a structured alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanism –

A formalized mediation and arbitration process can reduce litigation.
o Eg: The Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme (2020) successfully resolved over 1.48
lakh tax disputes.
6. Sunset clause for tax exemptions – A predefined expiry period for tax exemptions
will reduce policy unpredictability and misuse.
o Eg: The Kelkar Committee (2002) recommended phasing out excessive
exemptions.
7. Linking transfer pricing audits with global benchmarks – A mechanism to align
India’s transfer pricing regime with OECD standards will prevent disputes.
o Eg: The BEPS (Base Erosion and Profit Shifting) framework by OECD
provides clear guidelines for transfer pricing norms.
8. Mandatory pre-legislative impact assessment – Every tax reform must undergo a
mandatory cost-benefit analysis before enactment.
o Eg: Australia’s Tax Reform Review Panel (2008) assesses tax policy
changes before implementation.

Conclusion

36
The Income Tax Bill, 2025, is a step towards simplification and predictability, but it does
not fully modernize India's tax system. To make taxation truly efficient, competitive, and
litigation-free, India must adopt structured ADR mechanisms, corporate tax
competitiveness measures, and robust digital compliance frameworks.

Government Budgeting.
Q. Despite increased allocations, underutilization of funds remains a major
concern in India’s gender budget framework. Analyze the key factors behind this
inefficiency. Propose institutional reforms to address this issue. (15 M)

Introduction

While India's Gender Budget Statement (GBS), introduced in 2005-06, has significantly
improved fund allocation for women-centric schemes, persistent underutilization hampers its
impact, limiting gender equity outcomes.

Body

Increased allocations and persistent underutilization – Key aspects

1. Rising allocations with modest outcomes: Increased gender budget allocations

(₹2.23 lakh crore in Union Budget 2024-25) have not proportionately improved
outcomes.
o Eg: Nirbhaya Fund witnessed only 30% utilization in several states despite
higher allocations (Source: Ministry of Women & Child Development).
2. Fragmented expenditure focus: Funds are often concentrated in a few schemes,
ignoring broader sectoral integration for gender-specific interventions.
o Eg: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) utilized only 52% of allocated funds
for actual implementation, with excess spent on publicity (CAG Report 2023).
3. Delayed fund release: Bureaucratic delays and procedural bottlenecks lead to funds
being released too late for effective utilization.
o Eg: Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) faced ₹2,000
crore unutilized funds in 2022 due to delayed disbursements.
4. Lack of targeted budgeting: Insufficient alignment of budget allocations with the
diverse needs of marginalized women leads to inefficient spending.
o Eg: Dalit and tribal women have minimal targeted interventions despite
higher vulnerability (Source: NITI Aayog).
5. Weak monitoring and evaluation: Absence of robust impact assessment
mechanisms leads to misallocation and wastage.
o Eg: The CAG Report (2022) highlighted poor tracking of gender-focused
outcomes under Mahila Shakti Kendra.

Key factors behind inefficiency in fund utilization

37
 1. Institutional fragmentation: Overlapping roles between ministries and weak
coordination dilute fund flow and accountability.
o Eg: The MWCD and Ministry of Finance often experience fund flow delays
due to fragmented control.
2. Lack of gender budgeting expertise: Limited capacity among budget officials to
design, track, and implement gender-focused policies weakens fund utilization.
o Eg: The State Gender Budget Cells (GBCs) lack specialized training to
translate budget allocations into actionable plans.
3. Inadequate data systems: Poor data collection mechanisms limit targeted spending
and performance reviews.
o Eg: The absence of disaggregated gender data hampers effective
monitoring.
4. Bureaucratic inefficiencies: Complex approval processes and slow fund disbursal
delay implementation.
o Eg: The Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana faced 60% fund lapses in
2021 due to procedural hurdles.
5. Social and cultural barriers: Patriarchal norms in some regions restrict the
implementation of gender-focused schemes.
o Eg: Women’s participation in financial literacy programs in rural areas
remains low due to social constraints (Source: National Family Health Survey-
5).

Institutional reforms to improve fund utilization

1. Strengthening Gender Budget Cells (GBCs): Establish dedicated gender experts in

ministries for better planning, execution, and impact assessment.
o Eg: The Kerala Gender Budget Cell model improved sector-wise gender
integration.
2. Outcome-based budgeting: Linking fund release with predefined performance
milestones ensures accountability.
o Eg: The NITI Aayog’s Outcome-Based Monitoring Framework has
enhanced fund utilization in key schemes.
3. Digital fund tracking systems: Implementing Real-Time Monitoring Platforms for
fund utilization can improve transparency.
o Eg: The PFMS (Public Financial Management System) improved tracking
in schemes like PMMVY.
4. Capacity-building initiatives: Training officials in gender budgeting tools can
improve fund planning and allocation.
o Eg: The UN Women’s Gender Budgeting Handbook is a successful global
model for capacity development.
5. Community-led monitoring frameworks: Engaging local women’s groups for
participatory planning can ensure funds meet grassroots needs.
o Eg: The Rajasthan Women’s Empowerment Program effectively involved
local groups in fund monitoring.

38
Conclusion

Strengthening institutional frameworks, improving accountability mechanisms, and adopting

data-driven monitoring systems are crucial to enhancing the impact of gender budgeting in
India. Such reforms will enable better resource utilization, ensuring inclusive development
outcomes.

Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, -

different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage,
transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and
related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Q. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) aims to modernize post-harvest
management and enhance farmer income. Critically examine its impact on
agricultural value chains. (10 M)

Introduction

India faces post-harvest losses of nearly 10% annually (FAO, 2023) due to inadequate
infrastructure. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF), launched in 2020, aims to
modernize storage, processing, and market linkages, ensuring better value realization for
farmers.

Body

AIF’s Role in Modernizing Post-Harvest Management and Enhancing Farmer Income

1. Reduction in post-harvest losses: AIF supports modern storage and processing,

preventing crop wastage.
o Eg: Cold storage and silos under AIF in Punjab (2024) improved grain
preservation, reducing spoilage.
2. Value addition through agro-processing: Encourages processing of raw produce
into high-value products, increasing farmer earnings.
o Eg: Kinnow processing units in Punjab (2024) now produce juices and
jams, enhancing profitability.
3. Improved market access and price stability: Strengthens farmer-producer
organizations (FPOs) and direct farm-to-market linkages.
o Eg: APMC-linked warehouses in Maharashtra (2023) allowed better price
discovery for farmers.

Positive Impact on Agricultural Value Chains

1. Boost to agripreneurship and rural employment: Encourages startups, FPOs, and

agri-tech innovations, creating jobs in food processing and logistics.
o Eg: Drone-based agri-services under AIF in Madhya Pradesh (2024)
improved productivity and employment.
2. Integration of renewable energy in agri-infrastructure: Promotes solar-powered
storage and irrigation, reducing operational costs.

39
 o Eg: Solar cold storage projects in Tamil Nadu (2024) enabled energy-
efficient preservation of perishables.
3. Diversification of cropping patterns: Better storage and processing encourage shifts
towards horticulture and high-value crops.
o Eg: Cashew and oilseed processing units in Kerala (2023) expanded non-
traditional crop production.
4. Strengthening export potential: High-quality processing and packaging under AIF
align Indian produce with global standards.
o Eg: Mango processing in UP (2023) increased exports to the Middle East.
5. Enhancing supply chain efficiency: Integration of logistics and warehouse networks
reduces transport bottlenecks and delays.
o Eg: Integrated logistics parks under AIF in Gujarat (2024) cut transit time
for agri-exports.

Challenges in AIF’s Impact on Agricultural Value Chains

1. Limited access for small farmers: High collateral requirements and credit
constraints hinder marginal farmers' participation.
o Eg: Only 29% of AIF beneficiaries (2024, Ministry of Agriculture) are
smallholder farmers.
2. Regional disparity in implementation: States with better governance and agri-
cooperatives benefit more, creating an imbalance.
o Eg: Punjab and MP lead AIF usage, while Bihar and Odisha lag behind
(2025, Govt data).
3. Delayed fund disbursement and bureaucratic hurdles: Slow processing of loans
affects project execution.
o Eg: Only 68% of sanctioned AIF funds were utilized as of Feb 2025
(Ministry of Finance).
4. Lack of awareness and technical expertise: Farmers often lack knowledge on
modern storage, processing, and market linkages.
o Eg: NABARD survey (2024) found that 40% of eligible farmers were
unaware of AIF benefits.
5. Environmental concerns from agro-processing waste: Increased processing can
generate waste disposal challenges if not managed sustainably.
o Eg: Kinnow processing in Punjab (2024) led to increased organic waste
requiring proper handling.

Conclusion

AIF has significantly improved post-harvest management and boosted farm incomes but
remains hindered by regional disparities, access issues, and bureaucratic delays.
Strengthening awareness programs, easing credit norms, and ensuring last-mile delivery
can maximize its impact on India's agricultural value chains.Issues related to direct and
indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public Distribution System-objectives,
functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and food security; Technology
missions; economics of animal-rearing.

40
Q. Discuss the role of agricultural diversification in promoting regional economic
growth. How can saffron cultivation in Northeast India contribute to this? (10 M)

Introduction

Agricultural diversification enhances economic resilience by integrating new crops,

technologies, and markets, thereby boosting income and regional development. The
Northeast’s saffron cultivation initiative aligns with this strategy, leveraging its unique agro-
climatic conditions.

Body

Role of agricultural diversification in promoting regional economic growth

1. Enhanced income security: Diversifying crops mitigates risks from climate shocks,
pests, or market fluctuations.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s shift to pulses and oilseeds post-2016 drought improved
farmer incomes (Source: Ministry of Agriculture).
2. Optimized resource utilization: Diversification allows better use of soil types,
micro-climates, and available water resources.
o Eg: Himachal Pradesh’s move to floriculture in water-scarce zones improved
land productivity.
3. Employment generation: Diversified farming demands specialized skills, creating
job opportunities across value chains.
o Eg: Rajasthan’s focus on medicinal plants boosted local processing units and
employment.
4. Value addition and exports: Non-traditional crops often fetch higher prices,
fostering agro-industries and global market integration.
o Eg: India's organic turmeric exports surged by 36% in 2023 (APEDA).
5. Climate resilience: Crop diversification ensures better adaptation to erratic weather
patterns by reducing monoculture vulnerabilities.
o Eg: Odisha’s integrated farming system combining paddy with fishery
improved flood resilience.

Contribution of saffron cultivation in Northeast India

1. New economic avenue: Saffron’s high market value introduces a lucrative income
source for farmers.
o Eg: Mechukha (Arunachal Pradesh) and Yuksom (Sikkim) have
successfully adopted saffron farming since 2021 (Source: NECTAR).
2. Optimal use of uncultivated land: Saffron is grown on previously underutilized
high-altitude areas without disrupting major crops.
o Eg: The ‘Mission Saffron’ project strategically uses non-arable land for
saffron expansion.

41
 3. Boost to agri-tourism: Saffron cultivation can attract tourism, enhancing local
business opportunities.
o Eg: Jammu and Kashmir’s Pampore saffron festival model is being
replicated in Northeast hubs.
4. Promotes regional branding: Establishing Northeast as a ‘Saffron Hub’ can build a
unique agro-brand for the region.
o Eg: GI tagging of Sikkim saffron is under process to protect regional identity.
5. Market diversification and export potential: Saffron cultivation can expand India's
agro-export portfolio, improving foreign exchange earnings.
o Eg: India’s saffron exports reached ₹111 crore in 2023, with potential growth
from Northeast regions (Source: Spices Board India).

Conclusion

Strategic agricultural diversification through saffron cultivation can unlock the Northeast's
economic potential while promoting sustainable growth. Leveraging scientific research and
regional branding will be crucial to ensuring long-term success.

Q. Evaluate the impact of contract farming models on smallholder farmers in

India. How does the burden of production risks and cost deductions undermine
their economic stability? Propose alternative frameworks for better income
security. (15 M)

Introduction

Contract farming has emerged as a key mechanism to integrate smallholder farmers into
organized value chains. While it offers benefits such as assured market access, it also imposes
economic vulnerabilities through unfair practices and risk transfer mechanisms.

Body

Impact of contract farming models on smallholder farmers in India

A.Positive Impact

1. Assured market access: Provides guaranteed procurement, reducing the uncertainties

of traditional markets.
o Eg: PepsiCo’s potato contract farming in West Bengal ensures stable prices
for farmers.
2. Input support and technology transfer: Companies provide quality seeds,
fertilizers, and veterinary support, improving productivity.
o Eg: Karnataka’s maize contract farming improved yields by 20% (Source:
ICAR, 2023).
3. Reduced price volatility: Pre-agreed prices mitigate market fluctuations, ensuring
income predictability.

42
 o Eg: AMUL's contract milk farming stabilizes prices for dairy farmers.
4. Better farm management practices: Training and advisory services enhance
efficiency and disease control.
o Eg: Bayer’s cotton contract farming in Gujarat improved pest control
outcomes.

B.Negative Impact

1. Limited bargaining power: Farmers often lack influence in contract negotiations,

reducing their autonomy.
o Eg: Poultry contract farmers in Tamil Nadu faced poor returns despite low
mortality rates (Source: CSE Report, 2024).
2. Exploitative cost deductions: Companies deduct input costs heavily, diminishing net
returns.
o Eg: Broiler farmers in Haryana received less than 10% of final sale
proceeds (Source: Central University of Haryana Study, 2023).
3. Production risk burden: Losses due to disease, weather, or market shocks are
disproportionately borne by farmers.
o Eg: Contract tomato farmers in Andhra Pradesh faced losses after
companies rejected produce due to size discrepancies.
4. Delayed payments and procurement issues: Payment delays and selective
procurement destabilize farmer incomes.
o Eg: Contract farmers in Maharashtra’s onion belt experienced 60-day
payment delays in 2023 (Source: NABARD).

How production risks and cost deductions undermine economic stability

1. Non-transparent pricing models: Companies control input costs and sale prices,
limiting farmers' understanding of their actual profits.
o Eg: In contract poultry farming, 80% of sales value goes to the agency,
leaving minimal gains for farmers (Source: CSE Study, 2023).
2. Unfair cost-sharing mechanisms: Farmers bear the brunt of mortality rates, input
inefficiencies, and rejected produce.
o Eg: Cotton contract farmers in Telangana reported heavy deductions for
unsatisfactory produce in 2022.
3. Inadequate insurance coverage: Production risks such as crop failure or livestock
mortality are often excluded from coverage.
o Eg: Contract shrimp farmers in Odisha faced losses when disease
outbreaks were not covered under insurance in 2023.
4. Loss of alternative income opportunities: Exclusivity clauses in contracts restrict
farmers from diversifying income sources.
o Eg: Sugarcane contract farmers in Uttar Pradesh faced legal action for
selling outside contract terms (Source: Centre for Policy Research, 2023).

43
Alternative frameworks for better income security

1. Fair pricing models with cost transparency: Mandating transparent pricing and
clear cost-sharing mechanisms through legal safeguards.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Farmers' Protection Act, 2022 mandates pre-agreed cost-
sharing terms.
2. Risk-sharing mechanisms: Ensuring production risks are distributed between
companies and farmers to reduce vulnerability.
o Eg: Maharashtra's grape farming model includes joint responsibility for
disease outbreaks.
3. Strengthening farmer collectives: Promoting Farmer Producer Organizations
(FPOs) to enhance bargaining power and improve contract terms.
o Eg: Bihar’s Srijan FPO successfully negotiated better prices for contract
maize growers in 2023.
4. Robust grievance redressal mechanisms: Establishing dedicated platforms for
contract dispute resolution to safeguard farmer interests.
o Eg: Rajasthan’s Contract Farming Monitoring Committee ensures prompt
dispute resolution under state supervision.

Conclusion

For contract farming to become a sustainable model for smallholders, it must combine
productivity-enhancing practices with equitable risk-sharing and fair trade principles.
Strengthening legal frameworks and empowering farmer organizations can help bridge this
gap.

Q. Why is dependence on a few major crops problematic for global agricultural

systems? Analyse the role of policy and market forces in driving this trend. (10
M)

Introduction
Crop diversity is nature’s insurance policy for food security. The narrowing of agricultural
systems to a handful of crops undermines resilience and long-term sustainability in a
warming and uncertain world.

Body

Dependence on a few major crops is problematic for global agriculture

1. Increased vulnerability to climate shocks: Uniform crops respond poorly to extreme

weather variability and emerging pests.
o Eg: Global maize yield losses during 2022 heatwaves in USA and Europe
showed 15–20% drop (FAO, 2023).
2. Decline in nutritional diversity: Over-reliance on a few staples reduces dietary
micronutrient intake.
44
 o Eg: Rice-wheat dominance in India contributes to widespread iron and
zinc deficiencies (NFHS-5, 2021).
3. Accelerated genetic erosion: Traditional and indigenous crop varieties get displaced
rapidly.
o Eg: FAO SoW3 Report (2025): Over 50% of farmers’ varieties in India’s
agroecological zones are threatened.
4. Greater systemic risks in global trade: Disruptions in a few commodities cause
food price volatility.
o Eg: Russia-Ukraine wheat crisis (2022) triggered global food inflation due
to monocrop export dependencies.
5. Ecological degradation: Monocultures deplete soil nutrients and increase water use.
o Eg: Soybean monocropping in Brazil’s Cerrado led to soil exhaustion and
aquifer depletion (WWF, 2022).

Role of policy and market forces in driving crop concentration

1. Subsidy-driven crop choice: Government incentives favour certain high-yield crops

over diverse systems.
o Eg: India’s MSP regime skews production toward rice and wheat, reducing
coarse grains and pulses (Shanta Kumar Committee).
2. Agro-industry preferences: Food processing and export sectors demand
standardised, uniform raw materials.
o Eg: Global demand for refined wheat and maize drives contract farming
models (UNCTAD, 2022).
3. Seed market consolidation: A few corporations dominate global seed supply with
focus on cash crops.
o Eg: Bayer-Monsanto control over hybrid seeds limits availability of
traditional varieties.
4. Trade liberalisation and global value chains: Emphasis on export competitiveness
favours select crops.
o Eg: Oil palm expansion in Southeast Asia is driven by FTA-linked demand
from EU and China.
5. Weak institutional support for indigenous crops: Lack of R&D and extension
services for minor crops hampers farmer adoption.
o Eg: Neglect of millets before National Year of Millets 2023 led to reduced
area under cultivation.

Conclusion
To reverse crop homogenisation, governments must incentivise agro-biodiversity, invest in
research on underutilised crops, and ensure localised seed systems. Aligning market
policies with ecological needs will be key to building a resilient and nutrition-secure future.

45
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum
support prices
Q. Assess the role of India’s agricultural credit system in mitigating climate
risks. Evaluate the effectiveness of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and Modified
Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) in addressing farmer distress. Highlight key
implementation challenges. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s agricultural credit system plays a crucial role in ensuring financial stability for
farmers facing climate risks by offering timely credit, interest subventions, and restructuring
support. However, gaps in implementation and accessibility continue to challenge its
effectiveness.

Body

Role of agricultural credit system in mitigating climate risks

1. Timely access to credit: Ensures farmers can invest in climate-resilient seeds,

irrigation, and technology.
o Eg: The Kisan Rin Portal streamlines credit access for 1.89 lakh bank
branches (2023).
2. Concessional interest rates: Lower interest rates enable farmers to adopt climate-
resilient inputs.
o Eg: The Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) offers 4% effective
interest rates for timely repayments.
3. Restructuring for climate shocks: Crop loan restructuring reduces repayment
burden after natural disasters.
o Eg: Post-Cyclone Fani (2019), Odisha farmers availed restructured crop
loans.
4. Support for climate-smart infrastructure: Enables investment in renewable energy,
precision agriculture, and solar irrigation.
o Eg: PM-KUSUM promotes decentralized solar installations for irrigation.
5. Facilitating crop insurance integration: Credit-linked insurance ensures farmers
recover losses due to extreme weather.
o Eg: Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) covers farmers with
active KCC loans.

Impact of KCC-MISS and restructured crop loans in reducing farmer distress

1. Lower debt burden: Interest subvention and repayment incentives reduce financial
strain.
o Eg: MISS lowers interest rates to 4% for prompt-paying farmers.

46
 2. Post-disaster relief: Restructured loans prevent farmers from falling into distress
cycles.
o Eg: In 2021, post-Maharashtra floods, crop loans were restructured for over
1 lakh farmers.
3. Increased working capital: Flexible loan structures ensure farmers can sustain agri-
operations despite uncertainties.
o Eg: The Agri Infrastructure Fund (AIF) offers loans for decentralized
storage and logistics.
4. Encouragement of digital credit tools: Digital platforms enhance credit access in
vulnerable regions.
o Eg: Platforms like ITC MAARS streamline KCC loan disbursement.
5. Financial literacy and awareness: Schemes integrate awareness programs to educate
farmers about credit safety nets.
o Eg: RBI's Financial Literacy Week 2023 emphasized credit literacy in rural
areas.

Key challenges in implementation

1. Limited institutional penetration: Remote and tribal areas often lack banking
infrastructure.
o Eg: According to NABARD (2023), only 26% of small farmers access
institutional credit.
2. Complex documentation process: Lengthy paperwork deters small and marginal
farmers.
o Eg: Despite the Kisan Rin Portal, illiterate farmers face procedural
challenges.
3. Delays in disaster relief approvals: Farmers face delays in crop loan restructuring
during disasters.
o Eg: In Uttarakhand (2021), delayed loan restructuring worsened farmer
distress.
4. Lack of awareness among farmers: Many small farmers are unaware of credit-
linked insurance or PRI benefits.
o Eg: Studies by the NITI Aayog (2022) highlight gaps in rural credit
awareness.
5. Political interference and loan waivers: Frequent loan waivers discourage timely
repayments.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh farm loan waiver (2018) impacted banking discipline.

Conclusion

Strengthening rural credit infrastructure, streamlining digital credit access, and ensuring
timely restructuring approvals are vital for improving India’s agricultural credit system’s
resilience to climate risks. Sustainable credit mechanisms, coupled with awareness drives,
can secure long-term farmer welfare.

47
Public Distribution System- objectives, functioning, limitations,
revamping; issues of bufferstocks and food security; Technology
missions; economics of animal-rearing.
Q. Light fishing has emerged as a major threat to India’s coastal marine
ecosystems. Analyse its cascading impact on the marine food chain. Suggest
policy-level interventions to promote sustainable and equitable fishing practices.
(15 M)

Introduction
Unregulated light fishing is not just a violation of sustainable practices—it represents an
ecological flashpoint, rapidly altering marine food dynamics and deepening socio-economic
disparities.

Body

Light fishing as a major threat to coastal marine ecosystems

1. Disruption of circadian rhythms: Artificial lights interfere with natural light cycles
affecting fish movement and spawning.
 Eg: CMFRI (2018) reported altered spawning behaviour in Malabar Coast
species due to light-induced stress.
2. Juvenile stock depletion: High-powered lights attract and trap juvenile fish
indiscriminately, affecting population regeneration.
 Eg: Fisheries Journal (2016) noted up to 60% juvenile catch in squid
fisheries in Andhra waters due to LED fishing.
3. Coral reef stress: Light-induced sediment disturbance and trawling disrupt fragile
coral reef zones.
 Eg: NIOT (2023) flagged coral bleaching patterns near Gulf of Mannar,
partly due to LED-driven mechanised fishing.
4. Bycatch and waste increase: Light fishing results in significant non-target species
being caught and discarded.
 Eg: CMFRI data (2022) showed a 35% rise in bycatch waste in light-
intensive zones of Karnataka.
5. Marginalisation of artisanal fishers: Traditional fishers face depleted catches,
triggering economic insecurity and migration.
 Eg: All India Fishermen Federation (2024) reported a 20–25% income
drop among traditional fishers in Kollam, Kerala.

Cascading impact on the marine food chain

1. Squid population collapse: As a keystone species, squid depletion affects multiple

predator species.

48
  Eg: Malpe Trawl Boat Association (2025) noted reduced tuna and shark
catches due to declining squid availability.
2. Predator starvation: Light-fishing concentrates fish availability at night, depriving
daytime predators of access.
 Eg: ICAR-CMFRI (2022) observed population dips in mackerel and
barracuda in LED-fishing zones of Tamil Nadu.
3. Altered inter-species dynamics: Disproportionate capture of certain species disrupts
predator-prey balance.
 Eg: Kerala University Marine Ecology Study (2023) flagged increasing
jellyfish blooms due to depletion of their natural predators.
4. Trophic level disruption: Removal of forage fish impacts entire food chains, from
seabirds to large carnivores.
 Eg: WWF-India (2021) highlighted rising starvation-related seabird
mortality in Lakshadweep due to forage fish scarcity.
5. Fisheries stock imbalance: Continuous overexploitation leads to species shift and
stock collapse.
 Eg: FAO India Review (2022) showed decline in commercially important
pelagic species replaced by invasive or less-valued species.

Policy-level interventions for sustainable and equitable fishing

1. Nationwide LED ban enforcement: Uniform implementation of 2017 EEZ ban with
legal clarity across all state waters.
 Eg: Gujarat (2023) enacted complete ban with Coast Guard assistance,
setting a replicable model.
2. Integrated surveillance systems: Use of AIS, satellite data, and community-based
monitoring for real-time tracking.
 Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Fisheries Department (2024) piloted drone surveillance
with Coast Guard coordination in Rameswaram.
3. Eco-sensitive fishing subsidies: Redirecting subsidies towards solar-powered boats,
deep-sea gear, and non-destructive nets.
 Eg: Blue Revolution Scheme (MoFAH) supports gear replacement in
Karnataka’s Gangolli village.
4. Strengthening community institutions: Empower coastal cooperatives and fisher
federations for decentralised governance.
 Eg: Udupi’s Baindoor Cooperative Society (2025) trained to report violators
through a mobile monitoring app.
5. Legal reforms and deterrents: Amendments in Marine Fishing Regulation Acts to
increase fines and prosecute repeat violations.
 Eg: Karnataka’s 2025 ordinance increased fines to Rs 1 lakh and enabled
equipment confiscation for second-time violators.

49
Conclusion
Without urgent course correction, India risks triggering an irreversible ecological collapse. A
future-ready marine policy must blend technology, local governance, and stringent
enforcement to ensure both ecological resilience and fisher welfare.

Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and

significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements,
supply chain management.
Land reforms in India.
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial
policy and their effects on industrial growth.
Q. Identify the key vulnerabilities in India's pharmaceutical supply chain.
Evaluate the impact of government policies in strengthening domestic
production. Suggest strategic measures to enhance India’s position in global
pharmaceutical markets. (15 M)

Introduction

India, known as the "Pharmacy of the World," faces critical supply chain vulnerabilities,
especially in Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), logistics inefficiencies, and
regulatory bottlenecks. Addressing these gaps is crucial for self-reliance and global
leadership.

Body

Key vulnerabilities in India's pharmaceutical supply chain

1. High import dependence on APIs: Over 65% of APIs are imported, mainly from
China, making India vulnerable to external disruptions.
o Eg: COVID-19 lockdown in China (2020) led to API shortages and
increased drug prices in India. (Source: Commerce Ministry, 2023)
2. Inadequate bulk drug manufacturing capacity: Limited domestic API parks and
fermentation-based API production impact self-sufficiency.
o Eg: India imports 90% of Penicillin G, a key antibiotic component. (Source:
CDSCO, 2024)
3. Logistics and cold chain inefficiencies: Poor transport infrastructure, high
turnaround time at ports, and lack of cold storage affect the pharmaceutical supply
chain.
o Eg: Indian ports' average turnaround time is 2.6 days, compared to less
than a day in Singapore. (Source: Economic Survey, 2023)
4. Regulatory hurdles and compliance delays: Lack of harmonization with global
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) increases compliance costs and delays
approvals.

50
 o Eg: In 2023, WHO flagged over 10 Indian pharma firms for non-
compliance with GMP. (Source: WHO Report, 2023)
5. Limited investment in R&D and innovation: Less than 0.1% of the GDP is spent
on pharmaceutical R&D, restricting high-value drug development.
o Eg: India holds only 1.5% of global pharmaceutical patents, compared to
China’s 6.8%. (Source: WIPO, 2024)

Impact of government policies in strengthening domestic production

1. Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for APIs: Incentivizes domestic API

and KSM (Key Starting Materials) manufacturing to reduce dependence on China.
o Eg: PLI scheme (2020-2024) allocated ₹15,000 crore, leading to 35 new API
plants. (Source: Department of Pharmaceuticals, 2024)
2. Bulk Drug Parks initiative: Establishing three mega bulk drug parks to enable
cost-effective domestic production.
o Eg: Approved parks in Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh
under ₹3,000 crore scheme. (Source: NITI Aayog, 2023)
3. Pharma Vision 2020 and new drug policy: Focuses on ease of regulatory
approvals, price rationalization, and industry support.
o Eg: New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules (2019) fast-tracked approvals for
domestic drug development. (Source: CDSCO, 2024)
4. National Health Mission’s role in demand aggregation: Strengthening the public
procurement system for essential medicines to boost local manufacturing.
o Eg: Jan Aushadhi Kendras have distributed affordable generics to over 50
crore people. (Source: Health Ministry, 2024)
5. Biopharma and vaccine ecosystem development: Encouraging vaccine R&D and
bulk manufacturing, making India a global leader.
o Eg: India supplied over 250 million COVID-19 vaccine doses under Vaccine
Maitri Initiative. (Source: MEA, 2024)

Measures to enhance India’s position in global pharmaceutical markets

1. Strengthening API self-sufficiency: Expanding domestic API and intermediate

production through tax benefits, R&D incentives, and reduced input costs.
o Eg: China’s API dominance (70%) can be countered with long-term API
industrial parks. (Source: Katoch Committee Report, 2022)
2. Harmonizing regulations with global standards: Aligning with US FDA, EMA,
and WHO GMP to ensure global market acceptability.
o Eg: India-EU Trade Talks (2024) included pharma regulatory alignment for
better export access. (Source: Ministry of Commerce, 2024)
3. Boosting high-value pharma innovation and R&D: Increasing pharma R&D
spending through public-private partnerships and academia collaboration.
o Eg: Biocon and IISc partnership (2024) for biosimilar innovation. (Source:
Biocon Annual Report, 2024)
4. Expanding global trade partnerships: Strengthening bilateral trade agreements
for better export penetration, especially in Africa and Latin America.
o Eg: India-Mercosur Trade Agreement (2023) included pharma tariff
reductions. (Source: EXIM Bank, 2024)
5. Leveraging digital health and AI for drug discovery: Promoting AI-driven drug
trials, blockchain in pharma supply chains, and telemedicine exports.

51
 o Eg: AI-driven drug discovery by Tata Consultancy Services (2024)
reduced R&D timelines by 30%. (Source: NASSCOM, 2024)

Conclusion

India's pharmaceutical sector is at a critical juncture where domestic resilience, global

regulatory alignment, and innovation-driven growth are essential. A proactive policy
approach, increased investments in R&D, and global partnerships can establish India as
the undisputed leader in the global pharmaceutical industry.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Q. The Oilfield (Regulatory and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024 addresses
critical investor concerns while ensuring India's energy security. Examine. (10
M)

Introduction

The Oilfield (Regulatory and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024 introduces key reforms to
streamline exploration processes and boost investment, while aligning with India's energy
security goals amid rising crude oil imports and volatile global energy markets.

Body

Measures addressing critical investor concerns

1. Single permit system for petroleum leases: Replacing multiple licenses with a
unified permit system enhances operational clarity and reduces bureaucratic delays.
o Eg: The Bill’s “petroleum lease” allows exploration, prospecting, and
production under one framework.
2. Enhanced dispute resolution mechanisms: The introduction of an Appellate
Tribunal under PNGRB ensures faster resolution of contractual and royalty
disputes.
o Eg: Inspired by the Electricity Act, 2003 model, ensuring expeditious
resolution.
3. Stable and predictable legal framework: Clearer guidelines on lease tenures,
merging petroleum leases, and environmental norms ensure greater investor
confidence.
o Eg: The Bill simplifies lease extension processes to avoid sudden revocations.
4. Infrastructure and resource sharing provisions: Allowing operators to share
pipelines, storage facilities, and processing units reduces investment risks.
o Eg: This directly addresses the viability concerns faced by small operators
under the Discovered Small Fields Policy (2015).
5. Decriminalization of minor offences: Replacing imprisonment with financial
penalties ensures investor-friendly compliance mechanisms.

52
 o Eg: Penalties capped at ₹25 lakh and ₹10 lakh per day for continued
infractions.
6. Encouragement of new technologies: Provisions for Carbon Capture Utilization
and Sequestration (CCUS) and Green Hydrogen adoption create long-term
investment opportunities.
o Eg: Aligns with India's National Hydrogen Mission goals.

Measures ensuring India's energy security

1. Expanded definition of mineral oils: Inclusion of shale oil/gas, coal bed methane,
and hydrocarbons boosts domestic output.
o Eg: India’s estimated reserves include 651.8 million tonnes of crude oil and
1,138.6 BCM of natural gas.
2. Opening of 'No-Go' areas: Allowing exploration in previously restricted zones
expands India’s energy footprint.
o Eg: The latest bidding round covered 1.36 lakh sq km, including missile
testing sites.
3. Reduction in import dependency: By incentivizing domestic production, the Bill
reduces India's vulnerability to global price shocks.
o Eg: India's import dependency exceeds 85% for crude oil (Source: MoPNG,
2024).
4. Strengthened enforcement mechanism: Increased penalties for environmental and
safety violations enhance accountability.
o Eg: Introduction of mandatory safety audits and real-time IoT monitoring
systems.
5. Environmental safeguards and emission controls: New obligations for emission
reduction balance energy expansion with sustainability.
o Eg: Aligns with India’s Net Zero by 2070 target and Paris Agreement goals.
6. Focus on energy transition: Provisions for alternate energy sources encourage
gradual decarbonization without compromising energy security.
o Eg: Adoption of Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) methods to boost efficiency
in aging oil fields.

Conclusion

The Oilfield Amendment Bill, 2024 reflects a strategic shift towards balancing investor
confidence with India's energy security imperatives. By promoting regulatory clarity,
technological innovation, and environmental safeguards, the Bill lays the foundation for a
resilient and future-ready energy sector.

53
Q. The rapid expansion of renewable energy without corresponding storage
capacity has heightened grid instability risks in India. Discuss the implications of
this for power security. Suggest viable policy interventions to mitigate this
challenge. (15 M)

Introduction

India's aggressive push for renewable energy, while crucial for sustainability, has
inadvertently created grid instability risks due to the lack of adequate energy storage
systems (ESS). This imbalance poses significant risks to energy security, particularly during
peak demand periods.

Body

Rapid expansion of renewable energy without storage has heightened grid instability
risks

1. Intermittent supply patterns: Renewable sources like solar and wind are weather-
dependent, causing unpredictable fluctuations in energy generation.
o Eg: February 2025 - Unseasonal cloud cover over North India led to a sharp
dip in solar generation, risking grid failure.
2. Mismatch in demand-supply patterns: Solar peaks in the afternoon, but demand
surges in the evening, creating a gap during non-solar hours.
o Eg: India’s peak demand crossed 250 GW in 2024-25, with an anticipated
shortfall of 15-20 GW in non-solar hours.
3. Inadequate baseload support: The scaling down of thermal power expansion since
2016 has limited the capacity to meet evening demand surges.
o Eg: Thermal capacity grew only 7% since 2019-20, leading to reduced
flexibility.
4. Lack of robust grid management systems: The absence of real-time frequency
control mechanisms exacerbates grid instability risks.
o Eg: The National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) warned of a 31% LOLP
(Loss of Load Probability) in May 2025.

Implications of this for power security

1. Frequent load shedding: Increasing supply-demand imbalances force load shedding

during peak periods, impacting both residential and industrial consumers.
o Eg: In Punjab (May 2024), severe load shedding occurred due to insufficient
backup capacity.
2. Threat to economic productivity: Power shortages disrupt industries, impacting
manufacturing, IT, and essential services.
o Eg: Power cuts in Madhya Pradesh (July 2024) resulted in downtime for
several factories.

54
 3. Increased reliance on costly alternatives: The absence of sufficient storage forces
utilities to rely on expensive imported coal-based plants.
o Eg: Section 11 of the Electricity Act, 2003 invoked in March 2024 to
mandate imported coal plants to operate at higher capacities.
4. Grid collapse risks: Sudden frequency fluctuations can trigger cascading failures,
endangering national energy security.
o Eg: India's near-miss grid failure in February 2025 due to sudden solar dip.
5. Environmental trade-offs: Overdependence on quick-start diesel generators or
imported coal plants undermines India’s Net Zero 2070 commitments.
o Eg: Emergency deployment of diesel generators in Delhi during the May
2023 power crisis.

Viable policy interventions to mitigate this challenge

1. Accelerated deployment of battery energy storage systems (BESS): Fast-tracking

BESS tenders with fiscal incentives can bridge the renewable-storage gap.
o Eg: The CEA’s 2025-26 plan includes adding 13 GWh of BESS capacity.
2. Strengthening pumped storage plants (PSP): Fast-tracking PSP development offers
a viable long-term solution for managing renewable intermittency.
o Eg: The upcoming 7.3 GWh PSP in Himachal Pradesh is projected to
enhance grid stability.
3. Flexible thermal generation policies: Introducing incentive mechanisms for
flexible coal plants to scale operations during peak demand.
o Eg: The National Electricity Plan (2022-27) recommends upgrading aging
thermal units for enhanced ramping ability.
4. Enhanced demand-side management (DSM): Promoting time-of-day (ToD) tariffs
and incentives for energy efficiency can reduce evening peak demand.
o Eg: Delhi’s ToD tariff scheme (2023) successfully reduced peak load by
12% during high-demand periods.
5. Decentralized renewable integration: Expanding distributed solar with localized
battery systems in industrial and residential sectors can stabilize the grid.
o Eg: The Kerala Solar Rooftop Model successfully improved local energy
reliability.

Conclusion

India’s transition to a renewable-driven grid must prioritize energy storage expansion,

flexible generation policies, and enhanced grid infrastructure. A balanced strategy combining
innovation, regulation, and investment is essential to achieve sustainable energy security.

55
Investment models.
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and
effects in everyday life.
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization
of technology and developing new technology.
Q. Despite India’s efforts to enhance domestic defense manufacturing, its status
as the second-largest arms importer persists. Critically examine the obstacles
hindering India's self-reliance in defense production. Suggest policy measures to
address these challenges. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s persistent reliance on arms imports, despite extensive defense manufacturing

initiatives, highlights systemic challenges requiring targeted reforms for achieving true self-
reliance.

Body

Efforts by India to enhance domestic defence manufacturing

1. Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020: Prioritizes indigenous design,

development, and manufacturing under the 'Make in India' initiative.
o Eg: Pinaka Missile System and Dhanush Artillery Gun developed under
indigenous design categories.
2. Positive Indigenization Lists: Ministry of Defence identified 509 items for phased
import ban to promote local production.
o Eg: Light Combat Helicopter (LCH Prachand) developed by HAL.
3. Strategic Partnership Model: Enables collaboration between Indian private firms
and foreign OEMs for advanced technology transfer.
o Eg: Tata Advanced Systems manufacturing parts for Boeing Apache
helicopters.
4. Defence Industrial Corridors (DICs): Established in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu to promote industrial growth and supply chain development.
o Eg: Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) setting up missile assembly units in
DICs.
5. Innovation for Defence Excellence (iDEX): Supports startups and MSMEs in
developing innovative defense technologies.
o Eg: Development of AI-based surveillance systems by Indian tech firms.

Obstacles hindering India's self-reliance in defence production

56
 1. Technological dependence: India still lacks expertise in critical technologies such as
jet engines, avionics, and missile guidance systems.
o Eg: India continues to rely on General Electric (GE) engines for LCA Tejas.
2. Inadequate R&D Investment: India’s R&D spending on defense is only 6% of the
total defense budget, far below global benchmarks.
o Source: SIPRI Report 2025.
3. Bureaucratic delays: Complex procurement processes and excessive approvals delay
crucial defense projects.
o Eg: Delays in finalizing the Project 75I submarine deal.
4. Limited private sector role: Despite reforms, private players struggle to meet the
capital-intensive nature of defense manufacturing.
o Eg: Dependence on HAL for most aviation-related projects.
5. Import dependency for components: Critical sub-systems like sensors, avionics,
and radars continue to be sourced from foreign vendors.
o Eg: S-400 Triumf system imported from Russia.

Policy measures to address these challenges

1. Enhanced R&D investment: Allocate 10% of the defense budget for research and
technology development.
o Eg: Increased DRDO funding for indigenous Hypersonic Technology
Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV).
2. Strengthening private sector participation: Offer production-linked incentives
(PLI) and tax benefits to boost private investments.
o Eg: Expansion of L&T’s role in missile systems and naval platforms.
3. Fast-tracking procurement process: Streamline procurement mechanisms under
Defence Procurement Policy (DPP) with fixed timelines.
o Eg: Introduction of Fast Track Procurement (FTP) for urgent defense
needs.
4. Capacity building in critical technologies: Establish partnerships with global firms
to develop domestic expertise in key defense technologies.
o Eg: India’s collaboration with Safran (France) to develop indigenous jet
engines.
5. Localization of component manufacturing: Encourage domestic firms to develop
high-end components like sensors, radars, and communication systems.
o Eg: Indigenous development of the Uttam AESA radar for fighter jets.

Conclusion

Achieving self-reliance in defence manufacturing requires strategic investments, streamlined

policies, and greater industry-military cooperation. By fostering innovation and strengthening
indigenous capabilities, India can reduce its import dependency and emerge as a global
defence manufacturing hub.

57
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-
technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual
property rights.
Q. Describe the key features and objectives of NASA’s PUNCH mission.
Compare its scope with other solar missions, including Aditya L1 and Proba-3.
Discuss how advancements in solar observation technologies can contribute to
space exploration. (15 M)

Introduction

The Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission by NASA aims
to provide unprecedented insights into solar wind and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
With increasing solar activity, missions like Aditya L1, Proba-3, and PUNCH are crucial
for space weather forecasting and interplanetary travel safety.

Body

Key features and objectives of NASA’s PUNCH mission

1. Multi-satellite constellation: PUNCH consists of four small satellites that work

together to create a continuous panoramic view of the solar corona and
heliosphere.
o Eg: It will provide a 360-degree observational framework to track solar
winds and CMEs in real time.
2. Coronal and heliospheric imaging: The mission uses polarized imaging
techniques to observe how the solar corona transitions into the solar wind.
o Eg: This will improve understanding of how solar material moves from the
Sun to interplanetary space.
3. Real-time space weather monitoring: PUNCH will study CMEs and their impact
on Earth's magnetosphere, aiding in early warning systems for geomagnetic
storms.
o Eg: It will help predict satellite disruptions, power grid failures, and
communication blackouts.
4. Compact, cost-effective technology: Unlike large observatories, PUNCH uses small
satellites, making it cost-efficient and adaptable for future solar missions.
o Eg: NASA emphasizes small-satellite technology for affordable deep-space
observation missions.
5. Solar wind acceleration studies: The mission will study how charged particles
from the Sun gain speed, improving knowledge about solar wind’s interaction
with planetary atmospheres.
o Eg: This is crucial for protecting astronauts and spacecraft in deep space
missions.

58
Comparison with Aditya L1 and Proba-3

1. Mission scope and scientific focus: While PUNCH focuses on the heliosphere and
solar wind, Aditya L1 studies the Sun’s corona, and Proba-3 specializes in high-
resolution solar imaging.
o Eg: Aditya L1 aims to observe the Sun’s outer layers, while Proba-3
performs precise shadow experiments for eclipse-like observations.
2. Orbital positioning: PUNCH orbits near Earth for a wide-angle heliospheric view,
whereas Aditya L1 is positioned at the Lagrange Point (L1) for continuous solar
observations.
o Eg: Proba-3, a European Space Agency (ESA) mission, uses a formation-
flying technique to create an artificial eclipse for studying the corona.
3. Technology and instrumentation: PUNCH uses polarized light imaging, Aditya
L1 is equipped with SUIT and VELC instruments for coronal studies, and Proba-3
deploys precision-controlled spacecraft for eclipse simulations.
o Eg: Aditya L1’s SUIT instrument studies ultraviolet radiation, while
Proba-3’s coronagraph blocks direct sunlight for detailed observations.
4. Impact on space weather prediction: PUNCH contributes to tracking solar storms;
Aditya L1 focuses on magnetic field measurements; and Proba-3 provides high-
contrast corona imaging.
o Eg: Together, these missions complement each other to improve space
weather forecasting.
5. International collaboration and funding: NASA funds PUNCH, ISRO leads Aditya
L1, and ESA manages Proba-3, showcasing global scientific cooperation.
o Eg: Joint efforts like ESA-NASA’s Solar Orbiter further improve our
understanding of solar physics.

Contribution of solar observation technologies to space exploration

1. Enhanced astronaut safety: Advanced solar monitoring helps predict harmful

radiation bursts, allowing better shielding strategies for deep-space missions.
o Eg: NASA’s Artemis missions and future Mars missions rely on solar
activity forecasts to protect astronauts.
2. Improved spacecraft durability: Studying solar storms aids in designing radiation-
resistant spacecraft components, enhancing interplanetary mission longevity.
o Eg: ESA’s BepiColombo mission to Mercury integrates solar storm
protection technologies.
3. Precision navigation and propulsion: Understanding solar wind interactions helps
develop solar sail technologies and improves spacecraft trajectory planning.
o Eg: NASA’s Parker Solar Probe provides key data on solar wind pressures
affecting spacecraft movement.
4. Space weather forecasting for planetary exploration: Missions like PUNCH
enable better prediction of solar radiation storms, crucial for safe landing on
Mars and the Moon.

59
 o Eg: Mars rovers and orbiters require real-time solar storm tracking to
prevent electronic malfunctions.
5. Deep-space communication resilience: Studying coronal mass ejections helps
protect deep-space communication systems from solar interference.
o Eg: NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) incorporates space weather alerts
for uninterrupted operations.

Conclusion

Missions like PUNCH, Aditya L1, and Proba-3 are revolutionizing solar physics,
enhancing our preparedness for solar storms and deep-space travel. With continuous
advancements in solar observation technologies, humanity is moving closer to safe and
efficient interplanetary exploration.

Q. The success of India's AI ecosystem hinges on shared compute resources and

indigenous datasets. Discuss the significance of pooled Graphics Processing Unit
(GPU) access and localized datasets in building AI models. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s AI ambitions require high-performance computing infrastructure and contextually

relevant data to develop robust AI models. The AI Kosha platform and IndiaAI Mission
aim to bridge these gaps by enhancing shared compute capacity and expanding
indigenous datasets.

Body

Significance of pooled Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) access

1. Bridging compute infrastructure gap – GPUs are essential for AI training, but 85%
of Indian startups lack access to high-end computational resources (NASSCOM,
2024).
o Eg: AI Kosha has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for shared access under
IndiaAI Mission.
2. Cost-effective AI model training – Private GPU access costs ₹600-₹1000 per
hour, making AI innovation costly for startups and academia.
o Eg: The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) has already reduced AI
research costs by providing shared compute resources.
3. Enabling AI research and innovation – Shared GPU clusters support LLMs,
generative AI, and deep learning models, fostering homegrown AI solutions.
o Eg: The Bhashini Mission uses pooled compute resources for Indian
language AI models.
4. Reducing dependency on foreign AI infrastructure – Currently, Indian firms rely
on Google’s TPUs, NVIDIA’s GPUs, and AWS cloud computing, leading to data
security concerns.
60
 o Eg: The Semiconductor Mission (₹76,000 crore outlay) aims to create
India’s own AI chip ecosystem.
5. Supporting strategic sectors – AI-driven innovations in defense, healthcare, and
climate modeling require high-performance GPUs for real-time processing.
o Eg: The National AI Portal supports AI applications in agriculture and
weather forecasting.

Significance of localized datasets in building AI models

1. Improving AI accuracy and bias reduction – AI models trained on foreign

datasets struggle with Indian linguistic, cultural, and demographic diversity.
o Eg: IndicNLP Dataset helps fine-tune AI models for 22 Indian languages.
2. Enhancing AI applications in governance – AI-driven policy insights, urban
planning, and digital governance require datasets tailored to Indian socio-
economic conditions.
o Eg: Aadhaar data analytics is used for direct benefit transfer (DBT)
optimization.
3. Strengthening data sovereignty – Dependence on Google’s Common Crawl or
OpenAI datasets exposes India to data privacy risks.
o Eg: The 2023 Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDP Act) emphasizes
localized data processing.
4. Boosting AI adoption in non-English speaking communities – Over 90% of
Indians prefer non-English languages, requiring custom NLP models.
o Eg: The AI4Bharat initiative is developing Indian language translation
tools using localized datasets.
5. Facilitating sectoral AI growth – AI in healthcare, education, and agriculture
requires India-specific data for real-world applicability.
o Eg: The Telangana Open Data Initiative provides health and agriculture
datasets for AI model development.

Conclusion

India’s AI future depends on scalable computing resources and high-quality indigenous

datasets. The IndiaAI Mission’s focus on shared GPUs and localized data can accelerate
AI innovation and enhance India’s global AI competitiveness.

Q. Analyze the role of low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations in expanding

global internet coverage. Examine the challenges in deploying such services in
remote regions. Propose viable strategies to integrate these systems into India's
digital infrastructure.(15 M)

Introduction

61
LEO satellite constellations offer improved connectivity with low latency, making them a
vital tool for expanding internet access in underserved regions. Leveraging this technology
can enhance India's digital landscape.

Body

Role of low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations in expanding global internet

coverage

1. Enhanced coverage in remote areas: Operating at 550-1200 km, LEO satellites

provide internet connectivity in geographically isolated regions.
o Eg: SpaceX’s Starlink services remote parts of Alaska and Arctic regions.
2. Low latency communication: LEO satellites reduce latency to 20-40 ms, ensuring
seamless video calls and real-time data transfer.
o Eg: Amazon’s Project Kuiper targets low-latency broadband by 2026.
3. Disaster resilience: LEO satellites ensure uninterrupted communication during
disasters or network failures.
o Eg: LEO satellites supported connectivity during Hawaii’s wildfires (2023).
4. Maritime and aviation connectivity: LEO systems provide stable coverage for
ships, airlines, and offshore facilities.
o Eg: OneWeb’s tie-up with Bharti Airtel ensures stable maritime connectivity
in the Indian Ocean Region.
5. Scientific and environmental monitoring: LEO satellites provide data on climate
patterns, deforestation, and urban development.
o Eg: Planet Labs’ satellites track crop health and environmental changes in
real-time.

62
Challenges in deploying LEO satellite services in remote regions

1. High infrastructure costs: Building ground stations, maintaining satellite

constellations, and ensuring uptime demand significant investment.
o Eg: SpaceX’s Starlink deployment costs exceed $10 billion globally.
2. Import duties and equipment costs: LEO terminal devices are expensive, with
additional customs duties raising affordability concerns.
o Eg: Starlink kits in India may cost between ₹17,000 to ₹40,000 excluding
taxes.
3. Spectrum allocation disputes: Disagreement between telcos and satellite firms on
spectrum allocation delays deployment.
o Eg: Reliance Jio’s demand for auctioning spectrum in India slowed rollout in
2023.
4. Regulatory hurdles and security issues: Security clearances, data localization
norms, and monitoring laws hinder foreign satellite services.
o Eg: Starlink’s entry into India was delayed over security clearance concerns.
5. Space debris and orbital congestion: LEO constellations risk collisions and clutter
in space.
o Eg: In 2023, 30,000+ debris objects were identified by the European Space
Agency as a collision risk.

Strategies to integrate LEO satellite systems into India's digital infrastructure

1. Public-private partnerships (PPPs): Collaborating with private firms can reduce

costs and fast-track rural connectivity.
o Eg: Bharti Airtel’s partnership with OneWeb for remote connectivity in
Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh.
2. Subsidizing rural connectivity: Financial incentives for satellite firms can promote
affordable services in remote areas.
o Eg: Integration with BharatNet under Digital India to expand rural
broadband.
3. Localized ground station networks: Establishing domestic ground stations ensures
network stability and compliance with security norms.
o Eg: OneWeb’s station in Mehsana, Gujarat enhances coverage in western
India.
4. Strengthening regulatory frameworks: Clear guidelines for GMPCS licensing,
spectrum sharing, and data localization can streamline adoption.
o Eg: The Telecom Act, 2023 aims to simplify satellite licensing.
5. Integrating satellite services in disaster response: Linking satellite systems with
India’s NDMA can improve emergency communication.
o Eg: NDMA’s satellite integration aided relief efforts during Cyclone Tauktae
(2021).

Conclusion

63
LEO satellite constellations hold immense potential to bridge India’s digital divide. By
fostering investment, ensuring regulatory clarity, and integrating these systems with national
infrastructure, India can enhance connectivity in even its most remote regions.

Q. Discuss the significance of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) in

revolutionizing wearable biomedical devices. How can this technology contribute
to improved healthcare monitoring systems? (10 M)

Introduction

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) are emerging as a transformative innovation in

wearable biomedical devices due to their ability to efficiently harvest mechanical energy and
operate self-powered systems. Their integration has opened new avenues for remote
healthcare monitoring and personalized medical solutions.

Body

Significance of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) in wearable biomedical devices

1. Self-powered operation: TENG eliminates battery dependency by harvesting

mechanical energy from body movements.
o Eg: TENG-based sensors are integrated into prosthetic limbs for real-time
power generation in Japan's robotic prosthetics sector (2024).
2. Enhanced flexibility and comfort: TENG’s use of flexible organic single crystals
enables lightweight, skin-compatible devices.
o Eg: Flexible TENG sensors embedded in smart gloves for arthritis patients in
South Korea (2023).
3. Improved biocompatibility: Organic crystal-based TENG materials reduce the risk
of cytotoxic reactions in long-term use.

64
 o Eg: Biocompatible TENG-based patches for continuous glucose monitoring
by Stanford University (2024).
4. Real-time health tracking: TENG sensors provide continuous data on vital
parameters, enhancing early diagnosis.
o Eg: TENG-based heart rate and respiration monitors successfully tested at
Johns Hopkins University (2023).
5. Energy-efficient design: TENG devices are designed to operate in low-energy
environments, ideal for wearable healthcare solutions.
o Eg: TENG-powered hearing aids demonstrated by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2024.

Contribution of TENG to improved healthcare monitoring systems

1. Non-invasive monitoring solutions: TENG sensors enable contactless detection of

vital signs like heart rate, BP, and respiration.
o Eg: TENG-based contactless heart rate sensors piloted in AIIMS Delhi's
Cardiac ICU (2024).
2. Enhanced precision in movement tracking: TENG’s high sensitivity ensures
accurate joint motion tracking for physiotherapy and injury recovery.
o Eg: TENG-powered motion sensors adopted in Paralympic athlete training
programs in Tokyo (2023).
3. Smart prosthetics and assistive devices: TENG’s real-time feedback mechanism
improves prosthetic control for improved functionality.
o Eg: TENG-integrated smart prosthetics trialed in DRDO’s Artificial Limb
Centre in 2024.
4. Remote patient care solutions: TENG-powered devices support telemedicine
platforms by transmitting real-time patient data.
o Eg: TENG-based remote ECG monitors deployed in Kerala's rural
telemedicine program (2023).
5. Emergency and disaster care support: TENG devices ensure continuous
monitoring in power-deficient emergency environments.
o Eg: TENG-driven body sensors deployed in NDMA's post-earthquake relief
operations in 2023.

Conclusion

The integration of TENG technology with wearable biomedical devices has immense
potential to revolutionize healthcare monitoring, particularly in remote and underserved
regions. Future advancements in flexible materials and enhanced sensitivity will further boost
its adoption for personalized healthcare solutions.

65
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation,
environmental impact assessment.
Q. Coastal ecosystems are vulnerable to anthropogenic waste, impacting marine
biodiversity and livelihoods. Discuss the ecological consequences of poor waste
management along India’s coastlines and suggest sustainable clean-up models.
(15 M)

Introduction

India’s coastal ecosystems are critical for biodiversity, climate regulation, and
livelihoods, but waste mismanagement has severely impacted their sustainability.
Addressing this requires an integrated approach combining governance, community
participation, and technological interventions.

Body

Coastal ecosystems are vulnerable to anthropogenic waste, impacting marine

biodiversity and livelihoods

1. Marine biodiversity degradation: Plastic, chemical waste, and oil spills destroy
coral reefs, mangroves, and disrupt marine food chains, leading to species loss.
o Eg: Great Nicobar Coral Reefs (2023, NCSCM Study) reported coral
bleaching due to microplastic and chemical pollutants.

66
 2. Decline in fishery resources: Toxic waste and plastic ingestion reduce fish
populations, threatening the livelihood of coastal communities.
o Eg: CMFRI Report (2023) found microplastic contamination in 76% of
fish samples along Kerala’s coast.
3. Coastal erosion and loss of protective barriers: Waste-induced sediment imbalance
weakens mangroves and coastal dunes, increasing disaster vulnerability.
o Eg: Odisha’s coastline (2022, NCCR Report) recorded rapid mangrove
degradation due to plastic entanglement.
4. Health hazards for coastal communities: Contaminated seafood and polluted water
cause diseases like cholera, hepatitis, and heavy metal poisoning.
o Eg: Mithi River (Mumbai, 2024, NEERI Report) found high mercury levels
in fish, posing carcinogenic risks.
5. Economic decline in coastal tourism: Polluted beaches and degraded ecosystems
impact revenue from tourism, fisheries, and water sports.
o Eg: Goa’s beach cleanliness ranking (2023, NITI Aayog) declined due to
plastic accumulation and untreated waste.

Ecological consequences of poor waste management along India’s coastlines

1. Ocean acidification and toxic leaching: Industrial waste and plastic debris release
hazardous chemicals, altering seawater pH and harming marine life.
o Eg: Ennore Creek (Chennai, 2024, MoEFCC Study) found heavy metal
contamination increasing ocean acidity.
2. Destruction of coral reefs and seagrass ecosystems: Waste-induced algal blooms
block sunlight, disrupting marine breeding grounds.
o Eg: Gulf of Mannar (2023, ZSI Report) recorded a 30% decline in coral
cover due to plastic accumulation.
3. Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in food chains: Heavy metals and plastics
enter smaller marine organisms, reaching humans through seafood consumption.
o Eg: Olive Ridley Turtles (2023, WWF India) were found ingesting plastic
waste along Odisha’s coastline.
4. Loss of mangrove resilience to climate disasters: Waste buildup reduces the carbon
sequestration capacity of mangroves, weakening their role in flood prevention.
o Eg: Sundarbans Mangrove Loss (2023, ISRO Study) linked 28%
degradation to plastic entanglement.
5. Formation of marine dead zones: Eutrophication from sewage and industrial
discharge creates oxygen-deprived regions, killing marine species.
o Eg: Chilika Lake (2022, Wetlands International) reported a sharp rise in
hypoxic zones due to untreated sewage influx.

Sustainable clean-up models for coastal waste management

67
 1. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) implementation: Holding
manufacturers accountable for waste collection, disposal, and recycling can curb
plastic pollution.
o Eg: Plastic Waste Management Rules (2021, MoEFCC) mandate EPR
compliance for FMCG and plastic-producing companies.
2. Community-driven beach clean-ups and citizen initiatives: Engaging local
communities, fishermen, and volunteers ensures periodic waste collection and
segregation.
o Eg: Versova Beach Cleanup (2016-2019) removed 5 million kg of waste,
reviving marine biodiversity.
3. AI and tech-based waste monitoring: Using drones, floating booms, and AI-
driven waste tracking can improve marine debris detection and removal.
o Eg: Kochi Smart Waste Project (2023) deployed AI sensors for real-time
marine waste collection.
4. Stricter enforcement of coastal waste regulations: Strengthening CRZ norms,
EPA guidelines, and Blue Flag certification ensures legal compliance in coastal
waste management.
o Eg: Chandrabhaga Beach (Odisha, 2023) became India’s first Blue Flag-
certified beach due to strict pollution control.
5. Circular economy and eco-friendly product promotion: Encouraging
biodegradable alternatives, recycling programs, and incentives for plastic-free
packaging reduces waste generation.
o Eg: Meendum Manjapai Campaign (Tamil Nadu, 2022) reintroduced cloth
bags to replace plastics, reducing coastal littering.

Conclusion

Unregulated coastal waste is an ecological and economic disaster, necessitating urgent multi-
stakeholder interventions. Strengthening policy frameworks, community participation,
and technological solutions is key to achieving sustainable coastal waste management and
preserving marine biodiversity for future generations.

Q. The expansion of offshore mining in India risks exacerbating marine

biodiversity loss. Critically evaluate the environmental implications and propose
alternative approaches. (10 M)

Introduction

The expansion of offshore mining in India poses significant risks to fragile marine
ecosystems, threatening biodiversity and the livelihoods dependent on coastal resources.

Body

Environmental implications of offshore mining

68
 1. Marine habitat destruction: Physical dredging disturbs seabed ecosystems,
damaging coral reefs, seagrass beds, and benthic species.
o Eg: Kollam Parappu, a vital fishing ground off Kerala, faces severe risk from
sediment disruption.
2. Disruption of the euphotic zone: Mining activities create turbidity, reducing light
penetration crucial for photosynthesis in marine plants.
o Eg: Geological Survey of India’s (GSI) report highlighted potential loss of
plankton productivity in Kerala's offshore region.
3. Toxic substance release: Mining operations can release harmful chemicals like
arsenic and mercury, contaminating marine food chains.
o Eg: Studies on deep-sea mining off Papua New Guinea reported elevated
metal concentrations affecting aquatic life.
4. Threat to migratory species: Mining vessels and noise pollution disrupt breeding
cycles and migratory patterns of key species.
o Eg: The Olive Ridley turtles along Odisha’s coast have faced nesting
disruptions due to offshore activities.
5. Risk of sediment plume spread: Mining plumes can spread toxic particles across
vast areas, damaging ecosystems beyond the mining zones.
o Eg: Research by National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) found sediment
plumes could travel hundreds of kilometers, impacting fish habitats.

Alternative approaches to mitigate environmental risks

1. Stringent environmental impact assessments (EIA): Enforce stricter EIAs with

public consultations and mandatory marine biodiversity assessments.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s judgment in Narmada Bachao Andolan case
stressed stringent EIAs for ecologically fragile zones.
2. Marine spatial planning (MSP): Implement MSP to designate eco-sensitive zones,
ensuring mining is conducted away from key habitats.
o Eg: MSP adopted in Australia's Great Barrier Reef successfully minimized
mining impacts.
3. Sustainable dredging technologies: Promote eco-friendly dredging techniques like
water injection dredging to reduce sediment plumes.
o Eg: Netherlands uses eco-sensitive dredging near coastal wetlands with
positive results.
4. Marine protected areas (MPAs): Expand the MPA network to safeguard vital
ecosystems from offshore exploitation.
o Eg: India’s identification of 106 Important Coastal and Marine
Biodiversity Areas (ICMBAs) offers a framework for protected zone
expansion.
5. Stakeholder-driven governance models: Empower coastal communities in decision-
making to ensure sustainable practices.
o Eg: The Chilika Lagoon Protection Model integrates local fishermen for
ecosystem conservation.

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Conclusion

Striking a balance between economic aspirations and ecological security requires innovative
policies, technological advancements, and participatory governance to ensure India's marine
ecosystems remain resilient.

Q. Analyse the systemic flaws in global forest finance that perpetuate

deforestation. Discuss the environmental and socio-economic consequences of
this imbalance. Suggest comprehensive strategies to align financial flows with
sustainable forest conservation. (15 M)

Introduction

Global forest finance continues to face serious inefficiencies, where substantial funding
supports deforestation-linked industries instead of sustainable practices. According to the
UNDP 2025 Report, for every $1 spent on forest protection, $6 flows into activities driving
deforestation. This systemic flaw poses significant environmental and socio-economic risks.

Body

Systemic flaws in global forest finance that perpetuate deforestation

1. Misaligned Financial Priorities: Investment heavily favors sectors like industrial

agriculture, logging, and mining, diverting funds from conservation.
o Eg: In 2023, private financial institutions invested $6.1 trillion in
deforestation-linked industries (UNDP Report 2025).
2. Inadequate REDD+ Incentives: Payments under the REDD+ Programme are too
low ($5–$10 per tonne) to effectively motivate forest conservation.
o Eg: Actual costs for emission reduction are estimated at $30–$50 per tonne
(UNDP Report 2025).
3. Subsidies Driving Deforestation: Governments continue to provide nearly $500
billion annually in harmful subsidies supporting environmentally destructive
industries.
o Eg: Subsidies for cattle ranching in Brazil and palm oil plantations in
Indonesia exacerbate deforestation.
4. Limited Access for Indigenous Communities: Despite being the best stewards of
forests, Indigenous Peoples receive only a small fraction of climate finance.
o Eg: The Mesoamerican Territorial Fund and Podáali Fund demonstrate
better outcomes through direct community funding.

Environmental consequences of this imbalance

1. Accelerated biodiversity loss: Deforestation leads to habitat destruction, driving

species extinction and loss of ecosystem services.

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 o Eg: The Amazon basin has lost nearly 17% of its forest cover in the last 50
years (WWF 2024).
2. Increased carbon emissions: Forest loss disrupts carbon sinks, accelerating climate
change.
o Eg: Deforestation accounted for 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions in
2023 (IPCC Report 2023).
3. Disrupted water cycles: Deforestation reduces rainfall and causes soil erosion,
impacting regional hydrology.
o Eg: Severe droughts in parts of Brazil’s Cerrado region are linked to reduced
forest cover.
4. Higher incidence of natural disasters: Deforested regions face heightened risks of
landslides, floods, and wildfires.
o Eg: The 2023 wildfire crisis in Canada saw record-high destruction due to
climate-driven deforestation.

Socio-economic consequences of this imbalance

1. Livelihood displacement: Deforestation undermines forest-based livelihoods,

displacing Indigenous communities.
o Eg: Over 1.6 billion people globally depend on forests for survival (FAO
Report 2024).
2. Increased poverty in forest-rich nations: Financial dependence on exploitative
industries reinforces economic instability.
o Eg: Peru's Amazon region faces rising poverty as logging depletes
traditional resources.
3. Health impacts: Deforestation contributes to increased zoonotic diseases due to loss
of buffer zones between wildlife and human settlements.
o Eg: The outbreak of Nipah Virus in Southeast Asia was linked to
deforestation (WHO Report 2023).
4. Weakened cultural identity: Loss of forests threatens Indigenous cultural heritage,
spiritual practices, and traditional knowledge.
o Eg: In Northeast India, deforestation has endangered the sacred forest
practices of Khasi tribes.

Comprehensive strategies to align financial flows with sustainable forest conservation

1. Redirection of subsidies: Governments must phase out harmful subsidies and

incentivize sustainable forestry practices.
o Eg: The European Union's Deforestation-Free Trade Policy (2023)
restricts imports linked to deforestation.
2. Increased indigenous funding: Greater direct financial support for Indigenous
groups through dedicated funds.
o Eg: Expansion of the Mesoamerican Territorial Fund and the Podáali Fund
has shown positive results.

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 3. Enhanced financial regulations: Strengthen policies requiring investors to assess
deforestation risks in portfolios.
o Eg: The Task Force on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD)
framework encourages better investment accountability.
4. Debt-for-nature swaps: Developing nations should be encouraged to adopt such
mechanisms for conservation-linked debt relief.
o Eg: Belize’s Blue Bond Agreement (2021) restructured debt in exchange for
marine conservation efforts.

Conclusion

Addressing systemic flaws in global forest finance demands urgent reforms that integrate
environmental sustainability into economic frameworks. With COP30 on the horizon, nations
must prioritize robust financial interventions to protect one of Earth's most vital ecosystems.

Q. The preservation of sacred groves reflects the convergence of ecological

conservation and cultural traditions. Discuss the contemporary challenges in
protecting these ecological reserves. (10 M)

Introduction

Sacred groves represent a unique blend of indigenous ecological wisdom and spiritual
reverence, fostering biodiversity conservation through community-driven efforts. They stand
as living examples of harmonious coexistence between nature and culture.

Body

72
Convergence of ecological conservation and cultural traditions

1. Biodiversity sanctuaries: Sacred groves preserve endemic species, rare flora, and
medicinal plants, acting as mini-reserves.
o Eg: Mawphlang sacred grove in Meghalaya hosts unique species like the
Meghalaya pit viper.
2. Hydrological benefits: Sacred groves help in groundwater recharge and soil
conservation, vital for sustaining local water bodies.
o Eg: The Orans of Rajasthan have traditionally preserved underground
aquifers in arid regions.
3. Cultural guardianship: Strong cultural and religious beliefs ensure community-led
protection, deterring exploitation.
o Eg: The Garo and Khasi tribes in Meghalaya prohibit any form of
deforestation in their sacred groves.
4. Knowledge preservation: Sacred groves safeguard traditional knowledge systems
related to medicinal plants and biodiversity.

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 o Eg: The Kurichiya tribe in Kerala maintains an intricate understanding of
medicinal plants through sacred groves.
5. Climate resilience: By preserving native vegetation, sacred groves act as carbon
sinks and buffer zones against climate change.
o Eg: Sacred groves in the Western Ghats regulate microclimates and mitigate
drought impacts.

Contemporary challenges in protecting sacred groves

1. Urbanization and encroachment: Rapid expansion of urban areas leads to

shrinkage and fragmentation of groves.
o Eg: In Maharashtra’s Western Ghats, several sacred groves have faced
encroachment due to resort construction.
2. Weakened belief systems: The decline of traditional practices has reduced
community engagement in conservation.
o Eg: Sacred groves in parts of Tamil Nadu have shifted from folk deities to
organized temple management.
3. Invasive species threat: Invasion by exotic weeds like Lantana camara and
Prosopis juliflora threatens native biodiversity.
o Eg: Sacred groves in the Aravalli hills have suffered extensive spread of
invasive species.
4. Developmental pressures: Construction of roads, dams, and railways often
destroys sacred groves.
o Eg: The proposed Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) threatens
several sacred groves in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
5. Lack of legal protection: Sacred groves often lack formal protection under
environmental laws, leaving them vulnerable.
o Eg: The Supreme Court's directive (Dec 2024) sought to map and declare
orans as ‘deemed forests’ to address this gap.

Conclusion

Sacred groves symbolize India’s rich environmental heritage while serving as critical
ecological buffers. Balancing community participation with legal protection frameworks
is vital to safeguarding these invaluable reserves for future generations.

Q. Deoxygenation in global lakes reflects the accelerating consequences of both

long-term climate change and short-term climatic extremes. Analyse the
ecological implications. Suggest long-term mitigation frameworks. (15 M)

Introduction
Over 83% of global lakes are experiencing oxygen decline—an urgent ecological signal of
converging climate shocks, from sustained warming to intensifying heat waves, threatening
long-term freshwater stability.

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Body

Consequences of long-term climate change and short-term climatic extremes

1. Reduced oxygen solubility due to rising temperatures: Long-term warming

decreases the ability of water to retain dissolved oxygen.
o Eg: Science Advances (2025) attributes 55% of global lake DO loss to
solubility decline linked with global warming.
2. Thermal stratification preventing oxygen mixing: Warmer surface layers form
barriers, blocking oxygen from reaching deeper zones.
o Eg: Lake Tanganyika (Nature, 2022) witnessed intensified stratification
reducing bottom oxygen levels.
3. Heat wave-induced oxygen crashes: Short-term heat events cause abrupt, extreme
drops in surface DO concentration.
o Eg: European lakes (Copernicus, 2022) recorded DO declines of over 1
mg/L during severe summer heat waves.
4. Higher biological oxygen demand: Warming accelerates microbial activity, leading
to faster oxygen depletion in surface waters.
o Eg: Lake Erie (2023) faced hypoxic zones from increased microbial
decomposition after heat spikes.
5. Synergistic effect with eutrophication: Climate change and nutrient pollution
together magnify deoxygenation, especially in developing regions.
o Eg: Lake Taihu (China, 2024) showed persistent DO collapse due to
combined eutrophication and heat stress.

Ecological implications

1. Mass mortality of oxygen-sensitive species: Hypoxia leads to collapse of native fish

and invertebrate populations.
o Eg: Lake Peipsi (Estonia, 2023) reported widespread fish kills linked to
prolonged low DO levels.
2. Disruption of aquatic food webs: Zooplankton and mid-level consumers decline,
collapsing predator-prey dynamics.
o Eg: Lake Victoria recorded falling Nile perch stocks, affecting both
biodiversity and livelihoods.
3. Greenhouse gas emissions from anaerobic zones: Oxygen-deprived layers increase
methane and nitrous oxide release.
o Eg: PLOS Biology (2022) estimates lakes emit 1.3 Gt CO₂-eq/year from
hypoxic sediments globally.
4. Suppression of nitrogen fixation: Deoxygenated waters hinder microbial nutrient
cycling and ecological productivity.
o Eg: Vembanad Lake (Kerala) shows reduced nitrogen retention during peak
monsoon hypoxia.

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 5. Favouring of invasive low-oxygen species: Hypoxia allows non-native, tolerant
species to displace native ones.
o Eg: Lake Kariba (Zambia) saw tilapia spread rapidly in oxygen-poor zones,
disrupting native fish populations.

Long-term mitigation frameworks

1. Lake-specific adaptive oxygen management plans: Use of real-time modelling and

AI-driven DO prediction tools.
o Eg: GLEON (Global Lake Ecological Observatory Network) applies sensor
networks across 50+ global lakes.
2. Nutrient load regulation and watershed protection: Control of agricultural and
sewage runoff to combat eutrophication.
o Eg: Namami Gange Programme includes bioremediation and sewage
diversion units in lake-connected stretches.
3. Artificial oxygenation and geoengineering interventions: Use of aeration and
biochar-based sediment treatments.
o Eg: Lake Hallwil (Switzerland) revived through hypolimnetic oxygenation
between 2016–2021.
4. Strengthening international climate commitments: Curtailing emissions under
pathways like SSP2-4.5 to mitigate warming.
o Eg: IPCC AR6 (2023) warns that DO decline under SSP5-8.5 is 2.3x worse
than under SSP2-4.5.
5. Institutional and legal reforms for lake conservation: Robust enforcement through
constitutional mandates and local governance.
o Eg: Art. 48A ensures environmental protection;
o Eg: Madras HC (M. Karpagam v TN Govt, 2021) reaffirmed lakes as
public trust property under state stewardship.

Conclusion
Lake deoxygenation is not just a climate signal but a biological emergency. The way
forward demands a fusion of climate foresight, ecological engineering, and institutional
integrity to safeguard our freshwater futures.

Disaster and disaster management.

Q. Explain the concept of 'heat index' and its role in assessing heatwave severity.
How does the rise in night-time temperatures amplify the adverse effects of
heatwaves on human health? (10 M)

Introduction
The heat index is a vital tool used to measure the combined impact of temperature and
humidity on the human body. Rising night-time temperatures further aggravate heatwave
effects, posing severe health risks.

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Body

Concept of heat index and its role in assessing heatwave severity

The heat index represents the apparent temperature felt by the human body when relative
humidity is factored in with the actual air temperature.

1. Physiological impact: High humidity reduces the body’s ability to cool down
through sweating.
o Eg: During the 2015 Indian heatwave, high humidity levels resulted in over
2,300 fatalities, particularly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
2. Risk identification: The heat index helps determine heat stress zones, enabling
targeted alerts.
o Eg: The IMD’s "Orange" and "Red" alerts are based on heat index
predictions to warn vulnerable groups.
3. Public health guidance: Helps in issuing advisories for hydration, rest breaks, and
medical care.
o Eg: The Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan incorporates heat index data to guide
public interventions.

Rising night-time temperatures exacerbate heatwave impacts

Increased night-time temperatures reduce the body’s ability to recover, elevating heat stress
risks.

1. Impaired recovery: The body needs cooler temperatures at night to recuperate from
heat exposure.
o Eg: In 2023, prolonged high night-time temperatures in Delhi NCR resulted
in a surge in heatstroke cases.
2. Vulnerability of elderly and ill: Higher night temperatures increase mortality risks
in senior citizens and those with chronic illnesses.
o Eg: According to The Lancet Countdown (2023), heat-related mortality
among vulnerable populations in India has increased by 55% since 2000.
3. Increased urban risk: Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects worsen night-time
temperatures in densely populated cities.
o Eg: Mumbai recorded persistently high night temperatures in May 2023,
heightening heat stress.
4. Strain on energy systems: Prolonged heat at night increases air-conditioning
demand, impacting power supply and grid stability.
o Eg: Cities like Bengaluru witnessed power cuts during the April 2023
heatwave due to heightened night-time cooling demand.

Conclusion
A combined focus on heat index-based forecasting and urban cooling strategies is

77
essential to mitigate heatwave risks. Integrating these measures into India's National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) can enhance resilience against extreme heat events.

Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges
to internal security.

Challenges to internal security through communication networks,

role of media and social networking sites in internal security
challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its
prevention.
Q. The Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme
reflects the Centre-State cooperative framework in tackling cyber crimes against
vulnerable sections. Elucidate. Also, assess the role of capacity-building
initiatives under this scheme. (10 M)

Introduction

The Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme launched
by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) plays a pivotal role in strengthening Centre-State
cooperation to combat cyber crimes. By providing financial support, technological
resources, and training frameworks, it addresses jurisdictional challenges and empowers
law enforcement agencies (LEAs).

Body

Centre-State cooperative framework under CCPWC

1. Financial Assistance to States/UTs: Central funding supports States in setting up

cyber forensic-cum-training laboratories, hiring junior cyber consultants, and
conducting training programs.
o Eg: As of March 2024, funds have been allocated to 33 States/UTs for
forensic lab establishment, excluding Tamil Nadu.
2. Training Curriculum for State Personnel: The MHA has developed specialized
training content for LEAs, Public Prosecutors, and Judicial Officers, strengthening
investigation and prosecution capabilities.
o Eg: Over 24,600 personnel have been trained under this framework.
3. Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): I4C coordinates cyber crime
responses across States/UTs and ensures knowledge-sharing.
o Eg: Seven Joint Cyber Coordination Teams (JCCTs) address jurisdictional
challenges in hotspots like Jamtara, Mewat, and Ahmedabad.

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 4. Technology-Driven Coordination Tools: Platforms like Samanvaya facilitate
interstate data-sharing, ensuring coordinated action.
o Eg: The ‘Pratibimb’ module tracks cyber crime infrastructure and criminal
movement.
5. National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: This platform enables citizens to directly
report cyber crimes for immediate action by State LEAs.
o Eg: More than 69 lakh cyber tipline reports have been shared with
States/UTs since the signing of an MoU with NCMEC in April 2019.

Assessment of capacity-building initiatives under CCPWC

1. Cyber Forensic-Cum-Training Laboratories: These labs provide States with

advanced forensic tools to investigate and prosecute cyber crimes efficiently.
o Eg: The National Cyber Forensic Laboratory (Investigation) in New Delhi
has assisted in over 11,835 cyber crime cases.
2. Skill Development for Law Enforcement: Specialized training enhances
investigation, prosecution, and awareness-building capabilities.
o Eg: More than 24,600 officers have been trained across States/UTs since the
scheme's launch.
3. Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre (CFMC): Facilitates real-time cooperation between
LEAs, banks, payment aggregators, and telecom service providers for fraud
detection.
o Eg: CFMC has successfully coordinated in 6,046 arrests and resolved 36,296
cyber investigation assistance requests.
4. Digital Awareness Campaigns: Platforms like Cyber Dost, metro announcements,
and newspaper advertisements have enhanced public vigilance.
o Eg: The ‘Digital Arrest Scam Awareness Campaign’ in Delhi Metro is a
recent initiative.
5. Sahyog Portal for Digital Content Control: Facilitates swift communication
between LEAs and digital intermediaries to disable harmful content.
o Eg: The portal has expedited requests under Section 79 of the IT Act, 2000.

Conclusion

The CCPWC scheme has significantly enhanced Centre-State cooperation by combining

financial support, training, and technological integration. Going forward, increased
investment in artificial intelligence (AI)-driven monitoring tools, public awareness, and
international partnerships will be crucial to safeguard vulnerable groups from evolving
cyber threats.

Q. Assess the scientific principles behind infrasonic and ultrasonic weapons and
evaluate their potential as security threats in asymmetric warfare. (10 M)

Introduction

79
Sound-based weapons utilize the manipulation of frequency and intensity to impact human
physiology and infrastructure. Their non-lethal yet disruptive nature has made them
increasingly relevant in modern conflict scenarios.

Body

Scientific principles behind infrasonic and ultrasonic weapons

1. Infrasound (Below 20 Hz): Utilizes low-frequency sound waves that are inaudible
to humans but can cause discomfort, disorientation, and internal organ vibration.
o Eg: Infrasound devices have been explored in riot control situations to induce
panic and disorientation.
2. Ultrasound (Above 20 kHz): Uses high-frequency sound waves that can penetrate
materials, affecting nervous systems, balance, and hearing.
o Eg: The 'Havana Syndrome' incident in 2016, suspected to involve
ultrasonic devices, caused neurological symptoms among US diplomats in
Cuba.
3. Resonance Effect: Exploits the natural frequency of objects, causing physical
vibration or damage without direct contact.
o Eg: Infrasound devices have reportedly been experimented with to damage
enemy equipment by targeting weak mechanical resonances.
4. Directional Sound Technology: Uses concentrated sound beams to target specific
individuals or groups.
o Eg: LRAD (Long Range Acoustic Device) used for crowd control and
maritime security.
5. Frequency Modulation (FM): Manipulates sound wave patterns to induce dizziness,
headaches, or cognitive disorientation.
o Eg: Alleged use of FM techniques by Chinese border forces to disrupt
communication devices in conflict zones.

Potential as security threats in asymmetric warfare

1. Stealth and Covert Operations: Sonic weapons are difficult to detect, making them
ideal for espionage, assassination, or disruption tactics.
o Eg: Alleged deployment of sonic devices targeting US and Canadian
diplomats in China (2018).
2. Civilian Infrastructure Disruption: Sound waves can damage sensitive equipment
like radar systems, communication lines, or electronic controls.
o Eg: Suspected sonic attacks on embassy equipment in Cuba raised
diplomatic tensions.
3. Psychological Manipulation: Sustained exposure can induce paranoia, anxiety, and
panic, potentially influencing public sentiment in unstable regions.
o Eg: Psychological distress reported during alleged sonic attacks in
Uzbekistan (2019).

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 4. Targeting Military Personnel: Infrasound devices can incapacitate soldiers without
visible injury, posing challenges for combat readiness.
o Eg: Russian military experiments explored infrasonic impacts on enemy
battalions for battlefield advantage.
5. Crowd Control and Protest Suppression: Sonic devices are increasingly deployed
to control dissent in politically unstable regions.
o Eg: Alleged use of sonic weapons during Belgrade protests (March 2025).
6. Cyber-physical Threats: Integration of sonic devices with IoT systems,
autonomous drones, or smart infrastructure can disrupt vital services.
o Eg: Studies indicate the possibility of acoustic attacks disabling surveillance
drones in hostile regions.

Conclusion

The emergence of sonic weapons as a tactical tool in asymmetric warfare underscores the
need for robust international regulation and advanced countermeasures. As conflicts
increasingly exploit psychological and sensory manipulation, strategic preparedness must
combine scientific innovation with legal safeguards to ensure national security.

Security challenges and their management in border areas -

linkages of organized crime with terrorism.
Q. Gold smuggling poses a multifaceted challenge to India’s economic stability,
national security, and law enforcement frameworks. Discuss. Also suggest
comprehensive measures to address these concerns. (15 M)

Introduction

Gold smuggling in India has evolved from isolated incidents to a sophisticated network
posing grave risks to the economy, security, and governance. Its growing links with
organized crime and international syndicates demand urgent attention.

Body

I. Impact on economic stability

1. Revenue loss for the government: Gold smuggling leads to significant losses in
customs duties and GST revenue, affecting public finances.
o Eg: The DRI’s 2023 report estimated that gold smuggling cost India over
₹2,000 crore annually in tax evasion.
2. Distortion of domestic gold market: Smuggled gold disrupts legitimate trade,
reducing market stability and consumer confidence.
o Eg: The World Gold Council (2023) highlighted that smuggled gold
accounted for nearly 20% of India’s gold demand.

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 3. Impact on forex reserves: Increased demand for illegal gold channels foreign
exchange through informal routes, worsening the current account deficit.
o Eg: Rising informal gold imports were linked to India’s widening CAD in FY
2023.
4. Link to money laundering: Smuggled gold is often used to launder illicit funds,
creating a parallel financial network.
o Eg: The Karipur Gold Smuggling Case (2021) revealed gold being used to
convert black money into assets.

II. Impact on national security

1. Terror financing risks: Gold smuggling networks have been exploited to finance
terror groups through hawala and informal routes.
o Eg: The NIA’s 2020 probe exposed gold smuggling funding extremist
activities in Kerala.
2. Link to organized crime syndicates: Gold smuggling often involves transnational
criminal networks that exploit India’s vast coastline.
o Eg: The 2022 Gujarat coast operation intercepted a gold consignment linked
to international drug cartels.
3. Compromise of border security: Smugglers exploit porous borders, especially with
Myanmar, Bangladesh, and the Middle East trade routes.
o Eg: The 2023 DRI bust at the Indo-Myanmar border exposed smuggling
networks using unguarded routes.
4. Threat to economic sovereignty: Illicit gold inflow undermines the Indian banking
system by bypassing regulated financial channels.
o Eg: The 2022 FATF report flagged India’s vulnerability to gold-based illicit
finance.

III. Impact on law enforcement frameworks

1. Corruption within enforcement agencies: Smuggling networks often compromise

customs, police, and revenue officials.
o Eg: The 2018 Delhi Airport gold smuggling case revealed collusion with
customs officials.
2. Strain on investigative agencies: Coordinated operations involving CBI, DRI, and
ED face delays due to bureaucratic bottlenecks.
o Eg: The Karipur Gold Smuggling Case faced prolonged delays due to multi-
agency conflicts.
3. Legal loopholes and delays: Weak enforcement of the Customs Act, 1962 and
PMLA, 2002 results in slow prosecution.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s 2021 directive stressed expedited trials for
smuggling cases.
4. Technological deficiencies: Lack of modern surveillance, such as AI-based tracking
and automated scanners, weakens enforcement.

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 o Eg: The DRI’s 2023 recommendation urged the installation of X-ray
baggage scanners in vulnerable airports.

IV. Comprehensive measures to address concerns

1. Enhanced inter-agency coordination: Establishing a National Smuggling Control

Task Force under the Home Ministry to improve intelligence-sharing and ensure
multi-agency coordination.
o Eg: The FATF’s 2023 report recommended strengthening inter-agency
cooperation to curb gold-linked money laundering.
2. Strengthening border security: Deploying AI-powered surveillance systems,
enhanced drone patrolling, and coastal radar networks to track smuggling routes.
o Eg: The Sagarmala Project has strengthened surveillance along India’s
western coastline.
3. Legislative reforms and stricter penalties: Amend the Customs Act, 1962 to
classify large-scale gold smuggling as a serious economic offense with higher
penalties.
o Eg: The Law Commission’s 2023 report recommended stricter penalties for
transnational smuggling crimes.
4. Public awareness and consumer engagement: Launch nationwide campaigns to
inform consumers about the risks of illegal gold purchases and promote traceable gold
trade practices.
o Eg: The World Gold Council’s (2022) campaign on “Gold for Good”
promoted transparent sourcing.

Conclusion

Curbing gold smuggling requires a multipronged approach combining robust law

enforcement, technological intervention, and public awareness. By strengthening institutional
frameworks and tightening regulatory gaps, India can effectively mitigate the risks posed by
this illicit trade.

Q. Terrorist groups are increasingly exploiting difficult terrains to establish

hideouts, making detection challenging for security forces. Examine the
implications of this trend for India's internal security. What strategies should be
adopted to strengthen surveillance in such areas? (15 M)

Introduction
Terrorist groups are increasingly exploiting challenging terrains such as dense forests,
mountainous landscapes, and remote valleys to evade security surveillance. This trend poses
serious security concerns for India, necessitating proactive and adaptive countermeasures.

Body

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Evidence of terrorist groups exploiting difficult terrains

1. Enhanced concealment: Dense foliage, caves, and rocky outcrops provide ideal
conditions for militants to evade drones and satellite tracking.
o Eg: The recovery of arms caches from Bhaderwah forests (March 2025)
highlights this tactic.
2. Proximity to traditional infiltration routes: Difficult terrains often intersect with
routes historically exploited for infiltration.
o Eg: The Pir Panjal Range is a known corridor for cross-border movement.
3. Weather-induced security gaps: Fog, snow, and storms create surveillance blind
spots, enabling undetected movement.
o Eg: Militants have exploited adverse weather in the Baramulla sector for
infiltration.
4. Absence of fixed infrastructure: Remote regions often lack CCTV networks, road
connectivity, and checkpoints, making surveillance difficult.
o Eg: Limited infrastructure in Kishtwar forests enabled insurgent presence for
years.
5. Exploitation of eco-tourism zones: Militants have used popular trekking and tourist
routes to blend in with civilians and establish hideouts.
o Eg: Infiltrators disguised as tourists exploited routes near Gulmarg forests
(2024).

Implications for India’s internal security

1. Greater arms smuggling networks: Remote hideouts enable storage and distribution
of illegal arms without immediate detection.
o Eg: The seizure of AK-47 rounds and grenades in Doda (2025) reflects this
risk.
2. Increased sleeper cell activity: Hidden networks operating from remote terrains
facilitate the mobilisation of sleeper cells in urban hubs.
o Eg: Militants linked to the Lashkar-e-Taiba used remote hideouts in Rajouri
forests to launch coordinated attacks in 2023.
3. Rising insurgency in non-traditional zones: The use of terrains outside conflict-
prone areas expands militant reach.
o Eg: Insurgent movements in Himachal Pradesh forests (2024) raised new
security concerns.
4. Expanded narcotics trade routes: Isolated terrains are being increasingly exploited
for the transit and storage of narcotics.
o Eg: The Tangdhar route has witnessed increased drug trafficking linked to
terror funding.
5. Infiltration of radical propaganda: Remote insurgent hubs serve as ideological
training centers, enabling sustained radicalisation.
o Eg: Extremist elements in Poonch’s forest zones have facilitated militant
indoctrination.

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Strategies to strengthen surveillance in difficult terrains

1. Deployment of stealth drones: Using low-altitude reconnaissance drones equipped

with thermal sensors can enhance visibility in dense vegetation.
o Eg: The deployment of Black Hornet Nano drones improved counter-
insurgency operations in J&K.
2. Creation of territorial surveillance grids: Establishing permanent observation grids
with AI-integrated sensors ensures real-time detection of movement.
o Eg: The deployment of smart surveillance towers near the Poonch sector
aided in detecting infiltrators.
3. Enhanced training of forest-specific counter-insurgency units: Specialized
commando units trained for high-altitude and jungle warfare can neutralize threats
efficiently.
o Eg: The Indian Army’s Ghatak Platoon has been instrumental in remote
area operations.
4. Use of crowd-sourced intelligence tools: Integrating anonymous digital platforms
for local communities to report suspicious activity can improve grassroots
surveillance.
o Eg: The use of the Suraksha App in Jammu has strengthened early detection.
5. Deployment of satellite-enabled movement sensors: Installing seismic sensors that
detect ground vibrations can identify insurgent foot movement in isolated zones.
o Eg: Such sensors were recently deployed in Kupwara’s dense forests,
improving detection rates.

Conclusion

Terrorist exploitation of difficult terrains necessitates a strategic blend of advanced

technology, community engagement, and specialized commando operations. Investing in
adaptive surveillance tools will be key to securing India’s vulnerable regions against evolving
threats.

Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.

85
 Secure Synopsis compilation for April-2025
General Studies-3

Table of contents

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth,

development and employment.-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Explain the distinction between GDP deflator and CPI. Why is GDP deflator gaining
traction in recent policy discourse? (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Indian capital markets are increasingly driven by speculative flows, not fundamentals.
Critically assess this trend. Discuss its implications for financial stability. Suggest policy
safeguards to insulate the real economy. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Q. How does the digital gender divide limit women’s participation in India’s workforce?
Analyse its implications for the future of work. Suggest targeted interventions to close this
gap. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Q. The concept of "reciprocal tariffs" has been questioned globally. Analyse the economic
rationale behind reciprocal tariffs. Discuss their implications for developing economies like
India. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10
Q. India's urban economy faces a triple pressure of stagnant incomes, rising prices, and low
confidence. Analyse their interlinkages. Examine how this affects aggregate demand. Suggest
a multidimensional urban policy response. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------- 11
Q. “AI may promise productivity, but it risks hardwiring structural gender gaps into the
future of work”. Examine the impact of generative AI on women’s employment. Suggest
inclusive transition strategies. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Q. How do contingent liabilities and off-budget borrowings pose hidden fiscal risks? Why
must they be incorporated into fiscal sustainability assessments? Recommend tools to
transparently measure such liabilities. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Q. Evaluate how outdated credit rating methodologies distort capital access for developing
countries. Suggest structural reforms for credit rating institutions. (10 M) ------------------------ 17
Q. What are the global economic and geopolitical factors influencing gold prices? How do
these impact India’s macroeconomic stability? Suggest policy approaches to insulate the
economy from external gold shocks. (15 M)------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Q. India’s start-up ecosystem suffers from a crisis of imagination, not resources. Comment.
(10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. --------------------------------------------------------22

1
Government Budgeting. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, - different types of irrigation
and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues
and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers. -------------------------------------22
Q. Assess the interlinkages between irrigation systems and regional inequality in agricultural
productivity. How can modern irrigation planning address these disparities? (15 M) ---------- 22
Q. How do Agri-startups contribute to solving the last-mile challenges in Indian agriculture?
What funding and policy bottlenecks do they face? Evaluate their role in bridging technology
gaps for small farmers. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24
Q. How has the prolonged use of GM crops in India contributed to a rebound in pesticide
dependence? Analyse the role of pest resistance and monoculture cropping. Propose
structural shifts in pest management strategies. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------- 26
Q. What are the key objectives behind establishing bio-resource centres under the National
Mission on Natural Farming? Analyse their relevance in promoting self-reliance in
agricultural inputs. Suggest measures to overcome early-stage operational bottlenecks. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public
Distribution System-objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks
and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. ----------------------30
Q. Why is the adoption of decentralised renewable energy crucial for agricultural
mechanisation? Evaluate its role in reducing input costs and boosting farmer incomes.
Examine long-term sustainability impacts. (15 M)---------------------------------------------------------- 30
Q. Can aquaculture help India meet its nutrition and livelihood goals simultaneously? What
are the critical gaps in India’s aquaculture supply chain? (10 M) ------------------------------------- 32
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and significance, location,
upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. -------------------------34
Q. How do logistics and cold chain infrastructure affect agricultural exports in India? What
are the key bottlenecks in expanding this infrastructure? (10 M) ------------------------------------- 34
Land reforms in India. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
Q. Why is increasing the share of manufacturing in GDP vital for India's long-term economic
strategy? Identify the structural and institutional bottlenecks impeding this growth. Suggest
reforms to align manufacturing expansion with the goals of Viksit Bharat by 2047. (15 M) -- 35
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. -----------------------------------37
Q. What role can hydrogen play in resolving the intermittency-flexibility paradox of
renewables? How should India plan to scale this integration? (10 M) -------------------------------- 37
Q. What are the key bottlenecks in ensuring consistent water quality under Jal Jeevan
Mission? How can innovation and data-driven monitoring address these issues? (10 M)------ 39
Q. “Despite its vast network, Indian Railways is trapped in a legacy system unable to meet
contemporary demands”. Examine the key infrastructural and operational legacies

2
 hampering railways. Assess the consequences for economic growth. Suggest transformative
reforms. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Investment models. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
Q. Discuss the role of blended finance and hybrid annuity models in de-risking infrastructure
investment. Why has their uptake remained uneven across sectors? (10 M) ----------------------- 42
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------44
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and
developing new technology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------44
Q. What are directed energy weapons (DEWs)? Explain their working mechanism. Assess
their role in enhancing India's air defence capabilities. (10 M) ----------------------------------------- 44
Q. Public-funded R&D must support not just invention but also diffusion of critical
technologies. Analyse the importance of technology transfer. Examine the gaps in India’s tech
diffusion ecosystem. Suggest institutional measures to bridge them. (15 M) ----------------------- 45
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-technology, bio-
technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights. -----------------------------------47
Q. Discuss the advancements in synthetic biology and their applications in India. Analyse the
concerns surrounding synthetic organisms. Suggest regulatory frameworks for safe adoption.
(15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Q. Examine the role of neuromorphic computing in advancing artificial intelligence. Analyse
India's preparedness to leverage neuromorphic technologies for strategic sectors. (10 M) ---- 50
Q. Explain the concept of Digital Twin technology. Evaluate its broad potential in shaping
future systems and enhancing human capabilities. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------- 52
Q. Discuss the role of 6G technology in shaping the future of connectivity. Examine the
challenges India faces in leading 6G innovation. Propose strategies for fostering a robust 6G
ecosystem in India. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 54
Q. “European Space Agency’s Biomass mission will transform our understanding of forest
health”. Examine the technological innovations behind the mission and its role in carbon
budgeting. Evaluate its implications for global climate governance. (15 M) ------------------------ 56
Q. How can electric mobility transform India’s rural economy? Analyse its role in enhancing
micro-entrepreneurship and logistics. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Q. Explain how antimicrobial growth promoters’ function in animal production. Discuss why
their continued use poses a risk to global public health. (10 M) ---------------------------------------- 60
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61
Q. “Environmental Impact Assessments have become procedural rather than precautionary”.
Critically analyse. Suggest measures to make EIAs outcome-oriented. (15 M) -------------------- 61
Q. Assess the role of indigenous knowledge systems in biodiversity conservation. How can
they be mainstreamed into national policy frameworks? (10 M)--------------------------------------- 63
Q. Emerging pollutants pose a complex challenge to environmental governance. Define
emerging pollutants and identify their major sources. Analyse their ecological and health

3
 impacts, and suggest measures to address the challenges posed by these pollutants in India.
(15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Q. How have anthropogenic activities contributed to large-scale land degradation in recent
decades, and what are the ecological consequences of such changes? In this context, examine
how India can formulate a resilient and sustainable land-use strategy. (15 M) ------------------- 66
Q. The nitrogen crisis is an invisible threat overshadowed by the focus on carbon emissions.
Examine this paradox. Analyse the climate and health risks posed by excess reactive nitrogen.
Suggest a multi-sectoral roadmap for mitigation in India. (15 M) ------------------------------------- 68
Q. What are trophic cascades in ecology? Explain their significance in ecosystem restoration.
(10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
Q. What are the key contributors to chronic PM10 pollution in Indian cities? Explain why
regional variation demands city-specific mitigation strategies. (10 M) ------------------------------- 71
Q. The fourth global coral bleaching event marks a tipping point in marine ecology. Analyse
its scale and causes. Evaluate its repercussions on marine species. (10 M) -------------------------- 73
Q. The fourth global coral bleaching event marks a tipping point in marine ecology. Analyse
its scale and causes. Evaluate its repercussions on marine species. (10 M)-------------------------- 74
Disaster and disaster management.-------------------------------------------------------------------76
Q. The line between natural and human-made disasters is blurring. Discuss this with
reference to recurring extreme weather events in India. Examine the implications for disaster
preparedness. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
Linkages between development and spread of extremism. ---------------------------------------77
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security. ----77
Q. Climate-induced displacement is an emerging concern for India's internal security.
Examine the security challenges of climate refugees. Discuss the impact on border states and
urban centres. Propose a policy framework for mitigation. (15 M) ----------------------------------- 77
Q. Examine the evolving nature of maritime security challenges for India. Evaluate the role of
maritime domain awareness in addressing these threats. (10 M) -------------------------------------- 79
Q. Why have terrorist networks in India continued to survive despite decades of
countermeasures? Examine the institutional weaknesses in the security apparatus. Discuss
the role of external support and radical narratives in sustaining terrorism. Suggest a
comprehensive reform strategy. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 81
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-
laundering and its prevention. -------------------------------------------------------------------------83
Q. Cyber sabotage targeting critical infrastructure is emerging as a grave internal threat.
Analyse the risks to India's energy grids and communication networks. Discuss institutional
safeguards needed. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Q. Discuss the evolution of drone warfare and its impact on India’s internal security
landscape. Analyse India’s existing counter-drone capabilities. Suggest improvements for
future readiness. (15M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime
with terrorism. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------87

4
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate. ----------------------------------------87
Q. Discuss the role of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in strengthening India’s
counter-terrorism capabilities. What limitations hinder its operational efficiency in
international investigations? (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of

resources, growth, development and employment.
Q. Explain the distinction between GDP deflator and CPI. Why is GDP deflator
gaining traction in recent policy discourse? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s inflation tracking has long relied on retail indices, but growing volatility in price
dynamics and fiscal trends has brought the GDP deflator to the center stage of policy
assessment.

Body

Distinction between GDP deflator and CPI

Parameter GDP Deflator Consumer Price Index (CPI)

Covers only consumer goods &
Coverage Covers all goods & services in GDP
services
Base Year Revised frequently, aligns with GDP Revised less frequently, last
Revision base year (currently 2011-12) updated in 2012
Variable weights, changes annually Fixed weights, based on
Weights
based on GDP composition consumer expenditure survey
Used to deflate nominal GDP to real Used to measure retail inflation
Scope of Use
GDP and guide monetary policy
Price Type Considers wholesale and producer Captures retail prices paid by
Considered prices too households

Why is GDP deflator gaining traction in recent policy discourse?

1. Comprehensive price measure: Reflects price changes in the entire economy, not
just consumers.
o Eg: MoSPI (2024) emphasized deflator’s role in reflecting service sector
inflation, missed by WPI/CPI.
2. Improved fiscal planning: Helps assess real revenue trends, crucial for budgetary
assumptions.

5
 o Eg: Union Budget 2024-25 used deflator-based growth for projecting fiscal
deficit consolidation.
3. Tracks investment-driven inflation: Captures capital goods inflation, unlike CPI.
o Eg: PLI scheme sectors like electronics showed higher price pressures, better
captured in deflator (RBI Bulletin, Nov 2023).
4. Avoids consumption bias: Useful in supply-side policy evaluation where consumer
price focus is misleading.
o Eg: RBI’s Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) adjustments use GDP
deflator to measure competitiveness.
5. Essential for real growth estimation: Helps derive real GDP and productivity
trends, influencing policy direction.
o Eg: 14th Finance Commission used GDP deflator to assess real tax buoyancy
across states.

Conclusion
As India’s economy diversifies beyond consumption-led growth, the GDP deflator emerges
as a truer mirror of inflation trends—vital for sound fiscal and macroeconomic
policymaking.

Q. Indian capital markets are increasingly driven by speculative flows, not

fundamentals. Critically assess this trend. Discuss its implications for financial
stability. Suggest policy safeguards to insulate the real economy. (15 M)

Introduction:
India's capital markets are witnessing unprecedented growth in trading volume and retail
participation, but this expansion is often divorced from underlying economic
fundamentals, raising questions of sustainability and risk.

Body

The trend of speculative flows over fundamentals

1. Retail frenzy and algorithmic trading: High-frequency trading and inexperienced

retail bets have increased short-term speculation.
 Eg: NSE reported a 45% rise in retail F&O traders in FY23, with many
driven by social media tips and herd behaviour (SEBI Annual Report 2023).
2. Valuation disconnected from earnings: Stock prices often rise without proportional
earnings or asset base growth.
 Eg: Startups like Paytm and Zomato saw sharp post-listing volatility despite
weak earnings in FY23 (Economic Survey 2023).
3. Sectoral over-concentration: Speculative capital inflows are concentrated in a few
themes, amplifying bubble risks.
 Eg: IT and new-age tech stocks saw 100–150% rallies in 2021–22 without
sustained profitability (NASSCOM 2022).

6
 4. Rise in speculative derivatives: Options and intraday trading dominate volumes
without contributing to long-term investment.
 Eg: 95% of NSE’s daily volume in 2023 came from options trading, often by
retail traders (SEBI Discussion Paper 2023).
5. Disconnect with macroeconomic indicators: Markets often ignore sluggish GDP,
employment, or demand data.
 Eg: In 2020–21, BSE Sensex rose 68% despite GDP contraction of 7.3%
(MOSPI & BSE data).

Implications for financial stability

1. Increased systemic volatility: Speculative bubbles can cause sudden market crashes
affecting investor confidence.
 Eg: Adani Group stock correction in 2023 led to sharp FII pullouts and
volatility in indices (RBI Financial Stability Report, June 2023).
2. Retail investor vulnerability: Misguided participation leads to wealth erosion during
corrections.
 Eg: Over 90% of retail F&O traders incurred losses in FY23, with an
average loss of ₹1.1 lakh (SEBI Study, Jan 2024).
3. Distortion in capital allocation: Resources flow to overvalued assets rather than
productive sectors.
 Eg: Startup IPOs in 2021 attracted large funding but later underperformed
due to weak business models (Crisil IPO Review 2022).
4. Stress on NBFCs and banks: Market corrections affect leveraged institutions and
reduce lending appetite.
 Eg: IL&FS crisis in 2018 partly stemmed from liquidity mismatches
exacerbated by market corrections (Uday Kotak Committee Report).
5. Asset-price inflation and inequality: Market-driven wealth increases are unequally
distributed, worsening socio-economic gaps.
 Eg: Top 10% investors accounted for 80% of market gains in 2023 (CMIE
data).
Policy safeguards to insulate the real economy

1. Strengthening investor education and risk disclosure: Ensure retail awareness

before entering high-risk segments.
 Eg: SEBI’s Riskometer and MF Light initiatives (2023) target improved
retail literacy and risk understanding.
2. Curbing excessive F&O exposure: Impose stricter margin norms and position limits
to reduce leverage.
 Eg: SEBI’s 2024 proposal to tax high-frequency trades and increase lot
sizes in F&O is a positive step.
3. Encouraging long-term investments: Promote equity mutual funds and long-
duration instruments with tax incentives.

7
  Eg: Bharat Bond ETF encourages long-term infrastructure investment with
retail participation (DIPAM 2023).
4. Macroprudential monitoring by regulators: RBI and SEBI must coordinate to
monitor speculative indicators and act early.
 Eg: Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) mandated to
oversee cross-sectoral risk .
5. Capital gains taxation reform: Introduce differentiated tax slabs for short-term
speculative gains vs. long-term investments.
 Eg: Direct Tax Code (2009) and Kelkar Committee recommended capital
gains tax rationalisation to discourage short-termism.

Conclusion
While vibrant capital markets are essential for economic growth, safeguarding them from
speculative excess is vital for macroeconomic stability. India must now build resilient
market architecture that rewards fundamentals, not frenzy.

Q. How does the digital gender divide limit women’s participation in India’s
workforce? Analyse its implications for the future of work. Suggest targeted
interventions to close this gap. (15 M)

Introduction

The rise of the digital economy offers unprecedented opportunities, but India's digital gender
divide risks marginalising women from this transformation, entrenching socio-economic
inequalities.

Body

How the digital gender divide limits women’s workforce participation

1. Restricted access to digital skill acquisition: Women lack digital exposure, limiting
upskilling opportunities.
 Eg: ASER Report 2023 found only 25% of rural girls had access to digital
devices, compared to 45% of boys.
2. Exclusion from remote and platform-based jobs: Limited digital access denies
women flexible employment.
 Eg: LinkedIn Opportunity Index 2024 revealed women submitted only 30%
of digital job applications.
3. Entrepreneurial barriers: Women entrepreneurs struggle with digital adoption,
restricting business growth.
 Eg: Google-Bain Report 2023 noted less than 20% of women-led MSMEs
use digital platforms.
4. Deepening rural-urban divide: Rural women face compounded barriers in digital
inclusion.

8
  Eg: NSSO Data 2023 shows only 18% of rural women use the internet,
compared to 48% of rural men.
5. Limited voice in digital policy-making: Women’s under-representation sidelines
their needs in tech governance.
 Eg: NASSCOM 2023 reported less than 10% of women in tech
policymaking roles.

Implications for the future of work

1. Exacerbation of employment exclusion: Automation will disproportionately

displace women from traditional roles.
 Eg: World Economic Forum 2024 predicts 28% job losses for women in
automation-vulnerable sectors.
2. Sustained wage disparity: Limited digital jobs continue to widen the gender pay
gap.
 Eg: Azim Premji University 2023 noted self-employed women earn just
40% of male counterparts.
3. Economic underutilisation: GDP growth potential remains untapped due to low
female participation.
 Eg: McKinsey Global Institute 2023 estimates $700 billion GDP boost if
gender gaps are closed by 2030.
4. Threat to Digital India goals: Exclusion of women hampers digital literacy targets.
 Eg: Digital India Review 2024 flagged gender disparity as a major challenge
to full digital penetration.
5. Social perpetuation of gender roles: Absence from digital space reinforces
patriarchal norms.
 Eg: UNICEF 2024 found online participation enhances women’s
bargaining power in households.

Targeted interventions to close the gap

1. Expand digital literacy for women: Launch focused rural and urban skilling
initiatives.
 Eg: PMGDISHA aims to digitally empower 6 crore rural households with a
focus on women.
2. Affordable digital infrastructure: Provide subsidised internet and devices for
women.
 Eg: BharatNet Project to connect 2.5 lakh gram panchayats with
broadband, enhancing women’s access.
3. Women-focused skilling programmes: Train women in emerging tech sectors.
 Eg: Skill India "Future Skills Prime" 2024 enrolled 35% women in AI and
cloud computing.

9
 4. Promote women-led digital enterprises: Incentivise digital onboarding of women
entrepreneurs.
 Eg: Stand-Up India scheme supported over 1.2 lakh women entrepreneurs
by 2024.
5. Enhance cyber safety and policy representation: Make digital spaces safer and
more inclusive.
 Eg: CCPWC scheme established cyber forensic labs in all states for
women’s safety online.

Conclusion

Bridging the digital gender divide is essential for an inclusive, resilient economy.
Empowering women digitally will not only foster equity but also catalyse India's vision of a
Viksit Bharat by 2047.

Q. The concept of "reciprocal tariffs" has been questioned globally. Analyse the
economic rationale behind reciprocal tariffs. Discuss their implications for
developing economies like India. (10 M)

Introduction
The increasing trend of reciprocal tariffs reflects growing protectionism, which threatens the
global trade architecture and disproportionately impacts developing economies striving for
market access.

Body

Economic rationale behind reciprocal tariffs

1. Correcting trade imbalances: Tariffs are used to reduce chronic trade deficits by
discouraging imports and promoting domestic alternatives.
 Eg: The US imposed a 125% tariff on Chinese imports in 2024, targeting
the $295 billion trade deficit .
2. Perceived trade fairness: Countries justify tariffs as a response to what they perceive
as unfair subsidies or dumping practices by trading partners.
 Eg: The US accused China of unfair subsidies and currency manipulation
under the "America First" policy (2018–2020), leading to retaliatory tariffs.
3. Revenue generation for domestic priorities: Tariffs provide fiscal space for
governments to fund domestic tax cuts or welfare measures.
 Eg: Trump administration linked tariff revenue to offsetting tax
reductions aimed at stimulating the domestic economy (Source:
Congressional Budget Office 2024).
4. Protection of strategic sectors: Tariffs safeguard critical domestic industries from
foreign competition, preserving employment and capacities.

10
  Eg: US steel and aluminium sectors were shielded through tariffs in 2018,
protecting over 10,000 jobs .
5. Political signalling and leverage: Tariffs serve as tools to exert pressure in trade
negotiations, beyond mere economic objectives.
 Eg: US-China "Phase One" trade deal (2020) followed sustained tariff
escalations by the US to secure commitments on intellectual property and
market access.

Implications for developing economies like India

1. Erosion of export competitiveness: High tariffs raise the cost of Indian goods in
global markets, weakening price advantage.
 Eg: Indian seafood exports to the US declined by nearly 12% in 2024 due
to tariff hikes .
2. Disruption of integrated supply chains: Tariff wars complicate participation in
global value chains, affecting sectors like electronics and textiles.
 Eg: India's textile exports saw disruptions as orders shifted amid US-
China tariff tensions .
3. Deterrent to foreign investments: Uncertain tariff regimes discourage long-term
investments critical for emerging economies.
 Eg: UNCTAD World Investment Report 2024 highlighted a 12% fall in
South Asia’s FDI, attributing it to global trade uncertainties.
4. Exposure to retaliatory measures: Developing economies may face counter-tariffs
affecting crucial export sectors.
 Eg: EU’s proposed counter-tariffs on Indian pharmaceuticals in 2024
amid global trade disputes .
5. Undermining of multilateral trade norms: Arbitrary tariffs weaken WTO
mechanisms, sidelining the concerns of smaller economies.
 Eg: India’s statement at the 2023 WTO Ministerial Conference
emphasised the need to uphold multilateral rules for fairer global trade.

Conclusion
Reciprocal tariffs risk fracturing the global economic order, making it imperative for India to
diversify markets, strengthen domestic resilience, and champion multilateral cooperation for
sustainable growth.

Q. India's urban economy faces a triple pressure of stagnant incomes, rising

prices, and low confidence. Analyse their interlinkages. Examine how this affects
aggregate demand. Suggest a multidimensional urban policy response. (15 M)

Introduction
Urban households are trapped in a vicious cycle where prices outpace income growth,
eroding both purchasing power and economic sentiment, despite job availability.

11
Body

Interlinkages between stagnant income, rising prices, and low confidence

1. Income-price mismatch: Incomes not rising proportionately with inflation reduces

disposable income.
 Eg: Only 23.8% urban respondents reported higher incomes in RBI
Consumer Confidence Survey, March 2025, while 90% reported price
rise.
2. Pessimism-induced spending cuts: Low confidence discourages discretionary
spending and risk-taking.
 Eg: Consumer Confidence Index (CCI) dipped to its lowest in over a year
as per RBI March 2025 survey.
3. Stagflation-like stress: Employment without wage growth leads to cost-push
pressure and slows economic momentum.
 Eg: EPFO payroll data 2024 shows rising jobs but NSSO PLFS 2023-24
confirms stagnant real wage levels.
4. Debt-driven consumption: Households rely on credit to sustain consumption,
increasing financial fragility.
 Eg: Urban credit card outstanding rose by 28% YoY in RBI Bulletin, Feb
2025.
5. Low confidence affects investment sentiment: Businesses delay expansion due to
weak demand perception.
 Eg: CMIE Business Confidence Index (Q1 2025) fell by 6.2%, citing urban
demand concerns.

Impact on aggregate demand

1. Decline in consumption expenditure: Private Final Consumption Expenditure

(PFCE) slows down.
 Eg: Q3 2024-25 GDP data (MoSPI) shows PFCE growth down to 3.2%,
compared to 7.3% last year.
2. Reduced multiplier effect: Weak consumption reduces derived demand in allied
sectors like logistics, retail.
 Eg: ICRA report (Jan 2025) notes slowdown in urban retail and services
despite economic reopening.
3. Shift to essential goods: Discretionary segments like travel, electronics see
contraction.
 Eg: FICCI Retail Report 2025 indicates 15% decline in non-essential
purchases in urban centres.
4. Higher precautionary savings: Households reduce spending fearing future shocks.
 Eg: Household savings rate rose to 20.4% in 2023-24 (RBI), but
consumption fell.

12
 5. Widening urban inequality: Informal workers see stagnant income while formal
salaried retain stability.
 Eg: ILO India Urban Labour Report 2024 warns of rising Gini coefficient
in urban pockets.

Multidimensional urban policy response

1. Wage-linked employment programmes: Urban MGNREGA-like schemes to

support real incomes.
 Eg: National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) can be expanded to
incorporate guaranteed workdays.
2. Targeted urban inflation management: Improve supply chains for food and housing
in cities.
 Eg: Urban Food Inflation reached 9.1% in Feb 2025 (RBI); calls for City
Grain Buffer Schemes.
3. Skill-wage realignment: Link skilling programmes with high-paying gig and formal
job sectors.
 Eg: MoHUA’s PAiSA Dashboard 2025 shows uptake of low-wage skilling
without matching employment.
4. Credit-linked consumption support: Urban consumption credit with moratoriums
for low-income households.
 Eg: Karnataka Urban Credit Scheme 2024 offers interest subvention for
urban poor on small loans.
5. Confidence-enhancing fiscal signalling: Increase direct benefit transfers and tax
rebates for urban middle class.
 Eg: Budget 2025-26 proposed urban tax relief slab and expansion of PM
Garib Kalyan Yojana to urban beneficiaries.

Conclusion
Urban India’s economic stress is silent but systemic. A demand-revival strategy that targets
incomes, prices, and perceptions together can restore urban economic dynamism.

Q. “AI may promise productivity, but it risks hardwiring structural gender gaps
into the future of work”. Examine the impact of generative AI on women’s
employment. Suggest inclusive transition strategies. (10 M)

Introduction
Generative AI is fast transforming labour markets, but its disruptive nature is exposing and
entrenching pre-existing gender inequalities, especially in tech-driven job ecosystems and
leadership pathways.

Body

Impact of generative AI on women’s employment

13
 1. Job displacement in feminised sectors: AI is automating back-end services, data
entry, customer care—sectors with high female employment.
o Eg: As per WEF Gender Parity in the Intelligent Age (2025), women are
overrepresented in roles most vulnerable to generative AI automation like
clerical and administrative jobs.
2. Widening skills gap in AI and tech: Women are underrepresented in emerging AI
domains due to historical STEM participation gaps.
o Eg: LinkedIn-WEF 2025 report shows women make up only 28% of AI-
skilled professionals globally despite narrowing trends.
3. Underrepresentation in AI design and leadership: Male-dominated teams design
most AI tools, embedding biases into algorithms.
o Eg: Only 12.2% of C-suite roles in STEM fields were held by women in
2024 (Global Gender Gap Report 2025).
4. Algorithmic bias in recruitment: AI-powered hiring tools may replicate gender
stereotypes unless audited for fairness.
o Eg: Fortune 500 companies use automation in hiring, often mirroring gender
bias in training data (WEF 2025).
5. Reduced access to career augmentation via AI: Women lag behind in adopting AI-
enhanced productivity tools, affecting career progression.
o Eg: A McKinsey 2023 study found men are 1.4 times more likely to adopt
AI tools for upskilling.

Inclusive transition strategies for equitable AI integration

1. Gender-responsive skilling initiatives: Launch targeted AI and data science skilling

for women with mentoring pipelines.
o Eg: NSDC–UN Women India (2024) AI skilling program trained over
10,000 women in Tier-II cities for entry-level AI jobs.
2. Bias audits and explainable AI frameworks: Mandate regular gender audits of
algorithms to ensure fairness.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Responsible AI Guidelines (2023) recommend fairness,
transparency, and non-discrimination in public AI systems.
3. Incentivised hiring and retention policies: Provide fiscal incentives to companies
for gender-diverse hiring and leadership quotas in AI fields.
o Eg: Israel’s She Codes program links tax incentives to women-in-tech
quotas, leading to a 20% increase in tech sector female hiring.
4. AI curriculum in women-centric institutions: Integrate emerging tech courses in
women's colleges and ITIs to bridge the access gap.
o Eg: Delhi Government (2024) introduced AI modules in 30 women's
polytechnic colleges under Skill India Mission.
5. Gender-sensitive digital public infrastructure: Design DPI to enable inclusive
participation of women in the AI economy.
o Eg: Aadhaar-enabled e-learning platforms under PMKVY 4.0 are being
modified to improve female drop-out recovery (MSDE 2024).

14
Conclusion
A gender-blind AI revolution will deepen labour market exclusion. Embedding equity in AI
governance today is essential to ensure that tomorrow’s tech economy empowers—not
marginalises—half the population.

Q. How do contingent liabilities and off-budget borrowings pose hidden fiscal

risks? Why must they be incorporated into fiscal sustainability assessments?
Recommend tools to transparently measure such liabilities. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s official debt data underrepresents actual fiscal pressure, as states increasingly rely on
off-budget channels and guarantees that don’t appear in budget documents. These shadow
liabilities amplify long-term fiscal risks.

Body

Hidden fiscal risks from contingent liabilities and off-budget borrowings

1. Deferred fiscal burden: Off-budget borrowings postpone liabilities, misrepresenting

fiscal deficit and violating transparency.
o Eg: FCI borrowed ₹1.8 lakh crore (FY21) through NSSF loans, keeping
food subsidy off-budget (CAG Report, 2022).
2. Encouragement of inefficient borrowing: State guarantees to PSUs incentivize
reckless borrowing without accountability.
o Eg: TANGEDCO's state-backed debt crossed ₹1 lakh crore, later requiring
bailout (RBI State Finances, 2022).
3. Crowding out fiscal space: Interest liabilities on hidden borrowings reduce funds
available for development expenditure.
o Eg: Punjab’s power sector liabilities raised state’s effective debt-to-GSDP
ratio beyond 50% (15th Finance Commission, Vol. 1).
4. Risks to credit ratings and investor confidence: Unrecorded liabilities heighten
sovereign risk, raising borrowing costs.
o Eg: Moody’s flagged implicit liabilities in India’s debt profile during
COVID stimulus evaluation (Moody's Report, 2021).
5. Inter-generational fiscal stress: Repayment obligations for off-budget borrowings
burden future budgets.
o Eg: Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) transferred discom debt to
state accounts over time, delaying the impact (NITI Aayog, 2023).

Need for inclusion in fiscal sustainability assessments

1. Ensures holistic debt monitoring: Incorporating contingent liabilities reveals true

fiscal vulnerability.

15
 o Eg: 15th Finance Commission recommended risk-weighted disclosure of
guarantees (Volume II, 2020).
2. Improves inter-state comparability: Adjusted liabilities help compare state fiscal
prudence on a uniform scale.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Fiscal Health Index ignored off-budget debt, overstating
UP and Bihar’s fiscal scores (April 2025 Report).
3. Protects against systemic defaults: Recognising PSU and power sector liabilities
helps preempt cascading defaults.
o Eg: Rajasthan’s SEB debt triggered risk concerns for banks with high
exposure (RBI Bulletin, Jan 2024).

Tools to transparently measure hidden liabilities

1. Comprehensive Fiscal Risk Statement: Mandate a separate annex in state budgets

detailing off-budget borrowings and guarantees.
o Eg: New Zealand’s fiscal risk framework includes long-term contingent
liabilities and probabilistic cost modelling.
2. Guarantee redemption fund: Institutionalise a fund to finance invoked guarantees
without disrupting budgets.
o Eg: RBI recommended Guarantee Redemption Funds under its State
Borrowing Guidelines (2022).
3. Uniform reporting templates: Implement standardised formats for states to report
off-budget liabilities to CAG.
o Eg: CAG’s ‘State Audit Reports’ (2023) recommended uniform
classification and disclosure norms.
4. Audit-backed disclosures: Empower CAG to audit PSUs’ contingent liabilities and
include them in state audit reports.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh CAG report (2021) revealed hidden liabilities worth
₹57,000 crore in state entities.
5. Integrated debt dashboards: Use real-time dashboards that include all liabilities—
budgeted, off-budget, and contingent.
o Eg: World Bank’s Debt Management Performance Assessment (DeMPA)
uses dashboard-based transparency tools.

Conclusion
India’s path to sustainable federal finances lies in fiscal transparency. Recognising and
measuring hidden liabilities is not just about numbers—it’s about building trust, ensuring
accountability, and safeguarding future growth.

16
Q. Evaluate how outdated credit rating methodologies distort capital access for
developing countries. Suggest structural reforms for credit rating institutions.
(10 M)

Introduction
Credit rating agencies, originally designed to assess creditworthiness, now often act as
gatekeepers of global finance, penalising developing countries with flawed, one-size-fits-all
metrics.

Body

How outdated credit rating methodologies distort capital access

1. Pro-cyclicality of ratings: Ratings often decline during downturns, increasing

borrowing costs when support is most needed.
o Eg: Sri Lanka was downgraded during its 2022 crisis, triggering capital flight
and delaying IMF engagement, despite restructuring efforts.
2. Neglect of development spending: Investments in health, education, and climate are
seen as fiscal risks, not assets.
o Eg: UNDP 2023 highlighted that climate adaptation spending in Pacific
Island nations led to lower ratings, despite enhancing resilience.
3. Overreliance on debt-GDP ratios: Ignores revenue capacity, public investment
efficiency, or external vulnerability factors.
o Eg: Ethiopia faced multiple downgrades despite low external debt stock and
rising tax-GDP ratio (Source: World Bank, 2023).
4. Opaque and biased methodologies: Rating frameworks often prioritise global North
fiscal models, ignoring local context.
o Eg: India’s 2021 economic recovery was not reflected in major agency
upgrades, leading to criticism from the Finance Ministry.
5. Influence of geopolitical interests: Agencies are often US-based and reflect
geopolitical risk perceptions rather than economic fundamentals.
o Eg: Russia’s ratings were downgraded across agencies in 2022 even before
default indicators, raising questions on neutrality.

Structural reforms needed in credit rating institutions

1. SDG-aligned rating frameworks: Incorporate long-term sustainability, climate risk,

and human capital indicators.
o Eg: UN ECOSOC 2025 proposed rating reforms that account for climate-
vulnerable countries’ green investments.
2. Transparent and participatory methodologies: Rating criteria should be disclosed
and involve borrowing countries in consultations.
o Eg: G20 Independent Panel (2021) recommended multi-stakeholder review
of sovereign rating methodologies.

17
 3. Independent oversight mechanism: A multilateral body to audit rating agencies and
address conflicts of interest.
o Eg: IOSCO’s Code of Conduct revision in 2022 pushed for clearer
accountability in sovereign ratings.
4. Regional credit rating alternatives: Encourage credible agencies from Global South
to provide contextual evaluations.
o Eg: ARC Ratings (South-South initiative) includes inputs from African and
Asian economies for balanced assessments.
5. Linking ratings to policy effort and resilience: Credit scores should reward
structural reforms, social investments, and crisis preparedness.
o Eg: IMF's 2024 Sovereign Risk Assessment Tool now integrates fiscal
buffers and social safety nets into analysis.

Conclusion
Without structural overhaul, rating agencies will continue to obstruct affordable development
finance. Democratising their frameworks can unlock fair capital access for the Global South.

Q. What are the global economic and geopolitical factors influencing gold prices?
How do these impact India’s macroeconomic stability? Suggest policy
approaches to insulate the economy from external gold shocks. (15 M)

Introduction
Gold has re-emerged as a strategic asset amid rising global volatility, with prices crossing
$3,500 per ounce in April 2025 (WGC). Its price movements signal deeper macroeconomic
undercurrents, particularly for import-reliant economies like India.

Body

Global economic and geopolitical factors influencing gold prices

1. Geopolitical tensions and conflict zones: Wars, sanctions, and instability trigger risk
aversion and push gold demand up.
 Eg: US-China trade tensions (2024) and Middle East conflicts drove a
surge in gold prices as a safe haven asset.
2. Inflation and monetary policy divergence: Rising inflation with aggressive rate cuts
fuels gold buying as a hedge.
 Eg: Post-SVB collapse (2023), gold gained amid fear of recession and
liquidity easing by the US Fed.
3. Dollar strength and currency depreciation: A weak dollar makes gold cheaper
globally, spiking demand and prices.
 Eg: The DXY index fell below 100 in early 2025, driving up gold globally.
4. Central bank gold buying: Reserve diversification strategies increase global
demand.

18
  Eg: RBI added 72.6 tonnes of gold in 2024 (WGC Q4 2025), second only to
Poland.
5. Speculative trading and ETFs: Investment inflows into gold-backed ETFs create
artificial demand.
 Eg: Inflows into SPDR Gold Shares ETF spiked in Q1 2025 due to market
fears.

Impacts on India’s macroeconomic stability

1. Widening current account deficit: Higher gold imports add to trade imbalance and
drain forex reserves.
 Eg: India imported 974 tonnes of gold in FY24 (DGFT), worsening the CAD
amid oil price rise.
2. Exchange rate volatility: Demand for gold spikes when rupee depreciates, fuelling
further pressure.
 Eg: Gold prices surged when Rupee breached ₹85/USD in March 2025.
3. Crowding out of financial savings: Preference for physical gold reduces
financialization and capital formation.
 Eg: SEBI (2023) noted rural investors moving from SIPs to gold during high
inflation quarters.
4. Tax revenue distortion and smuggling: High gold duties fuel illegal trade and
revenue losses.
 Eg: DRI intercepted ₹1,200 crore of smuggled gold in FY24, a 34% YoY
rise.
5. Increased macroeconomic uncertainty: Dependence on imported gold weakens
resilience to global shocks.
 Eg: RBI Financial Stability Report (Jan 2025) warned of gold’s volatile
impact on inflation and liquidity.

Policy approaches to insulate from external gold shocks

1. Revamp gold monetisation scheme (GMS): Strengthen returns, safety, and liquidity
of GMS to unlock idle gold.
 Eg: KUB Rao Committee (RBI) recommended interest-linked GMS bonds
with insurance coverage.
2. Develop gold-backed financial instruments: Promote Sovereign Gold Bonds
(SGBs) and digital gold via UPI-linked apps.
 Eg: SGB FY25 Tranche 1 saw record demand of ₹8,000 crore amid stock
market volatility.
3. Rationalise import duties and curb smuggling: Reduce duties in tandem with
robust tracking mechanisms.
 Eg: The GST Council (2024) proposed lowering GST on recycled gold from
3% to 1.5%.

19
 4. Strengthen domestic recycling ecosystem: Incentivise hallmarking centres and
refine scrap collection.
 Eg: GJEPC 2025 estimates only 20% of recyclable gold is currently tapped.
5. Diversify forex and reduce dependency: Use a mix of commodities and SDR
allocations to manage reserves.
 Eg: IMF Article IV Consultation (2024) suggested India diversify beyond
gold in reserve management.

Conclusion
India’s gold story is not just cultural but macroeconomic. To shield the economy from gold-
induced vulnerabilities, systemic formalisation, financial innovation, and smarter reserve
strategies are the way forward.

Q. India’s start-up ecosystem suffers from a crisis of imagination, not resources.

Comment. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s start-up ecosystem boasts numbers but lacks inclusive depth—it mimics external
models and sidelines transformative grassroots innovation.

Body

Dimensions of the crisis of imagination in India’s start-up ecosystem

1. Consumerist bias over developmental innovation: Start-ups prioritise elite urban

markets over solving grassroots socio-economic challenges.
o Eg: In 2023, over 90% of venture funding went into e-commerce, FinTech,
and urban tech, while sectors like agriculture, skilling, and rural health were
underfunded (Invest India Report 2024).
2. Mimicry of foreign tech paradigms: Innovation is modelled after Silicon Valley or
China, limiting originality suited to Indian realities.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s “R&D Vision 2035” (2023) urged India to replicate
China’s DeepTech strategy, reflecting catch-up rather than indigenous
vision.
3. Exclusion of marginalised India: Innovation narratives largely ignore caste-
marginalised, tribal, and rural voices.
o Eg: Blume Ventures’ Indus Valley Report 2024 classified India-2 and
India-3 as passive recipients, not participants in techno-innovation.
4. Short-termism in funding models: Start-up investments favour fast scalability and
exits over deep, exploratory research.
o Eg: India lacks equivalents of Canada’s public funding for foundational AI
research that enabled OpenAI, due to minimal public-private R&D blending
(OECD Innovation Outlook 2023).

20
 5. Knowledge ecosystem failure: Weak research infrastructure and lack of public
mentorship stifle bottom-up innovation.
o Eg: Over 40% faculty vacancies in IITs and NITs (as of March 2024, MoE
data), and public library spending is just ₹0.07 per capita, limiting creative
experimentation.

Signs of imaginative innovation are emerging

1. Digital public goods leadership: India leads in creating scalable public digital
infrastructure.
o Eg: The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is now adopted by 5+ countries
(as of 2024) and recognised by IMF for inclusive financial access.
2. Grassroots entrepreneurship models: Local innovations are gaining recognition
through state-supported platforms.
o Eg: Manipur's Start-Up Scheme (2023) supported ethnic women-led food
processing enterprises, blending tech with traditional knowledge.
3. Tech for welfare innovation: Start-ups are innovating in public health, agri-tech, and
social welfare domains.
o Eg: CropIn and AarogyaAI have applied AI and data for agriculture and
TB diagnostics, with global partnerships (BIRAC 2024 report).

Way forward – Reimagining an inclusive innovation ecosystem

1. Strengthen local knowledge and mentorship systems: Build libraries, tinkering

labs, and university–community linkages in small towns.
o Eg: Kerala’s Little Kites Programme trains school students in coding and
electronics with state support.
2. Democratise innovation governance: Involve gig workers, artisans, and rural
communities in start-up policy design.
o Eg: Karnataka’s Beyond Bengaluru initiative (2024) includes non-metro
entrepreneurs in planning innovation clusters.
3. Link welfare schemes with R&D strategy: Integrate MSME, PLI, and digital
skilling with long-term innovation policies.
o Eg: The PLI scheme for electronics includes an R&D localisation clause
(2023 Budget speech).
4. Create state-led regional innovation missions: Encourage each state to chart its own
DeepTech and inclusive innovation priorities.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Innovation Grand Challenge 2024 funds local DeepTech
aligned to SDGs and state needs.

Conclusion
India must unlock its true potential by moving from replication to reinvention, making
innovation a participatory national movement grounded in local realities and collective
imagination.

21
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.
Government Budgeting.

Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, -

different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage,
transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and
related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Q. Assess the interlinkages between irrigation systems and regional inequality in
agricultural productivity. How can modern irrigation planning address these
disparities? (15 M)

Introduction
India's irrigation disparity is not just a water issue—it is a root cause of spatial inequality in
agricultural outcomes and rural prosperity.

Body

Interlinkages between irrigation systems and regional inequality

1. Concentration of irrigation infrastructure: A few states dominate irrigation

coverage, leaving others chronically under-irrigated.
o Eg: Punjab and Haryana have over 80% net sown area irrigated, while
Marathwada region has less than 10% (MoA&FW, 2023).
2. Skewed cropping intensity: Regions with assured irrigation show higher cropping
intensity and yields.
o Eg: Indo-Gangetic Plains have >180% cropping intensity, whereas
Bundelkhand reports ~120% (ICAR, 2023).
3. Monsoon dependence in backward regions: Poor irrigation leads to vulnerability to
erratic rainfall and agrarian distress.
o Eg: Vidarbha region, with minimal irrigation, sees frequent droughts and
farmer suicides (NCRB, 2022).
4. Exclusion from MSP procurement: Rainfed farmers growing coarse cereals often
lack procurement and price assurance.
o Eg: Tribal farmers in Odisha and Jharkhand face low income due to poor
MSP outreach (CACP Report, 2022).
5. Energy-irrigation trap and regional distortion: Some states overexploit
groundwater while others lack basic irrigation infrastructure.
o Eg: 70% of Punjab’s blocks are over-exploited, while Bastar
(Chhattisgarh) has untapped potential (CGWB, 2023).
6. Policy legacy of regional neglect: Green Revolution-era policies bypassed backward
and tribal regions.

22
 o Eg: M.S. Swaminathan Task Force (2006) highlighted Eastern India’s
under-irrigated status, still largely unaddressed.
7. Agri-income inequality across regions: Irrigation gaps translate directly into income
disparities.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2021) shows irrigated regions earn 3–5x more than rain-
fed counterparts.

How modern irrigation planning can address these disparities

1. Decentralised micro-irrigation systems: Promote drip and sprinkler irrigation in

water-scarce and backward regions.
o Eg: Per Drop More Crop under PMKSY improved groundnut yield by
40% in Saurashtra (MoA, 2022).
2. Revival of traditional water bodies: Tank irrigation and watershed development
improve regional water sustainability.
o Eg: Mission Kakatiya, Telangana revived 45,000+ tanks, enhancing
groundwater recharge.
3. Region-specific irrigation budgeting: Use data tools for targeted planning and
resource allocation.
o Eg: NRSC’s Watershed Atlas supports real-time planning in Shekhawati
(Rajasthan).
4. Irrigation-linked MSP and procurement: Incentivise climate-resilient crops in
under-irrigated areas through market support.
o Eg: Odisha Millet Mission raised tribal incomes by 30% via ragi
procurement (IFPRI, 2023).
5. Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM): Empower local communities via
Water User Associations (WUAs).
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s WUAs under APFMIS Act, 1997 improved
efficiency by 20% (World Bank, 2021).
6. Agri-logistics integration with irrigation: Align irrigation planning with
downstream market and infrastructure needs.
o Eg: PM Gati Shakti integrated irrigated clusters with logistics hubs in
Malwa, MP.
7. Balanced funding and governance: Ensure central funding aligns with local
implementation via strengthened panchayati oversight.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission recommended performance-based irrigation
grants under Article 243G.

Conclusion
Bridging India’s irrigation divide is not just about pipes and pumps—it is about
democratising agricultural prosperity through data-driven, inclusive, and region-specific
planning.

23
Q. How do Agri-startups contribute to solving the last-mile challenges in Indian
agriculture? What funding and policy bottlenecks do they face? Evaluate their
role in bridging technology gaps for small farmers. (15 M)

Introduction

India hosts over 1,700 Agri-tech startups (DPIIT, 2024), which are emerging as crucial
players in transforming agriculture by bridging the last-mile delivery, enhancing market
access, and promoting technology penetration among small and marginal farmers.

Body

Contribution of agri-startups in solving last-mile challenges

1. Supply chain optimization: Startups ensure direct market linkages and real-time
logistics for perishable produce.
o Eg: Ninjacart connects farmers to retailers using AI-based demand
prediction, reducing wastage by 25% (NITI Aayog, 2023).
2. Access to quality inputs: Digital platforms facilitate timely delivery of certified
seeds, fertilizers, and agrochemicals.
o Eg: AgroStar provides agri-inputs via app and call-centres, reaching over 5
million farmers across 10 states.
3. Advisory and precision farming: Startups offer weather-linked, soil-based, and
crop-specific advisories using AI/IoT.
o Eg: CropIn uses satellite analytics and AI for farm-level insights, improving
yield by up to 30% (ICRISAT Report, 2023).
4. Credit and insurance inclusion: Fintech-agri startups improve farmer access to
formal credit and risk mitigation tools.
o Eg: Samunnati provides credit scoring models to banks, enabling collateral-
free loans to smallholder farmers.
5. Market transparency and price discovery: Platforms enable real-time price
comparison and fair auctioning of produce.
o Eg: DeHaat facilitates direct B2B transactions across 12,000+ FPOs,
enhancing farmer margins by 20–25%.

Funding and policy bottlenecks faced by agri-startups

1. Limited access to patient capital: Agri-startups face difficulty attracting long-

gestation venture funding.
o Eg: As per Bain & Company (2023), only 2% of total startup funding in
India went to the agri-tech sector.
2. Inadequate regulatory clarity: Lack of standardised norms around digital advisories,
input sales, and data usage hinders scale.

24
 o Eg: Absence of a uniform Agri-Data Policy leads to hesitance in sharing
satellite or farm-level data with startups.
3. Weak linkages with public infrastructure: Limited access to APMC yards, cold
storages, and warehousing affects delivery.
o Eg: Only 15% of agri-startups were able to partner with the e-NAM platform
due to integration gaps (CACP Report, 2022).
4. Neglect in rural innovation policy: Startups in rural/agricultural domains are
underrepresented in major innovation schemes.
o Eg: Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (SISFS) supported only 6% agri-tech
firms among beneficiaries (DPIIT, 2023).
5. High GST on agri-services: Input and service-based agri-startups face pricing
barriers due to 18% GST on several digital services.
o Eg: FICCI (2023) recommended GST rationalisation for agri-digital
advisory services to promote affordability.

Role of agri-startups in bridging technology gaps for small farmers

1. Digital inclusion and skilling: Startups use vernacular apps and voice-tech to bring
tech access to non-literate farmers.
o Eg: KisanKonnect uses voice-enabled Marathi apps, increasing adoption of
weather alerts and advisories by 40%.
2. Affordable mechanisation: Equipment-sharing models provide access to modern
tools without high capital costs.
o Eg: EM3 Agri Services offers ‘pay-per-use’ tractors and harvesters,
reaching 3 lakh+ farmers (Planning Commission Case Study).
3. Decentralised cold chains and processing: Tech-based mini cold storages and on-
farm processing improve post-harvest value.
o Eg: Tan90 provides IoT-enabled portable cold chains, reducing spoilage
losses by up to 35%.
4. Satellite-based crop monitoring: Precision agri-startups help monitor crop health
and water stress efficiently.
o Eg: SatSure uses high-resolution imagery to detect pest outbreaks and offer
targeted solutions in real-time.
5. Integration with government platforms: Startups collaborate with agri portals to
ensure outreach and policy alignment.
o Eg: AgNext partnered with MoAFW to provide AI-based quality testing in
e-NAM mandis, reducing disputes.

Conclusion

Agri-startups are redefining the future of Indian agriculture, but to unlock their full potential,
a convergent policy ecosystem, targeted public investment, and inclusive regulatory
frameworks must be prioritised.

25
Q. How has the prolonged use of GM crops in India contributed to a rebound in
pesticide dependence? Analyse the role of pest resistance and monoculture
cropping. Propose structural shifts in pest management strategies. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s GM crop trajectory, particularly since the introduction of Bt cotton in 2002, began
with a promise of reduced pesticide use but has paradoxically triggered a cycle of chemical
dependency due to ecological and systemic failures.

Body

Rebound in pesticide dependence due to GM crop use

1. Secondary pest outbreak: Initial bollworm control led to a surge in other pests like
whiteflies and mealybugs.
o Eg: Punjab and Haryana saw whitefly outbreaks post-2015 causing heavy
pesticide spraying and crop loss (ICAR-CICR 2016).
2. Pest resistance development: Constant exposure led to bollworms evolving
resistance to Bt toxin.
o Eg: A 2020 ICAR-CICR study confirmed bollworm resistance in
Maharashtra and Gujarat, pushing farmers to increase pesticide usage.
3. Higher cumulative pesticide cost: Input costs for farmers rose significantly due to
rebound spraying.
o Eg: By 2018, pesticide spending on cotton rose by 37% over pre-Bt levels
(Kranthi & Stone, Journal of Agrarian Change, 2025).
4. Increased dependency on single traits: Focus on Bt traits sidelined broader
Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
o Eg: Over 95% of cotton area under Bt hybrids by 2022, creating
vulnerability to pest mutation .
5. Inadequate post-release surveillance: Lack of regulatory feedback mechanisms led
to unchecked adoption and misuse.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture (2021) flagged
absence of GM crop impact audits.

Role of pest resistance and monoculture cropping

1. Monoculture encourages rapid pest adaptation: Uniform cropping weakens

ecological barriers.
o Eg: Central India’s cotton belts shifted entirely to Bt varieties by 2015,
accelerating resistance buildup (ICAR).
2. Displacement of natural pest predators: GM-centric systems ignore agroecological
balances.
o Eg: Decline of ladybird beetles and parasitoids in Bt fields recorded in
Andhra Pradesh (NAAS Report, 2021).

26
 3. Genetic uniformity reduces resilience: High genetic similarity in GM crops allows
faster pest colonization.
o Eg: Cotton fields with stacked Bt genes were more vulnerable to pink
bollworm outbreaks in Rajasthan (CICR data, 2023).
4. Reduced crop rotation practices: GM adoption locks farmers into repetitive
cropping cycles.
o Eg: Continuous cotton cultivation in Vidarbha reported by CSE led to
increased insecticide dependence.
5. Herbicide resistance in weed populations: In HT crops, widespread glyphosate use
accelerated weed resistance.
o Eg: Amaranthus species developed glyphosate resistance in HT cotton pilot
zones (ICAR study, 2022).

Structural shifts for sustainable pest management

1. Mainstream agroecological approaches: Promote biodiversity, crop rotation, and

polyculture in GM zones.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming (APCNF)
reduced pesticide use by 25% in pilot clusters (NITI Aayog, 2023).
2. Strengthen regulatory surveillance: Mandate long-term impact audits for all GM
crop trials.
o Eg: Recommended by the Swaminathan Committee (2004) and reiterated by
the SC TEC Report (2012).
3. Incentivise biopesticide adoption: Create credit and insurance-linked support for
non-chemical options.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s 2023 scheme for Neem-based pest management in cotton
fields showed 20% input cost drop.
4. Revive Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Integrate GM traits within multi-
method IPM frameworks.
o Eg: National IPM Programme (2022) has been relaunched with a focus on
Bt-resistant pink bollworm management.
5. Decentralise seed governance: Empower state agriculture universities to certify
region-specific GM variants.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s effort to promote local cotton seed banks via TNAU
reduced pest vulnerability (2024 report).

Conclusion
India’s GM crop model must shift from input-intensification to ecological optimisation. A
future-ready pest strategy must combine science, surveillance, and sustainability to secure
both yields and ecosystems.

27
Q. What are the key objectives behind establishing bio-resource centres under the
National Mission on Natural Farming? Analyse their relevance in promoting self-
reliance in agricultural inputs. Suggest measures to overcome early-stage operational
bottlenecks. (15 M)

Introduction

The launch of the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) in November 2024
marks a critical shift towards promoting sustainable, chemical-free agriculture. Establishing
bio-resource centres (BRCs) is central to ensuring localized, affordable, and accessible bio-
inputs.

Body

Objectives behind establishing bio-resource centres

1. Ensuring localized production of bio-inputs: BRCs aim to produce ready-to-use
natural farming inputs suited to local soils, crops, and agro-climatic conditions.
 Eg: NMNF guidelines 2025 mandate bio-input production based on local
land-use patterns and crop systems.
2. Reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers: BRCs target the replacement of
synthetic fertilizers with organic formulations to improve soil health and biodiversity.
 Eg: FAO’s 2023 Report highlights India’s excessive fertilizer use at over 170
kg/ha, much above the global average.
3. Building farmer knowledge and capacities: BRCs serve as knowledge hubs for
training farmers in preparation, dosage, and application of natural bio-inputs.
 Eg: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) experience showed
training gaps delayed organic adoption; BRCs aim to fill this.
4. Facilitating cluster-based transition models: BRCs promote community-based
models for scaling natural farming in a cluster of villages.
 Eg: Budget 2023-24 announcement envisaged 10,000 BRCs supporting
farmer producer organizations (FPOs).
5. Promoting rural entrepreneurship: They provide livelihood opportunities through
decentralized bio-input enterprises.
 Eg: Odisha’s bio-input startups under Organic Farming Policy 2018
enhanced rural incomes by 15–20% in pilot areas.

Relevance in promoting self-reliance in agricultural inputs

1. Strengthening input sovereignty: Farmers become producers of their own organic

fertilizers and biopesticides, reducing external dependency.
 Eg: Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) model in Andhra Pradesh has
demonstrated 20–25% input cost savings (NITI Aayog Report 2022).

28
 2. Encouraging sustainable farming systems: Use of bio-inputs enhances soil fertility,
water retention, and crop resilience naturally.
 Eg: CSE’s 2024 study found natural farming plots in Himachal Pradesh
reported 10% higher soil organic carbon than chemical farming plots.
3. Democratizing agricultural innovation: Small and marginal farmers gain access to
indigenous bio-input technologies through BRCs.
 Eg: Krishi Sakhis initiative 2025 aims to train 30,000 rural women in natural
farming techniques leveraging BRCs.
4. Reducing import burden of fertilizers: Domestic bio-input production lessens
reliance on imported chemical fertilizers, saving foreign exchange.
 Eg: Fertilizer imports cost India over USD 12 billion annually (Economic
Survey 2023-24).
5. Enhancing resilience against market shocks: Bio-input based farming shields
farmers from volatile chemical fertilizer prices.
 Eg: Urea price volatility during Russia-Ukraine war severely impacted
small farmers' profitability in 2022.

Measures to overcome early-stage operational bottlenecks

1. Enhancing initial financial outlay: Increase per BRC support beyond the current Rs
1 lakh, considering land, infrastructure, and raw material costs.
 Eg: Azim Premji University analysis 2025 flagged financial inadequacy for
infrastructure setup.
2. Building common infrastructure support: States should facilitate low-cost
infrastructure like fermentation sheds and storage units through convergence with
existing schemes.
 Eg: National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) convergence successfully
provided infrastructure to women agri-entrepreneurs.
3. Capacity-building of entrepreneurs: Mandatory training on bio-input preparation,
quality control, and marketing should be institutionalized.
 Eg: Committee on Doubling Farmers’ Income 2018 emphasized need for
continuous skill development of rural entrepreneurs.
4. Ensuring quality assurance mechanisms: Establish district-level labs for periodic
testing of BRC products to maintain farmer trust.
 Eg: Organic Certification Council of Sikkim ensured strict bio-input quality
checks, aiding its 100% organic status.
5. Promoting backward and forward linkages: Link BRCs with input suppliers,
farmers, FPOs, and marketing platforms for steady raw material supply and assured
sales.
 Eg: Cluster Facilitation Teams under PM-FME scheme created successful
value chains for micro food enterprises.

29
 6. Incentivizing adoption through demonstration farms: Demonstration of successful
natural farming practices around BRCs to create trust among farmers.
 Eg: Rythu Sadhikara Samstha (RySS) in Andhra Pradesh used model
farms to showcase ZBNF outcomes.
7. Digital support systems: Use mobile apps and online platforms to provide real-time
advisory on bio-input preparation and usage.
 Eg: Kisan Sarathi app by ICAR offers localized agricultural advisories to
farmers.
Conclusion

To realize the vision of Atmanirbharta in agriculture, BRCs must be empowered beyond

token financial support. A robust ecosystem combining finance, infrastructure, skilling, and
quality assurance can unlock a silent revolution in natural farming.

Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum

support prices; Public Distribution System-objectives,
functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and
food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.
Q. Why is the adoption of decentralised renewable energy crucial for
agricultural mechanisation? Evaluate its role in reducing input costs and
boosting farmer incomes. Examine long-term sustainability impacts. (15 M)

Introduction

The energy-mechanisation nexus in agriculture is critical for productivity. Decentralised

renewable energy systems offer affordable and scalable power alternatives in off-grid and
energy-deficit regions.

Body

Importance of DRE for agricultural mechanisation

1. Bridges rural energy deficit: Enables mechanisation in remote, off-grid areas where
grid extension is unviable.
o Eg: Only 18% rural energy access in Malawi (IRENA, 2025); India's PM-
KUSUM solar pumps aid 2.5 lakh farmers (MNRE, 2023).
2. Powers small-scale mechanisation: DRE supports mini-irrigation pumps, threshers,
sprayers and cold storage at farm level.
o Eg: SELCO Foundation’s solar millet processors reduced manual labour
for tribal women in Karnataka.
3. Reduces diesel dependency: Cuts reliance on fossil fuel-based pumps, which are
costly and polluting.

30
 o Eg: CSE report (2023) shows solar-powered micro-irrigation can reduce
diesel use by 70% per farm in eastern UP.
4. Facilitates precision agriculture: Solar + IoT-enabled pumps and sensors improve
input efficiency.
o Eg: Khethworks (Bihar) uses low-lift solar pumps with soil-moisture sensing
tech for smallholder farms.
5. Enables off-season cultivation: Reliable power for irrigation helps in multi-cropping
and cash crop cycles.
o Eg: Solar cold storages by Ecozen helped farmers in Maharashtra shift from
seasonal to year-round vegetable cultivation.

Impact on reducing input costs and increasing income

1. Lower energy expenses: Solar power cuts recurring fuel/electricity bills.

o Eg: Punjab Agri University study (2023) shows Rs 20,000 annual savings
per hectare due to solar pump adoption.
2. Improves post-harvest efficiency: DRE-based cold storage and dryers reduce
spoilage, boosting net returns.
o Eg: TIDE India’s solar dryers cut crop loss by 30% for areca nut farmers in
Karnataka.
3. Supports value addition at source: Enables on-site processing like grinding,
milking, packaging etc.
o Eg: Barefoot College (Rajasthan) supports solar-powered flour mills in
tribal villages for local sale.
4. Reduces time & labour costs: Mechanisation reduces manual labour needs, saving
time and enabling income diversification.
o Eg: AgriVoltaics pilots in Gujarat allow dual land use for crops and solar,
giving Rs 40,000+ per year extra income.
5. Promotes input efficiency: Precision-enabled pumps and systems reduce water, seed
and fertiliser waste.
o Eg: IWMI (2022) showed 50% fertiliser savings with solar micro-irrigation
in Tamil Nadu delta.

Long-term sustainability impacts

1. Lowers carbon footprint: Replaces diesel and coal-based grid power, supporting
climate targets.
o Eg: India’s PM-KUSUM aims to save 27 million tonnes of CO₂ annually
(MNRE, 2023).
2. Reduces groundwater exploitation: Smart solar pumps with timers and sensors
prevent over-irrigation.
o Eg: Punjab Solarisation Pilot reduced tubewell overuse by 40%, ensuring
groundwater recharge.

31
 3. Boosts rural employment in energy sector: Creates jobs in solar installation, O&M,
and agri-tech services.
o Eg: IRENA report (2024) notes 1.3 million rural energy jobs can be created
in Africa via DRE-led agriculture.
4. Enables climate adaptation: Energy-resilient mechanisation shields farmers from
erratic monsoons.
o Eg: Solar-powered aquaculture in Odisha helped sustain fish yields during
extended drought in 2023.
5. Improves ecosystem services: Agro-DRE integration encourages low-input farming
with better soil, water use.
o Eg: RECLAIM Network’s solar-agriculture pilots in Kenya improved soil
moisture retention and crop diversity.

Conclusion

Decentralised renewable energy is not merely a power solution but a rural transformation
catalyst. Scaling such models through public investment, policy incentives, and energy-
finance convergence can secure an inclusive, climate-resilient agricultural future.

Q. Can aquaculture help India meet its nutrition and livelihood goals
simultaneously? What are the critical gaps in India’s aquaculture supply chain?
(10 M)

Introduction
Aquaculture has emerged as a strategic sector to address protein malnutrition and generate
rural employment, yet faces systemic constraints that limit its dual impact.

Body

Aquaculture for nutrition and livelihoods

1. Nutritional security through affordable protein: Fish is a rich source of protein and
micronutrients vital for undernourished populations.
 Eg:– As per NFHS-5 (2021), over 35% of Indian children under 5 are
stunted; ICMR recommends enhanced fish intake for bridging protein
deficiency.
2. Employment generation across value chain: Aquaculture supports jobs across
hatcheries, feed supply, harvesting, and retailing, especially in coastal and rural belts.
 Eg:– CMFRI (2023) estimates over 28 million livelihoods are directly or
indirectly supported by fisheries in India.
3. Enhancing small farmer incomes: Low input requirement makes aquaculture viable
for marginal farmers to diversify income and reduce risk.
 Eg:– Odisha’s Mission Shakti SHGs use community ponds for fish farming,
significantly increasing women’s household income.

32
 4. Policy synergy for inclusive growth: Targeted schemes link productivity, nutritional
access, and economic development.
 Eg:– PM Matsya Sampada Yojana targets 22 MMT fish production by
2024–25 with a ₹20,050 crore investment to improve both nutrition and
income (MoFAHDF, 2023).
5. Support in remote and tribal areas: Cold-water aquaculture and integrated models
enhance dietary diversity in ecologically vulnerable zones.
 Eg:– ICAR-DCFR initiatives in Uttarakhand helped tribal households
diversify diets and incomes via trout farming.

Critical gaps in India’s aquaculture supply chain

1. Fragmented and informal farming systems: Lack of standardised practices leads to

productivity loss and disease vulnerability.
 Eg:– CAG Report on Marine Fisheries (2022) highlighted weak disease
control mechanisms in Andhra Pradesh’s aquaculture clusters.
2. Poor cold chain and logistics: Inadequate infrastructure results in high post-harvest
losses and market volatility.
 Eg:– MPEDA (2023) observed up to 25% losses in inland aquaculture due to
absence of cold storage and insulated transport.
3. Limited access to markets and price discovery: Middlemen dominate marketing,
leading to low realisation for producers.
 Eg:– Study by CSEP (2024) found that shrimp farmers received only 38–42%
of final consumer prices due to opaque supply chains.
4. Financial and insurance bottlenecks: High risk and lack of customised products
limit formal credit and coverage.
 Eg:– Shanta Kumar Committee (2015) flagged the need for sector-specific
risk mitigation tools in fisheries.
5. Low adoption of digital tools: Despite potential, IT-enabled solutions in farm
management, disease monitoring, and logistics remain underutilised.
 Eg:– Only 12% of shrimp farmers used farm-management apps as per ICAR-
CIFE study (2023) on digital aquaculture uptake.

Conclusion
To achieve its full potential, aquaculture must be embedded in a tech-enabled, value-driven
ecosystem that empowers farmers and nourishes the nation. Strategic digital and
infrastructure investments are the way forward.

33
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and
significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements,
supply chain management.
Q. How do logistics and cold chain infrastructure affect agricultural exports in
India? What are the key bottlenecks in expanding this infrastructure? (10 M)

Introduction
Agricultural exports, especially perishables, are highly sensitive to time and temperature.
Without efficient logistics and cold chain systems, India's agri-export competitiveness suffers
drastically.

Body

Impact of logistics and cold chain infrastructure on agricultural exports

1. Prevents post-harvest losses: Inadequate cold storage leads to spoilage during

transit.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2023) estimated 30–40% loss in fruits & vegetables due to
inefficient logistics.
2. Enhances product quality and shelf-life: Cold chain ensures quality compliance
with global phytosanitary standards.
o Eg: Mango exports to the US increased post VHT facility setup in
Maharashtra (APEDA, 2023).
3. Boosts farmers' income through export diversification: Efficient infrastructure
enables export of high-value perishables.
o Eg: Kinnow exports from Punjab to UAE (2024) increased after setting up
of reefer vans and packhouses.
4. Improves reliability in global markets: Timely delivery via multimodal logistics
builds India's credibility as a supplier.
o Eg: India–Bangladesh cross-border reefer corridor (2022) enhanced dairy
exports from Assam (FIEO).
5. Enables integration with global value chains: Cold logistics supports backward
linkages and traceability in exports.
o Eg: Mega Food Parks with cold storage in Gujarat and Maharashtra
(MoFPI, 2023) attract global retailers.

Key bottlenecks in expanding logistics and cold chain infrastructure

1. Fragmented supply chains and lack of integration: Multiple stakeholders lead to

coordination failures.
o Eg: Standing Committee on Agriculture (2023) flagged lack of “end-to-end
cold chain connectivity”.

34
 2. High capital and operational costs: Cold chain setup and running costs deter private
sector investment.
o Eg: Planning Commission report (2022) cited 30% higher OPEX in cold
logistics vs dry chain.
3. Power unreliability and poor rural infrastructure: Cold storage units need
uninterrupted electricity supply.
o Eg: In Bihar (2023), 80% of cold storage units operate below capacity due to
power fluctuations (MNRE).
4. Inadequate last-mile connectivity: Poor rural roads affect access to primary
collection centers.
o Eg: FAO-India report (2023) found 25% loss in milk during transport in
North-East due to poor rural logistics.
5. Limited access to institutional credit and insurance: MSMEs face hurdles in
funding logistics infra projects.
o Eg: Dalwai Committee (2018) recommended priority sector lending for
cold chain; still under-implemented (RBI data 2024).

Conclusion
Without robust logistics and cold chains, India's agri-export dream will remain undercooled.
A dedicated national mission on cold chain with PPP and last-mile rural integration is the
need of the hour.

Land reforms in India.

Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial
policy and their effects on industrial growth.
Q. Why is increasing the share of manufacturing in GDP vital for India's long-
term economic strategy? Identify the structural and institutional bottlenecks
impeding this growth. Suggest reforms to align manufacturing expansion with
the goals of Viksit Bharat by 2047. (15 M)

Introduction
Manufacturing catalyses economic transformation by generating productive jobs, deepening
industrial linkages, and enabling global competitiveness—key for a self-reliant and
developed India by 2047.

Body

Importance of increasing manufacturing share in GDP

1. Demographic dividend absorption: Labour-intensive manufacturing can employ

India's large youth population.

35
 o Eg: PLFS 2022-23 shows unemployment among graduates remains over 15%,
reflecting underutilised human capital.
2. Import dependence reduction: Enhances self-reliance in critical sectors like
semiconductors, defence, and energy.
o Eg: India imports over 90% of its semiconductors and solar components
(Ministry of Commerce, 2024).
3. Global supply chain integration: High-value manufacturing anchors India in global
value chains.
o Eg: Apple shifting iPhone production to India in 2023 increased
electronics exports by 58% (Invest India, 2024).
4. Balanced regional development: Decentralised manufacturing hubs reduce spatial
inequality.
o Eg: Textile parks under PM MITRA scheme being set up in Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, and Gujarat (MoT, 2023).
5. Multiplier effect on services and infrastructure: Stimulates logistics, power, and
design services.
o Eg: NIP (National Infrastructure Pipeline) aligns infrastructure investments
with manufacturing corridors (DEA, 2024).

Structural and institutional bottlenecks

1. Low R&D and innovation ecosystem: Weak patenting, limited industry-academia

linkages hamper competitiveness.
o Eg: India’s GERD is just 0.7% of GDP, far below China’s 2.4% (DST, 2023).
2. Fragmented and costly logistics: Poor multimodal connectivity increases transaction
costs.
o Eg: India's logistics cost is ~14% of GDP vs China’s 8% (NITI Aayog, 2023).
3. Skill-job mismatch: TVET and Skill India schemes not aligned to industry needs.
o Eg: Only 46% of ITI graduates found jobs in 2022-23, showing poor
employability (MSDE Annual Report, 2024).
4. Compliance and regulatory burden: Cumbersome clearance systems deter MSME
scaling.
o Eg: India ranked 63rd in Ease of Doing Business 2020, but compliance time
remains high (World Bank).
5. Credit access constraints for MSMEs: High collateral demand and informal sector
exclusion persists.
o Eg: Only 16% of MSMEs have formal credit access as per SIDBI-Transunion
Report, 2023.

Reforms to align manufacturing with Viksit Bharat goals

1. Sectoral R&D and design missions: Dedicated innovation funds in sunrise sectors.
o Eg: Semicon India programme (2022) offers ₹76,000 crore for
semiconductor manufacturing ecosystem.

36
 2. Plug-and-play infrastructure: Ready-built clusters with logistics, testing and export
facilities.
o Eg: National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP)
building nodes across 11 states (NICDC, 2024).
3. Skill 4.0 alignment: Industry-integrated skilling in robotics, AI, and advanced
manufacturing.
o Eg: FutureSkills Prime by NASSCOM and MeitY has upskilled 4.5 lakh
learners in new-age tech (2024 data).
4. Unified compliance architecture: Digitised single-window systems and
decriminalisation of minor offences.
o Eg: Jan Vishwas Bill 2023 decriminalised over 180 minor compliance
offences across 42 laws (MCA, 2023).
5. Inclusive financing architecture: Extend credit with data-driven underwriting,
priority sector tweaks.
o Eg: Udyam Assist Platform integrated into PSL guidelines by RBI in 2023,
helping formalise micro enterprises.

Conclusion
To realise the Viksit Bharat vision, India must move from being a service-dominated
economy to a resilient manufacturing power. The reforms must converge towards creating
globally competitive, technology-driven and employment-rich ecosystems.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Q. What role can hydrogen play in resolving the intermittency-flexibility
paradox of renewables? How should India plan to scale this integration? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s clean energy transition is hindered by the intermittency of solar and wind and the
inflexibility of base-load systems like coal and nuclear. Hydrogen, when generated from
surplus renewable electricity, offers a vital buffer to bridge this gap.

Body

Role of hydrogen in resolving the intermittency-flexibility paradox

1. Acts as a flexible demand sink: Electrolysers can absorb excess electricity during
high renewable output.
 Eg: IRENA (2023) notes that hydrogen electrolysers can reduce renewable
curtailment by 30–50% when grid-connected.
2. Supports sector coupling: Enables diversion of surplus electricity to industrial
hydrogen use, reducing dependence on fossil inputs.
 Eg: Green Steel Projects in Sweden and Germany use renewable-powered
hydrogen to decarbonise steelmaking.

37
 3. Minimises reliance on battery storage: Offers long-duration storage without lithium
dependence.
 Eg: NREL (2024) found hydrogen storage to be more viable than batteries
for multi-day balancing in high-renewable grids.
4. Avoids costly flexing of base-load plants: Prevents efficiency and cost losses from
flexing coal or nuclear.
 Eg: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (2025) recommends hydrogen-linked
load shaping to stabilise nuclear-rich grids.
5. Provides feedstock and not just energy storage: Ensures economic viability as
hydrogen has multiple downstream industrial uses.
 Eg: India’s Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) targets 5 MTPA hydrogen by
2030 for industries like fertilizers and refineries.

Measures to scale up hydrogen integration in India

1. Broaden hydrogen taxonomy: Include low-carbon hydrogen from nuclear, not just
“green” from RE.
 Eg: NITI Aayog (2024) recommends moving from green to technology-
neutral low-carbon classification.
2. Mandate electrolyser integration in RE projects: Incentivise hybrid RE-H2 models
at grid level.
 Eg: Gujarat Hybrid RE Park plans to install electrolysers co-located with
solar capacity (PIB, 2024).
3. Grid-connected hydrogen hubs: Develop centralised hubs with surplus RE and
industrial offtakers.
 Eg: Germany’s H2Global model facilitates contractual hydrogen trade
through auction-based hubs.
4. Financial de-risking through Viability Gap Funding: Provide capital subsidy for
electrolyser-linked storage.
 Eg: MNRE (2023) allocated ₹19,744 crore under SIGHT scheme for green
hydrogen capex support.
5. R&D in storage and conversion efficiency: Support innovation in high-efficiency
electrolysis and hydrogen transport.
 Eg: CSIR-CECRI and IIT-Madras (2024) developed low-cost PEM
electrolysers using indigenous catalysts.

Conclusion
Hydrogen is India’s strategic bridge between clean generation and stable consumption.
Scaling it with smart policy and grid reform can unlock both industrial decarbonisation and
energy resilience.

38
Q. What are the key bottlenecks in ensuring consistent water quality under Jal
Jeevan Mission? How can innovation and data-driven monitoring address these
issues? (10 M)

Introduction
Ensuring safe and regular potable water under JJM goes beyond infrastructure—it hinges
on quality surveillance, skilled manpower, and real-time data systems, especially in water-
stressed and chemically contaminated regions.

Body

Key bottlenecks in ensuring consistent water quality

1. Inadequate source protection: Many rural sources are exposed to agricultural

runoff, faecal contamination, or industrial effluents.
 Eg: Central Ground Water Board (2023) flagged high nitrate and fluoride
levels in over 80 districts in Rajasthan, Telangana, Assam.
2. Lack of trained testing personnel: Gram panchayats often lack skilled workforce
for regular quality testing or to interpret results.
 Eg: National Jal Jeevan Mission data (Feb 2024) shows that only 46% of
villages had access to trained lab personnel.
3. Poor quality of field test kits: Many villages use basic kits lacking sensitivity to
detect contamination beyond TDS or pH.
 Eg: CAG Report 2023 noted discrepancies in field vs. lab test results in
villages of Bihar and West Bengal.
4. Centralised and delayed lab reporting: Most districts rely on district-level labs
leading to long delays in feedback and action.
 Eg: NITI Aayog (2023) highlighted delays of up to 21 days between testing
and corrective action in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
5. Absence of village-level water surveillance plans: There's weak institutional
mechanism for continuous testing, documentation, and response protocols.
 Eg: Standing Committee on Water Resources (2024) noted absence of
surveillance plans in 60% of blocks.

Role of innovation and data-driven monitoring

1. IoT-based quality sensors: Real-time sensors can track parameters like turbidity,
nitrates, fluoride, and trigger alerts.
 Eg: Start-up ‘Swajal’ deployed IoT sensors in Uttar Pradesh (2023),
reducing contamination response time by 80%.
2. AI-backed decision support systems: AI models can predict contamination risks
using weather, soil, and industrial data.
 Eg: CSIR-NEERI piloted such systems in Maharashtra’s Vidarbha region.

39
 3. Community-led digital reporting tools: Use of mobile apps by village water
committees for field-level reporting and flagging anomalies.
 Eg: JJM’s Water Quality Management Information System (WQMIS)
has onboarded 2.5 lakh users as of March 2025.
4. Decentralised solar-powered mobile labs: Enables on-site testing in remote areas
where labs are not feasible.
 Eg: Himachal Pradesh Jal Shakti Department (2023) deployed mobile
water labs in 4 tribal districts.
5. Blockchain for transparent data audit trails: Prevents manipulation in testing and
reporting cycles and builds public trust.
 Eg: Pilot by IIT Madras (2024) in Erode district, Tamil Nadu, created
tamper-proof water quality records accessible to public.

Conclusion
To deliver safe, regular and accountable water services, JJM must pivot toward smart
surveillance and real-time local accountability. Innovation must now be made inclusive,
scalable and decentralised to meet India's drinking water quality challenge.

Q. “Despite its vast network, Indian Railways is trapped in a legacy system

unable to meet contemporary demands”. Examine the key infrastructural and
operational legacies hampering railways. Assess the consequences for economic
growth. Suggest transformative reforms. (15 M)

Introduction:
Indian Railways, once the backbone of India's economic integration, now faces critical
structural stagnation, with its operational and financial metrics exposing systemic
inefficiencies unsuited to a 21st-century economy.

Body

Key infrastructural and operational legacies hampering railways

1. Outdated track and signalling infrastructure: Majority of tracks still operate on

1950s design parameters, limiting speed and safety.
 Eg: Kavach safety system, though innovative, is yet to be implemented beyond
1,400 km (Ministry of Railways, 2024).
2. Excessive overstaffing and rigid hierarchies: Colonial-era staff structure has led to
bloated wage bills, reducing fiscal flexibility.
 Eg: Bibek Debroy Committee (2015) recommended downsizing and
rationalisation, still largely pending.
3. Inefficient rolling stock and technology: Dependence on aging coaches and
locomotives hampers operational efficiency.
 Eg: Only around 12% of trains are based on modern LHB coaches (Railway
Board, 2023).

40
 4. Poor station and asset management: Railway land and stations remain underutilised
or mismanaged due to outdated administrative norms.
 Eg: Habibganj Station (renamed Rani Kamlapati Station) modernisation
through PPP showcased potential in 2022.
5. Low capital investment in infrastructure modernisation: Chronic underinvestment
has widened infrastructure gaps relative to global standards.

Consequences for economic growth

1. Reduced logistics competitiveness: High freight tariffs and low-speed movement

increase transportation costs for industries.
 Eg: NITI Aayog Logistics Cost Study (2023) shows Indian logistics cost at 14%
of GDP, vs 8% in China.
2. Loss of passenger confidence: Poor service quality diverts middle-class passengers
to roadways and aviation.
 Eg: Rise of low-cost airlines like IndiGo capturing tier-2 and tier-3 markets post-
2015.
3. Discouragement of private investments: Perception of inefficiency and bureaucracy
deters private sector partnerships.
 Eg: Private Train Operation Plan (2021) failed to attract significant bidders,
with only 3 bids for 109 routes.
4. Widening regional disparities: Underdeveloped rail connectivity in eastern and
northeastern regions limits inclusive growth.
 Eg: Only 10% of Indian Railways' capital expenditure went to Northeast India.

Suggest transformative reforms

1. Corporatisation of Indian Railways: Transform Railway Board into a corporate

entity to bring professional management practices.
 Eg: Debroy Committee (2015) recommended splitting operational and
policymaking functions.
2. Privatisation of non-core services: Outsource catering, station maintenance, and
parcel services to private operators.
 Eg: Success of IRCTC’s Tejas Express (2020) as India's first corporate train.
3. Dynamic pricing and rationalisation of fares: Introduce real-time pricing models to
reduce reliance on freight cross-subsidisation.
 Eg: Dynamic pricing pilot on Rajdhani and Shatabdi Express trains in 2017 led to
8% increase in revenue (Railway Revenue Report 2018).
4. Monetisation of railway land and real estate: Develop railway lands and airspaces
for commercial use to generate non-fare revenue.
 Eg: Rail Land Development Authority (RLDA) generated over ₹2,400 crore
through land monetisation tenders in 2023-24.

41
 5. Separation of regulatory and operational roles: Establish an independent rail
regulator for tariff and safety oversight.

Conclusion:
Indian Railways must shed its colonial baggage through bold structural reforms, unlocking its
potential as a modern, efficient, and growth-driven infrastructure engine for India's $5-trillion
economy aspirations.

Investment models.
Q. Discuss the role of blended finance and hybrid annuity models in de-risking
infrastructure investment. Why has their uptake remained uneven across
sectors? (10 M)

Introduction
Mobilising private capital for infrastructure is critical, yet investors face high risks from long
gestation, policy uncertainty, and regulatory gaps. Blended finance and hybrid annuity
models are innovative tools helping bridge this trust and risk gap.

Body

Role of blended finance in de-risking infrastructure investment

1. Catalyses private capital: Leverages concessional public finance to attract

commercial investments into high-risk infrastructure sectors.
o Eg: NIIF used blended finance to attract over $3 billion private capital into
roads and renewable energy (NIIF Annual Report, 2023).
2. Risk-sharing structure: Public capital absorbs first losses, enhancing returns for
private players.
o Eg: Green Climate Fund’s support to SECI’s solar parks reduced risk via
concessional capital (MoEFCC, 2023).
3. Improves project bankability: Helps structure financially viable projects in
underdeveloped sectors like waste management or social infra.
o Eg: Swachh Bharat Urban Blended Finance Facility with USAID and
ADB improved PPP viability in sanitation (MoHUA, 2022).
4. Drives SDG-aligned investments: Encourages ESG-compliant infrastructure focused
on climate resilience.
o Eg: UNDP’s DeRisk Project used blended finance for climate-resilient agri
infra in Madhya Pradesh (UNDP India, 2023).

Role of hybrid annuity model (HAM) in de-risking infrastructure investment

1. Balanced risk-sharing: 40% cost borne by government during construction, reducing

exposure for private players.

42
 o Eg: Bharatmala Pariyojana adopted HAM in 1,500+ km roads, boosting
private participation (NHAI, 2023).
2. Revenue assurance: Annuity payments by NHAI ensure returns irrespective of traffic
volumes.
o Eg: Eastern Peripheral Expressway was built under HAM with time-bound
annuity payments (MoRTH, 2023).
3. Reduces delays and NPAs: Minimises land and payment issues compared to EPC
and BOT models.
o Eg: Parwan Dam Project, Rajasthan executed via HAM saw faster
completion and cost control (NITI Aayog, 2022).
4. Improves private sector confidence: Stronger contracts and arbitration increase
investor trust.
o Eg: Kelkar Committee (2015) recommended HAM to revive stalled PPP
momentum (Kelkar Committee Report).

Reasons for uneven uptake across sectors

1. Sector-specific revenue models: HAM suits quantifiable-return sectors (e.g., roads),

not urban transport with variable revenues.
o Eg: Mumbai and Pune Metro PPPs faced poor investor response due to
viability concerns (MoHUA, 2023).
2. Institutional capacity gaps: Local bodies lack expertise to structure and manage
these models.
o Eg: Smart Cities Mission struggled to structure blended finance projects in
tier-2 and tier-3 cities (CAG Report, 2023).
3. Regulatory and policy uncertainty: Frequent rule changes deter long-term
investments.
o Eg: Solar park auctions faced private exit due to tariff-related policy
volatility (MNRE, 2022).
4. Lack of standardised frameworks: Absence of model templates in sectors beyond
roads stalls scaling.
o Eg: Water sector PPPs lack standard HAM frameworks unlike highways
(NITI Aayog PPP Cell).
5. Limited risk appetite of financiers: Banks hesitant to fund infra like waste, water, or
agri-logistics.
o Eg: Only 8% of blended finance flows (2021) went into agriculture
infrastructure (OECD Blended Finance Report, 2022).

Conclusion
De-risking infrastructure needs models that are not just innovative but sector-adapted and
replicable. Strengthening state capacity and policy certainty can unlock India's infrastructure
potential.

43
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and
effects in everyday life.

Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization

of technology and developing new technology.
Q. What are directed energy weapons (DEWs)? Explain their working
mechanism. Assess their role in enhancing India's air defence capabilities. (10 M)

Introduction
The recent success of DRDO’s Mk-II(A) Laser-DEW system in 2025 has demonstrated
India’s capability to engage aerial threats with precision, speed, and cost-effectiveness,
signalling a paradigm shift in air defence technology.

Body

What are Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs)?

1. Definition of DEWs: Weapons that emit highly focused energy in the form of lasers,
microwaves, or particle beams to damage or disable targets.
o Eg: DRDO’s Laser-DEW system, April 2025, uses high-energy lasers to
neutralise drones and missiles (DRDO Report, 2025).
2. Types of DEWs: Includes High Energy Lasers (HEL), High Power Microwave
(HPM), and Particle Beam Weapons (PBW) for diverse threat engagements.
o Eg: CHESS lab of DRDO focuses on High Energy Laser technology for
battlefield applications (DRDO CHESS, 2025).
3. Global context: Nations like the USA, China, and Israel are advancing DEW
programmes for missile defence and anti-drone operations.
o Eg: Israel’s Iron Beam laser defence system is operational against rocket
attacks (Israel Defence Ministry, 2024).

Working mechanism of DEWs

1. Target detection and tracking: Uses radar or electro-optical sensors for real-time
tracking of incoming threats.
o Eg: DRDO’s system integrates Electro-Optic sensors for autonomous threat
detection .
2. Energy beam emission: Generates a concentrated energy beam that heats and
weakens the target structure, leading to failure.
o Eg: Laser beam melts drone surfaces causing structural collapse within
seconds.
3. Precision engagement: High accuracy of lasers enables target neutralisation without
collateral damage.

44
 o Eg: DRDO’s trial successfully destroyed enemy surveillance sensors at long
range (National Open Air Range, 2025).

Role in enhancing India’s air defence capabilities

1. Effective counter-drone solution: Neutralises low-cost drone swarms rapidly and

economically.
o Eg: DRDO’s DEW system demonstrated the ability to thwart multiple drone
attacks .
2. Cost-efficient air defence: Cost of operation is extremely low, making it viable for
frequent deployment.
o Eg: DRDO claims cost per use is equivalent to couple of litres of petrol .
3. Reduced dependence on imported missile systems: Promotes self-reliance and
indigenous capability under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
o Eg: DEW development led by CHESS, DRDO, with Indian industries and
academia .
4. Enhances speed of response: Laser systems engage targets at the speed of light,
leaving minimal reaction time for adversaries.
o Eg: Laser-DEW neutralised fixed-wing drones within seconds in Kurnool
trials .
5. Minimises collateral damage: Precision targeting ensures air defence without risking
civilian casualties or infrastructure.
o Eg: Laser-DEWs provide safer urban defence compared to traditional missile
interceptors .

Conclusion
With rapid technological advancement, DEWs promise to be a game-changer in India’s air
defence matrix. Scaling up their deployment and integrating them with existing systems can
provide India a decisive edge in future warfare.

Q. Public-funded R&D must support not just invention but also diffusion of
critical technologies. Analyse the importance of technology transfer. Examine the
gaps in India’s tech diffusion ecosystem. Suggest institutional measures to bridge
them. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s public R&D network generates scientific breakthroughs, but weak diffusion
mechanisms limit their translation into scalable technologies, thereby undercutting
innovation-driven growth and national self-reliance.

Body

Importance of technology transfer beyond invention

45
 1. Bridges lab-to-market disconnect: Ensures research output benefits the productive
sectors of the economy.
o Eg: CSIR’s Aroma Mission enabled farmers in Jammu & Kashmir to grow
lavender and lemongrass using publicly developed agro-tech.
2. Maximises returns on public investments: Commercialisation creates value from
taxpayer-funded research.
o Eg: As per DST 2023 report, only 0.47% of patents filed by public R&D labs
were licensed to industry, reflecting poor monetisation.
3. Enhances strategic autonomy: Reduces reliance on foreign technology in critical
domains.
o Eg: ISRO’s transfer of launch vehicle components to startups like Skyroot
supported India's private space ecosystem.
4. Boosts startup and employment generation: Catalyses tech-based entrepreneurship
and high-skill jobs.
o Eg: IIT-Madras Incubation Cell supported over 240 startups, many rooted
in institutional tech innovations.
5. Drives success of national missions and SDGs: Enables large-scale implementation
of mission technologies.
o Eg: ICMR’s COVID diagnostic kits, developed and transferred to firms,
were crucial for pandemic testing scale-up.

Gaps in India’s technology diffusion ecosystem

1. Fragmented and siloed R&D structure: Poor coordination between institutions,

ministries, and industry.
o Eg: Only 15% of public R&D labs collaborated with international industry
partners (CII-C-TEIR 2025 study).
2. Weak institutional interface with startups: Low availability of incubation support
and tech licensing channels.
o Eg: Just 1 in 4 labs support startup incubation, and only 1 in 6 help deep-tech
startups (2025 study).
3. Inadequate IPR and tech transfer capacity: Limited patent commercialisation cells
or trained tech managers.
o Eg: Unlike US universities with TTOs (Technology Transfer Offices),
most Indian labs lack dedicated commercialisation units.
4. Low private sector participation: Mistrust and lack of incentives discourage
industry–lab collaboration.
o Eg: The Economic Survey 2021–22 noted India's BERD (Business
Expenditure on R&D) was under 0.3% of GDP, far below OECD average.
5. Limited access to public lab infrastructure: Half the labs do not allow external
researchers or SMEs access.
o Eg: As per the 2025 study, only 50% of labs opened facilities to outside
users, impeding collaborative development.

46
Institutional measures to strengthen technology diffusion

1. Mandate institutional TTOs and IPR cells: Every public lab must have trained
technology transfer professionals.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (STIP 2020) recommended creating dedicated IP
facilitation centres across research institutions.
2. Link funding to tech adoption metrics: Make innovation diffusion a key
performance parameter.
o Eg: Atal Innovation Mission ties grant eligibility to commercialisation
progress in its challenge-based programs.
3. Create a National Tech Transfer Grid: A digital platform to match R&D outputs
with industry needs.
o Eg: Israel’s Yozma model inspired similar portals like Startup India’s Hub,
but a tech-diffusion-specific platform is still missing.
4. Strengthen industry–academia consortia: Institutionalise joint labs with private
players in priority sectors.
o Eg: DST’s Technology Development Board has successfully piloted public-
private biotech platforms with firms like Biocon.
5. Expand access to public infrastructure: Formalise shared facility models with time-
sharing and subsidised rates.
o Eg: CSIR’s Open Access Policy 2022 allows MSMEs to use its labs for
testing, but coverage remains limited.

Conclusion

India's innovation ecosystem will remain incomplete without rapid and inclusive diffusion of
technologies. Institutional reforms must now focus on scaling indigenous technologies with
speed, openness, and deep industry linkages to fulfil the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047.

Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-

technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual
property rights.
Q. Discuss the advancements in synthetic biology and their applications in India.
Analyse the concerns surrounding synthetic organisms. Suggest regulatory
frameworks for safe adoption. (15 M)

Introduction
Synthetic biology is revolutionising biotechnology by enabling the design of custom
biological systems with precision. In India, this frontier science is unlocking new solutions
from healthcare to sustainability.

47
Body

Advancements in synthetic biology

1. Genetic circuit engineering: Design of synthetic gene networks to program cellular

behaviour, enabling precise control over biological functions.
o Eg: IISc Bengaluru 2024 developed synthetic biosensors for detecting heavy
metals in water.
2. CRISPR and genome editing: CRISPR enables accurate gene editing, allowing
creation of crops and organisms with targeted desirable traits.
o Eg: NABI 2023 used CRISPR to create high-yield wheat varieties suitable
for Indian conditions.
3. Synthetic vaccines development: Synthetic biology accelerates vaccine design,
offering rapid response to emerging infectious diseases.
o Eg: Indian Immunologicals Ltd, 2023 developed synthetic peptide-based
rabies vaccine in collaboration with Griffith University.
4. Bio-manufacturing and green chemistry: Engineering microbes for sustainable
industrial production of bio-based chemicals and materials.
o Eg: DBT’s Synthetic Biology Mission 2022 supports biomanufacturing of
bioplastics using engineered microbes.

Applications in India

48
 1. Healthcare and diagnostics: Synthetic biology supports personalised medicine and
fast, low-cost diagnostics for widespread diseases.
o Eg: CSIR-IGIB 2023 developed CRISPR-based COVID-19 test
‘FELUDA’ for accurate diagnostics.
2. Agriculture biofortification: Engineered crops with enhanced nutrition and climate
resilience address malnutrition and farm challenges.
o Eg: ICAR project 2024 working on beta-carotene enriched rice to fight
vitamin A deficiency.
3. Environmental remediation: Engineered microbes help degrade pollutants, offering
eco-friendly solutions for waste management.
o Eg: TERI 2023 utilised synthetic microbes for bioremediation of oil spills in
Assam.
4. Bioenergy and biofuels: Synthetic biology improves algal strains and microbes for
efficient biofuel production and energy security.
o Eg: IIT Delhi 2023 engineered algae for high-efficiency biofuel production.

Concerns surrounding synthetic organisms

1. Biosecurity risks: Synthetic organisms could be misused for bio-weapons or

accidentally released, risking human and environmental safety.
o Eg: UN Biological Weapons Convention identified synthetic biology as a
dual-use concern.
2. Environmental unpredictability: Synthetic organisms could disrupt ecosystems
through uncontrolled gene flow or invasive traits.
o Eg: CBD report 2023 warned of ecosystem disruptions from synthetic
organisms.
3. Ethical and societal concerns: Issues of consent, access, and manipulation of life
forms raise significant ethical debates globally.
o Eg: UNESCO Bioethics Programme 2023 called for public participation in
synthetic biology discussions.
4. Intellectual property and equity: Patenting synthetic life forms risks bio-piracy and
unfair benefit distribution from natural resources.
o Eg: Nagoya Protocol 2023 emphasised fair benefit-sharing for genetic
resources.

Regulatory frameworks for safe adoption

1. National synthetic biology policy: India needs a dedicated policy for ethical, safe,
and transparent research and applications.
o Eg: Draft National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2021-25 outlines
synthetic biology governance roadmap.
2. Robust biosafety regulations: Strengthening biosafety under EPA 1986 to manage
risks of synthetic organisms effectively.

49
 o Eg: EPA 1986 provides regulatory framework for genetic engineering and
hazardous substances.
3. Public-private ethical oversight: Multi-stakeholder bodies ensure ethical
accountability and public trust in new technologies.
o Eg: NITI Aayog 2023 recommended integrated ethical review committees
for biotechnology.
4. International cooperation: Aligning with global frameworks ensures safe practices
and responsible innovation globally.
o Eg: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2024 highlights safe handling of
living modified organisms.

Conclusion
Synthetic biology offers India a chance to build a bio-economy powerhouse, but future
progress depends on ethics, safety, and innovation balance. Collaborative global partnerships
and robust domestic frameworks will shape India's leadership in this frontier.

Q. Examine the role of neuromorphic computing in advancing artificial

intelligence. Analyse India's preparedness to leverage neuromorphic technologies
for strategic sectors. (10 M)

Introduction
Neuromorphic computing, inspired by human neural networks, enables ultra-efficient AI with
brain-like adaptability. It marks a significant leap in achieving low-power, high-speed, and
real-time intelligent systems.

Body

50
Role of neuromorphic computing in advancing artificial intelligence

1. Ultra-low power efficiency: Mimics biological neurons to execute AI tasks with

minimal energy consumption, making AI highly sustainable.
o Eg: Intel Loihi 2 chip achieves 10x energy efficiency over GPUs (2023, Intel
Research).
2. On-device real-time learning: Enables AI systems to learn and adapt instantly
without cloud dependency, enhancing autonomy.
o Eg: IBM TrueNorth system performs real-time adaptive processing (2024,
IBM Research).
3. Fast unstructured data handling: Processes complex and unstructured data like
vision and audio at exceptional speeds.
o Eg: MIT neuromorphic system excels in rapid speech recognition (2024,
MIT CSAIL).
4. Resilient fault tolerance: Replicates brain’s fault tolerance, ensuring AI systems
remain robust under operational stress.
o Eg: ETH Zurich research develops error-resilient neuromorphic chips
(2023, ETH Zurich).
5. Scalable edge computing integration: Powers smart IoT devices with low-latency
AI for real-time decision-making at the edge.
o Eg: BrainChip Akida platform supports autonomous vehicle edge AI
(2024, BrainChip Inc.).

India’s preparedness to leverage neuromorphic technologies for strategic sectors

1. Academic research momentum: Leading institutes are advancing neuromorphic

computing under national cyber-physical systems mission.
o Eg: IIT Madras Neuromorphic Lab builds indigenous prototypes (2024,
IIT Madras Annual Report).
2. Defence sector adoption: Neuromorphic computing is integrated into autonomous
surveillance and combat systems roadmap.
o Eg: DRDO AI roadmap 2024 prioritises neuromorphic defence systems
(2024, DRDO Vision Document).
3. Semiconductor ecosystem gaps: Absence of specialised chip fabrication units limits
hardware development domestically.
o Eg: Semicon India Programme 2022 flagged lack of dedicated
neuromorphic fabs (MeitY, 2023).
4. Skilling and human capital: Shortage of experts in neuromorphic hardware-software
design hampers scalability.
o Eg: National Education Policy 2020 promotes AI courses in higher
education (Ministry of Education, 2023).
5. Global collaborations needed: India needs strategic partnerships for R&D in
advanced neuromorphic architectures.

51
 o Eg: India–EU digital partnership 2023 fosters joint research in emerging
tech (MEA, 2023).

Conclusion
Neuromorphic computing offers India a chance to leapfrog in AI innovation for both civil and
strategic uses. Proactive investment in R&D, skilling, and chip manufacturing can unlock its
transformative potential.

Q. Explain the concept of Digital Twin technology. Evaluate its broad potential
in shaping future systems and enhancing human capabilities. (10 M)

Introduction
Digital twin creates a dynamic virtual replica of physical assets, systems, or processes,
enabling real-time data-driven decision-making. With India's thrust on Digital India and AI
integration, it offers transformative solutions across diverse sectors.

Body

Concept of digital twin technology

1. Virtual representation of physical entities: Digital twin replicates physical systems

in virtual space using real-time data and simulations.
o Eg: Siemens' Digital Twin for factories optimises production efficiency in
smart manufacturing.
2. Data-driven predictive analysis: Uses AI and IoT to forecast outcomes and optimise
operations continuously.
o Eg: ISRO uses digital twins to simulate satellite performance for mission
reliability.
3. Lifecycle monitoring and optimisation: Tracks performance throughout the
lifecycle for efficiency and sustainability.

52
 o Eg: National High-Speed Rail Corporation Limited deploys digital twin for
Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train project.
4. Integration with advanced technologies: Synergises with AI, ML, IoT for smart
ecosystems and real-time automation.
o Eg: Delhi Metro leverages digital twin integrated with IoT sensors for
predictive maintenance.

Broad potential in shaping future systems

1. Smart urban planning and resilient cities: Enables simulation of urban scenarios
for sustainable infrastructure.
o Eg: Singapore's Virtual Singapore Project models entire city digitally for
climate resilience and planning.
2. Revolutionising healthcare and precision medicine: Facilitates personalised
treatment by modelling human physiology.
o Eg: Apollo Hospitals piloted digital twin for cardiac patients monitoring.
3. Sustainable energy management: Optimises renewable energy integration and grid
stability.
o Eg: Tata Power employs digital twin for wind and solar asset management.
4. Enhancing industrial competitiveness: Drives Industry 4.0 by improving
efficiency, safety, and innovation.
o Eg: Reliance Industries utilises digital twin for refining processes in
Jamnagar complex.

Enhancing human capabilities

1. Upskilling through virtual training environments: Provides immersive simulation-

based learning experiences.
o Eg: BHEL uses digital twin for training workforce in power equipment
manufacturing .
2. Improving disaster preparedness: Simulates scenarios for disaster risk reduction
and response planning.
o Eg: NDMA explores digital twins for flood risk modelling in Assam (2024,
NDMA Initiative).
3. Facilitating precision agriculture: Supports real-time monitoring of soil, crops, and
climate conditions.
o Eg: Ministry of Agriculture's pilot for smart farming in Punjab using digital
twin.
4. Augmenting research and innovation: Accelerates R&D by testing prototypes in
virtual environments.
o Eg: IIT Madras utilises digital twin in EV battery research.

Conclusion
Digital twin technology is poised to become the backbone of India's future-ready systems,

53
blending precision with innovation. Strategic investments and skill development will unlock
its full potential for an inclusive and resilient future.

Q. Discuss the role of 6G technology in shaping the future of connectivity.

Examine the challenges India faces in leading 6G innovation. Propose strategies
for fostering a robust 6G ecosystem in India. (15 M)

Introduction
The advent of 6G technology promises to shift paradigms from high-speed connectivity to
intelligent, immersive, and ultra-reliable networks. With global rollouts expected by 2030,
India has a critical window to position itself as a frontrunner.

Body

Role of 6G technology in shaping the future of connectivity

1. Ultra-high-speed data transfer: 6G aims to deliver data rates up to 1 Tbps,

revolutionising sectors like telemedicine and Industry 4.0.
o Eg: 6G Vision Framework 2023 by ITU outlines data speeds 50 times faster
than 5G for real-time applications.
2. Low latency for critical applications: 6G targets latency under 1 millisecond,
enabling mission-critical operations.

54
 o Eg: Department of Telecommunications (DoT) 2023 identified applications
like remote surgeries and autonomous vehicles needing ultra-low latency.
3. Integration of AI and machine learning: 6G networks will be self-optimising and
intelligent.
o Eg: TRAI 2024 Report highlights AI-driven network slicing for dynamic
traffic management.
4. Enhanced connectivity for remote areas: 6G can bridge digital divides through
satellite-terrestrial integration.
o Eg: Collaboration with ISRO’s satellite constellations for rural broadband in
Digital India programme.
5. Enabling future technologies: 6G supports holographic communications, metaverse,
and tactile internet.
o Eg: Ericsson’s 6G Whitepaper 2024 forecasts full-scale metaverse
experiences driven by 6G.

Challenges India faces in leading 6G innovation

1. Lack of semiconductor manufacturing ecosystem: Dependence on imports hinders

hardware self-reliance.
o Eg: Semicon India Programme 2022 highlights gaps in domestic chip
fabrication capacity.
2. Insufficient R&D investment: India's public and private R&D spending lags behind
global peers.
o Eg: India’s GERD is 0.7% of GDP (Economic Survey 2024) compared to
South Korea’s 4.8%.
3. Limited skilled workforce: Shortage of expertise in advanced telecom technologies
and AI integration.
o Eg: NASSCOM 2024 Report identifies a deficit of over 2 million skilled
workers for next-gen telecom.
4. Spectrum allocation complexities: High-frequency bands needed for 6G are yet to
be harmonised globally.
o Eg: WRC-23 Conference flagged spectrum policy delays impacting 6G
trials.
5. Geopolitical dependencies: Reliance on foreign technology increases vulnerability to
global disruptions.
o Eg: US-China tech war highlights risks of supply chain vulnerabilities for
India’s 6G ambitions.

Strategies for fostering a robust 6G ecosystem in India

1. Strengthening R&D ecosystem: Increase public-private partnerships and targeted

funding for 6G research.
o Eg: Bharat 6G Vision Document 2023 recommends creating dedicated 6G
innovation hubs.

55
 2. Building indigenous semiconductor capabilities: Accelerate chip manufacturing
under Make in India.
o Eg: Vedanta-Foxconn JV 2024 aims to establish semiconductor fabs in
Gujarat.
3. Developing skilled workforce: Launch specialised training programmes in advanced
telecom technologies.
o Eg: Skill India Mission 2024 introduced 6G technology courses in
collaboration with IIT Madras.
4. Promoting global collaborations: Engage in international standard-setting bodies for
early adoption.
o Eg: India’s active role in ITU 6G Working Group 2024 enhances global
influence on 6G standards.
5. Ensuring spectrum readiness: Pre-emptively allocate spectrum and streamline
regulatory processes.
o Eg: TRAI’s 2024 Consultation Paper recommends advance spectrum
auctions for 6G trials.

Conclusion
Harnessing the transformative potential of 6G requires India to act decisively today. By
aligning policy, innovation, and talent, India can not only bridge the digital divide but emerge
as a global 6G leader by the 2030s.

Q. “European Space Agency’s Biomass mission will transform our

understanding of forest health”. Examine the technological innovations behind
the mission and its role in carbon budgeting. Evaluate its implications for global
climate governance. (15 M)

Introduction

Global deforestation and carbon imbalance pose severe risks to climate stability, making real-
time and precise forest monitoring indispensable for climate action.

Body

Technological innovations behind the mission

1. P-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR): Enables deep penetration of forest

canopies to measure biomass accurately.
 Eg: First-ever spaceborne P-band SAR with 12-metre antenna, allowing
measurement from canopy to roots.
2. Sun-synchronous orbit: Ensures consistent lighting conditions for uniform data
capture globally.
 Eg: Orbit at 666 km altitude, providing repeatable coverage for temporal
forest health analysis

56
 3. 3D forest imaging: Provides structural mapping from canopy to roots, revealing
biomass distribution.
 Eg: ESA plans 3D models of tropical forests to assess both carbon stock and
vegetation diversity.
4. High-resolution terrain mapping: Generates digital models of terrains under dense
vegetation.
 Eg: Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) will assist in correlating topography
with forest density.
5. Multi-application system: Supports monitoring of polar ice sheets and terrain
changes beyond forests.
 Eg: Biomass mission to track Antarctic ice-sheet movements, offering
insights into global climate impacts.

Role in carbon budgeting

1. Accurate carbon stock measurement: Provides reliable data on carbon stored in

global forests.
 Eg: Forests store 861 gigatonnes of carbon globally, as per World Resources
Institute, 2024.
2. Tracking carbon fluxes: Monitors changes in carbon flow between forests and the
atmosphere.
 Eg: Shaun Quegan (Sheffield University) stated the mission will weigh
forests to assess carbon balance dynamics.
3. Addressing data gaps: Fills critical gaps in forest carbon data, enhancing climate
models.
 Eg: Current data lacks global biomass measurements, limiting accurate
carbon budgeting (WRI Forest Report, 2024).
4. Early warning system: Detects forest degradation early, aiding rapid response to
emissions sources.
 Eg: 2023 saw loss of 3.7 million hectares of tropical forests, leading to 6%
of global CO2 emissions (WRI, 2024).
5. Supports REDD+ initiatives: Provides verified data for carbon credits and forest
conservation payments.
 Eg: UN-REDD+ mechanism relies on accurate biomass data for
performance-based payments (UNFCCC REDD+ Guidelines, 2023).

Implications for global climate governance

1. Enhances Paris Agreement targets: Strengthens transparency in Nationally

Determined Contributions (NDCs).
 Eg: Article 13 of Paris Agreement mandates transparency framework,
supported by satellite monitoring (UNFCCC, 2023).

57
 2. International cooperation: Promotes data sharing among nations for coordinated
climate actions.
 Eg: ESA’s open data policy enables access to biomass data by developing
countries (ESA Policy Brief, 2025).
3. Strengthens scientific diplomacy: Positions ESA as a leader in global climate
science collaboration.
 Eg: ESA collaborating with NASA's GEDI mission for cross-validation of
biomass data (NASA-ESA Joint Statement, 2025).
4. Guiding sustainable forest management: Informs policies on afforestation and
forest restoration.
 Eg: UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) uses satellite data
for restoration targets (UNEP, 2024).
5. Climate justice enablement: Supports vulnerable nations in claiming climate finance
for forest preservation.
 Eg: Global Environment Facility (GEF) mandates robust data for forest-
based funding (GEF Climate Strategy, 2024).

Conclusion

ESA’s Biomass mission signifies a leap towards precision climate science, offering
actionable insights for forest conservation and global carbon management. Timely integration
of such innovations into policy frameworks will strengthen climate resilience worldwide.

Q. How can electric mobility transform India’s rural economy? Analyse its role
in enhancing micro-entrepreneurship and logistics. (10 M)

Introduction
Electric mobility can act as a catalyst for decentralised growth by reducing transport costs
and enabling new rural business models, especially in agriculture and services.

Body

Transformation of rural economy through electric mobility

1. Lower transportation costs: EVs reduce fuel dependency and running costs,
increasing income margins for rural users.
 Eg: E-rickshaws in Uttar Pradesh save over Rs 100/day in fuel costs
compared to diesel (NITI Aayog, 2023)
2. Improved access to services: EVs enable better connectivity to schools, healthcare,
and markets.
 Eg: Haryana's EV pilot in rural schools used electric vans to reduce student
dropouts in remote Mahendragarh region (State Transport Dept., 2024)
3. Green employment opportunities: Local manufacturing, charging station setup, and
maintenance create rural jobs.

58
  Eg: Mahindra Last Mile Mobility created 1,500+ jobs in Tier-3 EV service
centers (IVCA-EY Report, 2024)
4. Reduction in diesel dependence: Promotes energy independence and climate
resilience in farming.
 Eg: Karnataka’s solar-EV agri carts used by farmer groups to transport
produce sustainably (MNRE Case Study, 2023)
5. Government push through FAME II: Subsidies have now extended to rural e-2Ws
and e-3Ws with localisation clauses.
 Eg: Budget 2024–25 allocated Rs 2,500 crore for rural EV penetration under
FAME-II extension (Union Budget, 2024)

Role in enhancing micro-entrepreneurship and logistics

1. Boost to rural gig economy: EVs are enabling cost-effective platforms for local
delivery and passenger services.
 Eg: Zypp Electric and ONDC launched EV-led rural delivery pilots in
Punjab and Odisha (CEEW Report, 2024)
2. Enabler for women entrepreneurs: Low barriers to driving EVs allow greater
female workforce participation.
 Eg: Bihar SHG Women EV Taxi Project enabled 1,000+ women drivers
(NRLM, 2023)
3. Faster farm-to-market linkages: Cold chains and produce transport via EVs reduce
perishables’ spoilage.
 Eg: EV cargo three-wheelers in Telangana used by FPOs to deliver fresh
produce within 50 km radius (NABARD, 2024)
4. Support to rural SMEs: MSMEs benefit from EV cargo for inter-village supply and
digital marketplace fulfilment.
 Eg: Amazon’s EV fleet expansion covers 100+ rural clusters in 6 states for
Kirana deliveries (Amazon India ESG Report, 2024)
5. Battery swapping models for logistics: Enables uninterrupted rural last-mile
delivery operations.
 Eg: Sun Mobility’s battery-as-a-service deployed in Maharashtra villages
with rural EV logistics partners (Startup India Showcase, 2023)

Conclusion
Rural EV adoption, if integrated with financing, skilling, and digital ecosystems, can redefine
India’s village economies as green mobility-led growth hubs. It’s not just a tech shift—it’s a
rural development revolution in motion.

59
Q. Explain how antimicrobial growth promoters’ function in animal production.
Discuss why their continued use poses a risk to global public health. (10 M)

Introduction:
The discovery of growth-enhancing effects of antibiotics in the 1940s revolutionised
livestock farming, but their unregulated use now threatens to reverse major gains in public
health by fostering antimicrobial resistance.

Body
How antimicrobial growth promoters function in animal production
1. Enhancement of nutrient absorption efficiency: Antibiotics reduce gut
inflammation and harmful bacteria, improving nutrient uptake.
 Eg: USFDA (1951) allowed antibiotics like chlortetracycline without
prescription to enhance feed efficiency (Source: USFDA Reports, 1951).
2. Reduction in gut microbial competition: They selectively suppress commensal
microbes, decreasing competition for nutrients.
 Eg: Avoparcin was widely used in Denmark in the 1980s for pigs and poultry to
suppress gut flora (Source: Danish Ministry of Health, 1995).
3. Improvement in feed conversion ratio (FCR): Lesser energy is diverted towards
fighting infections, leading to faster growth.
 Eg: Brazil saw 5–10% improvements in poultry FCR through AMGPs before
regulatory restrictions (Source: OECD Livestock Report, 2018).
4. Prevention of subclinical infections: Constant low doses prevent mild, undetected
infections that hamper growth.
 Eg: China extensively used colistin till 2017 for pigs to prevent E. coli infections
(Source: WHO China AMR Review, 2017).

Why their continued use poses a risk to global public health

1. Acceleration of antimicrobial resistance (AMR): Prolonged low-dose exposure

creates selective pressure favouring resistant strains.
 Eg: INFAAR Report 2024 showed 91.3% Staphylococcus aureus resistance to
penicillin in aquaculture sector in India (Source: INFAAR 2024).
2. Transfer of resistance genes to human microbiota: Resistant pathogens and genes
can transfer from animals to humans through food chains.
 Eg: Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) spread linked to avoparcin-fed
livestock in Austria (Source: Austrian AMR Study, 1996).
3. Reduced efficacy of critical human antibiotics: Important antibiotics lose
effectiveness for treating serious human infections.
 Eg: WHO classified colistin as a "last-resort" antibiotic after widespread
resistance was detected in food animals (Source: WHO Priority Pathogens List,
2017).

60
 4. Global economic burden: AMR could cost up to 3.8% of global GDP annually by
2050 if unchecked.
 Eg: World Bank Report 2017 projected AMR could push 28 million people into
poverty globally by 2050 (Source: World Bank AMR Report, 2017).
5. Undermining food security: Increasing AMR could make livestock diseases harder
to manage, threatening protein supplies.
 Eg: FAO Report 2023 warned of declining livestock productivity due to
emerging AMR pathogens (Source: FAO Global AMR Report, 2023).
Conclusion

The misuse of antibiotics as growth promoters is a slow-moving crisis threatening human

survival; strengthening biosecurity, farmer awareness, and enforcing global norms must
urgently replace reliance on chemical shortcuts.

Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation,

environmental impact assessment.
Q. “Environmental Impact Assessments have become procedural rather than
precautionary”. Critically analyse. Suggest measures to make EIAs outcome-
oriented. (15 M)

Introduction
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was envisioned as a preventive tool to avert
ecological harm. However, in recent years, it has become procedure-driven rather than a
scientific and precautionary instrument.

Body

Environmental impact assessments have become procedural rather than precautionary

1. Post-facto clearances dilute deterrence: EIAs are sometimes granted after

environmental violations.
o Eg: Supreme Court in Alembic Pharmaceuticals case (2020) ruled that
post-facto clearances violate the precautionary principle under Article 21.
2. Generic and poor-quality EIA reports: Many reports lack scientific rigour or real-
time environmental data.
o Eg: CAG Report (2022) found that 89% of EIA reports lacked site-specific
baseline data, affecting environmental accuracy (Source: CAG Performance
Audit of MoEFCC).
3. Weak public consultation mechanism: Local participation is often symbolic or
bypassed altogether.
o Eg: During LG Polymers gas leak in Vizag (2020), the public hearing was
skipped using lockdown as pretext.
4. Conflict of interest in report preparation: Developers hire and pay consultants,
compromising report neutrality.

61
 o Eg: NITI Aayog (2021) flagged the absence of independent verification in
EIA reports, leading to conflict of interest.
5. Frequent dilution of EIA norms: EIA Draft Notification 2020 proposed to reduce
scrutiny for many projects.
o Eg: The EIA 2020 Draft proposed exemptions for highway and mining
projects, weakening environmental safeguards.

Need of a robust EIA framework

1. To uphold environmental justice: Strong EIA ensures a balance between

development and ecological rights.
o Eg: MC Mehta v. Union of India (1987) laid down the polluter pays and
precautionary principles, now part of Article 21 jurisprudence.
2. To address cumulative impacts: Fragmented assessments ignore long-term regional
ecological effects.
o Eg: Western Ghats ESA Report (Madhav Gadgil Committee, 2011)
stressed the need for cumulative impact assessments.
3. To safeguard disaster-prone ecosystems: Fragile ecologies require pre-emptive
assessment to avoid irreversible harm.
o Eg: Joshimath land subsidence (2023) showed how unchecked hydro
projects triggered ecological instability.
4. To ensure sustainable infrastructure: A robust EIA promotes green development
and avoids project failures.
o Eg: Chardham road project faced SC criticism due to inadequate EIA,
risking Himalayan ecology.
5. To strengthen public trust and transparency: A credible EIA system fosters citizen
participation and accountability.
o Eg: UNEP (2021) stressed transparent EIAs as a global best practice to
improve governance and trust.

Measures to make EIAs outcome-oriented

1. Independent EIA regulatory body: Separate authority for assessment, monitoring,

and certification.
o Eg: TSR Subramanian Committee (2014) recommended a National
Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) for independent scrutiny.
2. Mandatory third-party audits: Independent verification of EIA reports and post-
clearance compliance.
o Eg: MoEFCC (2022) introduced pilot third-party audits in select states for
Category A projects.
3. Digitisation and real-time monitoring: Tech-enabled tools like satellite tracking and
GIS mapping for monitoring.
o Eg: PARIVESH portal and National Transit Pass System (2023) allow
digital tracking of project compliance.

62
 4. Strengthening public hearings: Ensure local language notices, pre-consultation
outreach, and video documentation.
o Eg: Kerala's Wayanad district (2022) adopted mobile outreach vans to
ensure tribal participation in EIAs.
5. Introduce strategic environmental assessment (SEA): Assess environmental
impact at policy and regional level.
o Eg: European Union’s SEA Directive ensures regional-level impact
analysis beyond individual projects.

Conclusion
A scientific, participatory, and accountable EIA process is vital for ecological
governance. Making EIAs truly precautionary and outcome-driven will ensure India’s
growth does not come at the cost of its natural legacy.

Q. Assess the role of indigenous knowledge systems in biodiversity conservation.

How can they be mainstreamed into national policy frameworks? (10 M)

Introduction
Indigenous communities sustain ecosystems through generations of lived wisdom, conserving
biodiversity even in fragile habitats. Their ecological stewardship is vital amidst accelerating
environmental degradation.

Body

Role of indigenous knowledge systems in biodiversity conservation

1. Community-led sustainable resource management: Indigenous practices ensure

ecosystem regeneration.
 Eg: Apatani tribe in Arunachal Pradesh practices paddy-cum-fish
cultivation, sustaining biodiversity (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2023).
2. Agro-biodiversity conservation: Indigenous seed preservation ensures food security
and resilience.
 Eg: Navdanya movement has preserved 1500+ rice varieties, supporting
climate resilience (Source: Navdanya, 2024).
3. Sacred landscapes as biodiversity reservoirs: Spiritual practices protect endemic
flora and fauna.
 Eg: Khasi tribe in Meghalaya conserves sacred groves, sheltering endemic
species (Source: UNEP, 2023).
4. Traditional ecological monitoring: Observational knowledge helps track species
health.
 Eg: Irula tribe of Tamil Nadu monitors snake populations, aiding anti-
venom development National Biodiversity Authority, 2024).
5. Natural disaster risk reduction: Traditional practices mitigate ecosystem risks.

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  Eg: Mishing tribe in Assam constructs Chang ghar stilt houses, adapting to
floods (Assam State Disaster Management Authority, 2024).

Mainstreaming indigenous knowledge into national policy frameworks

1. Legal empowerment and land rights: Recognise community forest management

legally.
 Eg: Forest Rights Act, 2006, secures community forest resource rights
(Source: MoEFCC).
2. Integration in climate and biodiversity policies: Mainstream indigenous practices
in policy frameworks.
 Eg: Assam SAPCC 2023 includes traditional flood mitigation methods
(Source: Assam Climate Change Management Society).
3. Documentation through biodiversity registers: Record traditional knowledge
systematically.
 Eg: People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) under BDA, 2002, document
local biodiversity (Source: National Biodiversity Authority, 2024).
4. Educational and institutional inclusion: Embed indigenous wisdom in formal
education.
 Eg: NEP 2020 recommends integration of local knowledge into curricula
(Source: Ministry of Education).
5. Benefit-sharing mechanisms: Ensure fair incentives for indigenous knowledge
holders.
 Eg: Biological Diversity Act, 2002, mandates Access and Benefit Sharing
(ABS) provisions (Source: MoEFCC).

Conclusion
Empowering indigenous communities unlocks pathways for resilient conservation models.
Future policies must nurture this synergy to secure ecological and cultural heritage alike.

Q. Emerging pollutants pose a complex challenge to environmental governance.

Define emerging pollutants and identify their major sources. Analyse their
ecological and health impacts, and suggest measures to address the challenges
posed by these pollutants in India. (15 M)

Introduction

Emerging pollutants, often termed contaminants of emerging concern, challenge traditional

pollution control due to their persistence and widespread ecological footprint. Their silent
accumulation across ecosystems necessitates urgent regulatory innovation.

Body

Definition and major sources of emerging pollutants

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 1. Definition of emerging pollutants: Contaminants not routinely monitored but pose
risks to ecosystems and human health.
o Eg: Microplastics, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, pharmaceuticals
(UNEP Report, 2023)
2. Industrial discharge: Release of complex organic compounds from chemical,
pharma, and textile industries.
o Eg: Pharma clusters in Telangana polluting river systems (CPCB, 2022)
3. Agricultural runoff: Excessive use of agrochemicals contaminating soil and water
ecosystems.
o Eg: Atrazine and neonicotinoid pesticides in Punjab groundwater ( ICAR,
2023)
4. Household and personal care products: Wastewater carrying detergents, cosmetics,
and antimicrobials.
o Eg: Triclosan in surface waters of urban India (IISc Study, 2023)
5. Electronic and plastic waste leaching: Improper disposal releasing hazardous
substances into the environment.
o Eg: Lead and brominated flame retardants from e-waste dumps in
Moradabad (CPCB Report, 2023)

Ecological and health impacts

1. Disruption of aquatic ecosystems: Accumulation in aquatic organisms leading to

ecological imbalance.
o Eg: Microplastics detected in fish along India’s eastern coast (NCCR,
2024)
2. Endocrine disruption in fauna: Chemicals interfering with hormone systems in
wildlife.
o Eg: Altered reproductive patterns in Yamuna fish species (TERI, 2023)
3. Human health hazards: Exposure causing developmental, reproductive, and
carcinogenic effects.
o Eg: Bisphenol-A from plastics linked to hormonal imbalance (WHO, 2023)
4. Antimicrobial resistance proliferation: Antibiotic residues promoting resistant
bacterial strains.
o Eg: Hyderabad’s pharmaceutical effluent sites recognised as AMR
hotspots (AMR Industry Alliance, 2023)
5. Soil and groundwater contamination: Persistent pollutants reducing soil fertility
and polluting aquifers.
o Eg: Pesticide residues in Haryana’s groundwater affecting drinking water
safety (CGWB, 2023)

Measures to address the challenges

1. Strengthening regulatory frameworks: Expand Environment Protection Act, 1986

to regulate emerging pollutants.

65
 o Eg: Draft E-Waste Management Rules, 2022 include hazardous emerging
pollutants (MoEFCC)
2. Adoption of advanced wastewater treatment technologies: Use of membrane
bioreactors and advanced oxidation.
o Eg: Bengaluru’s tertiary treatment plants using advanced filtration systems
(BWSSB, 2024)
3. Promoting extended producer responsibility (EPR): Holding producers
accountable for end-of-life disposal.
o Eg: Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2022 enforcing EPR provisions
(MoEFCC)
4. Public awareness and behavioural change: Campaigns for proper disposal and
reduced chemical usage.
o Eg: Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 includes citizen education on chemical waste
(MoHUA, 2023)
5. International cooperation and knowledge sharing: Aligning with global
conventions on hazardous substances.
o Eg: India’s commitment to the Stockholm Convention on POPs (UNEP)

Conclusion

Emerging pollutants demand agile and anticipatory governance frameworks. India must
combine scientific innovation with stringent regulation to safeguard ecological and human
health in the evolving environmental landscape.

Q. How have anthropogenic activities contributed to large-scale land degradation

in recent decades, and what are the ecological consequences of such changes? In
this context, examine how India can formulate a resilient and sustainable land-
use strategy. (15 M)

Introduction
Human activities are now the dominant force shaping terrestrial ecosystems, with land
degradation emerging as a planetary emergency threatening food systems, biodiversity, and
climate resilience.

Body

Anthropogenic drivers of large-scale land degradation

1. Intensive agriculture and monoculture expansion: Leads to soil nutrient depletion,

pesticide overuse, and habitat loss.
 Eg: The 2025 Scientific Data study attributes 47% of modified global land
to agriculture, especially in Asia and Africa.
2. Urbanisation and built-up area growth: Rapid urban sprawl leads to irreversible
soil sealing and green cover loss.

66
  Eg: The same study reports 4% annual expansion in urban areas globally,
with Indomalayan region most impacted.
3. Infrastructure and transport networks: Roads, railways, and energy corridors
fragment habitats and alter hydrology.
 Eg: Char Dham Highway project in Uttarakhand faced criticism for causing
landslides and slope destabilisation.
4. Mining and extractive industries: Strip surface vegetation and expose land to
erosion and contamination.
 Eg: Bauxite mining in Odisha's Niyamgiri Hills led to extensive
deforestation and tribal displacement.
5. Overgrazing and deforestation: Unregulated grazing and timber harvesting degrade
forest and grassland ecosystems.
 Eg: Desertification Atlas 2021 (ISRO) showed 30% of India’s land facing
degradation, much of it due to grazing pressure.

Ecological consequences of land degradation

1. Biodiversity loss and habitat fragmentation: Reduces ecological connectivity and

species survival.
 Eg: Western Ghats’ fragmented forest patches threaten endemic species
like the Lion-tailed macaque.
2. Decline in soil fertility and desertification: Reduced productivity and ecosystem
service delivery.
 Eg: UNCCD (2022) flagged India as one of the top countries losing
productive land annually.
3. Disruption of hydrological cycles: Causes altered rainfall patterns, waterlogging,
and aquifer depletion.
 Eg: Punjab’s paddy monoculture has led to drastic groundwater decline
(Central Ground Water Board, 2023).
4. Increased greenhouse gas emissions: Land degradation accelerates CO₂ release from
disturbed soils.
 Eg: IPCC AR6 (2022) notes land-use change as a key non-energy driver of
emissions.
5. Greater vulnerability to climate shocks: Degraded landscapes fail to buffer floods,
droughts, or heatwaves.
 Eg: Cherrapunji, once the wettest place on Earth, is now water-stressed due
to land degradation and deforestation.

India’s strategy for resilient and sustainable land-use

1. Adoption of agroecology and sustainable farming: Promote crop rotation, organic

inputs, and water conservation.

67
  Eg: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) encourages chemical-free
farming in over 200 districts.
2. Integration of land-use and climate policy: Align forest, agriculture, and
infrastructure planning with climate goals.
 Eg: India’s National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change funds
landscape-level interventions in degraded zones.
3. Geospatial mapping and monitoring tools: Use satellite data for land change
detection and targeted action.
 Eg: Bhuvan Portal (ISRO) offers high-resolution mapping of desertification
hotspots.
4. Strengthening legal and institutional frameworks: Enforce laws like the CAMPA
Act and Forest Conservation Act with local inputs.
 Eg: The Forest Survey of India (2023) recommended State-level
restoration targets under NDC commitments.
5. Community-led ecosystem restoration: Empower local bodies and tribals in
regenerative land practices.
 Eg: Hiware Bazar (Maharashtra) transformed from degraded land to water-
surplus village through community-led watershed management.

Conclusion
India must treat land as a strategic asset, not just a resource. A resilient land-use approach
blending technology, ecology, and local stewardship is key to preserving its environmental
and developmental future.

Q. The nitrogen crisis is an invisible threat overshadowed by the focus on carbon

emissions. Examine this paradox. Analyse the climate and health risks posed by
excess reactive nitrogen. Suggest a multi-sectoral roadmap for mitigation in
India. (15 M)

Introduction

While global efforts centre around carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide (N₂O) is over 300 times
more potent as a greenhouse gas and has remained under-addressed in climate policy,
despite posing multi-sectoral threats.

Body

The paradox: Nitrogen crisis and carbon-centric climate focus

1. Higher warming potential ignored: N₂O has a Global Warming Potential (GWP)
of 273–300 times CO₂ over a 100-year period but receives less policy attention.
o Eg: UNEP Global Nitrous Oxide Assessment 2024 warned that N₂O is
responsible for 10% of global warming since the Industrial Revolution.

68
 2. Climate finance and treaties carbon-focused: International climate frameworks
under UNFCCC prioritise CO₂ mitigation, with limited provisions for reactive
nitrogen.
o Eg: Paris Agreement focuses on CO₂ but has no specific targets for N₂O
emission reduction, despite its rising share in emissions.
3. Lack of public discourse and data: Nitrogen-related emissions lack visibility due to
poor monitoring, unlike CO₂ which is widely tracked.
o Eg: The Indian Nitrogen Assessment 2010 remains the last detailed
sectoral estimate, showing 70% N₂O emissions from agriculture.

Climate and health risks from excess reactive nitrogen

1. Stratospheric ozone depletion: N₂O is the largest ozone-depleting substance

emitted today, replacing CFCs in impact.
o Eg: WMO Ozone Assessment 2022 identified N₂O as a key threat to ozone
recovery, with emissions rising from fertiliser use.
2. Formation of tropospheric ozone and acid rain: Nitrogen oxides (NOx) from fossil
combustion react to form ozone and nitric acid, damaging ecosystems.
o Eg: Delhi’s NO₂ levels, linked to vehicular emissions and stubble burning,
worsen ground-level ozone and acid rain risks (CPCB 2023).
3. Airborne health hazards: N₂O and NOx increase respiratory illnesses, particularly
among urban poor and children.
o Eg: A 2023 BMJ study linked over 2.18 million annual deaths in India to
air pollution, with nitrogen compounds being significant contributors.
4. Aquatic eutrophication and dead zones: Runoff of excess nitrates causes algal
blooms, depleting oxygen and killing aquatic life.
o Eg: The Gulf of Mexico’s dead zone is a textbook case of fertiliser-driven
eutrophication, now visible in Indian inland lakes too (NIHFW 2022).
5. Soil degradation and acidification: Over-application of urea lowers soil pH and
microbial diversity, reducing long-term productivity.
o Eg: ICAR study (2022) shows acidification in Punjab and Haryana soils,
threatening cereal productivity and sustainability.

Multi-sectoral roadmap for mitigation in India

1. Shift to balanced fertiliser use: Promote nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium (NPK)

balance instead of urea-dominated subsidy system.
o Eg: Tandon Committee on Fertiliser Use Efficiency (2016) recommended
rationalising urea subsidy and incentivising crop-specific blends.
2. Enhance nitrogen use efficiency (NUE): Invest in nano-urea, neem-coated urea,
and slow-release formulations to reduce excess application.
o Eg: IFFCO’s nano-urea rollout in 2021 reduced urea demand by 10–15%
per hectare, improving NUE .

69
 3. Incentivise legume cultivation: Restore cereal-legume balance to reduce external
nitrogen dependence through biological nitrogen fixation.
o Eg: National Food Security Mission (NFSM) includes pulses, but needs
revamp to shift focus to soil-restorative legume cycles.
4. Set national reactive nitrogen targets: Establish quantifiable N₂O limits through a
National Nitrogen Policy, integrated with climate goals.
o Eg: FAO’s Nitrogen Roadmap 2023 recommends country-specific nitrogen
budgets for better monitoring and mitigation.
5. Regulate industrial N₂O emissions: Enforce standards on chemical and nylon
industries, where mitigation technologies already exist.
o Eg: UNEP 2024 report says 40% of industrial N₂O emissions can be abated
using existing scrubbing technologies.
6. Improve wastewater nitrogen recovery: Promote sewage treatment plants with
nitrogen recovery, especially in urban clusters.
o Eg: Bengaluru’s Jakkur Lake STP uses constructed wetlands to recover
and reuse nitrogen for aquaculture .
7. Integrate nitrogen into air pollution strategies: Link NOx control under NCAP
with climate and nitrogen strategies to achieve co-benefits.
o Eg: National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) covers 122 cities, but lacks
explicit nitrogen component, despite overlapping goals.

Conclusion
As India advances towards net-zero by 2070, reactive nitrogen must enter the climate
spotlight alongside carbon. A dedicated national nitrogen strategy, integrating agriculture,
health, and environment, is now critical for achieving resilient, low-emission growth.

Q. What are trophic cascades in ecology? Explain their significance in ecosystem

restoration. (10 M)

Introduction
The disappearance or return of a single predator can transform entire ecosystems. This
systemic ecological phenomenon is known as a trophic cascade, crucial in rebuilding
degraded landscapes.

Body

What are trophic cascades in ecology

1. Top-down control in ecosystems: Apex predators regulate herbivore populations,

influencing multiple trophic levels.
2. Chain reactions across food webs: The effects ripple down to plants, soil, and even
microbial life.
3. Non-linear ecological effects: Changes in predator density can lead to
disproportionate responses in lower trophic levels.

70
 4. Influence on species behaviour: Presence of predators alters prey behaviour,
reducing overgrazing in sensitive areas.
5. Scientific basis from empirical studies: Proven through field experiments and
rewilding initiatives globally.
o Eg: James Estes’ sea otter studies (1970s) showed that predator loss caused
urchin overgrazing and kelp forest collapse in Alaska (Estes et al., Science,
2011)

Significance in ecosystem restoration

1. Revives vegetation structure: Predators reduce herbivore pressure, enabling plant

regeneration.
o Eg: Wolves in Yellowstone (1995) led to aspen, cottonwood and willow
recovery due to reduced elk browsing (US NPS)
2. Boosts biodiversity: New vegetation supports a range of species including birds,
insects and mammals.
o Eg: Beaver and songbird return post-wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone
enhanced ecosystem richness (Ecology Letters, 2012)
3. Restores hydrology and soils: More vegetation stabilises soils, improves water
retention, and reduces erosion.
o Eg: Yellowstone riverbanks saw better water retention and riparian
recovery after trophic regulation (PLOS Biology, 2014)
4. Aids climate resilience: Vegetation recovery from cascades increases carbon sinks
and buffers climate stress.
o Eg: Rewilding Scotland with native predators shows increased peatland
vegetation, a major carbon store (Rewilding Europe Report, 2023)
5. Reduces human-wildlife conflict: Balanced ecosystems reduce abnormal animal
behaviour like crop raiding.
o Eg: Predator return in Gorongosa, Mozambique reduced overgrazing and
human-animal conflict

Conclusion
Trophic cascades reveal the deep interconnections in nature. Protecting predator species is
not just conservation—it is ecological engineering that revives nature’s own ability to heal.

Q. What are the key contributors to chronic PM10 pollution in Indian cities?
Explain why regional variation demands city-specific mitigation strategies. (10
M)

Introduction
India’s PM10 crisis is not episodic but a year-round hazard, with cities like Delhi and Patna
recording annual averages five times the national safe limit of 60 µg/m³ (CPCB, 2024).

Body

71
Key contributors to chronic PM10 pollution in Indian cities

1. Vehicular emissions and congestion: Rapid urbanisation has led to dense traffic and
older diesel fleets in cities.
o Eg: Delhi’s transport sector contributes nearly 40% of local PM10
emissions (TERI-ICCT, 2023).
2. Construction and road dust: Unregulated construction and lack of mechanised
sweeping generate high dust levels.
o Eg: BMC’s 2024 survey found that construction dust was the second-highest
PM10 contributor in Mumbai.
3. Industrial emissions in urban peripheries: Clusters of thermal power plants, brick
kilns and metal industries release heavy particulates.
o Eg: Bhiwadi and Ghaziabad recorded PM10 over 300 µg/m³, driven by
nearby industries (CPCB, 2024).
4. Waste burning and landfill fires: Inefficient municipal solid waste management
causes open burning of waste and landfills.
o Eg: Bhilai landfill fire in March 2024 raised local PM10 to 500 µg/m³,
choking nearby residential zones.
5. Seasonal crop residue burning: Transboundary smoke especially affects northern
cities during winter.
o Eg: SAFAR (2023) attributed up to 30% of Delhi’s PM load in November to
stubble burning in Punjab-Haryana.
6. Limited public transport infrastructure: Car-centric planning pushes private
vehicle use, worsening local emissions.
o Eg: Ahmedabad’s BRTS covers only 25% of transport demand (MoHUA
data, 2024).
7. Climate and topography factors: Inversion layers, low wind speeds and terrain traps
pollutants longer in cities like Delhi and Lucknow.
o Eg: NASA Earth Observatory (2023) showed PM accumulation over the
Indo-Gangetic Plain due to winter inversion.

Why regional variation demands city-specific mitigation strategies

1. Diverse emission profiles: Dominant sources differ by region—vehicular in

Bengaluru vs. industrial in Raipur.
o Eg: Hyderabad shows high PM10 from construction, while Nagpur sees it
from industrial combustion (Respirer Study, 2025).
2. Climatic and meteorological differences: Rainfall, wind speed, and temperature
inversion vary greatly.
o Eg: Chennai’s coastal winds help dispersal, unlike Kanpur, where stagnant
air traps particulates (IMD data, 2024).
3. Governance capacity and policy uptake: Local political will, budget availability
and institutional strength differ across cities.

72
 o Eg: Pune’s 2023 Clean Air Plan included GPS-tagged water sprinklers—
absent in similar-tier cities like Nashik.
4. Urban design and population density: Cities with unplanned growth face worse
pollution hotspots.
o Eg: Patna’s high PM10 was linked to unregulated construction near high-
density zones (IIT Kanpur, 2024).
5. Need for targeted innovation: Uniform national policies miss local nuances and
pollution triggers.
o Eg: Indore’s dust suppression unit and Bengaluru’s vehicle-free zones
show how local innovation improves outcomes (NCAP Tracker, 2024).

Conclusion
Air pollution cannot be fought with blanket solutions. India’s battle with PM10 demands a
decentralised, evidence-based, and locally tailored strategy rooted in urban planning and
citizen accountability.

Q. The fourth global coral bleaching event marks a tipping point in marine
ecology. Analyse its scale and causes. Evaluate its repercussions on marine
species. (10 M)

Introduction
The 2023–25 bleaching event has impacted over 83.7% of global reef area, reflecting the
onset of systemic marine ecological breakdown caused by intensifying climate and
anthropogenic stressors.

Body

Scale and causes of the fourth global coral bleaching event

1. Unprecedented marine heat stress: Sea temperatures have reached record highs,
driving thermal-induced stress on corals.
o Eg:– As per NOAA (April 2025), 84% of reef areas globally experienced
bleaching-level heat, marking the largest such event recorded.
2. Declining recovery intervals: Frequent bleaching events prevent ecosystem
recovery, weakening long-term reef resilience.
o Eg:– The Great Barrier Reef faced six mass bleaching events from 2016 to
2024, including consecutive events in 2022 and 2024 (GBRMPA).
3. El Niño amplification of ocean warming: The 2023–24 El Niño intensified ocean
surface heating, accelerating bleaching onset.
o Eg:– WMO (2024) linked the current El Niño to widespread bleaching in the
Pacific and Caribbean.
4. Anthropogenic local stressors: Runoff, overfishing, and industrial pollution reduce
coral tolerance to thermal stress.

73
 o Eg:– UNEP (2023) identified nutrient loading and sedimentation in South
Asian reefs as key aggravators of bleaching vulnerability.
5. Expanded alert level categorisation: Revised NOAA classifications reflect the
evolving intensity of coral mortality risks.
o Eg:– In December 2023, Alert Levels 3–5 were introduced by NOAA to
capture >80% mortality risk in reefs worldwide.

Repercussions on marine species

1. Loss of biodiversity hotspots: Coral reefs sustain complex ecosystems that collapse
with bleaching.
o Eg:– IUCN (2024) reported 25% of marine species lost habitat in bleached
areas of the Coral Triangle.
2. Collapse of food chains: Coral death disrupts primary productivity, impacting all
trophic levels.
o Eg:– Nature Ecology (2024) recorded 60% fish biomass reduction in
Caribbean reefs after the bleaching crisis.
3. Destruction of breeding and nursery grounds: Coral reefs serve as reproductive
zones for key species.
o Eg:– NOAA (2025) highlighted disrupted parrotfish and grouper
spawning in Florida reef zones due to coral die-off.
4. Rising coral diseases: Bleaching weakens immune function in corals, increasing
susceptibility to pathogens.
o Eg:– WHOI (2023) noted a threefold rise in coral infections across the
Western Indian Ocean following bleaching events.
5. Decline of keystone species: Species vital to reef balance are being lost, accelerating
ecological destabilisation.
o Eg:– WWF (2024) found severe decline of clownfish and butterflyfish in
South Pacific coral ecosystems.

Conclusion
Coral bleaching now reflects a chronic planetary failure rather than isolated crises.
Protecting reef futures requires deep global emission cuts and proactive reef resilience
planning through science-backed marine governance.

Q. The fourth global coral bleaching event marks a tipping point in marine
ecology. Analyse its scale and causes. Evaluate its repercussions on marine
species. (10 M)

Introduction
The 2023–25 bleaching event has impacted over 83.7% of global reef area, reflecting the
onset of systemic marine ecological breakdown caused by intensifying climate and
anthropogenic stressors.

74
Body

Scale and causes of the fourth global coral bleaching event

1. Unprecedented marine heat stress: Sea temperatures have reached record highs,
driving thermal-induced stress on corals.
o Eg:– As per NOAA (April 2025), 84% of reef areas globally experienced
bleaching-level heat, marking the largest such event recorded.
2. Declining recovery intervals: Frequent bleaching events prevent ecosystem
recovery, weakening long-term reef resilience.
o Eg:– The Great Barrier Reef faced six mass bleaching events from 2016 to
2024, including consecutive events in 2022 and 2024 (GBRMPA).
3. El Niño amplification of ocean warming: The 2023–24 El Niño intensified ocean
surface heating, accelerating bleaching onset.
o Eg:– WMO (2024) linked the current El Niño to widespread bleaching in the
Pacific and Caribbean.
4. Anthropogenic local stressors: Runoff, overfishing, and industrial pollution reduce
coral tolerance to thermal stress.
o Eg:– UNEP (2023) identified nutrient loading and sedimentation in South
Asian reefs as key aggravators of bleaching vulnerability.
5. Expanded alert level categorisation: Revised NOAA classifications reflect the
evolving intensity of coral mortality risks.
o Eg:– In December 2023, Alert Levels 3–5 were introduced by NOAA to
capture >80% mortality risk in reefs worldwide.

Repercussions on marine species

1. Loss of biodiversity hotspots: Coral reefs sustain complex ecosystems that collapse
with bleaching.
o Eg:– IUCN (2024) reported 25% of marine species lost habitat in bleached
areas of the Coral Triangle.
2. Collapse of food chains: Coral death disrupts primary productivity, impacting all
trophic levels.
o Eg:– Nature Ecology (2024) recorded 60% fish biomass reduction in
Caribbean reefs after the bleaching crisis.
3. Destruction of breeding and nursery grounds: Coral reefs serve as reproductive
zones for key species.
o Eg:– NOAA (2025) highlighted disrupted parrotfish and grouper
spawning in Florida reef zones due to coral die-off.
4. Rising coral diseases: Bleaching weakens immune function in corals, increasing
susceptibility to pathogens.
o Eg:– WHOI (2023) noted a threefold rise in coral infections across the
Western Indian Ocean following bleaching events.

75
 5. Decline of keystone species: Species vital to reef balance are being lost, accelerating
ecological destabilisation.
o Eg:– WWF (2024) found severe decline of clownfish and butterflyfish in
South Pacific coral ecosystems.

Conclusion
Coral bleaching now reflects a chronic planetary failure rather than isolated crises.
Protecting reef futures requires deep global emission cuts and proactive reef resilience
planning through science-backed marine governance.

Disaster and disaster management.

Q. The line between natural and human-made disasters is blurring. Discuss this
with reference to recurring extreme weather events in India. Examine the
implications for disaster preparedness. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s extreme weather patterns are becoming increasingly destructive not only due to
natural factors but also because of human-induced vulnerabilities and policy gaps.

Body

The line between natural and human-made disasters is blurring

1. Urbanisation without ecological buffers: Rapid construction over wetlands and

floodplains has intensified flood risks across cities.
o Eg: 2023 Chennai floods were aggravated by illegal structures over the
Pallikaranai marshland (CAG Report 2023).
2. Deforestation and hill-cutting in fragile zones: Environmental degradation in hilly
terrains increases landslide frequency and severity.
o Eg: 2023 Himachal Pradesh landslides escalated due to widespread hill-
cutting and forest removal (MoEFCC Report).
3. Unregulated groundwater extraction and tunnelling: Leads to land subsidence and
weakens the structural integrity of habitations.
o Eg: Joshimath crisis (2023) was linked to groundwater overuse and hydro
project tunnelling (NIOT Technical Study).
4. Heat island effects from dense urban sprawl: Cities experience more intense
heatwaves due to lack of green cover and poor ventilation.
o Eg: Delhi’s 2022 heatwave severity rose due to the urban heat island effect
and reduced tree canopy (IMD Urban Climate Report).
5. Climate change driven by emissions and poor adaptation: Increases frequency and
intensity of cyclones and rainfall variability.
o Eg: Cyclone Biparjoy (2023) gained unusual strength due to warming
Arabian Sea temperatures (IPCC AR6, 2023).

76
Implications for disaster preparedness

1. Shift from reactive relief to proactive risk reduction: Disaster planning must be
anticipatory and integrate climate resilience.
o Eg: Sendai Framework 2015–30, ratified by India, emphasizes risk-
informed development over post-disaster relief.
2. Climate-resilient and adaptive infrastructure needed: Planning should integrate
flood maps, seismic data, and climate forecasts.
o Eg: Mumbai Coastal Road Project (2023) now includes storm surge
modelling and tidal risk analysis (BMC DPR).
3. Need for decentralised early warning systems: Localised, real-time alerts using AI
and IoT improve response lead times.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s TN-SMART system issues district-specific multi-hazard
alerts using real-time data (NDMA 2022).
4. Institutional reforms in disaster governance: NDMA’s top-down model needs
strengthening of state and local capacities.
o Eg: 2nd ARC Report on Crisis Management (2013) recommended greater
devolution to District Disaster Authorities.
5. Integration of disaster preparedness with development planning: Environmental
clearances must be linked with hazard vulnerability assessments.
o Eg: Gadgil Committee (2011) recommended that Western Ghats planning
integrate disaster risk zonation.

Conclusion
In an era of climate extremes, disaster preparedness must evolve into a dynamic, climate-
smart ecosystem rooted in decentralisation, foresight, and sustainability.

Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges
to internal security.
Q. Climate-induced displacement is an emerging concern for India's internal
security. Examine the security challenges of climate refugees. Discuss the impact
on border states and urban centres. Propose a policy framework for mitigation.
(15 M)

Introduction

The intensification of climate events is forcing unprecedented human displacement, creating

complex internal security risks across India's vulnerable regions.

Body

Security challenges of climate refugees

77
 1. Resource conflict and social tensions: Mass displacement strains local resources,
triggering communal and ethnic conflicts.
 Eg: Assam floods 2022 led to local protests over relief distribution, reported
by NDMA report 2023.
2. Increased human trafficking risks: Displaced populations become easy targets for
trafficking and exploitation.
 Eg: UNODC South Asia report 2023 highlighted rise in trafficking cases
post Cyclone Amphan 2020.
3. Strain on law enforcement capacity: Rapid influx overwhelms policing and
administrative systems.
 Eg: NCRB 2023 data indicated a spike in crimes in flood-affected districts of
Bihar.
4. Exploitation by extremist networks: Marginalised refugees can be radicalised by
extremist groups exploiting their grievances.
 Eg: Ministry of Home Affairs 2023 flagged recruitment attempts in
displaced Rohingya camps in India.
5. Challenges to internal cohesion: Identity-based politics emerge as migrants seek
recognition and rights.
 Eg: Northeast states' protests 2023 over indigenous rights against migrant
settlements.

Impact on border states and urban centres

1. Border infiltration risks: Porous borders amplify illegal crossings, escalating

security surveillance burdens.
 Eg: BSF 2023 report highlighted surge in crossings along India-Bangladesh
border during floods.
2. Pressure on urban infrastructure: Urban migration from climate-hit rural areas
overstretches services.
 Eg: Delhi and Mumbai slum expansions 2023 linked to rural distress
migration (Source: MoHUA, 2023).
3. Public health emergencies: Overcrowded settlements foster disease outbreaks,
overwhelming urban health systems.
 Eg: Dengue outbreaks in Mumbai 2023 aggravated by increased population
density in informal settlements.
4. Heightened communal tensions: Sudden demographic shifts trigger identity and
communal conflicts.
 Eg: Shillong clashes 2023 partly fuelled by migration-related tensions.
5. Administrative overload in border areas: Relief and monitoring capacities are
overwhelmed during crises.
 Eg: Tripura government 2023 reported strain in managing Chittagong Hill
Tracts refugee inflows.

78
Policy framework for mitigation

1. Integrate climate migration in disaster management plans: Update NDMA

guidelines 2023 to explicitly address displacement risks.
 Eg: NDMA's revised 2023 plan began incorporating displacement protocols
post Cyclone Biparjoy.
2. Strengthen legal frameworks for internal displacement: Formulate a dedicated
Internal Displacement Act guided by UN Guiding Principles on Internal
Displacement.
 Eg: Law Commission of India recommendation 2024 on creating
comprehensive displacement legislation.
3. Enhance community-based adaptation programs: Build resilience in climate
hotspots to reduce forced migration.
 Eg: ICAR initiatives 2023 in Odisha promoted climate-resilient agriculture to
curb distress migration.
4. Deploy technology for early warning and response: Use ISRO’s flood monitoring
satellites for timely evacuations.
 Eg: ISRO flood monitoring 2023 enabled early alerts in Assam, reducing
displacement scale.
5. Regional cooperation with neighbours: Engage through platforms like BIMSTEC
for transboundary climate migration solutions.
 Eg: BIMSTEC summit 2023 deliberated joint strategies for managing
climate-induced displacement.

Conclusion

Proactively recognising climate refugees within security frameworks is no longer optional. A

rights-based, technology-driven, and cooperative approach can transform this challenge into
an opportunity for sustainable resilience.

General Studies-3

Q. Examine the evolving nature of maritime security challenges for India.

Evaluate the role of maritime domain awareness in addressing these threats. (10
M)

Introduction
India's maritime security has shifted from traditional threats to complex multidimensional
challenges, impacting both national security and economic growth in the Indo-Pacific. With
95% of India’s trade by volume through seas, safeguarding maritime interests is pivotal.

Body

Evolving nature of maritime security challenges for India

79
 1. Rising Chinese naval assertiveness: China's increasing presence in the Indian Ocean
raises strategic concerns.
 Eg: Chinese spy ship Yuan Wang 5 docked at Hambantota port in 2022,
monitoring Indian assets (Indian Navy Brief 2023).
2. Non-traditional threats: Threats like piracy, smuggling, human trafficking are
intensifying.
 Eg: Indian Navy’s anti-piracy operation in Arabian Sea, Jan 2024,
rescuing hijacked vessel MV Ruen (Indian Navy report 2024).
3. Climate change-induced maritime risks: Rising sea levels, cyclones impacting
coastal security.
 Eg: Cyclone Biparjoy 2023 caused disruptions in Gujarat's coastal
surveillance (Source: IMD, 2023).
4. Critical infrastructure vulnerabilities: Offshore assets and undersea cables are soft
targets.
 Eg: 2023 sabotage of undersea cables in Red Sea, raising concerns for
India's connectivity (Source: Ministry of Defence Annual Report 2024).
5. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing: Threatening marine ecology
and sovereignty.
 Eg: March 2024 crackdown on foreign trawlers off Andaman coast, by
Indian Coast Guard (Source: ICG Report 2024).
6. Maritime terrorism: Coastal areas remain vulnerable to terrorist infiltration.
 Eg: Post 26/11 Mumbai attacks, continuous security drills along western
coast, involving Navy, Coast Guard, and police (Source: National Maritime
Security Coordinator Report 2024).

Role of maritime domain awareness (MDA) in addressing these threats

1. Real-time surveillance and threat detection: Enhances coastal and deep-sea

monitoring capabilities.
 Eg: Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC), Gurugram,
operational since 2014, centralises maritime data (Source: Indian Navy 2024).
2. Strengthening regional cooperation: MDA enables intelligence sharing with
friendly nations.
 Eg: India’s Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) 2023, promotes collective
maritime surveillance (MEA Annual Report 2024).
3. Protection of critical infrastructure: Helps safeguard undersea cables and energy
assets.
 Eg: Sagarmala Project integration with coastal monitoring system, secures
maritime logistics hubs (MoPSW 2023).
4. Early warning for disasters: Facilitates timely alerts for cyclones and tsunamis.
 Eg: Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
issued alerts during Cyclone Mocha 2023, reducing damages (Source:
INCOIS 2023).

80
 5. Countering maritime crimes: MDA aids in identification and interception of illegal
activities.
 Eg: Operation Sagar Kavach, joint coastal security exercise for preventing
maritime crime (Source: MHA Report 2024).

Conclusion
Securing India’s maritime frontier demands robust MDA integration with strategic foresight,
indigenous capabilities, and regional partnerships, ensuring safe seas for a prosperous Indo-
Pacific future.

Q. Why have terrorist networks in India continued to survive despite decades of

countermeasures? Examine the institutional weaknesses in the security
apparatus. Discuss the role of external support and radical narratives in
sustaining terrorism. Suggest a comprehensive reform strategy. (15 M)

Introduction

Despite significant tactical gains, terrorism in India persists due to an evolving nexus of
external enablers, internal governance gaps, and ideological entrenchment, making it a
complex national security challenge beyond conventional policing.

Body

Reasons for survival of terrorist networks in India

1. Cross-border sanctuaries: Terror groups exploit porous borders and lack of effective
surveillance.
o Eg: Pakistan-backed groups like LeT and JeM continue to operate training
camps across the LoC (MEA, 2024).
2. Digital radicalisation ecosystems: Social media and encrypted platforms enable
remote indoctrination and mobilisation.
o Eg: Islamic State modules in Kerala and Karnataka used Telegram and
Rocket.Chat for recruiting youth (NIA, 2023).
3. Local socio-political alienation: Unresolved grievances in conflict-prone areas fuel
resentment and recruitability.
o Eg: In parts of South Kashmir, post-2016 Burhan Wani killing led to local
youth joining militancy (SATP, 2023).
4. Failure of ideological counter-narratives: State initiatives lack credibility or
cultural relevance to counter radical doctrines.
o Eg: The Hamari Dharohar Scheme was underutilised for minority
outreach, leading to limited impact (MoMA, 2024).

Institutional weaknesses in the security apparatus

81
 1. Intelligence fragmentation: Lack of seamless integration between central and state
intelligence units hampers coordination.
o Eg: 2021 Pulwama-style attacks foiled in Punjab exposed gaps in
actionable data-sharing (Punjab Police Briefing, 2022).
2. Manpower and training deficits: Police forces lack specialised skills for CT
(counter-terror) operations and cyber threats.
o Eg: India has 145 police per lakh population vs UN norm of 222 (BPRD,
2024).
3. Legal loopholes and misuse: Existing laws like UAPA face operational delays and
low conviction due to procedural lapses.
o Eg: NCRB 2022 shows less than 3% conviction rate under UAPA due to
poor case preparation and delays.
4. Lack of urban terror readiness: Metropolitan counter-terror infrastructure is
underprepared for asymmetric threats.
o Eg: 2023 Delhi IED incident revealed gaps in real-time surveillance and
perimeter security (Delhi Police Annual Report, 2023).

Role of external support and radical narratives

1. State sponsorship of terror: Hostile neighbours provide logistics, ideological

backing, and diplomatic cover to terror groups.
o Eg: FATF grey-listed Pakistan for terror financing links with groups
targeting India (FATF Report, Oct 2023).
2. Diaspora funding networks: Remittance corridors are misused to channel funds to
sleeper cells and insurgents.
o Eg: NIA raids in Tamil Nadu and Kerala (2024) revealed funding via
hawala and crypto from Gulf-based actors.
3. Global jihadist propaganda: Transnational narratives from ISIS or Al-Qaeda are
adapted to local contexts by recruiters.
o Eg: The 'Ghazwa-e-Hind' doctrine is used by Pakistan-based outfits to
radicalise Indian youth online (EU DisinfoLab, 2023).
4. Cross-platform digital warfare: Radicalisation is spread through short-form content,
gaming platforms, and localised apps.
o Eg: AI-generated propaganda in regional languages found on TikTok
clones and niche platforms (CERT-In, 2024).

Comprehensive reform strategy

1. Unified intelligence grid: Fast-track implementation of NATGRID with real-time

interlinking of state databases.
o Eg: Kargil Review Committee (1999) and Naresh Chandra Task Force
(2012) both stressed intelligence integration.
2. Community-led counter-radicalisation: Involve religious scholars, youth leaders,
and civil society in preventive outreach.

82
 o Eg: De-radicalisation programme in Maharashtra uses local imams and
NGOs to reintegrate vulnerable youth (State Police Report, 2023).
3. Reform legal architecture: Ensure UAPA and NIA Act have time-bound
investigation protocols, and external judicial oversight.
o Eg: Law Commission (2023) recommended mandatory judicial scrutiny for
preventive detention beyond 90 days.
4. Hardening critical targets: Build smart surveillance infrastructure for soft targets in
tourist and urban zones.
o Eg: After 2025 Pahalgam attack, facial recognition, drone patrols, and AI-
based risk mapping introduced in Srinagar (MHA Update, April 2025).

Conclusion

To dismantle terrorist networks, India must move beyond reactive posturing to an

anticipatory, integrated and community-anchored national security model—where
technology, legal reform, and civic trust act as the first line of defence.

Challenges to internal security through communication networks,

role of media and social networking sites in internal security
challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its
prevention.
General Studies-3

Q. Cyber sabotage targeting critical infrastructure is emerging as a grave

internal threat. Analyse the risks to India's energy grids and communication
networks. Discuss institutional safeguards needed. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s growing dependence on digital infrastructure has turned its power grids and
communication networks into prime targets for cyber adversaries, posing risks to both
national security and public safety.

Body

Risks to India's energy grids

1. Grid blackouts and operational paralysis: Cyber-attacks can disable Supervisory

Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems causing massive blackouts.
 Eg: 2020 Mumbai power outage reportedly linked to cyber sabotage
targeting Maharashtra State Electricity Board systems .
2. Supply chain vulnerabilities: Imported hardware and software used in grids can
have embedded malware for future attacks.
 Eg: CERT-IN 2022 advisory highlighted risks of foreign hardware in critical
energy infrastructure.

83
 3. Data theft and espionage: Extraction of operational data enables adversaries to plan
coordinated attacks during peak demand.
 Eg: Recorded Future report 2023 flagged Chinese state-sponsored groups
targeting Indian energy sector data.
4. Cross-sector cascading effects: Power grid failure disrupts sectors like banking,
transport, and healthcare.
 Eg: NCIIPC (National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection
Centre) 2023 alert identified energy as the ‘anchor sector’ for cascading
disruptions.

Risks to India's communication networks

1. Disruption of emergency services: Cyber sabotage can paralyse emergency response

and public warning systems.
 Eg: CERT-IN 2023 alert flagged phishing campaigns against emergency
communication platforms.
2. Interception of sensitive communications: Breach of networks leads to surveillance
on defence and internal security communications.
 Eg: 2024 cybersecurity exercise by NSCS highlighted vulnerabilities in
defence communication networks.
3. Fake content and misinformation spread: Hijacked networks can propagate fake
news, deepfakes, and panic.
 Eg: 2024 deepfake incident during Lok Sabha elections spread
disinformation via compromised communication channels.
4. Network equipment compromise: Imported routers and switches may carry
malicious firmware for remote exploitation.
 Eg: 2023 Parliamentary Committee report on IT flagged concerns over
reliance on foreign telecom gear.

Institutional safeguards needed

1. Strengthening national cyber security architecture: Operationalise National

Cyber Security Strategy (NCSS) 2023 for proactive defence.
 Eg: NSCS (National Security Council Secretariat) 2023 draft recommends
real-time threat sharing and resilience audits.
2. Enhancing CERT-IN capabilities: Empower CERT-IN with better forensic tools
and mandatory reporting mechanisms.
 Eg: CERT-IN guidelines 2022 mandate breach reporting within 6 hours for
critical infrastructure operators.
3. Indigenisation of critical technologies: Promote ‘Make in India’ for energy grid and
telecom hardware to reduce import risks.
 Eg: PLI Scheme 2023 expanded to include network equipment
manufacturing for secure supply chains.

84
 4. International cyber cooperation frameworks: Engage in global partnerships for
intelligence sharing and capacity building.
 Eg: India-USA Cybersecurity Dialogue 2024 focused on protecting critical
infrastructure from state-sponsored attacks.
5. Legal and policy reforms: Expedite the enactment of the Digital India Act 2025 to
replace the outdated IT Act 2000.
 Eg: Ministry of Electronics and IT draft 2024 proposes stringent provisions
for cyber resilience in critical sectors.

Conclusion
With rising cyber vulnerabilities, safeguarding India’s energy and communication networks
is not optional but an existential imperative. A proactive and indigenised cyber security
ecosystem is India’s best shield against future digital sabotage.

Q. Discuss the evolution of drone warfare and its impact on India’s internal
security landscape. Analyse India’s existing counter-drone capabilities. Suggest
improvements for future readiness. (15M)

Introduction
The rapid militarisation of drone technology has democratised warfare, enabling even non-
state actors to challenge national security with low-cost, high-impact tactics.

Body

Evolution of drone warfare

1. Transition from surveillance to weaponization: Drones have evolved from

intelligence tools to lethal weapon platforms.
 Eg: Jammu Air Force Station attack (2021) saw drones used for explosive
payload delivery (MoD report, 2021).
2. Proliferation among non-state actors: Easy availability makes drones accessible to
insurgents and terror outfits.
 Eg: Punjab Police (2023) reported over 200 drone intrusions from Pakistan
border (Punjab Police data, 2023).
3. Emergence of swarm drone technology: Swarms enable coordinated attacks,
overwhelming defence systems.
 Eg: Indian Army swarm trials (2021) simulated future battlefield scenarios
(Army Modernisation Exercise, 2021).
4. Cyber vulnerability and remote control risks: Hacked drones can be repurposed for
surveillance or attacks.
 Eg: CERT-In alert (2024) cautioned about malware targeting drone firmware
(CERT-In advisory, 2024).

85
Impact on India’s internal security landscape

1. Cross-border smuggling and infiltration: Drones enable covert delivery of arms,

narcotics, and counterfeit currency.
 Eg: BSF seizure in Punjab (2024) recovered weapons and drugs from drone
drops (BSF Punjab Frontier data, 2024).
2. Threat to critical infrastructure security: Vital military and energy installations
face drone-based threats.
 Eg: Jammu Air Force Station drone attack (2021) exposed vulnerabilities
in base security (MoD investigation, 2021).
3. Espionage and intelligence gathering: Adversary drones breach airspace for
surveillance operations.
 Eg: LoC drone surveillance (2023) by Pakistan for troop movement
monitoring (Army operational reports, 2023).
4. Psychological warfare and public panic: Drone threats amplify fear and erode
public confidence.
 Eg: Saudi Aramco drone strike (2019) triggered global alarms, impacting
India’s oil security planning (IEA report, 2020).

Existing counter-drone capabilities in India

1. Deployment of DRDO anti-drone systems: Indigenous systems neutralise rogue

drones using RF jamming and lasers.
 Eg: Red Fort deployment (2023) for Independence Day celebrations (DRDO
Annual Report, 2023).
2. Policy frameworks and geo-fencing regulations: Mandatory drone registration and
sensitive zone restrictions.
 Eg: Drone Rules 2021 implemented UIN and digital sky platform (Ministry
of Civil Aviation, 2021).
3. Enhanced border surveillance and electronic warfare systems: EW systems
deployed to counter UAV threats.
 Eg: Indian Navy’s EW upgrades (2024) for coastal UAV detection (Indian
Navy Annual report, 2024).
4. Training for security forces: Specialised drone threat response training for
paramilitary forces.
 Eg: CRPF anti-drone programme (2023) operational across border units
(CRPF Annual Report, 2023).

Improvements needed for future readiness

1. Advanced radar and AI-based detection: Integration of AI for early detection and
classification of drones.

86
  Eg: BEL’s AI-enabled radar systems (2023) deployed for UAV monitoring
(BEL press release, 2023).
2. Dedicated drone command centres: Establish control hubs for real-time threat
assessment and response.
 Eg: Proposed National Counter-UAV Centre, under discussion by MHA
(MHA consultations, 2024).
3. Public-private R&D collaboration: Accelerate innovation through industry
partnerships for counter-drone tech.
 Eg: Drone Federation of India’s initiatives (2023) with defence sector (DFI
Annual Report, 2023).
4. Stricter import controls on drone components: Regulate entry of unregistered
drone parts to prevent misuse.
 Eg: DRI seizures of illegal drone parts (2024) to curb unregulated imports
(DRI data, 2024).
Conclusion
As drone warfare rapidly advances, India’s internal security strategy must evolve from
reactive defences to proactive, technology-driven resilience to protect critical assets and
maintain national sovereignty.

Security challenges and their management in border areas -

linkages of organized crime with terrorism.

Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.

Q. Discuss the role of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in strengthening
India’s counter-terrorism capabilities. What limitations hinder its operational
efficiency in international investigations? (10 M)

Introduction

The National Investigation Agency (NIA), created post-26/11 attacks through the NIA Act,
2008, has emerged as India's premier agency for handling terrorism-related crimes with a
pan-India and cross-border operational scope.

Body

Role of NIA in strengthening counter-terrorism capabilities

1. Centralised coordination of terror investigations: Enables uniform investigation

standards across states and handles cases with interstate and international linkages.
 Eg: NIA’s investigation into the 2021 Jammu drone attack showcased its
capability to coordinate cross-border terror cases.

87
 2. Specialisation in terror financing and organised crime: Addresses the financial
backbone of terror networks through dedicated Terror Funding and Fake Currency
Cell (TFFC).
 Eg: 2019 crackdown on Lashkar-e-Taiba’s funding network using
counterfeit currency seized across Kerala and Karnataka.
3. High conviction rates enhancing deterrence: Achieves approximately 94%
conviction rate (MHA Annual Report 2023), creating a strong deterrent against
terrorism.
 Eg: Conviction of ISIS operatives in Kerala module case (2023) under
UAPA provisions.
4. Swift takeover of high-profile cases: Provides rapid federal intervention without
procedural delays under Section 6 of the NIA Act.
 Eg: NIA’s swift takeover of the Pahalgam terror attack case (April 2025)
ensured consistent investigation standards.
5. Integration with counter-terrorism strategic framework: Works closely with
Multi-Agency Centres (MACs), NATGRID, and international agencies for
intelligence-driven investigations.
 Eg: NIA’s collaboration with INTERPOL for Red Corner Notices against
absconding Khalistani extremists (2024) strengthened global coordination.

Limitations hindering operational efficiency in international investigations

1. Absence of extraterritorial investigative jurisdiction: NIA cannot conduct

operations abroad without bilateral treaties or cooperation.
 Eg: Delay in evidence collection from Pakistan in the Pulwama attack case
(2019) due to lack of direct investigative access.
2. Limited legal agreements with foreign nations: Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties
(MLATs) are few and bureaucratic, slowing investigations.
 Eg: Prolonged MLAT processes with Gulf countries hampered terror
finance probes post-2018 UAE-based modules.
3. Lack of specialised cyber forensic capabilities for transnational crimes: Growing
cyber-terrorism needs cutting-edge expertise and infrastructure.
 Eg: Challenges faced in tracing encrypted communications during the
2022 ISIS-inspired modules in Tamil Nadu.
4. Political sensitivities affecting international cooperation: Diplomatic frictions with
neighbouring countries often restrict NIA’s access to crucial suspects and evidence.
 Eg: Limited progress in investigations into cross-border infiltration cases
from Myanmar and Bangladesh (MHA Internal Note, 2023).
5. Dependence on secondary evidence and intelligence inputs: In absence of direct
access, cases often rely on circumstantial or second-hand information, affecting
prosecution.
 Eg: Reliance on foreign intelligence inputs weakened the prosecution in
the Dawood Ibrahim-linked terror funding cases (2022).

88
Conclusion

In the evolving landscape of transnational terrorism, strengthening NIA’s global

cooperation networks and building bilateral operational mechanisms is vital to enhance
India’s counter-terrorism readiness for the next decade.

89
 Secure Synopsis compilation for May-2025
General Studies-3

Table of contents

Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth,

development and employment.-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Contractualisation of industrial labour has risen sharply in recent years. Analyse the
drivers of this trend. Discuss its implications. Evaluate the role of the public sector in
institutionalising this shift. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Q. What structural transformations are necessary to sustain India’s projected position as the
world’s fourth-largest economy? Analyse the institutional, labour market, and financial
reforms required to avoid growth fatigue. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------7
Q. “Low inflation is not always a sign of healthy demand”. Analyse this paradox in the
context of India’s recent inflation figures. Evaluate the potential risks of prolonged
disinflation. Suggest comprehensive policy responses to address both demand and supply-side
vulnerabilities. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
Q. Explain the structure and functioning of India’s Social Stock Exchange. How does it differ
from traditional capital markets? Examine how Social Stock Exchange can transform NGO
credibility and funding transparency. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------- 11
Q. “Unemployment among Indian youth is not due to lack of jobs, but due to lack of skills
and unattractive jobs”. Examine. Suggest a dual-track approach to address this crisis. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
Q. Evaluate the performance of States in augmenting their own tax revenues since Goods and
Service Tax (GST) implementation. What lessons can be drawn for future fiscal devolution
frameworks? (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Q. “The promise of doubling farmers’ income was ambitious but insufficiently grounded in
regional realities”. Critically analyse. What institutional and structural reforms are necessary
to realise this goal? (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Q. “Expansionary monetary policy, when prolonged, becomes a trap rather than a stimulus”.
Discuss. How can India avoid such a path? (10 M) --------------------------------------------------- 19
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. --------------------------------------------------------20
Q. “High inequality is not just unjust — it is developmentally inefficient.” Examine how
rising inequality distorts policy outcomes in India. Evaluate the risk it poses to sustainable
human development. (10 M)------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

1
 Q. How can rural start-up ecosystem contribute to bridging the rural-urban economic divide?
What are the key challenges in establishing rural innovation and incubation ecosystems in
India? Suggest an institutional and policy framework to overcome them. (15 M) -------------- 22
Government Budgeting. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, - different types of irrigation
and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues
and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers. -------------------------------------24
Q. “Stubble burning is no longer a seasonal crisis restricted to North India but a symptom of
unsustainable agricultural practices”. Examine. Suggest structural reforms to address this
issue beyond penalisation. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24
Q. What is meant by a Micro Green Revolution in agriculture? How does it differ from the
original Green Revolution in terms of input use, sustainability, and long-term viability?
Examine its feasibility in the Indian context. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------- 25
Q. Examine the significance of community seed banks in promoting diversified and low-input
farming systems. How can this approach support India’s climate-resilient development
agenda? (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public
Distribution System-objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks
and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. ----------------------29
Q. “Rising private procurement signals a shift in India’s grain market dynamics.” Discuss its
implications for market competition. Examine whether it reduces farmer dependence on
Minimum Support Price (MSP). (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 29
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and significance, location,
upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. -------------------------31
Land reforms in India. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
Q. Privatisation of public sector enterprises is often justified on grounds of efficiency and
fiscal prudence. Critically examine this rationale. Assess its impact on employment security
and worker rights. Suggest alternative approaches to reform. (15 M) ---------------------------- 31
Q. Export restrictions on niche minerals like germanium and gallium reflect a shift from
market-based to coercion-based trade. Comment. Also assess India’s vulnerability in this
context. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
Q. What are the challenges faced by gig workers in securing minimum wage protections?
Examine the need for extending social security benefits to platform-based workers. (10 M) - 34
Q. What are the objectives and major components of the Electronics Component
Manufacturing Scheme? Analyse its expected impact on India’s electronics production by
2030. Suggest ways to improve its long-term effectiveness. (15 M) -------------------------------- 36
Q. Assess the role of industrial parks and cluster-based development in India’s strategy to
become a global manufacturing hub. What challenges hinder their optimal functioning?
Suggest policy reforms to address them. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------- 38
Q. “India's development is constrained by a legacy it did not choose”. Analyse the historical
roots of India’s capital-intensive model. Examine its incompatibility with India’s current

2
 demographic-economic structure. Suggest a new development framework for labour-
intensive growth. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. -----------------------------------42
Q. What explains the persisting regional disparities in energy access across Indian states?
Analyse the causes rooted in demand-supply mismatch and assess the effectiveness of the
national grid in addressing them. Also suggest measures to ensure equitable and reliable
electricity distribution. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Investment models. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45
Q. What is a stratospheric airship platform? Examine how India can leverage these systems
for climate monitoring, border security, and maritime surveillance. (10 M) -------------------- 45
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and
developing new technology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Q. “Building a foundational LLM in India is less a technological challenge than an ecosystem
one.” Discuss the institutional and infrastructural gaps in India’s AI ecosystem. Examine how
public-private partnership models can bridge this gap. (15 M) ------------------------------------ 47
Q. Discuss the scientific, economic, and strategic benefits of India's planned Bharatiya
Antariksha Station. How does it compare with international space stations? (15 M) ---------- 49
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-technology, bio-
technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights. -----------------------------------51
Q. AI’s adaptability makes it a double-edged sword in cybersecurity. Discuss how AI is
transforming both cyber defence and cyber offence. Suggest safeguards to retain this balance.
(15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
Q. Explain the key features of the steady-state theory of the universe. Why did it lose
prominence over time? (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
Q. What causes the formation of ground-level ozone in urban areas? Why is ground-level
ozone considered a ‘silent’ pollutant and how should India adapt its public health response to
address its unique characteristics? (10 M)-------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Q. Explain the concept of oxidative potential in relation to PM2.5. Discuss how this
understanding can improve urban preparedness in polluted Indian cities. (10 M) ------------- 57
Q. What are the key features of India’s draft climate finance taxonomy? How can it improve
investor confidence in green sectors? (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------- 58
Q. Why has global biodiversity finance failed to reach those most responsible for protecting
ecosystems? Critically analyse the institutional and structural barriers behind this exclusion.
Suggest mechanisms for fairer fund distribution. (15 M)-------------------------------------------- 59
Q. What are the key concerns raised against expanding the Multilateral System under the
Plant Treaty? How does digital sequence information complicate benefit sharing? Suggest
measures to ensure fair and accountable treaty implementation. (15 M)------------------------- 62

3
 Q. “Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) must mainstream forest management for
long-term climate finance”. Examine the rationale. What are the associated challenges for
developing nations? (10 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Q. How has the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) shaped India’s approach to sector-
wise pollution control? What gaps persist in managing industrial emissions under NCAP? (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Disaster and disaster management.-------------------------------------------------------------------67
Q. Discuss how Artificial Intelligence is redefining the disaster management cycle—from risk
mitigation to recovery. Examine the barriers to institutionalising AI across all stages of
disaster governance. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Q. “Indigenous knowledge offers adaptive, low-cost, and ecologically viable strategies for
disaster mitigation”. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using such knowledge in
modern disaster management systems. (10 M) -------------------------------------------------------- 68
Linkages between development and spread of extremism. ---------------------------------------70
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security. ----70
Q. India’s evolving cross-border doctrine reflects calibrated deterrence without triggering
full-scale war. Examine this strategic posture. Assess its implications for sub-conventional
warfare in South Asia. (10 M)----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
Q. “Drone warfare marks a shift in the logic of escalation and response in South Asia”.
Examine the strategic implications of this shift. Assess India’s readiness for drone-dominated
conflicts. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
Q. “Hatred never ceases by hatred, by love alone is it solved”. Evaluate this in the context of
counter-terrorism operations. How can compassion-based approaches supplement hard
security measures? (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-
laundering and its prevention. -------------------------------------------------------------------------74
Q. “Cyber resilience is the new frontier of national security in a digitised economy”. Discuss.
(10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Q Identify the key limitations in India’s digital payment security architecture. Examine how
predictive intelligence tools like the Financial Fraud Risk Indicator (FRI) aim to bridge these
structural gaps. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime
with terrorism. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate. ----------------------------------------77
Q. Explain the role of Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) in India's border management.
What challenges do they face in securing diverse frontiers? (10 M) ------------------------------- 77
Q. What were the operational limitations in India’s joint military commands that necessitated
a dedicated legal framework? Explain the key provisions of the Inter-Services Organisations
(Command, Control and Discipline) Act, 2023. Propose mechanisms to ensure inter-service
harmony and institutional accountability. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------- 79

4
Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of
resources, growth, development and employment.
Q. Contractualisation of industrial labour has risen sharply in recent years.
Analyse the drivers of this trend. Discuss its implications. Evaluate the role of the
public sector in institutionalising this shift. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s industrial economy is increasingly dependent on contractual and non-permanent
labour, reflecting a deeper shift towards flexibility over job security, both in private and
public sectors.

Body

Drivers behind rise in contractualisation

1. Cost minimisation by employers: Firms prefer contract labour to avoid long-term

wage, pension, and retrenchment liabilities.
o Eg: ASI 2022 showed contract labour accounted for 38% of total workers,
up from 25% in 2011-12.
2. Labour codes promoting flexibility: New labour reforms make it easier to hire and
fire without procedural constraints.
o Eg: The Industrial Relations Code, 2020 raised the threshold for layoff
permissions from 100 to 300 workers.
3. Ease of compliance avoidance: Employers circumvent social security obligations by
outsourcing hiring to third parties.
o Eg: CAG (2023) found widespread non-enrolment in EPFO/ESIC for
contract workers across private firms.
4. Globalised and seasonal production cycles: Sectors facing volatile demand prefer
contractual workers for flexibility.
o Eg: Garment and auto component units in Tamil Nadu and Haryana saw
high contract reliance post-COVID .
5. Shrinking of permanent recruitment: Government and industry have slowed
regular hiring, making contracts the default mode.
o Eg: PLFS 2022-23 noted a decline in salaried employment share from
23% to 21% since 2017-18.

Implications of contractualisation

1. Weak labour protections: Workers lack entitlements like paid leave, maternity
benefits, and protection from arbitrary dismissal.
o Eg: ILO India Labour Market Update (2022) reported only 10% of
contract workers had written contracts.

5
 2. Wage disparities and income insecurity: Contract workers are paid less and often
irregularly compared to permanent counterparts.
o Eg: State of Working India Report (2023) found contract workers earn
40% less than permanent ones in the same roles.
3. Low worker morale and productivity: Lack of security reduces loyalty and
discourages skill development.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Strategy Document (2018) linked insecure employment
with low productivity in Indian industry.
4. No long-term social safety net: Most contract workers are excluded from pension,
gratuity, and insurance schemes.
o Eg: ESIC audit (2022) showed widespread under-coverage of contract
workers across major industrial clusters.
5. Deepening informalisation within formal sector: Contractual jobs blur the line
between formal and informal employment.
o Eg: Azim Premji University (2023) reported that over 70% of formal sector
growth is now informal in nature.

Role of public sector in institutionalising the trend

1. Outsourcing of essential services: Government departments increasingly outsource

even critical tasks.
o Eg: Railways and municipal corporations use contractors for sanitation,
security, and office functions.
2. Freeze on permanent hiring: Ministries and PSUs prefer temporary hiring due to
fiscal constraints.
o Eg: 7th Pay Commission noted over 50% of central PSU hires (2014–22)
were on contract basis.
3. Lack of model employer standards: Government fails to uphold labour welfare
norms in its own contracts.
o Eg: CAG report (2021) flagged non-compliance of BHEL and NTPC with
EPF and safety norms for contract workers.
4. Prevalence of long-term ad hocism: Contractual workers serve for years without
regularisation or benefits.
o Eg: Delhi HC (2022) highlighted prolonged ad hoc employment of 3,000
MCD school teachers.
5. Use of third-party vendors: Indirect employment through agencies limits
accountability and rights enforcement.
o Eg: Audit of CPWD (2022) showed that contract workers had no access to
grievance redressal mechanisms due to third-party intermediaries.

Conclusion
A workforce built on precarity undermines long-term productivity and social stability. India
must rebalance labour flexibility with social security, especially by making the public
sector a model of fair employment.

6
Q. What structural transformations are necessary to sustain India’s projected
position as the world’s fourth-largest economy? Analyse the institutional, labour
market, and financial reforms required to avoid growth fatigue. (15 M)

Introduction

India is projected by the IMF (April 2025 Outlook) to overtake Japan and become the 4th
largest global economy by nominal GDP. But this leap will require deeper structural shifts
to convert scale into sustainable and inclusive growth.

Body

Structural transformations needed to sustain fourth-largest economy status

1. Raising domestic productivity levels: Sustained expansion needs sector-wide

efficiency enhancement
o Eg: India’s labour productivity is only one-third that of China (ILO, 2024),
dragging down overall output despite large workforce
2. Improving export competitiveness and GVC integration: Trade must move from
low-value to high-value segments
o Eg: PLI scheme led to a 98% rise in mobile exports in FY24, but logistics
costs at 14% of GDP remain a bottleneck (LEADS Report, 2023)
3. Urban infrastructure overhaul: Efficient urbanisation is essential for economic
densification and innovation
o Eg: Smart Cities Mission (2024) saw only 60% project completion across
100 cities, revealing execution delays (MoHUA)
4. Climate-resilient and green transition: Growth must align with India’s long-term
carbon commitments
o Eg: IEA (2024) warned India’s per capita emissions could rise by 22% by
2030 without accelerated clean energy deployment

Institutional reforms

1. Decentralised governance capacity: Empowering local institutions enables agile and

efficient service delivery
o Eg: Kerala’s participatory panchayat model improved outcomes in
education and health through community-led planning (MoPR, 2024)
2. Judicial efficiency and contract enforcement: Slow dispute resolution weakens
business climate
o Eg: India ranks 163rd in contract enforcement (World Bank, 2020); over 47
million cases pending as of 2024 (NCRB)
3. Regulatory simplification and decriminalisation: Excessive laws deter
formalisation and investment

7
 o Eg: V.K. Paul Committee (2023) identified over 3000 obsolete regulations to
be removed for single-window compliance
4. Real-time data governance and digital public infrastructure: Targeted and
dynamic policy responses need strong data systems
o Eg: Aspirational Districts Programme uses live dashboards to track health,
nutrition, and education progress (NITI Aayog)

Labour market reforms

1. Formalisation of workforce: A vast informal workforce limits tax base, skilling, and
social security coverage
o Eg: PLFS 2023 estimates over 90% of India’s workers are still informal
despite rising GDP
2. Enhancing female labour force participation: Gender gap reduces national
productivity and demographic gains
o Eg: Female LFPR was only 37.2% in 2024 (CMIE), significantly lower than
the global average of 53% (ILO)
3. Future-ready skilling ecosystem: Workforce must be aligned with AI, green tech,
and service economy growth
o Eg: Skill India Digital (2023) aims to train 1.5 crore youth in emerging tech
skills by 2026
4. Uniform labour code implementation: Disjointed adoption reduces reform
effectiveness
o Eg: Labour Codes 2020 remain unevenly implemented across states, limiting
impact (PRS Legislative Research, 2024)

Financial sector reforms

1. Deepening capital markets: Limited access to non-bank finance hinders innovation

and infrastructure
o Eg: India’s bond market contributes <5% to infra funding, compared to
>20% in China (MoF, 2024)
2. Credit access for MSMEs: Liquidity bottlenecks hamper India’s core growth and
employment engine
o Eg: Udyam Assist Platform (2023) enabled over 3 lakh MSMEs to access
formal credit using alternative data
3. Regulation of NBFCs and co-operative banks: Weak supervision risks systemic
contagion
o Eg: RBI’s 2022 NBFC norms introduced tier-based supervision post IL&FS
default crisis
4. Digital financial inclusion: Financial tech must be leveraged for transparency and
access
o Eg: UPI crossed 14 billion transactions in April 2025, showcasing scale and
reach (NPCI)

8
Conclusion

Becoming the fourth-largest economy is a global milestone, but sustaining it demands a

reform ecosystem that’s inclusive, resilient, and innovation-driven. India's structural
transformation must now match its macroeconomic ambition.

Q. “Low inflation is not always a sign of healthy demand”. Analyse this paradox
in the context of India’s recent inflation figures. Evaluate the potential risks of
prolonged disinflation. Suggest comprehensive policy responses to address both
demand and supply-side vulnerabilities. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s retail inflation fell to 3.16% in April 2025, the lowest in over six years. While this
may seem positive, persistent low inflation can also indicate structural economic distress
and demand-side weaknesses, rather than macroeconomic health.

Body

Low inflation and the demand paradox

1. Weak consumer demand pulls down price levels: Reduced household spending
depresses retail inflation despite stable supply.
o Eg: Private consumption growth slowed to 3.4% in Q3 FY25 despite falling
prices .
2. Rural distress suppresses food inflation: Low farmgate prices reflect stress in
agricultural incomes.
o Eg: Vegetable prices contracted by 10.98% and pulses by 5.23% in April
2025.
3. Slack in investment demand impacts core inflation: Industries postpone investment
due to weak sales outlook, softening core CPI.
o Eg: Core inflation fell below 3.5%, lowest since 2017.
4. Global commodity cooling not translating into growth: Imported deflationary
pressures fail to revive domestic industrial activity.
o Eg: WPI-based inflation contracted for 8 consecutive months till March 2025.
5. Cautious monetary stance may lag growth needs: Even as inflation falls, high real
interest rates can further choke demand.
o Eg: RBI repo rate remains at 6.5% despite CPI easing .

Risks of prolonged disinflation

1. Agrarian distress and price suppression: Farmers suffer from poor returns due to
declining market prices and rising input costs.
o Eg: Average mandi prices fell below MSP for onions, tomatoes in Q1 FY25.

9
 2. Slow wage growth and informal sector stagnation: Real incomes remain flat or
decline, further reducing purchasing power.
o Eg: Urban informal workers faced near-stagnant wages despite falling
inflation (PLFS Quarterly Report, 2025).
3. Investment cycle slowdown: Low profitability discourages new private sector capex.
o Eg: Gross fixed capital formation fell from 34% to 32.8% of GDP in FY25
(MoF Economic Review, 2025).
4. Monetary policy dilemma: Further cuts in interest rates may destabilise the rupee
and fuel capital outflows.
o Eg: Foreign portfolio outflows increased post March 2025 MPC stance .
5. Underestimation of hidden inflation: Headline CPI may not reflect service inflation
or regional price pressures.
o Eg: Service inflation in education and healthcare remained above 5.5% in
Tier-1 cities (RBI Urban CPI Index, 2025).

Policy responses to address demand and supply vulnerabilities

1. Targeted rural income support and MSP reform: Raise procurement coverage and
improve price realisation for farmers.
o Eg: Shanta Kumar Committee (2015) recommended expanding
decentralised procurement and direct cash transfers.
2. Counter-cyclical fiscal spending on infrastructure: Public investment must bridge
demand gaps during private slowdown.
o Eg: Union Budget 2025–26 allocated 3.4% of GDP for capital expenditure.
3. Enhancing credit flow and rate transmission: Strengthen NBFC and cooperative
bank lending in rural and MSME segments.
o Eg: RBI's ECLGS expansion in March 2025 for MSMEs extended by 6
months.
4. Incentives for private capex revival: Offer production-linked incentives and
regulatory certainty.
o Eg: PLI 2.0 for electronics manufacturing launched in April 2025 with Rs
30,000 crore outlay.
5. Strengthening inflation targeting flexibility: Use the RBI Act (Amendment),
2016's accountability clauses to integrate growth-inflation balance.
o Eg: Monetary Policy Committee’s medium-term framework allows temporary
deviation for growth concerns.

Conclusion

India must treat low inflation not as a triumph, but as a signal to boost rural incomes,
consumption, and investment confidence. Ensuring inclusive price stability requires
recalibrating both monetary and fiscal levers with agility and foresight

10
Q. Explain the structure and functioning of India’s Social Stock Exchange. How
does it differ from traditional capital markets? Examine how Social Stock
Exchange can transform NGO credibility and funding transparency. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s Social Stock Exchange (SSE), notified by SEBI in July 2022, enables non-profit
organisations (NPOs) to raise funds transparently from institutional and retail donors by
listing on regulated platforms.

Body

Structure and functioning of the SSE

1. SEBI-regulated framework: SSE functions under SEBI’s regulatory oversight

o Eg: SEBI’s July 2022 framework mandates eligibility norms, disclosure
requirements, and impact reporting for listed NPOs.
2. Hosted within existing stock exchanges: It operates as a separate segment of BSE
and NSE
o Eg: Unnati Foundation became the first NGO listed on both NSE and BSE
SSEs in December 2023.
3. Eligibility and listing criteria: Only NGOs with 3 years of operations, valid
12A/80G, and Darpan ID can list
o Eg: As per SEBI circular (July 2022), minimum ₹50 lakh income and ₹10
lakh funds raised in past financial year required.
4. Fundraising through ZCZP instruments: Zero Coupon Zero Principal instruments
are used for donations
o Eg: Donors receive ZCZP units in their demat accounts; these become zero
once NGO completes deliverables.
5. Mandatory impact reporting: Listed entities must file annual impact and financial
reports audited by SSE-approved agencies
o Eg: National Institute of Securities Market (NISM) trained auditors for this
purpose under SEBI's direction.

Difference from traditional capital markets

1. Nature of returns: No financial return unlike equity or bonds

o Eg: ZCZP instruments do not yield dividends or capital gains, unlike IPOs
or debt instruments.
2. Purpose of listing: Focus on impact fundraising, not wealth creation
o Eg: SSE enables donors to support measurable social outcomes, while
traditional exchanges focus on profit-driven investment.
3. Investor profile: More inclusive with low minimum donation threshold

11
 o Eg: In 2024, SEBI reduced minimum investment to ₹1,000, broadening
participation.
4. Transparency compliance: Higher disclosure on outcomes than financial returns
o Eg: Form 10B reporting and audit trails are mandatory for listed NPOs.
5. Instrumental design: Instruments are non-transferable and expire on completion of
projects
o Eg: ZCZP units are project-tied, unlike freely tradable shares or bonds.

SSE’s role in improving NGO credibility and funding transparency

1. Standardised disclosures: Enforces uniform transparency in financial and impact

reporting
o Eg: SEBI mandates social impact statements and donor utilisation reports.
2. Enhancing donor confidence: Creates a credible signal of compliance and
governance
o Eg: Corporates preferring SSE-listed NGOs post-CSR amendment rules
2021.
3. Audit and third-party verification: Prevents misuse of funds through mandatory
due diligence
o Eg: SEBI-approved agencies audit impact reports, ensuring objective
validation.
4. Improved access to diverse funding sources: Enables NPOs to attract both retail
and institutional donors
o Eg: SGBS Unnati Foundation received renewed CSR interest after SSE
registration in March 2024.
5. Facilitates data-driven governance: Creates repository of verified performance data
o Eg: SSE database helps ministries assess NGO impact for policy synergy,
especially under Skill India or NRLM.

Conclusion

As India expands its social development landscape, the SSE offers a transformative pathway
for credible, audited, and transparent fundraising. To unlock its full potential,
mainstream awareness and donor engagement must accelerate, ensuring India’s non-profit
sector is future-ready and impact-aligned.

Q. “Unemployment among Indian youth is not due to lack of jobs, but due to lack
of skills and unattractive jobs”. Examine. Suggest a dual-track approach to
address this crisis. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s demographic advantage is turning into a liability as poor skilling and low job quality
lock youth in a cycle of unemployability, underemployment, and disillusionment.

12
Body

Youth unemployment: Skill deficit and job unattractiveness

1. Foundational learning failure: Poor schooling weakens cognitive and functional

skills
 Eg: ASER 2023 shows 42% of Class 5 students cannot read a Class 2-level
text, indicating weak learning outcomes.
2. Skilling without demand alignment: Disconnect between training and industry
needs
 Eg: India Skills Report 2024 noted that only 48.3% of graduates are
employable, highlighting poor curriculum-industry linkage.
3. Informal jobs and poor working conditions: Low wages, insecurity, lack of dignity
 Eg: PLFS 2023 showed that 83% of total employed youth (15–29 years) are in
informal jobs with limited upward mobility.
4. Perception mismatch: MSME jobs seen as low prestige and unscalable
 Eg: In SIDBI–TransUnion CIBIL Report (2024), micro firms reported labour
shortages despite open vacancies due to poor candidate interest.
5. Higher education inflation: Degrees over skills, leading to aspiration mismatch
 Eg: AISHE 2023 revealed 62% enrolment in general arts and science streams,
but most lack industry-relevant skills or soft skills.
6. Gendered exclusion: Social and infrastructure barriers restrict female youth
employment
 Eg: CMIE April 2025 data shows urban female LFPR among youth is only
17.8%, lowest among G20 nations.

Dual-track strategy to resolve youth unemployment crisis

Supply-side skilling and education reforms

1. Early skilling integration in schools: Build skills from foundational levels

 Eg: NEP 2020 and Samagra Shiksha now include vocational training from
Class 6 onwards, yet state-level implementation remains patchy.
2. District-level skill gap mapping: Localised and demand-driven training
 Eg: Skill India Digital Platform (2023) started linking district skill mapping
data with training modules using AI analytics.
3. PPP in vocational training: Industry-aligned apprenticeships and mentoring
 Eg: Tata STRIVE and L&T Skill Training Institutes provide placement-
linked technical education aligned with market needs.
4. Strengthen ITIs and polytechnics: Modernise equipment and curriculum
 Eg: World Bank’s STRIVE Project (2021–26) supports over 700 ITIs with
performance-linked grants and updated pedagogy.
5. Focus on transferable soft skills: Language, digital, communication

13
  Eg: British Council’s Employability Skills project has improved English and
digital skills among rural graduates in 8 states.

Track 2: Demand-side job creation and quality enhancement

1. Formalisation incentives for MSMEs: Shift from family labour to wage

employment
 Eg: UDYAM Assist Platform (2023) helps informal firms get formal credit
access, encouraging wage employment models.
2. Single-window credit-cum-subsidy scheme: Simple access, no multiplicity
 Eg: Recommendation from P. Chidambaram (2025) to consolidate schemes into
one liberal interest subvention model for small enterprises.
3. Cluster-based SME promotion: Localised value chains and economies of scale
 Eg: ODOP initiative boosted employment in UP’s MSME clusters by linking
local crafts with e-commerce and export support.
4. Boosting gig and digital employment: Regulate without stifling
 Eg: Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers (Welfare) Act, 2023 became the
first law to institutionalise welfare for gig workers.
5. Improve job quality in public schemes: Merge skilling with workfare
 Eg: Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) links
rural youth with high-quality job placements through training.

Conclusion
Without urgent correction on both ends—skill creation and job enhancement—India risks
squandering its demographic dividend. A cohesive, simplified and convergent employment
strategy must replace fragmented schemes and disconnected education.

Q. Evaluate the performance of States in augmenting their own tax revenues

since Goods and Service Tax (GST) implementation. What lessons can be drawn
for future fiscal devolution frameworks? (15 M)

Introduction
GST was envisaged as a game-changer in India’s fiscal landscape, but its centralised structure
has challenged States’ ability to enhance their own tax base.

Body

Positive aspects

1. Moderate improvement in tax-to-GSDP ratio: States have shown partial success in

improving fiscal mobilisation.
o Eg: Own Tax Revenue (OTR) of States rose from 6.6% of GSDP in 2017-
18 to 7.2% in 2024-25 (RBI State Finances Report, 2025).

14
 2. Expansion of digital compliance mechanisms: States have leveraged e-way bills
and analytics to plug tax leakages.
o Eg: Karnataka used AI-based tax intelligence tools to curb evasion and
boost GST compliance (Karnataka Economic Survey, 2024-25).
3. Better mobilisation through property and excise taxes: Some States optimised
non-GST revenue channels.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu increased its excise and stamp duty revenues despite
stagnant GST growth (TN Budget, 2024-25).
4. Institutional reforms in tax administration: Certain States undertook restructuring
for better efficiency.
o Eg: Odisha implemented Integrated Financial Management Systems
(IFMS) to modernise tax operations.
5. Use of incentive-based models: Performance-linked grants have encouraged better
tax effort in some regions.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission allocated Rs. 70,000 crore for States based on
tax effort and population control indicators.

Challenges

1. Loss of fiscal autonomy under GST: States cannot vary rates or design indirect
taxes independently.
o Eg: Entry tax, octroi, and VAT on most goods were subsumed, limiting
States’ flexibility.
2. Patchy performance across States: Wealthier States saw gains, while poorer States
struggled to mobilise revenues.
o Eg: UP and Bihar lagged in GST compliance, widening horizontal fiscal
disparities (PRS Legislative Research, 2024).
3. Delayed GST compensation and arrears: Compensation cess often arrived late,
impacting State planning.
o Eg: States like Punjab and Kerala reported pending GST compensation of
over Rs. 10,000 crore in FY 2023-24.
4. Underperformance of GST collections: GST failed to deliver anticipated buoyancy
in many States.
o Eg: In 2022-23, only 12 of 28 States reported GST growth above nominal
GSDP rise (MoF Monthly GST Reports).
5. Weak enforcement and leakages: Capacity constraints limited enforcement outside
top-performing States.
o Eg: North-Eastern States faced chronic shortages of trained personnel and
digital infrastructure.

Lessons for future fiscal devolution frameworks

1. Dynamic devolution formula: Tax-sharing should reflect evolving revenue-

generation and expenditure needs.

15
 o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s call for 50% tax devolution highlights need for revisiting
the static 41% share.
2. Performance-linked incentives: Fiscal transfers must reward reform and
compliance, not only needs.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission recommended incentives for tax effort,
population control, and power sector reforms.
3. Extension of compensation mechanism: Post-2022, an alternative institutional
buffer is needed for GST revenue volatility.
o Eg: A proposed Revenue Insurance Model could address unpredictable tax
inflows (NIPFP, 2023).
4. Empowering GST Council and States: More frequent meetings and voting parity
can restore cooperative federalism.
o Eg: GST Council met only once in FY 2023-24, limiting dialogue on fiscal
concerns (CBIC Annual Report, 2024).
5. Encouraging own revenue innovations: States must diversify fiscal instruments
beyond GST.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s urban mining tax model and Kerala’s floor pricing for
liquor show potential for innovative revenue streams.

Conclusion
Strengthening State finances in a post-GST era demands a reimagined fiscal pact that
balances autonomy with accountability—only then can true cooperative federalism thrive.

Q. “The promise of doubling farmers’ income was ambitious but insufficiently

grounded in regional realities”. Critically analyse. What institutional and
structural reforms are necessary to realise this goal? (15 M)

Introduction
The goal to double farmers’ income by 2022–23 shifted the national narrative from food
security to income security. However, its uniform policy design underestimated India’s
diverse agrarian realities. Despite this, it brought structural focus to long-neglected rural
income issues.

Body

Positive contributions of the doubling farmers’ income initiative

1. Redefined policy from output to income orientation: The initiative catalysed a

national shift in how farm success was measured.
o Eg: The Ashok Dalwai Committee (2017) identified seven income streams
including agri-marketing, livestock, and cost reduction strategies.
2. Scaled direct income support for marginal farmers: Smallholders gained stable
income inflow irrespective of production outcomes.

16
 o Eg: PM-KISAN disbursed over ₹2.80 lakh crore to around 11 crore farmers
till 2024 (Ministry of Agriculture).
3. Strengthened allied sector integration: Horticulture, dairy, and aquaculture were
mainstreamed as income-generating activities.
o Eg: Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh reported a 30–40% increase in rural
income due to livestock and fisheries focus (NABARD 2023).
4. Accelerated rural infrastructure development: Investment in cold chains,
irrigation, and e-markets saw tangible increase.
o Eg: PM Krishi Sinchayi Yojana expanded micro-irrigation to over 1.3
crore hectares between 2016–23 (Ministry of Jal Shakti).
5. Created policy space for farm diversification: States initiated agroecological
models and crop-neutral support schemes.
o Eg: Sikkim’s organic farming model led to 25% increase in per capita
farm income over a decade.

Gaps due to weak regional grounding

1. Lack of agro-climatic customisation: Uniform schemes overlooked ecological and

market diversity across states.
o Eg: Bihar and West Bengal averaged below ₹5,000/month income, while
Punjab crossed ₹23,000/month (NSS-SAS 2018–19).
2. Overdependence on centralised schemes: Centrally driven programmes didn’t align
with local institutional capacities.
o Eg: Odisha had <15% enrolment under crop insurance due to mismatch with
local risk profiles (CAG Report 2023).
3. Low agricultural GDP growth in lagging states: Weak economic fundamentals
undermined income rise in key states.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh saw 0.3% agricultural GDP growth (2018–20)
despite high baseline productivity (MoSPI 2021).
4. Non-farm income disparities across states: Uneven rural industrialisation skewed
total income improvements.
o Eg: Uttarakhand achieved doubling target largely due to migration-led
remittances, not farm sector .
5. Neglected social and landholding disparities: Marginal farmers, women, and SC-ST
groups gained less from national schemes.
o Eg: Income of SC and ST farmers is nearly 50% lower than general
category farmers across India (NSS-SAS 2018–19).

Institutional and structural reforms required

A. Institutional reforms

1. State-level income enhancement blueprints: States must develop targeted strategies

based on local needs.

17
 o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s Rythu Bharosa Kendras offer integrated support
including input, marketing, and soil health services.
2. District convergence frameworks: Alignment across agri, irrigation, and panchayat
departments is essential.
o Eg: The Aspirational Districts Programme uses convergence cells, which
can be replicated for income planning.
3. Real-time and disaggregated data systems: Dynamic farm-level income tracking is
needed for targeted interventions.
o Eg: NITI Aayog Data Strategy (2023) calls for farm income dashboards
integrating caste, gender, and region-based data.
4. Empowered state farmers’ commissions: Decentralised policy institutions should
advise on evidence-based reforms.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s State Farmers Commission (2004) influenced input
subsidy policy and agro-climate-specific MSPs.
5. Centre–state fiscal flexibility: Outcome-based transfers should replace rigid
centrally sponsored schemes.
o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission proposed performance-linked agri
grants to incentivise state innovation.

B. Structural reforms

1. Land leasing and tenancy reform: Secure land tenure enables investment and credit
access.
o Eg: Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh have adopted the Model Land
Leasing Act (2016) for formalising tenancy.
2. Post-harvest value chain infrastructure: Improved logistics can raise farmgate
prices and reduce distress sales.
o Eg: Operation Greens established 100 value chain clusters, though
coverage in eastern India remains limited.
3. Expanded role for farmer producer organisations: FPOs improve market leverage
and input access.
o Eg: As of 2024, 3,000 functional FPOs under the 10,000 FPOs scheme,
though many face managerial gaps (SFAC Report 2024).
4. Caste- and gender-sensitive rural schemes: Social targeting is vital to correct
inherited agrarian inequality.
o Eg: Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) improved tribal
women’s income by 25% in Chhattisgarh.
5. Climate-resilient crop planning: Adaptive support must replace cereal-centric
incentives.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s bead-to-field cotton planning and Rajasthan’s bajra-
focused MSP support raised drought-zone resilience (ICAR 2023).

Conclusion
Doubling farmers’ income was not a failed idea, but a misaligned execution in a diverse

18
landscape. With robust local institutions, inclusive targeting, and structural corrections, India
can still translate the ambition into reality for its farmers.

Q. “Expansionary monetary policy, when prolonged, becomes a trap rather than

a stimulus”. Discuss. How can India avoid such a path? (10 M)

Introduction
Japan’s ‘lost decades’ reveal how unchecked monetary stimulus can suppress reform, distort
markets, and entrench stagnation rather than restore growth.

Body

How prolonged expansionary policy becomes a trap

1. Asset inflation without real growth: Excessive liquidity inflates financial assets but
does not translate into productive investment.
o Eg: Japan’s 1980s boom led to inflated real estate and stock prices, which
collapsed in 1990, triggering a prolonged recession.
2. Survival of zombie firms: Easy credit keeps inefficient firms alive, reducing sectoral
competitiveness and innovation.
o Eg: OECD (2018) highlighted that over 20% of Japanese firms remained
operational despite low productivity, crowding out efficient SMEs.
3. Weak monetary transmission: When rates stay low for long, monetary tools lose
their ability to stimulate demand.
o Eg: Despite RBI’s repo rate cuts to 4% in 2020, credit off-take remained
sluggish due to weak demand and private sector stress (RBI Annual Report
2022).
4. Currency depreciation and inflation: Long-term low interest rates can trigger
capital flight and imported inflation.
o Eg: Yen fell from 100 to 160 per USD (2020–24), raising Japan’s import
costs and worsening inflation (BoJ 2024 data).
5. Rising public debt and fiscal strain: Excessive fiscal spending supported by low
rates results in unsustainable debt burdens.
o Eg: Japan’s debt reached 220% of GDP (IMF Fiscal Monitor 2023),
limiting future fiscal flexibility and reform space.

How India can avoid the prolonged stimulus trap

1. Shift focus to structural reforms: Long-term growth needs labour, land, and
governance reforms beyond rate cuts.
o Eg: National Logistics Policy 2022 aims to cut logistics costs and improve
efficiency across sectors.
2. Maintain fiscal-monetary discipline: Reinforce RBI’s inflation targeting and avoid
policy driven by short-term political gains.

19
 o Eg: FRBM Review Committee (2017) stressed a debt-GDP ceiling and
clearer roles for RBI and Centre in macro-stabilisation.
3. Direct credit to productive sectors: Channel liquidity into growth-generating areas
like MSMEs and green industries.
o Eg: In 2023, the ECLGS scheme was restructured to target working capital
for small manufacturers and service providers.
4. Prevent asset bubbles through oversight: Tighten regulations on speculative sectors
like housing and equity.
o Eg: SEBI’s 2023 circular increased disclosure norms for high-risk funds and
derivative instruments.
5. Foster innovation and export-led growth: Build resilience through skilling,
manufacturing and diversified global integration.
o Eg: PLI schemes across 14 sectors contributed to a 19% rise in
manufacturing exports in FY24.

Conclusion
India must treat expansionary policies as bridges to reform, not permanent fixtures.
Sustainable growth will depend on restoring productivity, not inflating balance sheets.

Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.

Q. “High inequality is not just unjust — it is developmentally inefficient.”
Examine how rising inequality distorts policy outcomes in India. Evaluate the
risk it poses to sustainable human development. (10 M)

Introduction
Inequality is now seen not merely as a moral issue but a structural barrier to effective
development. The 2025 UNDP HDR shows India’s HDI loss due to inequality at 30.7%,
one of the highest in Asia.

Body

How rising inequality distorts policy outcomes

1. Uneven access to state resources: High inequality concentrates benefits among the
privileged, undermining inclusive targeting.
o Eg: The National Family Health Survey-5 (2021) shows the richest 20%
access over 70% of institutional healthcare, while the poorest 20% lag
despite schemes like Ayushman Bharat.
2. Policy capture by elites: Inequality enables lobbying by dominant classes, skewing
welfare priorities.
o Eg: Oxfam India (2023) highlighted how corporate tax cuts in 2019
disproportionately benefited top firms over MSMEs and informal workers.
3. Low public investment in social sectors: High-income concentration reduces
pressure for universal provisioning.

20
 o Eg: India’s public health spending remains below 2% of GDP (Economic
Survey 2022-23), despite high out-of-pocket expenses among the poor.
4. Reduced democratic participation: Economic inequality leads to political
marginalisation of the poor, weakening accountability.
o Eg: The ADR report (2024) found 75% of Lok Sabha MPs are crorepatis,
marginalising lower-income voices in law-making.
5. Gender policy blind spots: Rising inequality intersects with gender gaps,
undercutting labour and representation gains.
o Eg: Female labour force participation dropped to 25% (PLFS 2023) despite
schemes like Skill India and Stand-Up India.

Risks to sustainable human development

1. Stagnation in human capital formation: Inequality impairs access to quality

education and healthcare, limiting productivity.
o Eg: The ASER Report 2023 showed stark rural-urban learning gaps,
particularly post-COVID, undermining demographic dividend.
2. Increased intergenerational poverty: Disparities in nutrition, health, and education
lock generations into deprivation.
o Eg: NFHS-5 data shows child stunting remains over 35% in poorer states
like Bihar and Jharkhand.
3. Regional imbalances in development: Inequality between states fuels migration,
stress on urban infrastructure, and instability.
o Eg: 70% of Indians are in the medium HDI category, despite economic
growth in states like Maharashtra (UNDP 2025).
4. Social unrest and exclusion: Disparities erode social cohesion and foster conflict and
grievance-based politics.
o Eg: Rising rural-urban protests over land acquisition and job reservations, as
in Manipur (2023), reflect structural discontent.
5. Climate vulnerability amplification: Poorer populations face disproportionate
climate impacts with less adaptive capacity.
o Eg: IPCC Report 2023 flagged India’s urban slum dwellers and farmers
among the most exposed to heatwaves and floods.

Conclusion
Inequality silently corrodes the foundations of sustainable development. India’s growth
trajectory must now align with dignified inclusion, where redistributive justice and
capability enhancement go hand-in-hand.

21
Q. How can rural start-up ecosystem contribute to bridging the rural-urban
economic divide? What are the key challenges in establishing rural innovation
and incubation ecosystems in India? Suggest an institutional and policy
framework to overcome them. (15 M)

Introduction
The rural startup ecosystem, when driven by local resources and innovation, offers a scalable
model to reduce spatial economic disparities by generating employment at source, fostering
local value addition, and building resilient economies.

Body

Role of rural start-up ecosystem in bridging rural–urban economic divide

1. Employment generation at source: Start-ups create local jobs and reduce push
migration.
o Eg:– Garuda Aerospace’s drone services for agriculture have employed
over 500 rural youth across Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
2. Local value addition and market linkages: Start-ups help producers bypass
middlemen and access direct markets.
o Eg:– DeHaat enables over 2 million farmers to access inputs and sell
produce using AI platforms .
3. Leveraging indigenous knowledge and natural resources: Rural startups use
traditional expertise for product innovation.
o Eg:– Resham Sutra’s solar silk-reeling machines empower tribal women in
Jharkhand, increasing income and productivity.
4. Technology penetration and service parity: Startups introduce tech-based services
in remote areas, narrowing access gaps.
o Eg:– 1Bridge delivers e-commerce and fintech services in 10,000+ villages,
enabling urban-grade access .
5. Inclusive development and community participation: Start-ups enable
decentralised, socially cohesive development.
o Eg:– Farmizen’s organic community farming model empowers
smallholders and consumers with eco-conscious local linkages.

Challenges in establishing rural innovation and incubation ecosystems

1. Infrastructure bottlenecks: Poor roads, electricity, and internet hamper operations

and scaling.
o Eg:– India Rural Development Report 2022 states only 38% of rural
households have consistent internet access.
2. Access to early-stage finance: Credit and venture capital rarely reach rural
enterprises.

22
 o Eg:– SIDBI’s 2023 report found that just 5% of venture capital was
allocated to rural and Tier 3 start-ups.
3. Skill deficit and low entrepreneurial exposure: Rural youth lack access to
structured training and innovation platforms.
o Eg:– MSDE Skill Gap Study (2024) identified 70% unmet skilling demand
in rural India.
4. Weak institutional ecosystem and mentorship: Most incubators and accelerators
remain urban-centric.
o Eg:– DST Startup India Report 2023 shows over 90% of incubators are
concentrated in metro cities.
5. Regulatory and procedural complexity: Legal formalities deter small rural
entrepreneurs from formal registration.
o Eg:– NCAER 2023 highlighted compliance delays as a major barrier for rural
MSMEs and FPOs.

Institutional and policy framework to overcome challenges

1. District-level innovation hubs: Create decentralised start-up centres tailored to local

contexts.
o Eg:– Karnataka’s Elevate Rural scheme supports start-ups in agriculture
and crafts at the taluk level.
2. Dedicated financial instruments and de-risking models: Use blended finance and
targeted start-up credit.
o Eg:– RBI’s Financial Inclusion Development Fund and NABARD’s Agri-
Startup Fund offer tailored support (2023).
3. Integration with skilling and digital literacy: Align startup promotion with
PMKVY and Digital India.
o Eg:– Kerala’s K-DISC model integrates innovation fellows, skill parks, and
local startups.
4. Public–private–academic collaboration: Facilitate mentorship, research access, and
CSR-backed incubators.
o Eg:– IIT Guwahati’s agritech centre supports rural start-ups in tea and rice
innovation (Assam Govt MoU, 2023).
5. Legal simplification and on-ground facilitation: Provide single-window start-up
support for rural entrepreneurs.
o Eg:– Udyam Assist Platform (2023) streamlines documentation and
onboarding of unregistered rural units.

Conclusion
Empowering rural start-ups is key to transforming India from urban-centric growth to
balanced regional development. A decentralised, inclusive ecosystem can unlock grassroots
innovation and build future-ready rural economies.

23
Government Budgeting.
Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, -
different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage,
transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and
related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Q. “Stubble burning is no longer a seasonal crisis restricted to North India but a
symptom of unsustainable agricultural practices”. Examine. Suggest structural
reforms to address this issue beyond penalisation. (15 M)

Introduction

The shift of stubble burning hotspots to states like Madhya Pradesh indicates that India’s
agricultural crisis is rooted in structural issues of monoculture, mechanisation, and market
failures, not just farmer apathy.

Body

Stubble burning as a symptom of unsustainable agricultural practices

1. Monoculture and MSP distortion: Incentivising water-intensive crops in unsuitable

geographies encourages unsustainable farming cycles.
o Eg: Punjab and Madhya Pradesh see high paddy-wheat monoculture driven
by MSP, despite groundwater depletion (CACP Report 2022).
2. Unplanned mechanisation: Combine harvesters leave stubble that cannot be
manually removed or fed to cattle.
o Eg: Vidisha (MP) recorded 2,916 incidents of stubble burning between April
1–20, 2025 due to post-harvest mechanisation.
3. Decline in livestock integration: Reduced cattle population eliminates traditional
fodder use of crop residues.
o Eg: NDDB Report (2023) noted a 20% decline in livestock holdings in
stubble-burning districts.
4. Absence of biomass reuse infrastructure: Lack of processing plants leaves residues
as 'waste' to be burnt.
o Eg: India State of Forest Report 2021 showed minimal bioenergy plants in
high-burn districts.
5. Short sowing window due to crop cycles: Tight timelines between harvest and next
sowing lead to residue clearance by fire.
o Eg: Haryana farmers face only a 10–15 day gap between paddy harvest and
wheat sowing.

Structural reforms beyond penalisation

24
 1. Reform MSP to incentivise crop diversification: Promote pulses, millets, oilseeds
over water-heavy crops.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2021) recommended MSP-based promotion of nutri-
cereals to reduce stubble and improve nutrition.
2. Promote decentralised bioeconomy units: Encourage agro-industries using crop
residues for energy, paper, and ethanol.
o Eg: Under SATAT Scheme (2018), compressed biogas plants are being set
up using paddy straw.
3. Include biomass in RPO mandates: Ensure assured procurement by integrating
biomass into Renewable Purchase Obligations.
o Eg: MNRE (2023) proposed 5% RPO share for biomass energy to boost
farmer-industry linkages.
4. Strengthen integrated farming via KVKs: Promote livestock-fodder-crop linkages
and composting at farm level.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu's integrated farming clusters use stubble as fodder and
compost, reducing open burning.
5. Implement agro-ecological zoning in planning: Align cropping patterns to water
availability and soil health.
o Eg: ICAR’s Agro-Ecological Atlas (2022) helps frame zonal crop advisories
and prevent unsuited monoculture.

Conclusion

A penal model cannot fix a structural ecological failure. Only farm-centric reforms,
bioeconomic incentives, and ecologically aligned planning can convert the stubble crisis
into a sustainable rural opportunity.

Q. What is meant by a Micro Green Revolution in agriculture? How does it

differ from the original Green Revolution in terms of input use, sustainability,
and long-term viability? Examine its feasibility in the Indian context. (15 M)

Introduction

The Micro Green Revolution signifies a new phase of agricultural innovation centred on
biological inputs, especially beneficial microbes, that aim to enhance crop productivity,
reduce input costs, and revive degraded agro-ecosystems.

Body

Meaning of micro green revolution

1. Microbial nutrient mobilisation: Uses microbial consortia to fix atmospheric

nitrogen and mobilise phosphorus and potassium.

25
 o Eg: Rhizobium and Azospirillum inoculants improved nitrogen uptake in
soybeans and common beans in Brazil, increasing yields by up to 16%
(World Food Prize Foundation, 2025).
2. Biological seed and soil treatments: Involves treating seeds and soil with beneficial
bacteria or fungi to enhance germination, nutrient absorption, and stress resistance.
o Eg: ICAR–IISS’s phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) improved
phosphorus use efficiency in wheat and rice belts (ICAR, 2023).
3. Input cost reduction strategy: Replaces high-cost chemical inputs with natural
processes, lowering financial burdens on farmers.
o Eg: Brazilian farmers saved $40 billion annually by reducing fertiliser
dependence using microbial technologies (World Food Prize Foundation,
2025).
4. Ecological intensification approach: Aims to increase output without degrading
ecosystems by leveraging soil microbial biodiversity.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s organic clusters under PKVY used microbial
bioinputs, leading to 35% less water use and improved soil health
(MoA&FW, 2022).

Differences from the Green Revolution

1. Nature of technological base: Green Revolution was mechanical and chemical,

while Micro Green is biological and regenerative.
o Eg: Green tech involved HYVs, tractors, irrigation pumps; Micro Green
uses microbial biostimulants and inoculants (ICAR vs EMBRAPA models).
2. Environmental footprint: Green Revolution increased GHG emissions, water
pollution, while Micro Green is carbon-efficient and non-toxic.
o Eg: FAO estimated synthetic fertilisers contribute 1.4 billion tonnes CO₂-
eq annually; biofertilisers have near-zero emissions (FAO, 2022).
3. Water use and soil degradation: Green practices caused aquifer depletion and
salinisation, whereas microbial methods enhance water retention and soil
structure.
o Eg: Azotobacter-treated fields in Maharashtra showed 11% higher water-
use efficiency (NIASM, 2023).
4. Crop diversity and resilience: Green Revolution promoted monocultures (mainly
wheat and rice); Micro Green supports multi-crop systems and intercropping.
o Eg: Assam’s agroforestry + microbial trials integrated pulses, oilseeds with
rice, improving yields and income stability (ICFRE, 2022).
5. Energy intensity: Green model relies on fossil-fuel-derived inputs, Micro Green
works through renewable microbial cycles.
o Eg: Urea production alone consumes over 25 MMBTU per ton, while
biofertilisers are low-energy alternatives (MoP&NG, 2023).

Feasibility in the Indian context

26
 1. Agro-ecological compatibility: India’s microbial-rich soils and diverse climates
allow region-specific inoculant development.
o Eg: ICAR-IISS Bhopal’s zone-wise microbial library covers over 200
localised strains (ICAR, 2024).
2. Alignment with existing schemes: Matches policy objectives of PM-PRANAM,
Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP), and NMSA.
o Eg: PM-PRANAM (2023) encourages states to reduce chemical use by
granting budgetary incentives for using bio-inputs (MoA&FW, 2023).
3. Scientific and startup ecosystem: India has a growing network of bio-agri startups
and research institutes with microbial innovation focus.
o Eg: Indibio, a Pune-based startup, developed multi-strain liquid inoculants
used across 40,000 ha in 2024 (Startup India Database).
4. Farmer awareness and adoption barriers: Challenges persist in trust, knowledge,
and result visibility of biofertilisers.
o Eg: 2022 NSSO Survey showed only 12% farmers were aware of microbial
alternatives in major fertiliser-consuming districts.
5. Lack of regulation and quality standards: Inconsistent quality, counterfeit
biofertilisers, and absence of robust certification norms affect adoption.
o Eg: Ramesh Chand Committee (NITI Aayog) recommended a centralised
Bio-input Regulatory Authority in 2022 to ensure standards.
6. Skilling and extension deficit: Limited integration of microbial literacy in KVKs,
ATMA, and FPOs.
o Eg: Only 42 out of 731 KVKs currently run structured biofertiliser awareness
modules (DACFW, 2024).

Conclusion

India stands at the cusp of a second agricultural revolution—this time led by its soil
microbiome. With the right institutional push and farmer-centric reforms, the Micro Green
Revolution can create a path toward low-cost, climate-resilient, and ecologically regenerative
farming.

Q. Examine the significance of community seed banks in promoting diversified

and low-input farming systems. How can this approach support India’s climate-
resilient development agenda? (10 M)

Introduction

India’s agriculture is under stress from erratic climate, biodiversity loss, and input-intensive
monocultures. Community seed banks (CSBs) offer decentralised, adaptive, and biodiversity-
based alternatives essential for sustainable and climate-resilient food systems.

Body

27
Significance of community seed banks in diversified and low-input farming

1. Conservation of indigenous crop diversity: CSBs preserve region-specific

traditional varieties that support multiple cropping systems.
o Eg:– Beej Bachao Andolan in Uttarakhand maintains over 300 rice
varieties suited to rainfed Himalayan ecosystems.
2. Reduced input dependency: Local seeds need less fertiliser, pesticide, and irrigation,
lowering input costs.
o Eg:– Wayanad farmers in Kerala use seeds from CSBs for organic millet
farming, reducing chemical use (MSSRF, 2024).
3. Revival of nutritious and forgotten crops: CSBs reintroduce millets, pulses, and
tubers, supporting food and nutritional security.
o Eg:– Shedshal village seed bank in Maharashtra conserves 50+ indigenous
seed varieties, including high-nutrient millets .
4. Improved resilience to climatic and market shocks: Crop diversity enables
adaptive capacity and food security during disruptions.
o Eg:– Vanvadi collective in Maharashtra helped farmers cope with the 2023
drought through climate-tolerant crops.
5. Empowerment of women and community knowledge: SHG-led CSBs ensure
inclusive participation and preserve traditional agricultural wisdom.
o Eg:– Sahaja Samrudha in Karnataka trains women farmers as custodians
of seed knowledge.

Role in supporting India’s climate-resilient development agenda

1. Supports SDGs and India's climate targets: CSBs promote local solutions for
SDG-2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG-13 (Climate Action).
o Eg:– Navdanya’s 120+ seed banks across 22 states are recognised by UN
FAO for enabling climate-resilient farming (2023).
2. Decentralised climate adaptation model: CSBs allow region-specific adaptation,
unlike uniform seed distribution models.
o Eg:– Sikkim’s organic CSBs supported farmers post frost events in 2021, by
distributing hardy native crops.
3. Integration with biodiversity frameworks: They aid the National Biodiversity
Action Plan and NBPGR’s in-situ conservation mission.
o Eg:– CSE’s 2025 survey documented 887 climate-resilient varieties
maintained across 15 states and 71 crops.
4. Reduction in seed corporatisation risks: CSBs protect farmers from dependency on
expensive hybrid or GM seeds.
o Eg:– Vidarbha farmers restored desi cotton seeds after Bt cotton failures
and debt trap.
5. Promotion of low-carbon farming models: Local seed use complements ZBNF and
organic farming systems with reduced emissions.

28
 o Eg:– Andhra Pradesh ZBNF model relies on CSBs for seed supply in its
climate-friendly agricultural programme .

Conclusion

Community seed banks are grassroots engines of resilience, diversity, and sustainability.
Strengthening them will be key to securing India’s climate-smart agricultural
transformation and nutritional self-reliance in the coming decades.

Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum

support prices; Public Distribution System-objectives,
functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and
food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.
Q. “Rising private procurement signals a shift in India’s grain market
dynamics.” Discuss its implications for market competition. Examine whether it
reduces farmer dependence on Minimum Support Price (MSP). (10 M)

Introduction
The 2025 Rabi season witnessed record private wheat procurement in Punjab, reflecting a
structural shift in agricultural markets where private players are increasingly shaping price
and access dynamics beyond government procurement.

Body

Implications for market competition

1. Higher price realisation for farmers: Competitive bidding by private players can
drive prices above the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
o Eg: In Punjab 2025, private traders offered ₹2,800/quintal, well above the
MSP of ₹2,640, especially in Sangrur and Patiala (Source: TNIE, May
2025).
2. Diversification of procurement base: Entry of multiple buyers reduces the
monopoly of government procurement agencies.
o Eg: 10.79 LMT of wheat was procured by private entities, the highest ever
in Punjab, compared to 7.5 LMT in 2024 (Source: Punjab Food Department).
3. Encouragement of direct producer-industry linkages: Direct sourcing bypasses
intermediaries and enhances efficiency in value chains.
o Eg: Flour millers in Sangrur procured 6–9 months of stock directly from
farmers fearing delays in OMSS.
4. Improved quality and grading incentives: Private buyers may offer premiums for
superior grain quality, encouraging better farm practices.
o Eg: In Ludhiana East, traders paid more for cleaned and stored wheat,
rewarding post-harvest handling.

29
 5. Pressure on mandi-based procurement systems: Increased private participation
may weaken APMC revenues and regulatory control.
o Eg: APMC officials in Faridkot reported rise in out-of-mandi procurement,
impacting mandi fee collections.

Whether it reduces farmer dependence on Minimum Support Price (MSP)

Yes, it reduces dependence

1. Higher private prices incentivise non-MSP sales: Farmers shift towards market-
driven sales if offered better rates.
o Eg: In Sangrur and Patiala, many farmers deferred sales waiting for better-
than-MSP private offers in April–May 2025.
2. MSP acts more as a benchmark, not safety net: Farmers increasingly view MSP as
a reference rather than the only viable option.
o Eg: CACP reports (2022) found that MSP influenced only 23% of national
crop sales directly.
3. Improved bargaining through buyer diversity: Private demand strengthens farmer
negotiating capacity in competitive zones.
o Eg: Millers’ long-term contracts for 6–9 months in Punjab encouraged
direct farm-level negotiations.

No, it does not reduce dependence fully

1. Market access remains uneven across states: In low-surplus or remote regions,

private buyers are absent or offer lower prices.
o Eg: In states like Chhattisgarh and Bihar, MSP procurement still dominates
due to weak market infrastructure.
2. Private demand is volatile and seasonal: In absence of assured procurement,
farmers may face distress sales.
o Eg: In 2023, delay in OMSS release till December forced many to sell below
MSP in July–Sept window.
3. Small and marginal farmers lack bargaining power: Fragmented holdings and
information asymmetry weaken their position in private deals.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2021) warned of private traders excluding smallholders
who cannot meet volume or quality thresholds.

Conclusion
Private procurement offers promising signals for market diversification and higher returns,
but MSP remains critical for inclusion, stability, and food security. A calibrated dual-market
model backed by institutional safeguards is essential for equitable agricultural transformation.

30
Food processing and related industries in India- scope’ and
significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements,
supply chain management.
Land reforms in India.
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial
policy and their effects on industrial growth.
Q. Privatisation of public sector enterprises is often justified on grounds of
efficiency and fiscal prudence. Critically examine this rationale. Assess its impact
on employment security and worker rights. Suggest alternative approaches to
reform. (15 M)

Introduction:
India’s disinvestment strategy, once aimed at unlocking economic value, now faces critical
scrutiny for ignoring long-term social and strategic trade-offs.

Body

Rationale for privatisation

Justifications offered for privatisation

1. Improved efficiency and competitiveness: Private enterprises operate with

performance-linked incentives and consumer orientation.
o Eg: IndiGo Airlines grew as India's leading carrier through lean operations,
unlike loss-making Air India before 2021.
2. Reduction of fiscal burden: Loss-making PSUs often require recurring bailouts,
stressing public finances.
o Eg: BSNL and MTNL together incurred losses of over ₹15,000 crore in
FY20, triggering a massive revival package.
3. Unlocking capital for infrastructure: Strategic disinvestment mobilises non-tax
revenue for developmental spending.
o Eg: Budget 2021–22 targeted ₹1.75 lakh crore via disinvestment to fund
capital expenditure.
4. Government’s exit from non-core sectors: Enables the state to focus on governance
rather than managing commercial risks.
o Eg: NITI Aayog's 2021 strategy paper emphasised withdrawal from sectors
like tourism, textiles, and hotels.

Counter-arguments against privatisation

31
 1. Selling profitable assets leads to long-term loss: High-performing PSUs contribute
steady dividends.
o Eg: BPCL, with profits of ₹11,000 crore (FY21), was listed for sale, risking
future public income.
2. Loss of control in strategic sectors: Ownership changes may impact national
security and public service delivery.
o Eg: Vizag Steel Plant, critical for defence-grade steel, saw massive
opposition to its privatisation.
3. Opaque valuations and underpricing: Disinvestment deals often lack price
transparency and asset valuation rigour.
o Eg: BALCO’s 2001 sale to Sterlite was flagged by CAG for serious
undervaluation.
4. No guaranteed performance post-sale: Efficiency gains after privatisation are not
always realised.
o Eg: Despite privatisation, Air India continues to face financial and
operational challenges in 2024.

Impact on employment security and worker rights

1. Widespread contractualisation and job loss: Workers face layoffs, outsourcing, and
job precarity post-sale.
o Eg: Over 40% of Coal India’s workforce is now on contract due to
increasing outsourcing (Coal Ministry, 2024).
2. Collapse of collective bargaining mechanisms: Privatised firms often restrict union
activities and wage negotiations.
o Eg: Jet Airways staff lacked recognised unions during the 2019 crisis,
leading to sudden layoffs without redress.
3. Weak labour law enforcement: Compliance oversight reduces post-privatisation,
especially in informalised segments.
o Eg: ILO’s 2023 India Report cited poor safety enforcement in construction
and transport sectors.
4. Violation of equal pay for equal work: Disparities grow between permanent and
contract employees for similar tasks.
o Eg: Safai karamcharis in Railways earn less than 40% of regular staff,
despite equivalent workloads.

Alternative approaches to reform

1. Strengthen PSE autonomy and governance: Reform management through

performance-linked MoUs and independent boards.
o Eg: SCOPE (2022) recommended CEO autonomy, board restructuring, and
market benchmarking for major PSUs.
2. Public-private partnerships (PPP) over full privatisation: Retains public oversight
while infusing private efficiency.

32
 o Eg: Delhi Airport PPP with GMR Group enhanced passenger services
without selling ownership.
3. Monetise non-core assets, not enterprises: Use idle land and infrastructure for funds
without losing control of core firms.
o Eg: National Monetisation Pipeline (2021) targets ₹6 lakh crore via leasing
assets, not selling them.
4. Embed worker protection in disinvestment policy: Ensure safeguards for
continuity, benefits, and union rights.
o Eg: DIPAM’s 2023 draft policy proposed mandatory job protection clauses
for 1–3 years after privatisation.

Conclusion
Privatisation must not come at the cost of strategic autonomy and worker welfare. India’s
reform path must ensure that economic efficiency coexists with social equity and
democratic accountability.

Q. Export restrictions on niche minerals like germanium and gallium reflect a

shift from market-based to coercion-based trade. Comment. Also assess India’s
vulnerability in this context. (10 M)

Introduction
The strategic control of critical minerals by a few states is transforming global trade from
free-market principles to coercive leverage, threatening supply security for tech-dependent
economies.

Body

Shift from market-based to coercion-based trade

1. Use of minerals as geopolitical tools: Export restrictions are increasingly deployed

to exert pressure on adversaries.
 Eg: In 2023, China imposed curbs on gallium and germanium after the US
restricted chip-making technology exports.
2. Disruption of trusted supply chains: Targeted controls on essential minerals
destabilise existing value chains and increase global uncertainty.
 Eg: The 2025 germanium restrictions disrupted fibre optic cable and solar
panel production across Asia.
3. Politicisation of trade flows: Mineral trade is now linked to diplomatic equations
rather than commercial logic.
 Eg: In 2010, China blocked rare earth exports to Japan during the Senkaku
Islands standoff.
4. Undermining multilateral trade norms: Export bans bypass global trade
frameworks like WTO, weakening global institutional trust.

33
  Eg: WTO filings in 2024 noted China’s unilateral restrictions lacked
transparency and violated non-discrimination clauses.
5. Rise of technonationalism: States seek to monopolise upstream resources to
dominate downstream manufacturing.
 Eg: China’s dual-use export policy for critical minerals is now guided by
national security and industrial policy, not market demand.

India’s vulnerability in this context

1. Absence of domestic reserves: India has zero production of germanium or gallium,

creating total external dependency.
 Eg: Ministry of Mines (2024) confirms 100% import reliance for
germanium, primarily from China and UAE.
2. Strategic sector exposure: Key sectors like solar, fiber optics, and semiconductors
are directly affected.
 Eg: Germanium oxide is used in preforms of optical fibers, a critical
telecom input.
3. Cost escalation due to re-routing: Import restrictions have raised input costs and
project delays.
 Eg: Indian manufacturers in 2024 had to source germanium via UAE
intermediaries, leading to inflated prices.
4. Limited stockpiling and strategic reserves: India lacks a critical mineral reserve
strategy for emergencies.
 Eg: Unlike Japan’s JOGMEC, India has no national buffer stock
mechanism for rare or niche minerals.
5. Weak mineral diplomacy: India’s bilateral engagement on mineral supply lacks
institutional depth.
 Eg: While the Indian Embassy in Beijing raised germanium curbs in 2025,
no multilateral framework exists to secure alternatives.

Conclusion
India must reframe its critical minerals strategy around diversified sourcing, resilient
supply chains, and strategic stockpiles, or risk perpetual vulnerability in future-facing
technologies.

Q. What are the challenges faced by gig workers in securing minimum wage
protections? Examine the need for extending social security benefits to platform-
based workers. (10 M)

Introduction

Despite contributing significantly to India’s digital economy, gig workers face legal
invisibility in labour laws, resulting in income instability and lack of social protection.

34
Body

Challenges in securing minimum wage protections

1. Ambiguity in employment status: Gig workers are classified as ‘independent

contractors’, denying them legal protections under wage laws.
o Eg:– The Code on Wages, 2019 excludes gig workers from scheduled
employment; NITI Aayog (2022) confirms lack of employer liability in such
models.
2. Unilateral algorithmic control: Platforms control rates and incentives through
opaque algorithms, leaving workers with no say.
o Eg:– The May 2025 Gig Workers Roundtable flagged continuous rate card
cuts by firms like Swiggy and Ola without disclosure.
3. Non-recognition of waiting time as work: Only task-based output is paid, excluding
long login hours from wage calculation.
o Eg:– ILO Report (2021) found Indian delivery workers spend nearly 45% of
their time unpaid while waiting for assignments.
4. Absence of grievance redressal: No formal authority ensures payment disputes are
addressed, leaving workers at the mercy of platforms.
o Eg:– The Standing Committee on Labour (2023) noted the Labour
Ministry lacks a mandate to inspect digital labour platforms.
5. Disproportionate penalties and deductions: Workers’ earnings are often reduced by
arbitrary fines without proper communication.
o Eg:– Workers at the Janpahal meeting (2025) reported hefty deductions and
ID blockings without explanation, violating natural justice.

Need for extending social security benefits

1. High risk and income volatility: Gig workers face sudden job loss, illness, or
accidents without any fallback or coverage.
o Eg:– The Karnataka Gig Workers Bill (2024) proposes accident insurance
and health cover through a welfare cess from platforms.
2. Unavailability of formal safety nets: Workers cannot access EPF, ESIC or pension
due to lack of recognition as employees.
o Eg:– Code on Social Security, 2020 allows optional inclusion but rules for
aggregator contributions remain unnotified as of May 2025.
3. Violation of constitutional protections: Lack of social security violates Article 21
(Right to Life with dignity) and Article 41 (Right to public assistance).
o Eg:– In Sanjit Roy v State of Rajasthan (1983), SC ruled that below-
minimum pay violates human dignity.
4. Poor digital identity and data mapping: Without registration, workers are excluded
from both public and employer-led schemes.
o Eg:– The Delhi roundtable (2025) recommended a central registry of gig
workers managed by tripartite welfare boards.

35
 5. Global movement towards universal protections: Countries are evolving hybrid
protections to cover gig workers under labour security.
o Eg:– Spain’s Riders Law (2021) mandates platform delivery workers be
treated as employees for welfare and insurance purposes.

Conclusion

India must evolve from a digital growth model to a just digital labour regime by ensuring
algorithmic transparency, universal social protections, and tripartite regulation to
uphold gig workers' dignity.

Q. What are the objectives and major components of the Electronics Component
Manufacturing Scheme? Analyse its expected impact on India’s electronics
production by 2030. Suggest ways to improve its long-term effectiveness. (15 M)

Introduction
India's ambition to become a global electronics hub hinges on reducing import dependence
for critical components. The ₹23,000 crore Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme
(ECMS) is a crucial step toward that goal.

Body

Objectives and major components of the ECMS

1. Reducing component import dependency: The scheme aims to indigenise sub-

assemblies and key components that account for a large share of electronics imports.
o Eg: Elcina (2025) projected a $248 billion component import gap by 2030 if
domestic production is not scaled up.
2. Strengthening component-level manufacturing: It promotes backward integration
by incentivising the production of items like PCBs, camera modules, and lithium-ion
cells.
o Eg: ₹21,093 crore is allocated for sub-assemblies like camera modules and
multi-layered PCBs, classified under Category A.
3. Encouraging SME participation in electronics value chains: The scheme is
designed to broaden manufacturing base through MSMEs.
o Eg: 80% of the 70 applicants (May 2025) were SMEs, indicating bottom-up
industrial development
4. Supporting capital goods and manufacturing inputs: ECMS provides fiscal
support for tools, parts, and capital equipment to boost competitiveness.
o Eg: ₹1,712 crore is earmarked for capital goods and inputs used in
electronics manufacturing.
5. Product categorisation to target critical gaps: Two-tier classification focuses on
high-impact components and base-layer inputs.

36
 o Eg: Category A covers finished sub-assemblies; Category B targets bare
components and Li-ion cells for digital use.

Expected impact on electronics production by 2030

1. Boosting domestic value addition: Indigenous component production will reduce

final product costs and improve localisation levels.
o Eg: India currently adds only 18–20% value to assembled electronics; ECMS
could raise this to 35–40% by 2030 (Source: MeitY estimates).
2. Enhancing global supply chain integration: Domestic capacity will enable India to
emerge as a key supplier in global electronics chains.
o Eg: Foxconn and Tata Electronics showed interest in ECMS, potentially
anchoring India in global tech manufacturing.
3. Reducing strategic vulnerability: Building domestic capabilities ensures continuity
amid geopolitical disruptions like U.S.–China tech decoupling.
o Eg: COVID-19 and Taiwan semiconductor disruptions exposed over-
dependence on a few countries for critical inputs.
4. Promoting job creation in tech manufacturing: Component manufacturing is
labour-intensive and could absorb skilled youth in new industrial clusters.
o Eg: The scheme is expected to generate over 2 lakh direct and indirect jobs
by 2030 (Source: Digital India Corporation, 2025).
5. Supporting national targets under Digital India and Atmanirbhar Bharat: Aligns
with the vision of a $300 billion electronics ecosystem by 2026 and $500 billion by
2030.
o Eg: Vision Document 2.0 of MeitY (2021) targeted component deepening as
a critical missing link.

Suggestions to improve long-term effectiveness

1. Ease of access to credit and infrastructure for SMEs: Financial and logistic
bottlenecks must be addressed through targeted schemes.
o Eg: SIDBI-led component credit line can be developed for high-potential
SME units under ECMS.
2. Establishment of component-specific industrial clusters: Regional hubs focused on
critical inputs can lower cost and build ecosystem synergies.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu Electronics Cluster Model can be replicated for PCBs and
Li-ion cells.
3. Integrated skilling programmes for component manufacturing: Industry-linked
courses can help bridge the workforce-skill gap.
o Eg: Electronics Sector Skill Council (ESSC) can introduce component-
specific certifications in partnership with manufacturers.
4. Public procurement preference and domestic market access: Mandating local
sourcing in government projects will create demand for ECMS products.

37
 o Eg: Incorporate ECMS-linked products under Make in India procurement
norms (GFR Rule 144).
5. Linking ECMS with R&D and innovation support: Long-term competitiveness
requires not just assembly but IP generation.
o Eg: Modified Electronics Development Fund (EDF) should support design
and testing of indigenous components.

Conclusion
The ECMS is a foundational step towards electronics sovereignty. To truly transform India
into a global manufacturing power, it must be backed by systemic ecosystem reforms that go
beyond incentives.

Q. Assess the role of industrial parks and cluster-based development in India’s

strategy to become a global manufacturing hub. What challenges hinder their
optimal functioning? Suggest policy reforms to address them. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s ambition to emerge as a global manufacturing hub hinges on building scalable,

integrated, and innovation-driven industrial ecosystems. Industrial parks and clusters are key
to realising this vision but face structural bottlenecks that need systemic reform.

Body

Role of industrial parks and cluster-based development in manufacturing growth

1. Boosting economies of scale and efficiency: Parks enable shared infrastructure,

logistics, and services, lowering costs for firms.
o Eg:– Dahej PCPIR (Gujarat) hosts multiple petrochemical units, reducing
operational costs by 15–20% through shared utilities (DPIIT, 2023).
2. Accelerating FDI and export competitiveness: Clusters act as magnets for foreign
firms by ensuring plug-and-play ecosystems.
o Eg:– Sri City SEZ (Andhra Pradesh) attracted over 200 global firms,
including PepsiCo and Alstom, due to integrated logistics and single-window
clearance.
3. Fostering innovation and value-chain integration: Co-location of MSMEs and
anchor firms enhances collaboration and backward linkages.
o Eg:– Auto cluster in Pune helped create a dense supplier ecosystem, reducing
lead time and enhancing product customisation.
4. Job creation and regional development: Cluster-led models promote labour-
intensive manufacturing and reduce regional disparities.
o Eg:– Textile clusters in Tiruppur and Surat employ lakhs in value-added
manufacturing, especially women.

38
 5. Supporting national initiatives like PLI and Make in India: Clusterisation
complements central schemes by offering infrastructure readiness.
o Eg:– Bulk Drug Parks scheme integrates PLI incentives with cluster-based
common infrastructure support.

Challenges hindering optimal functioning

1. Fragmented governance and weak coordination: Multiple overlapping authorities

hinder timely approvals and infrastructure execution.
o Eg:– NIMZ projects under DMIC faced long delays due to lack of
coordination between central and state bodies.
2. Inadequate last-mile logistics and connectivity: Many parks suffer from poor
multimodal access, increasing costs.
o Eg:– Mandideep Industrial Area (Madhya Pradesh) lacks rail freight
connectivity, limiting its growth potential.
3. Limited technology readiness and R&D integration: Most clusters lack innovation
centres, impeding global competitiveness.
o Eg:– Only 13 of 63 notified industrial clusters have R&D institutions co-
located, according to NITI Aayog, 2024.
4. Poor environmental and social safeguards: Industrial expansion often ignores
sustainability and rehabilitation, leading to local opposition.
o Eg:– Sterlite Copper closure in Tamil Nadu due to public protests over
environmental violations affected supply chains.
5. Skilling mismatch and low labour productivity: Lack of tailored skilling reduces
local employability and inflates operational costs.
o Eg:– Eastern India’s textile parks face skill gaps despite having high
unemployment (Skill India Mission report, 2024).

Suggested policy reforms

1. Unified institutional framework and SPV model: Establish empowered SPVs with
single-window authority to manage clusters.
o Eg:– Model Industrial Park Framework by DPIIT (2023) recommends
SPV-led execution with state-central coordination.
2. Integrated logistics and multimodal connectivity: Prioritise cluster linkage to ports,
rail, and airports under PM Gati Shakti.
o Eg:– Freight corridor linkage to Dholera Industrial City under Gati Shakti
has reduced cargo turnaround time (MoRTH, 2024).
3. Cluster-led skilling ecosystems: Align Skill India with local industrial needs via
ITIs, PPPs, and apprenticeship reforms.
o Eg:– Tamil Nadu’s SIPCOT clusters integrate skilling through dedicated
Skill Development Centres.
4. Green compliance and ESG integration: Mandate EIA norms, ESG audits, and
effluent treatment infrastructure in parks.

39
 oEg:– Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor nodes now include green building
norms and zonal environmental clearance zones.
5. Innovation-driven ecosystem design: Co-locate design centres, incubation hubs, and
academic linkages in new clusters.
o Eg:– Hyderabad Pharma City plans to integrate Biotech Incubation
Centres and Academia-Industry collaboration units.

Conclusion

India’s industrial future rests on how well it institutionalises cluster governance, sustains
environmental safeguards, and aligns skilling with demand. Industrial parks must become
platforms of inclusive innovation, not just sites of infrastructure investment.

Q. “India's development is constrained by a legacy it did not choose”. Analyse

the historical roots of India’s capital-intensive model. Examine its
incompatibility with India’s current demographic-economic structure. Suggest a
new development framework for labour-intensive growth. (15 M)

Introduction:
India’s economic trajectory was shaped by historical choices that favoured capital-heavy
industrialisation, overlooking its labour-rich demographic structure—causing structural
bottlenecks in inclusive growth.

Body

Historical roots of India’s capital-intensive model

1. Colonial deindustrialisation weakened labour-centric production: British policies

dismantled local industries and skills.
o Eg: Handloom and artisan collapse during colonial rule due to import of
British textiles and taxation of native crafts .
2. Soviet-inspired Nehruvian planning favoured heavy industry: Strategic focus was
on capital goods for long-term industrialisation.
o Eg: Second Five Year Plan (1956) focused on steel, heavy machinery, and
PSUs, sidelining agriculture and MSMEs.
3. Import substitution strategy skewed resource allocation: Policies preferred
domestic production of capital goods over labour-intensive exports.
o Eg: License Raj era saw heavy protectionism, stifling small, labour-based
enterprises (Arvind Panagariya).
4. Finance and credit systems were tilted toward large firms: Institutional credit and
subsidies went to large industries, not small units.
o Eg: RBI (2024): Over 60% of industrial credit allocated to large-scale
infrastructure and real estate.

40
 5. Policy neglect of MSMEs and informal sector: Weak support structures left labour-
intensive sectors underdeveloped.
o Eg: Kirit Parikh Committee (2014) flagged the chronic underfunding and
low productivity of rural small industries.

Incompatibility with India’s demographic-economic structure

1. Mismatch with labour abundance and youth bulge: India needs mass employment,
but capital-heavy sectors offer limited jobs.
o Eg: PLFS (2023-24): Employment elasticity in manufacturing was below 0.2
despite high capital investment.
2. Disproportionate gains favouring capital over labour: Profits rise but wages
stagnate, worsening inequality.
o Eg: CEA Report (2025): Corporate profits outpaced wage growth, increasing
the profit-wage imbalance.
3. Urban-centric growth excludes rural workforce: Mega projects concentrate in
urban areas, leaving rural labour underutilised.
o Eg: Economic Survey 2022-23: Over 65% of India’s workforce still relies
on agriculture or informal services.
4. Weak skill alignment with industrial needs: Labour-intensive sectors lack skilling
investment, limiting employability.
o Eg: NSDC 2023 Report: Only 27% of youth in the 15–29 age group are
formally skilled.
5. Unbalanced AI adoption risks automation-led job loss: Without safeguards, AI
replaces jobs rather than complementing labour.
o Eg: CEA Warning (May 2025): Advised industry to balance AI with
labour-intensive strategies for employment security.

A new development framework for labour-intensive growth

1. Focus on MSME formalisation and financing: Strengthen small enterprises through

credit access and compliance simplification.
o Eg: RBI’s 2023 MSME Credit Guarantee Scheme expanded access to ₹2
lakh crore in collateral-free loans.
2. Promote labour-intensive manufacturing sectors: Support textiles, agro-
processing, electronics assembly, and leather.
o Eg: PLI Scheme Phase 2 (2024) included apparel and toys, with a target to
create 60 lakh jobs.
3. Skilling and apprenticeship for job-readiness: Align skill development with
industry needs and on-the-job training.
o Eg: Skill India Digital Platform (2023) reached over 5 crore youth,
integrating real-time industry demand.
4. Reorient export policy to support low-cost producers: Ease logistics and policy
hurdles for small exporters.

41
 o Eg: Trade Infrastructure for Export Scheme (2024) funded over 250 rural
export hubs.
5. Integrate informal sector into value chains: Enable technology adoption,
marketing, and legal protection for informal workers.
o Eg: e-Shram Portal (2024) registered over 28 crore informal workers,
improving targeting for welfare schemes.

Conclusion:
To truly escape the middle-income trap, India must shift from legacy capital obsession to a
labour-led development strategy—anchored in inclusion, decentralisation, and
demographic leverage.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Q. What explains the persisting regional disparities in energy access across
Indian states? Analyse the causes rooted in demand-supply mismatch and assess
the effectiveness of the national grid in addressing them. Also suggest measures
to ensure equitable and reliable electricity distribution. (15 M)

Introduction
While India has achieved near energy sufficiency at the national level, disparities across
states persist due to uneven infrastructure, renewable capacities, and transmission
connectivity—undermining the goal of inclusive energy access.

Body

Reasons for persisting regional disparities in energy access

1. Unequal generation capacity among states: Power generation is concentrated in a

few surplus states, leaving others reliant on imports.

42
 o Eg:– Maharashtra and Gujarat have maintained <0.1% energy gap, while
Jharkhand and Bihar reported 0.4% and 0.5% gap respectively in 2024–25
(Power Ministry Annual Report 2025).
2. Poor renewable energy adoption in lagging states: States with low solar and wind
potential have failed to diversify energy sources.
o Eg:– Tripura, Manipur, Jharkhand, and Goa each generated less than 40
MU from renewables in 2024–25 (MNRE data).
3. Weak financial health of DISCOMs: Revenue losses and delayed payments restrict
power procurement and infrastructure expansion.
o Eg:– Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand DISCOMs face AT&C losses
exceeding 25%, limiting local supply capacity (MoP UDAY portal 2024).
4. Geographical and logistical challenges: Difficult terrain and remoteness delay
transmission line deployment and raise costs.
o Eg:– Meghalaya’s gap ranged from 7.6% to 0% despite low demand, due to
connectivity delays and poor access to grid power.

Demand-supply mismatch and its contribution

1. Mismatch between growing demand and stagnant supply: Rising urbanisation and
industry raise demand faster than infrastructure upgrades.
o Eg:– Rajasthan’s demand rose from 89,000 MU to 1,07,000 MU, causing
its gap to spike to 1.7% in 2022–23 before recovering.
2. Ineffective peak load forecasting: Several states under- or overestimate daily peak
demands, leading to forced outages or underutilisation.
o Eg:– Andhra Pradesh’s mismatch in 2022 led to load curtailments, despite
overall sufficiency.
3. Limited intra-state transmission networks: Poor last-mile connectivity hampers
distribution from central pool to local feeders.
o Eg:– Himachal Pradesh’s energy gap increased from 27 MU to 37 MU
despite surplus supply, showing intra-state bottlenecks.
4. Non-synchronous local systems and grid imbalances: Lack of real-time balancing
within some SLDCs leads to uneven availability.
o Eg:– Assam’s energy gap fluctuated from 0.8% to 0% due to periodic
balancing failures in NE load dispatch centres.

National grid performance – success and challenges

1. Enhanced national transmission capacity: Grid interconnection and new EHV lines
have improved inter-regional balancing.
o Eg:– Addition of 14,360 ckm and 2,200 MW interregional capacity in 2024
helped reduce national energy gap to 0.1% (CEA data).
2. Real-time coordination through dispatch centres: The NLDC-RLDC-SLDC
system has strengthened operational efficiency.

43
 o Eg:– PGCIL’s National Load Dispatch Centre now manages 45% of India’s
transmission capacity (Power Grid, 2024).
3. Limited reach to remote regions and islands: Islands and border regions remain
disconnected or weakly linked to the national grid.
o Eg:– Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands are still not part of
the synchronous national grid.
4. Under-utilisation of renewable generation: Grid congestion and lack of storage lead
to renewable power curtailment in surplus states.
o Eg:– Rajasthan and Gujarat have reported solar curtailments despite
generating >50,000 MU combined in 2024–25.

Measures for equitable and reliable electricity distribution

1. Targeted investment in under-served states: Focus on enhancing generation and

transmission in East and NE India.
o Eg:– Centre plans ₹9.15 lakh crore investment for grid expansion and RE
evacuation by 2030 (MoP roadmap, 2025).
2. Accelerated renewable deployment in lagging regions: Rooftop solar, off-grid, and
hybrid systems for difficult terrain.
o Eg:– PM-KUSUM and Rooftop Solar Phase II can be expanded to states
like Arunachal Pradesh and Jharkhand.
3. Financial reform of DISCOMs: Reduce AT&C losses, improve billing, and ensure
timely subsidy payments.
o Eg:– Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) launched in 2021 aims
to reduce losses to <15% by 2025.
4. Grid modernisation and smart metering: Digitisation, demand-side management,
and smart load balancing tools.
o Eg:– Smart Grid Pilot Projects in states like Karnataka and Puducherry
have shown promising results in reliability and efficiency.

Conclusion
Bridging regional energy disparities is critical to India’s inclusive development and green
transition. A forward-looking approach must combine transmission upgrades, decentralised
renewables, and DISCOM reform to ensure reliable, affordable, and equitable energy access.

44
Investment models.
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and
effects in everyday life.
Q. What is a stratospheric airship platform? Examine how India can leverage
these systems for climate monitoring, border security, and maritime surveillance.
(10 M)

Introduction:
Stratospheric airships are next-generation aerial platforms capable of hovering in the
stratosphere (~20 km altitude) for long durations. Their 2025 maiden flight by DRDO
marks India’s entry into an elite group with such high-end ISR capabilities.

Body

What is a stratospheric airship platform?

1. High-altitude surveillance platform: Unmanned, lighter-than-air system that hovers

in stratosphere for ISR and communication.
o Eg: The May 2025 DRDO trial from Sheopur, MP reached 17 km altitude
with onboard payloads and sensor evaluation (Defence Ministry).
2. Low-cost and long-endurance ISR: Offers cheaper, continuous alternatives to
drones and satellites for prolonged observation.
o Eg: The airship, developed by ADRDE Agra, tested pressure control and
emergency deflation systems during a 62-minute flight.

Leveraging for climate monitoring

1. Real-time atmospheric data collection: Helps track aerosols, stratospheric gases,

and carbon concentration at fine spatial scales.
o Eg: Supports India’s GHG monitoring goals under UNFCCC and enhances
ISRO’s atmospheric datasets for policy planning.
45
 2. Disaster early warning systems: Enables early detection of cyclones, wildfires, and
cloudbursts across vulnerable areas.
o Eg: Can boost IMD’s cyclone forecasting over Bay of Bengal and enhance
NDMA’s disaster preparedness.
3. High-altitude pollution mapping: Tracks ozone thinning and transboundary
pollution like dust storms or smog transport.
o Eg: Supports CPCB and NCAP by mapping PM2.5 spread across Indo-
Gangetic plains in winter.

Leveraging for border security

1. Persistent ISR in hostile terrain: Provides continuous coverage of LAC, LOC, and
insurgency-hit zones without risk to personnel.
o Eg: Can monitor Doklam plateau, Poonch-Rajouri sector, and other
infiltration-prone areas where terrain hinders ground surveillance.
2. Anti-infiltration and counter-terror aid: Detects movement patterns and thermal
signatures to pre-empt terrorist activity.
o Eg: Following the Pahalgam terror attack (2025), such platforms can
enhance early detection near LoC infiltration routes.
3. Communication relay in remote zones: Acts as a stratospheric node to maintain
signal connectivity in border valleys.
o Eg: Useful in Kargil or Tawang sectors during emergencies or standoffs
when ground networks are disrupted.

Leveraging for maritime surveillance

1. Wide-area maritime domain awareness: Monitors vast EEZ and shipping lanes,
detecting illegal or hostile activities.
o Eg: Can provide continuous coverage over Malacca Strait and Arabian Sea,
crucial for India’s SAGAR initiative.
2. Force multiplier for naval operations: Enhances naval situational awareness and
mission coordination.
o Eg: Aids Indian Navy and Coast Guard in joint surveillance under Mission
Peacock (Seychelles) and IOR deployments.
3. Monitoring illegal fishing and resource theft: Detects foreign vessels engaging in
unauthorised fishing in India’s EEZ.
o Eg: Helps enforce Marine Fisheries Regulation Act (MFRA) in Bay of
Bengal and Andaman waters.

Conclusion:
Stratospheric airships combine persistence, coverage, and cost-efficiency, vital for India’s
surveillance sovereignty and climate leadership. Strategic scaling and civil-military.

46
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization
of technology and developing new technology.
Q. “Building a foundational LLM in India is less a technological challenge than
an ecosystem one.” Discuss the institutional and infrastructural gaps in India’s
AI ecosystem. Examine how public-private partnership models can bridge this
gap. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s ambition to develop a foundational LLM faces deeper hurdles in ecosystem readiness
than in core technology. The absence of compute infrastructure, quality data, and a unified
research-industry interface stalls scalable breakthroughs.

Body

“Building a foundational LLM in India is less a technological challenge than an

ecosystem one”

1. Fragmented research ecosystem: India's AI research is dispersed across institutions

without unified direction or national mission alignment.
o Eg: Only 5 Indian institutions feature in the CSRankings for AI, compared
to over 30 from China (2025, CSRankings).
2. Chronic underinvestment in R&D: India spends 0.64% of GDP on R&D
(UNESCO, 2023), far lower than China (2.4%) or USA (3.4%).
o Eg: The DeepSeek LLM by China had backing of over $1.3 billion, dwarfing
IndiaAI’s ₹10,372 crore allocation.
3. Skewed talent pipeline and brain drain: Top AI researchers migrate due to limited
funding, mentorship, and publication incentives.
o Eg: Over 90% of Indian-origin AI PhDs work in foreign labs or
corporations (Brookings India, 2022).
4. Lack of multilingual digital content: India’s internet usage remains dominantly
English-driven, limiting training datasets in native languages.
o Eg: Vivekanand Pani (Reverie) notes most Indians still access web content
in English despite low proficiency.
5. Inadequate regulatory and ethical framework: India lacks a comprehensive AI or
data protection law, reducing confidence for innovation.
o Eg: DPDP Act (2023) is yet to clarify provisions on AI data usage, model
accountability, or algorithmic fairness.

Institutional and infrastructural gaps in India’s AI ecosystem

1. Limited public compute infrastructure: India lacks sovereign access to GPUs and
data centers critical for model training.
o Eg: Satya Nadella (2025) highlighted India’s deficiency in compute capacity
despite Microsoft’s data centre expansion plans.

47
 2. Absence of integrated datasets: There is no national platform offering curated,
labelled, multilingual datasets for model training.
o Eg: The proposed IndiaAI Datasets Platform is yet to operationalise as of
May 2025.
3. Weak academia-industry linkage: Few mechanisms exist for research labs and
startups to co-develop applied AI solutions.
o Eg: Contrast with Stanford-OpenAI collaboration, which led to key
breakthroughs in GPT architectures.
4. Neglect of Tier-2 and Tier-3 innovation hubs: AI research is concentrated in metro-
based institutions, limiting distributed innovation.
o Eg: IndiaAI FutureDesign Program (2023) aimed to support such hubs but
has seen limited disbursement (MeitY status report 2024).
5. Lack of high-risk AI venture funding: VCs prefer quick-return SaaS models over
deep-tech AI, limiting long-arc foundational model efforts.
o Eg: Only 3% of Indian AI funding (2024) went into compute-heavy
foundational model research (Tracxn 2025).

How public-private partnership models can bridge this gap

1. Pooling compute and data resources: Government-backed data centers and private
GPUs can be jointly leveraged for national LLM projects.
o Eg: The IndiaAI Compute Grid launched in 2024 supports shared access to
NVIDIA H100 clusters for research and startups.
2. Joint research labs and fellowships: Industry-funded labs in academic institutions
can incentivise indigenous foundational model work.
o Eg: TCS Research Lab at IIT Madras (2024) supports LLM development
in Indic languages under academic guidance.
3. Mission-driven innovation challenges: Co-designed PPP models can crowdsource
AI talent and innovations through reward mechanisms.
o Eg: The INDIA GenAI Challenge (2024) incentivised 40+ startups to build
sectoral LLM applications with government mentoring.
4. Multilingual data collection collaborations: Private firms and government can
jointly fund language data projects with community workers.
o Eg: Karya’s crowd-sourced voice samples are now being scaled with
support from Digital India Corporation (2025).
5. Legal sandboxes and testing zones: PPP-led sandbox environments can enable real-
world testing of models with legal immunity and shared risk.
o Eg: SEBI’s FinTech sandbox model could be replicated for AI model
testing in sectors like education or agriculture.

Conclusion
India’s LLM ambition must go beyond compute power—it demands a deliberate
orchestration of talent, infrastructure, and data ecosystems. Public-private synergies, if
intelligently structured, can create not just a model but a sustainable AI renaissance.

48
Q. Discuss the scientific, economic, and strategic benefits of India's planned
Bharatiya Antariksha Station. How does it compare with international space
stations? (15 M)

Introduction

India’s proposal to launch the Bharatiya Antariksha Station by 2035 signifies a bold leap
in long-duration space missions, marking a transition from near-earth exploration to sustained
space presence, aligned with ISRO’s post-Gaganyaan roadmap.

Body

Scientific benefits of Bharatiya Antariksha Station

1. Microgravity research potential: Enables experiments in life sciences, combustion,

and fluid dynamics impossible on Earth.
o Eg: NASA’s Cold Atom Lab on ISS enabled quantum experiments in zero
gravity; India could replicate such platforms for pharmaceutical or materials
research.
2. Astronaut health monitoring: Supports long-term biomedical studies on effects of
prolonged space exposure on human physiology.
o Eg: Gaganyaan’s life sciences module (planned) will feed into designing
India's own space habitation protocols.
3. Technology demonstration platform: Provides a testbed for robotics, AI in orbital
maintenance, and in-space manufacturing.

49
 o Eg: ISRO’s 2024 success in satellite docking, a precursor to future orbital
assembly missions.
4. Data for climate and Earth observation: Offers vantage point for continuous
geospatial monitoring and atmospheric studies.
o Eg: NASA’s OCO-3 on ISS captures high-resolution carbon data; similar
Indian payloads can support national climate missions.

Economic benefits of Bharatiya Antariksha Station

1. Boost to space-tech industry and startups: Spurs demand for components,

payloads, and launch services from private players.
o Eg: IN-SPACe 2023 report projected a ₹1 lakh crore Indian space
economy by 2040, with orbital infrastructure as key driver.
2. New markets in space tourism and microgravity commerce: Creates commercial
modules for experiments by global clients.
o Eg: Axiom Space’s ISS module leasing model could inspire similar PPP
frameworks for India's station.
3. Employment and skilling multiplier: Expands opportunities in aeronautics, data
science, systems engineering, and robotics.
o Eg: NSDC’s partnership with ISRO (2024) for aerospace-specific skill
development under Skill India.
4. Reduction in launch dependence: Enables India to perform long-duration in-orbit
experiments without renting global station time.
o Eg: India currently relies on NASA/ESA platforms; its own station will
ensure self-reliant orbital science.

Strategic benefits of Bharatiya Antariksha Station

1. Space sovereignty and deterrence: Establishes autonomous command over long-

duration orbital operations.
o Eg: PM’s 2025 GLEX speech affirmed plans for a Military Space Doctrine
within three months, leveraging orbital assets.
2. Counter to regional space ambitions: Positions India competitively vis-à-vis
China’s Tiangong Space Station and future missions.
o Eg: China's operational space station since 2022 gives it dominance in
Asian orbital science.
3. Permanent astronaut corps development: Cultivates elite human spaceflight
capability for rapid deployment and leadership.
o Eg: The Gaganyaan-Human Rating programme has trained candidates for
long-term habitation missions.
4. Deep space mission preparedness: Serves as precursor infrastructure for staging
missions to Moon, Mars, and beyond.
o Eg: ISRO’s Vision 2040 document (2023) links the Antariksha Station to
planned Moon landing and Mars-Venus flybys.

50
Comparison with international space stations

1. Scale and modularity: Planned Indian station is smaller (20-tonne) compared to ISS
(~420-tonne) or China’s Tiangong (~100-tonne).
o Eg: ISRO's plan involves 3–5 modules built over time, unlike ISS’s
multinational mega-architecture.
2. Autonomy vs collaboration: While ISS is multinational and Tiangong is state-
controlled, India seeks hybrid models.
o Eg: ISRO-Axiom-4 (2025) mission shows intent for international crew
integration with Indian infrastructure.
3. Cost and design philosophy: India will focus on low-cost innovation and dual-use
(civil + strategic) objectives.
o Eg: India’s Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan missions cost under 10% of
comparable NASA projects.
4. Global South leadership: India aims to offer orbital access to developing nations,
unlike ISS/Tiangong.
o Eg: PM announced G20 satellite and South Asia satellite models will extend
to Antariksha Station collaborations.

Conclusion

India’s Antariksha Station is not just a scientific feat—it is a declaration of strategic intent,
economic ambition, and global leadership. As we aim for the Moon and beyond, this orbital
lab will be our stepping stone to interplanetary self-reliance.

Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, Nano-

technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual
property rights.
Q. AI’s adaptability makes it a double-edged sword in cybersecurity. Discuss
how AI is transforming both cyber defence and cyber offence. Suggest
safeguards to retain this balance. (15 M)

Introduction
AI’s capacity to learn, evolve and act autonomously is revolutionising both cybersecurity and
cybercrime, making it a contested domain of innovation and risk management.

Body

Role of AI in transforming cyber defence

1. Threat detection and real-time response: AI enables continuous monitoring and

immediate response to anomalies in network traffic.
o Eg: Darktrace’s AI detected ransomware behaviour in real-time and stopped
an attack on a global manufacturing firm in 2023

51
 2. Predictive analytics for vulnerability assessment: AI anticipates potential attack
vectors before breaches occur.
o Eg: MITRE ATT&CK framework, enhanced with ML, is used by
cybersecurity firms for pre-emptive simulations
3. Automated incident response: AI systems can autonomously isolate compromised
devices and launch mitigation protocols.
o Eg: Google Chronicle Security uses AI to automate threat response in
enterprise environments.
4. Phishing detection through NLP: AI deciphers email patterns to detect malicious or
suspicious content.
o Eg: Microsoft Defender AI flagged sophisticated spear-phishing emails
mimicking real executives in 2024.
5. AI in biometric security systems: Enhances access control and identity verification
through pattern recognition.
o Eg: UIDAI’s Aadhaar face authentication uses AI for liveness detection to
prevent identity fraud.

Role of AI in transforming cyber offence

1. AI-generated phishing and impersonation: Generative models mimic human tone

and style for realistic frauds.
o Eg: In 2023, ChatGPT-like tools were used to craft impersonated CEO
emails in deepfake voice scams in the UK.
2. Self-mutating malware: AI enables malware to adapt to and bypass evolving
antivirus mechanisms.
o Eg: Emotet Trojan’s AI upgrade in 2024 allowed it to shift attack vectors
post every detection.
3. AI-powered password cracking: Algorithms rapidly test combinations using prior
data patterns.
o Eg: A 2023 NordPass study showed AI tools could crack weak passwords in
under 60 seconds using training data.
4. Automated social engineering: AI analyses behavioural patterns to manipulate
victims through targeted psychological cues.
o Eg: Meta's 2024 threat report documented AI bots crafting scams by
analysing user timelines.
5. AI-enabled botnets for DDoS: AI orchestrates large-scale, coordinated attacks with
minimal human intervention.
o Eg: Mirai-Botnet v3 (2023) used AI to identify server vulnerabilities across
multiple regions.

Safeguards to retain the balance between innovation and security

1. AI-specific legislative frameworks: Tailored laws recognising autonomous AI

actions and accountability structures.

52
 o Eg: EU AI Act 2024 categorises high-risk AI systems with differential
obligations .
2. Ethical AI development charters: Enforce ethical use protocols in AI development
and deployment.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s ‘Responsible AI’ framework (2021) recommends
fairness, transparency, and non-maleficence.
3. Public-private threat intelligence sharing: Collaborative platforms to report and
counter AI-driven threats.
o Eg: Cyber Swachhta Kendra, India’s botnet cleaning centre, was revamped
in 2024 for AI-related malware threats.
4. Algorithmic audit and certification: Independent evaluation of AI systems for risk
profiling before deployment.
o Eg: OECD AI Principles encourage independent oversight and pre-
deployment scrutiny.
5. Capacity building in AI forensics: Invest in upskilling law enforcement and
judiciary to investigate AI-related crimes.
o Eg: 2024 NCRB training module introduced AI forensic techniques for
cyber police units.

Conclusion
AI’s dual role demands a fine regulatory and technological balance. India must act as both
innovator and guardian—crafting agile frameworks that empower AI’s promise while curbing
its peril.

Q. Explain the key features of the steady-state theory of the universe. Why did it
lose prominence over time? (10 M)

Introduction
The steady-state theory was once a major explanation of the universe, proposing that it has
no beginning or end and looks the same at all times. It was later replaced by the Big Bang
theory due to stronger evidence.

Body

Key features of the steady-state theory

1. Universe is eternal and unchanging: The universe always looked the same on a
large scale.
o Eg: The Hoyle–Bondi–Gold model (1948) stated that the universe is the
same in all directions and at all times.
2. Matter is continuously created: As the universe expands, new matter forms to keep
the density constant.
o Eg: Jayant Narlikar helped modify Einstein’s equations to allow matter
creation in the expanding universe.

53
 3. No big bang or starting point: The theory denies any single moment of creation.
o Eg: Narlikar explained that the universe expands like compound interest, but
its density stays the same.
4. Use of a creation field (C-field): A special field was assumed to create new matter in
space.
o Eg: The C-field was added to support the steady-state idea, but had no
experimental proof.
5. Constant density despite expansion: As galaxies move apart, new matter keeps the
universe from thinning out.
o Eg: This idea helped explain how expansion could happen without changing
the overall structure.

Reasons for decline of steady-state theory

1. Discovery of CMB radiation: Showed signs of a hot early universe, matching Big
Bang predictions.
o Eg: In 1965, Penzias and Wilson found the cosmic microwave background,
which the steady-state theory could not explain.
2. Evidence of galaxy evolution: Distant galaxies appeared younger and more
disordered.
o Eg: Hubble Space Telescope showed that early galaxies looked different,
proving the universe changes with time.
3. No proof of matter creation: The proposed C-field never had any supporting
evidence.
o Eg: Unlike proven fields like Higgs, the C-field stayed purely theoretical.
4. Redshift and supernova studies: Data supported a universe that began from a hot,
dense point.
o Eg: Supernova surveys (1998) confirmed expansion with acceleration,
supporting the Big Bang model.
5. Modern observations support Big Bang: New data matched Big Bang theory much
better.
o Eg: The Planck satellite (2013) measured the universe's age as 13.8 billion
years, fitting the Big Bang timeline.

Conclusion
Though no longer accepted, the steady-state theory helped test and improve our
understanding of the universe. Jayant Narlikar’s work remains a symbol of bold thinking
and scientific curiosity.

54
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation,
environmental impact assessment.
Q. What causes the formation of ground-level ozone in urban areas? Why is
ground-level ozone considered a ‘silent’ pollutant and how should India adapt its
public health response to address its unique characteristics? (10 M)

Introduction
The summer of 2025 has exposed the threat of ground-level ozone, an invisible pollutant
formed under high heat and sunlight, with Delhi recording 56 exceedance days, pointing to a
deeper urban-environmental crisis.

Body

Causes of ground-level ozone formation in urban areas

1. Photochemical reaction with sunlight: Ozone forms when sunlight interacts with
NOx and VOCs emitted from vehicles and combustion sources.
o Eg: As per CSE’s April 2025 report, peak ozone formation in Delhi occurred
during 12–4 pm due to intense solar radiation.
2. Vehicular and industrial emissions: Transport, power plants, and manufacturing
release ozone precursors in large volumes.
o Eg: TERI (2024) estimated that vehicular emissions contribute over 35%
of NOx in Delhi’s ambient air.
3. Urban heat island effect: Dense construction and low green cover raise local
temperatures, accelerating ozone formation.

55
 o Eg: Najafgarh, one of Delhi’s hottest zones, recorded 54 exceedance days
between March–April 2025.
4. Meteorological stagnation: Low wind speeds and high ambient temperatures trap
pollutants at the surface.
o Eg: IMD (April 2025) reported stagnant atmospheric conditions during peak
ozone periods in central Delhi.

Why ground-level ozone is a ‘silent’ pollutant

1. Invisible and odourless nature: Ozone cannot be seen or smelled, making it harder
for citizens to detect or avoid.
o Eg: Despite citywide average of 135 µg/m³ on April 13, 2025, public
perception remained low due to its invisibility.
2. Delayed health impacts: Ozone causes inflammation and respiratory decline over
time, not through instant discomfort.
o Eg: ICMR 2023 found increased asthma and bronchitis in children exposed to
ozone-rich zones in NCR.
3. Daytime exposure risk: Ozone peaks during active outdoor hours, increasing health
risks without noticeable symptoms.
o Eg: CPCB data shows ozone levels highest between 2–4 pm, directly
affecting school children and outdoor workers.
4. Underrepresented in policy and alerts: Public advisories often focus on PM2.5,
neglecting ozone even when levels are harmful.
o Eg: NCAP 2024 still does not include ozone in its compliance-based targets,
despite rising exceedance days.

Adapting India’s public health response

1. Strengthen real-time alert systems: Integrate ozone-specific alerts in air quality

indices and public notifications.
o Eg: SAFAR Delhi should add ozone advisory levels during daily bulletins
like it does for PM and AQI.
2. Expand health surveillance to include ozone: Track hospital visits and lung-related
diseases linked to high ozone exposure.
o Eg: The Lancet Countdown 2024 recommended that India expand
environmental health monitoring to include ozone-linked diseases.
3. Urban cooling and heat mitigation: Use green roofs, shaded streets, and water
bodies to counter urban heat that triggers ozone.
o Eg: Ahmedabad’s Heat Action Plan includes urban greening to suppress
temperature spikes and ozone buildup.
4. Regulate VOC and NOx sources: Mandate stricter controls on paints, solvents,
fuels, and old diesel vehicles.
o Eg: Under GRAP 2023, VOC-emitting products were restricted in NCR
during ozone-prone months.

56
Conclusion
Delhi’s invisible ozone surge is not just an air quality issue, but a multi-sectoral public
health emergency. India must respond with urban climate resilience and health-
integrated pollution planning before the damage becomes irreversible.

Q. Explain the concept of oxidative potential in relation to PM2.5. Discuss how

this understanding can improve urban preparedness in polluted Indian cities. (10
M)

Introduction

Rising air toxicity in Indian cities is no longer just about pollutant quantity, but about how
damaging those particles are biologically. Oxidative potential (OP) offers a better health-
risk assessment than mere PM2.5 concentration.

Body

Oxidative potential of PM2.5: A toxicity indicator

1. Definition of oxidative potential: OP refers to the ability of PM2.5 to produce

reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage human cells through oxidative stress.
o Eg: Bose Institute 2024 study showed steep OP increase once PM2.5 crosses
70 µg/m³ in Kolkata .
2. Link to health impacts: High OP PM2.5 triggers pulmonary fibrosis, asthma,
cardiovascular diseases even at “moderate” PM levels.
o Eg: ICMR 2023 Report linked over 1.3 million annual premature deaths
in India to oxidative stress–related air pollution.
3. Source-specific toxicity: OP helps identify which pollution sources are more toxic,
such as biomass burning or open-air waste burning.
o Eg: NCAP 2023 data showed biomass emissions had higher oxidative stress
levels than vehicular emissions in Kolkata.

Using OP to improve urban preparedness

1. Health impact–driven policymaking: OP metrics can guide targeted interventions in

local hotspots with high toxic burden, not just high PM levels.
o Eg: Delhi’s hotspot mapping by SAFAR 2022 now incorporates oxidative
load zones for better deployment of mobile clinics and advisories.
2. Real-time risk communication: Cities can issue health-based air alerts (like
AQHI) rather than just PM counts, helping vulnerable populations respond.
o Eg: Canada’s AQHI system integrates pollutant toxicity and is being
considered in India under MoEFCC 2023 reforms.
3. Pollution control prioritisation: High-OP sources can be preferentially targeted
under programs like NCAP, ensuring better use of funds.

57
 o Eg: West Bengal's 2024 air action plan targets biomass clusters identified
through OP data in north Kolkata.
4. Healthcare preparedness: OP hotspots can inform hospital planning, emergency
services, and urban heat-health action plans.
o Eg: Ahmedabad’s Heat-Health Action Plan (2023) is being upgraded to
include PM2.5-OP co-exposure risk mapping.
5. Scientific urban planning: Toxicity zones identified via OP can shape zoning laws,
urban forests, and green buffers.
o Eg: Bangalore’s 2023 Master Plan used toxicity-weighted data for siting
urban green corridors near high-risk localities.

Conclusion

Oxidative potential reframes the air pollution debate from volume to violence. By
aligning public health planning with pollutant toxicity, Indian cities can better anticipate,
prevent and mitigate the silent epidemic of air toxicity.

Q. What are the key features of India’s draft climate finance taxonomy? How
can it improve investor confidence in green sectors? (10 M)

Introduction
As India moves towards its Net Zero by 2070 goal, the Finance Ministry’s draft Climate
Finance Taxonomy provides a long-awaited institutional framework to channel capital into
credible green sectors and prevent greenwashing.

Body

Key features of India’s draft climate finance taxonomy

1. Dual classification approach: Activities are classified as climate-supportive and

climate-transition based on their emissions impact.
o Eg: Climate-supportive includes renewables, while climate-transition
includes AUSC thermal plants in hard-to-abate sectors like steel and
cement.
2. Emissions intensity reduction focus: Recognises intensity-based reduction
(GHG/unit of GDP), not just absolute emissions cuts.
o Eg: India’s inclusion of Ultra Supercritical Plants (efficiency ~46%) aligns
with transition goals in sectors with no clean substitutes yet.
3. Adaptation finance inclusion: Emphasises activities that reduce climate
vulnerability and build resilience.
o Eg: Based on India’s Initial Adaptation Communication (UNFCCC, 2023),
₹56.68 trillion is required till 2030 for sectors like agriculture and
infrastructure.

58
 4. Technology-neutral and inclusive: Encourages innovation and R&D in all sectors
aligned with decarbonisation and adaptation.
o Eg: Classification allows investment in climate-resilient crops or battery
storage R&D, as per Department of Science and Technology (DST) 2024
roadmap.
5. Consistency with national development goals: Aligns with the vision of Viksit
Bharat @2047 and avoids punitive exclusion of developmental sectors.
o Eg: Recognises clean growth pathways even within mobility and water
infrastructure, supporting rural energy equity.

How it can improve investor confidence in green sectors

1. Reduces ambiguity in green investment definitions: Standardised taxonomy offers

regulatory clarity, boosting investor trust.
o Eg: Unlike voluntary ESG disclosures, this gives objective guidance to FIs,
as noted by SEBI’s ESG advisory committee (2023).
2. Prevents greenwashing and enhances credibility: Transparent classification filters
token green claims in financial instruments.
o Eg: Based on lessons from EU taxonomy misuse (2021), India’s framework
mandates verification of climate benefits.
3. Supports climate-aligned risk pricing: Helps banks and NBFCs evaluate project
risks and returns better, attracting low-cost green capital.
o Eg: As per RBI’s 2023 discussion paper, Indian lenders lack tools to price
climate risks—taxonomy provides a corrective.
4. Enables access to global green finance pools: Aligns India with global frameworks
like GFANZ, making Indian projects eligible for climate-aligned global investment.
o Eg: India seeks part of $100 billion annual climate finance pledged under
COP agreements, taxonomy provides a necessary filter.
5. Promotes long-term policy certainty: Institutionalises India's climate roadmap in
investment terms, offering stable signals for capital deployment.
o Eg: Finance Ministry stated that the taxonomy will be periodically updated
with scientific and economic inputs.

Conclusion
India’s climate finance taxonomy is not just a green classification tool but a strategic
financial infrastructure for a just energy transition. If implemented well, it can turn India's
vast climate goals into credible investment opportunities.

Q. Why has global biodiversity finance failed to reach those most responsible for
protecting ecosystems? Critically analyse the institutional and structural barriers
behind this exclusion. Suggest mechanisms for fairer fund distribution. (15 M)

Introduction

59
Despite being primary custodians of global biodiversity, indigenous peoples and local
communities (IPLCs) receive only a fraction of international conservation finance, due to
entrenched systemic barriers. This exclusion undermines both climate justice and
biodiversity goals under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
(KMGBF).

Body

Reasons for exclusion of key custodians from biodiversity finance

1. Over-reliance on intermediary institutions: Large development banks and UN

agencies dominate GEF disbursal.
o Eg: GEF-funded projects (GEF-6 and GEF-7) allocated only 24–30% of
funds to “local actors”, mostly through intermediaries (IIED Report, May
2025).
2. Lack of direct access channels for IPLCs: Absence of institutional frameworks
enabling grassroots applications.
o Eg: Indigenous groups in the Philippines failed to access funds since 2009
due to lack of clarity on application processes .
3. Inadequate representation in project design: IPLCs are often consulted post-approval,
limiting their influence.
o Eg: A Malawian tribal group was added to a GEF project only after
another NGO dropped out .
4. Opaque fund flow and poor accountability: Donor-to-recipient tracking is fragmented,
preventing course correction.
o Eg: Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) factsheet (2025) found
major gaps in tracking and verifying biodiversity fund flow.
5. Gender-blind financial frameworks: Biodiversity funds rarely include targeted
allocation for women-led groups.
o Eg: No IPLC women’s organisation in any of the 5 countries studied
received direct funding.

Institutional and structural barriers

1. Centralised architecture of GEF: National governments and large INGOs dominate

approvals and disbursals.
o Eg: GEF Operational Focal Points (OFPs) are typically ministry officials
with limited linkage to IPLCs .
2. Absence of rights-based frameworks: Global funders do not legally mandate
inclusion of IPLC rights or participation.
o Eg: UNDRIP (2007) remains under-implemented in global finance
architecture (UN PFII reports).
3. Lack of gender-disaggregated financial data: No tracking of how much
biodiversity funding reaches women.

60
 o Eg: GEF gender indicators exist but are poorly monitored or enforced.
4. Short-term, rigid funding cycles: These are misaligned with the long-term, seasonal,
and adaptive nature of community conservation.
o Eg: SGP projects face delays in approvals and fixed timelines that constrain
remote community planning.
5. Language, legal, and digital exclusion: Application materials, reporting
requirements, and eligibility criteria exclude marginalised groups.
o Eg: Indigenous applicants in Vanuatu cited complex online systems as a
barrier .

Mechanisms for fairer fund distribution

1. Scaling up direct-access models: Establish decentralised, IPLC-led fund allocation

mechanisms.
o Eg: Amazon Fund (Brazil) gives direct community access with multi-
stakeholder governance.
2. Institutionalise gender budgeting in biodiversity finance: Mandatory allocations
and monitoring for women-led groups.
o Eg: MoEFCC’s Gender Action Plan 2023 recommends sector-specific
targets in India’s biodiversity planning.
3. Expand the GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP): Mainstream its structure across
all GEF funding modalities.
o Eg: SGP-funded reservoir restoration in Antigua gave full control to a
village community (IIED 2025).
4. Legally mandate community consent and design role: Align global funds with
FPIC (Free, Prior and Informed Consent) standards.
o Eg: Nagaland Communitisation Act (2002) institutionalised local decision-
making in conservation planning.
5. Create transparent digital dashboards for fund tracking: Real-time fund flow
visibility to donors, governments, and communities.
o Eg: India’s Public Financial Management System (PFMS) offers a model
for adaptation in biodiversity finance .

Conclusion

Biodiversity finance must evolve from a trickle-down model to a justice-based model

that recognises IPLCs and women as frontline protectors. Achieving KMGBF’s vision by
2030 hinges not on more money alone—but on who controls it, who uses it, and who
benefits.

61
Q. What are the key concerns raised against expanding the Multilateral System
under the Plant Treaty? How does digital sequence information complicate
benefit sharing? Suggest measures to ensure fair and accountable treaty
implementation. (15 M)

Introduction
The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
aims to facilitate access to genetic materials while ensuring fair benefit sharing. However,
proposed expansion of its Multilateral System (MLS) has drawn criticism for potentially
enabling exploitation without reforming existing governance and benefit mechanisms.

Body

Key concerns against expanding the Multilateral System

1. Weak benefit sharing mechanism: Expansion without first fixing existing gaps
could deepen inequities for provider nations.
o Eg: Only 5 out of 25,000+ users have contributed financially to the Benefit
Sharing Fund despite 6.6 million seed samples shared under the MLS (FAO
data, 2024).
2. Risk of exploitation by Global North entities: Unconditional access may lead to
monopolisation by corporations in developed countries.
o Eg: Asian civil society organisations (May 2025) warned against
agribusinesses and biotech firms profiting from unrestricted access without
obligations.
3. Loopholes in SMTA framework: Users are obligated to share benefits only if they
sell seeds, not if they grow or process them.
o Eg: Breeders using MLS seeds to make food or flavour products can
bypass obligations, as SMTA doesn’t require disclosures unless seeds are
sold.
4. No mechanism for traceability or compliance: The treaty lacks systems to monitor
who is using shared resources and how.
o Eg: No binding global registry of users exists, allowing entities to hide
behind confidentiality clauses (Source: CSO letter, 2025).
5. Absence of crop-wise prioritisation: Expanding to all plant species without
evidence-based selection dilutes focus on food security.
o Eg: Expanding from 64 key crops to 350,000+ plant species may reduce
accountability in critical food-related genetic exchanges.

Digital sequence data and its complications

1. Bypassing benefit sharing using digital data: Users can extract genetic data, use it
commercially, and avoid obligations altogether.

62
 o Eg: Patents on traits derived from MLS seeds’ digital sequence are being
filed without returning any benefits to original providers (Third World
Network, 2025).
2. No legal clarity on digital data governance: Treaty and SMTA do not cover
generation, storage, or usage of sequence data.
o Eg: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognises digital data rights,
but Plant Treaty remains silent (CBD Decision 15/9, 2022).
3. Anonymised global databases allow misuse: Free sharing of sequence data enables
third-party access without traceability.
o Eg: CGIAR centres upload seed data to public repositories accessible
anonymously, undermining fair use (Source: Global Seed Vault Reports,
2024).

Measures to ensure fair and accountable implementation

1. Comprehensive reform of SMTA clauses: Make benefit sharing mandatory for all
commercial applications, not just seed sales.
o Eg: Suggested by Asian CSOs (2025) to include non-seed users like
beverage and fragrance companies under benefit-sharing rules.
2. Legally binding digital sequence framework: Bring sequence data under treaty
jurisdiction with traceable user agreements.
o Eg: Digital sequence data clauses must be added to SMTA to align with
CBD and Nagoya Protocol recommendations.
3. Governance through accountable databases: Mandate use of Global Information
System with user registration and data logs.
o Eg: CSOs demand data sharing only through Treaty-governed platforms
with binding commitments and oversight.
4. Crop-wise gradual inclusion strategy: Expand MLS only after evaluating food
security relevance and readiness for fair governance.
o Eg: Introduce a phased approach based on FAO’s crop prioritisation
guidelines, linking each addition to benefit-sharing obligations.
5. Establish compliance and monitoring body: Independent mechanism to track
usage, disclosures, and violations of Treaty terms.
o Eg: Model can be inspired from Access and Benefit-Sharing Clearing-
House under Nagoya Protocol (UNEP, 2023).

Conclusion
Global access to plant genetic resources must not come at the cost of fairness and
sovereignty. Strengthening benefit-sharing systems and digital data governance is essential to
make the MLS equitable, transparent, and future-ready.

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Q. “Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) must mainstream forest
management for long-term climate finance”. Examine the rationale. What are
the associated challenges for developing nations? (10 M)

Introduction
Forests are pivotal for both carbon sequestration and biodiversity, yet their potential remains
underutilised in global climate financing frameworks. Integrating them into NDCs can
unlock stable and accountable funding mechanisms for climate mitigation.

Body

Rationale for mainstreaming forests in NDCs

1. Long-term visibility to forest actions: Integration into NDCs ensures forests are part
of a country's core climate roadmap.
o Eg: Brazil’s NDC (2020) includes targets to reduce illegal deforestation in the
Amazon by 100% by 2028, enhancing its eligibility for long-term global
finance.
2. Attracts private and blended finance: Predictable policy frameworks improve
investor confidence in forest-based carbon projects.
o Eg: Norway-EU joint statement (May 2025) stressed that forest integration
in NDCs boosts private sector trust in mitigation-linked investments.
3. Enhances climate credibility and ambition: Forests help countries meet both
mitigation and adaptation goals under the Paris Agreement.
o Eg: Indonesia’s updated NDC (2021) identifies peatland restoration as a
dual-benefit measure for mitigation and disaster resilience.
4. Strengthens MRV and transparency: Inclusion in NDCs institutionalises
monitoring, enabling access to carbon markets.
o Eg: REDD+ implementation in Colombia is integrated into its NDC and
supported by MRV systems funded by GCF.
5. Supports co-benefits for livelihoods and biodiversity: Mainstreaming helps channel
finance for socio-ecological development.
o Eg: UNFF 2025 declaration emphasised forests as tools for poverty
reduction, ecosystem services, and climate resilience.

Challenges for developing nations

1. Lack of institutional capacity: Many countries lack the technical expertise to design
forest-based NDC components.
o Eg: Zimbabwe (MWP 2025) cited inadequate data and institutional
support for REDD+ integration in its NDC.
2. Uncertain finance flows: Forest goals in NDCs often remain unfunded, especially in
early implementation phases.

64
 o Eg: FAO’s 2022 report found that <2% of global climate finance reached
smallholders and IPLCs in forested areas.
3. High MRV burden: Monitoring Forest carbon stocks requires advanced tech and
trained personnel, often unavailable.
o Eg: SIDS like Fiji and Vanuatu highlighted difficulty in implementing
satellite-based MRV due to cost and lack of access.
4. Conflicting national priorities: Health, infrastructure, and energy dominate budget
allocations over forest conservation.
o Eg: African Group at MWP 2025 pointed out that public debt and social
spending crowd out forest finance in national planning.
5. Weak legal clarity on carbon rights: Ambiguity over land tenure and carbon
ownership discourages forest investments.
o Eg: A 2024 WRI study flagged that lack of legal frameworks on carbon
rights may exclude IPLCs from carbon markets.

Conclusion
Forests must be repositioned from peripheral green spaces to central climate assets in NDCs.
A forest-forward finance model anchored in equity, capacity-building and transparency is
the only sustainable path for developing nations to meet climate goals.

Q. How has the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) shaped India’s
approach to sector-wise pollution control? What gaps persist in managing
industrial emissions under NCAP? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s air pollution policy made a decisive shift in 2019 with the launch of the National
Clean Air Programme (NCAP), bringing structured, sector-based, and performance-linked
air quality governance to the forefront.

Body

NCAP’s influence on sector-wise pollution control

1. Dust control as the primary focus: NCAP prioritised road dust suppression
through mechanical sweepers, greening, and C&D waste management.
o Eg: Under NCAP, cities in the Indo-Gangetic Plain received most funds for
dust control (CSE Review, 2025).
2. Integration of transport reforms: Urban mobility planning under NCAP includes
EV policies, CNG promotion, and public transport upgrades.
o Eg: Delhi’s EV Policy 2020 led to 12% fleet electrification; Bhubaneswar
rebuilt its bus fleet under NCAP support.
3. Focus on solid waste governance: NCAP has incentivised waste segregation,
landfill reduction, and worker integration.

65
 oEg: Indore achieved zero-landfill status; Pune integrated informal waste
pickers into formal systems (CSE, 2025).
4. Monitoring systems and hotspot strategies: City-level action plans include real-
time monitoring, geo-tagging, and hotspot interventions.
o Eg: Kolkata adopted remote sensing for vehicular emissions; Delhi mapped
hotspots with targeted clean-up actions.
5. Linking funding to city-level performance: NCAP introduced outcome-based
funding for non-attainment cities.
o Eg: 122 cities were identified based on PM10 levels with funding tied to
reform targets (MoEFCC, 2021).

Gaps in managing industrial emissions under NCAP

1. Jurisdictional mismatch in governance: Industrial areas lie outside ULB limits,

weakening local enforcement and coordination.
o Eg: Srinagar and Varanasi face challenges as major polluters lie outside
their municipal boundaries (CSE Review, 2025).
2. Weak implementation of emission tracking: Continuous Emission Monitoring
Systems (CEMS) are underutilised due to lax compliance.
o Eg: Only a few states like Odisha mandated functional CEMS with real-time
reporting (MoEFCC Annual Report, 2023).
3. Lack of targeted industrial regulation: NCAP lacks industry-specific emission
targets, especially for MSMEs using outdated fuel technologies.
o Eg: The Charter on Corporate Responsibility for Environment Protection
(CREP) remains advisory and outdated (CPCB, 2022).
4. Low replication of successful models: Innovative policies like Gujarat’s Common
Boiler Policy are not scaled nationally.
o Eg: Gujarat mandated shared cleaner boilers for MSME clusters, reducing
emissions significantly (GPCB, 2024).
5. Insufficient legal and institutional mandate: NCAP is non-statutory, limiting its
power to enforce compliance in industrial zones.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Environment (2023)
recommended granting NCAP statutory backing.

Conclusion

While NCAP has decentralised clean air action into key sectors, industrial pollution remains a
regulatory blind spot. A sharper legal mandate and coordinated regional enforcement can turn
India’s clean air strategy into a transformative success.

66
Disaster and disaster management.
Q. Discuss how Artificial Intelligence is redefining the disaster management
cycle—from risk mitigation to recovery. Examine the barriers to
institutionalising AI across all stages of disaster governance. (10 M)

Introduction
From satellite-based early warnings to post-disaster drone assessments, AI is revolutionising
disaster governance through speed, precision, and predictive capability, making it
indispensable in an era of climate extremes.

Body

AI’s role across the disaster management cycle

1. Risk identification and forecasting: AI enables real-time analysis of multi-source

data to predict hazard likelihood.
 Eg: IMD’s collaboration with Google uses AI for predictive flood alerts,
now active in 23 flood-prone Indian states .
2. Mitigation and planning support: AI models simulate disaster scenarios to help
design resilient infrastructure and zoning.
 Eg: NIDM’s AI-based risk maps in urban planning under Smart Cities
Mission enhance pre-disaster preparedness.
3. Early warning systems and communication: AI analyses geospatial and
meteorological data to issue faster, localised alerts.
 Eg: IBM’s AI platform with NDMA provides hyper-local cyclone alerts in
coastal Andhra Pradesh since 2023.
4. Real-time disaster response: AI-integrated drones and bots assist in locating
survivors and delivering aid in inaccessible zones.
 Eg: In the 2023 Sikkim floods, AI-aided drones helped ITBP identify trapped
civilians using heat signatures.
5. Damage assessment and recovery: Satellite imagery with AI evaluates loss for
insurance and reconstruction.
 Eg: ISRO-Bhuvan portal, integrated with AI, helped assess 2024 Manipur
landslide damages for NDRF reporting.

Barriers to institutionalising AI in disaster governance

1. Data fragmentation and poor interoperability: Inconsistent formats across agencies

restrict model training and scalability.
 Eg: CAG 2023 audit on NDMA flagged lack of unified disaster databases
as a major hurdle.
2. Inadequate technical infrastructure at local level: Many districts lack the hardware
or connectivity to deploy AI tools.

67
  Eg: Only 23% of districts under SDMP (2024) had systems compatible with
AI analytics, per NIDM report.
3. Lack of skilled personnel and awareness: Disaster officials often lack AI-specific
training for interpreting or applying insights.
 Eg: A 2023 UNDP-NDMA study found <30% of state disaster cells trained
in AI modules.
4. Ethical and bias concerns in AI decision-making: Opaque algorithms risk
reinforcing inequalities in aid distribution.
 Eg: AI-based prioritisation in the 2022 Assam floods disproportionately
excluded tribal hamlets .
5. Absence of legal and policy frameworks: No national-level regulatory norms exist
for AI application in disaster contexts.
 Eg: The Draft National Policy on AI (2023) lacks a dedicated chapter on
disaster governance, despite NITI Aayog's recommendations.

Conclusion
Institutionalising AI in disaster governance demands not just digital investment but human
capacity, ethical safeguards, and legal clarity. Done right, it can shift India’s disaster
paradigm from reactive to resilient—predicting loss before it strikes.

Q. “Indigenous knowledge offers adaptive, low-cost, and ecologically viable

strategies for disaster mitigation”. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using
such knowledge in modern disaster management systems. (10 M)

Introduction
The recent Kerala THDMP (2025) highlights a shift toward integrating tribal ecological
wisdom with formal disaster management. Such knowledge, passed through generations,
holds immense promise but faces systemic challenges.

Body

Strengths of indigenous knowledge in disaster mitigation

1. Context-specific adaptability: Indigenous practices are tailored to local geography,

climate, and ecology.
 Eg:- Kurumbanmoozhi hamlet’s elevated hut design helped avoid flood
damage during 2023 monsoons in Kerala’s Western Ghats (KSDMA, 2024).
2. Low-cost and resource-efficient: It relies on locally available materials and
knowledge, reducing external dependence.
 Eg:- Zabo water harvesting in Nagaland captures hill runoff without
external infrastructure (NITI Aayog Report on Traditional Water Systems,
2021).
3. Early warning through ecological cues: Communities often interpret signs like bird
behavior, soil patterns, or wind direction.

68
  Eg:- Mishing tribe of Assam reads riverbank cracks and fish movement to
predict Brahmaputra floods (NDMA).
4. Community-centric and participatory: Ensures greater social acceptance and
collective action during disasters.
 Eg:- Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh conduct annual mock drills during rice-
fish farming cycle as part of traditional rituals.
5. Ecological sustainability: Promotes harmony with nature and avoids over-
engineering.
 Eg:- Toda tribes of Nilgiris practice sacred groves conservation, which
reduce landslide risk in deforested slopes (MoEFCC Biodiversity Report,
2022).

Limitations of indigenous knowledge in modern systems

1. Limited documentation and standardisation: Much of this knowledge is oral and

lacks scientific validation.
 Eg:- Gadchiroli tribes’ bamboo flood barriers failed in 2019 due to lack of
structural assessment.
2. Inadequate scalability: Often hyper-local, making replication in diverse geographies
difficult.
 Eg:- Wayanad tribal alert systems using animal migration patterns are
ineffective in urbanised flood zones.
3. Vulnerability to ecosystem change: Climate change may render some traditional
indicators obsolete.
 Eg:- Ladakhi farmers failed to anticipate 2022 flash floods as glacier melting
patterns changed due to global warming (ICIMOD, 2023).
4. Exclusion from formal DM policies: Lack of institutional recognition weakens
integration into national frameworks.
 Eg:- Sendai Framework (2015-30) mentions local knowledge, but India’s
DM Act 2005 lacks operational mandates for it.
5. Intergenerational erosion of knowledge: Youth migration and formal education
reduce the transmission of traditional wisdom.
 Eg:- In Jharkhand, the Ho community's ancestral weather interpretation
practices are disappearing.

Conclusion
Integrating indigenous wisdom with scientific tools can build hybrid, adaptive, and
inclusive disaster frameworks. India’s future resilience will hinge on recognising that
resilience is not just built in labs, but also lived in forests.

69
Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges

to internal security.
Q. India’s evolving cross-border doctrine reflects calibrated deterrence without
triggering full-scale war. Examine this strategic posture. Assess its implications
for sub-conventional warfare in South Asia. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s military responses post-2016 reveal a shift from passive deterrence to proactive, non-
escalatory strikes designed to punish terror infrastructure without provoking conventional
conflict—reshaping regional security dynamics.

Body

India’s evolving strategic posture

1. Doctrine of controlled retaliation: India now uses precision, pre-emptive strikes

against terror camps without targeting military installations.
o Eg: Operation Sindoor (May 2025) struck nine terror camps across LoC
and IB without touching Pakistani military assets
2. Cross-border punitive actions as new norm: India has operationalised limited war
under nuclear overhang, challenging Pakistan’s escalation dominance.
o Eg: 2016 surgical strikes and 2019 Balakot airstrikes targeted PoK and
Balakot respectively while avoiding major military escalation
3. Doctrinal shift to cumulative justice: India now frames strikes as responses to
decades-long terror, not just one-off provocations.
o Eg: Operation Sindoor described as response to “terror acts since 2001”
including 26/11 and Pulwama
4. Legal-ethical framing for legitimacy: India uses the Caroline Principle of
anticipatory self-defence to justify strikes.
o Eg: UN Charter Article 51 invoked post-Balakot to justify self-defence
against non-state actors operating from another sovereign state
5. Preserving escalation control: India avoids attacking military targets to maintain
escalation ladder flexibility.
o Eg: MOD’s 2025 statement: “No Pakistani military facility was targeted”

Implications for sub-conventional warfare in South Asia

1. Erosion of Pakistan’s nuclear shield narrative: Repeated Indian strikes have

weakened Pakistan’s first-use nuclear threat posture.

70
 o Eg: Pakistan’s threats post-Pahalgam attack (April 2025) failed to deter
India from launching Operation Sindoor.
2. Redefinition of grey-zone conflict: India is shifting grey-zone battles to include open
state action against proxies.
o Eg: Targeting of TRF-associated camps in Sindoor undercut Pakistan’s
narrative of indigenous insurgency
3. Precedent for regional counter-terrorism action: India’s calibrated strikes could
become a model for other states dealing with cross-border terrorism.
o Eg: Sri Lanka and Bangladesh reportedly studying India’s sub-conventional
precision strike model.
4. Increased strategic ambiguity and unpredictability: Indian actions blur lines of
escalation, complicating adversary’s response calculus.
o Eg: Sindoor strikes went beyond LoC into deep Pakistan, challenging
assumptions of India’s restraint.
5. Shift in international perception: India’s restraint and legality gain diplomatic
traction while Pakistan’s sponsorship gets exposed.
o Eg: FATF greylist warning (2024) and global backlash on Sajid Mir case
helped validate India’s claims.

Conclusion
India’s evolving doctrine has recast the contours of sub-conventional engagement, using
calibrated power with global legitimacy. The challenge now lies in maintaining strategic
clarity while deterring an unpredictable adversary.

Q. “Drone warfare marks a shift in the logic of escalation and response in South
Asia”. Examine the strategic implications of this shift. Assess India’s readiness
for drone-dominated conflicts. (10 M)

Introduction

The rapid weaponization of drones has blurred the line between war and peace, enabling low-
cost, deniable and escalatory tactics under the nuclear threshold.

Body

Strategic implications of drone warfare in South Asia

1. Lowered threshold of conflict initiation: Drones allow states to strike without

triggering full-scale retaliation.
o Eg: Pakistan’s use of CH-4 and kamikaze drones in May 2025 targeted Indian
civilian and military sites without crossing declared war thresholds.
2. Complicates escalation control: Drone strikes introduce ambiguity, making
proportional response decisions difficult.

71
 o Eg: India's calibrated retaliation during Operation Sindoor avoided escalation
to manned aerial combat, despite provocations.
3. Hybridisation of conventional and non-state warfare: Drones amplify asymmetric
tactics by state and non-state actors.
o Eg: Pakistan reportedly used drones to simulate terrorist attacks and incite
religious tensions.
4. Pressure on nuclear deterrence frameworks: Persistent drone incursions challenge
deterrence postures based on conventional force calculus.
o Eg: India's restraint despite sustained drone provocation reflects evolving
deterrence norms.
5. Emergence of ‘grey-zone’ warfare: Drone warfare enables operations in legal and
military ambiguity zones.
o Eg: Use of Turkish-made Bayraktar variants without state insignia
complicated attribution and response options.

India’s readiness for drone-dominated conflicts

1. Strengthening of indigenous drone and counter-drone ecosystem: Rapid

deployment of loitering drones, Akash missiles and D4 systems.
o Eg: DRDO’s D4 (Detect-Deter-Destroy) and Akashteer systems were field-
tested successfully during Operation Sindoor.
2. Integrated air defence but limited drone swarm capability: While detection is
improving, drone saturation remains a vulnerability.
o Eg: L-70 and ZSU-23 upgraded guns used in dense drone zones but struggled
against swarm tactics.
3. Innovation-driven procurement models like iDEX: Startup collaborations are
scaling, but delays in induction remain.
o Eg: Mehar Baba Drone Swarm Challenge winners inducted in limited
numbers .
4. Doctrinal and legal lag in drone warfare: India's conventional war doctrines
haven’t yet integrated layered drone strategies.
o Eg: No clear escalation protocol for drone-induced damage leading to reactive
improvisation during May 2025 strikes.
5. Need for QRSAM and AI-powered targeting systems: Current surveillance and
interception lags need systemic correction.
o Eg: Call for early induction of QRSAM and SWIFT platforms post-Sindoor
for dynamic threat response .

Conclusion

India’s drone warfare experience in May 2025 marks a doctrinal turning point. Bridging gaps
in swarm defence, strategic attribution, and rapid indigenous induction is vital to stay ahead
in the next evolution of conflict.

72
Q. “Hatred never ceases by hatred, by love alone is it solved”. Evaluate this in
the context of counter-terrorism operations. How can compassion-based
approaches supplement hard security measures? (10 M)

Introduction
While tactical force neutralises immediate threats, lasting peace demands emotional
disengagement from hate. Sustainable counter-terrorism must combine strategy with
empathy.

Body

Hatred and its limitations in counter-terrorism

1. Cycle of violence and retaliation: Purely militaristic responses can perpetuate

alienation and fresh radicalisation.
o Eg: Post-2016 Burhan Wani killing saw a spike in youth militancy in
South Kashmir despite neutralising a top commander (MHA, 2017).
2. Loss of moral legitimacy: Excessive force can delegitimise the state’s position
among vulnerable civilian populations.
o Eg: AFSPA-related excesses in Manipur led to widespread protests
including Irom Sharmila’s hunger strike.
3. Impact on civil liberties: Hatred-driven narratives may lead to indiscriminate
surveillance or detentions, eroding democratic values.
o Eg: Justice Hegde Committee (2011) criticised mass arrests under UAPA
without clear evidence.
4. Psychological trauma and alienation: A community under perpetual suspicion
breeds emotional insecurity and mistrust.
o Eg: Jammu and Kashmir mental health survey (2022) showed over 45%
youth showed signs of PTSD post operations.

Compassion-based approaches as strategic supplements

1. De-radicalisation and psychological counselling: Helps disengage individuals

ideologically before they resort to violence.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s de-radicalisation cell (2019) successfully rehabilitated
minor radicalised youth using counselling and education.
2. Community policing and trust-building: Involving locals in intelligence gathering
fosters mutual confidence.
o Eg: “Police Mitra” programme in Jammu (2021) helped reduce stone-
pelting incidents by 32% in 6 months.
3. Socio-economic upliftment and inclusion: Addressing root causes like
unemployment prevents extremist recruitment.
o Eg: UDAAN scheme in J&K provided skill training to over 12,000 youth,
creating non-violent alternatives.

73
 4. Role of religious and spiritual leaders: Local leaders can propagate narratives of
peace and non-violence.
o Eg: Sufi clerics in Kashmir were engaged by CRPF (2022) to counter
extremist propaganda through community outreach.
5. Peace education in schools: Teaching values of non-violence, empathy and critical
thinking reduces susceptibility to radical ideologies.
o Eg: NCERT’s Life Skills Curriculum (2023) integrates conflict resolution
and empathy modules in middle school.

Conclusion
A secure society is not built on surveillance and suppression alone, but on trust, justice and
human dignity. Combining hard power with human-centred policies is the true antidote to
hate.

Challenges to internal security through communication networks,

role of media and social networking sites in internal security
challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its
prevention.
Q. “Cyber resilience is the new frontier of national security in a digitised
economy”. Discuss. (10 M)

Introduction
In an era of digital sovereignty, cyber resilience has become as critical as conventional
military preparedness, especially in sectors like finance, defence, and governance.

Body

Cyber resilience as the new frontier of national security

1. Safeguarding critical digital infrastructure: Cyber resilience ensures continuity of

essential services during digital disruptions.
o Eg:– CERT-In's real-time alert system for power grids, telecom, and
banking sectors was crucial during Operation Sindoor 2025 alerts.
2. Deterrence against asymmetric warfare: Resilient systems reduce the effectiveness
of cyberattacks from hostile state and non-state actors.
o Eg:– NCIIPC classified 12 sectors including finance and transport as Critical
Information Infrastructure (2023).
3. Securing public trust and digital adoption: Reliable digital systems are necessary to
sustain mass-scale platforms like UPI and Digi Locker.
o Eg:– RBI’s Digital Payment Security Controls 2021 increased user trust in
UPI, now handling 12 billion+ monthly transactions.
4. National reputation and economic stability: Data breaches can affect investor
confidence and strategic autonomy.

74
 o Eg:– AIIMS Delhi ransomware attack (2022) disrupted health services and
exposed systemic vulnerabilities.

Key challenges to cyber resilience

1. Shortage of skilled cybersecurity workforce: India faces a major gap in trained

personnel to manage threats at scale.
o Eg:– NASSCOM report (2024) estimates a shortage of 1.5 million
cybersecurity professionals in India.
2. Fragmented institutional coordination: Overlapping roles of CERT-In, NCIIPC,
and sector regulators cause delays in response.
o Eg:– Parliamentary Standing Committee on IT (2023) flagged coordination
lapses during high-risk cyber incidents.
3. Insufficient budgetary allocation: Most public infrastructure lacks sustained funding
for cyber defence upgrades.
o Eg:– MeitY’s 2024-25 budget allocation for cybersecurity is less than 0.1%
of total digital public infra spending.
4. Vulnerability in Tier 2 and rural systems: Regional banks, cooperatives and
healthcare systems lack basic protections.
o Eg:– CERT-In’s 2023 audit found over 65% of rural banking systems
lacked updated firewalls.

Measures to enhance cyber resilience

1. Unified cyber command structure: Establish a national-level cyber command with

inter-agency interoperability.
o Eg:– National Cyber Security Strategy proposed an integrated cyber
operations command.
2. Mandatory cyber audit and drills: Enforce sector-specific drills and third-party
audits to test readiness.
o Eg:– Finance Ministry mandated banks to conduct mock cyberattack drills
post-border escalation with Pakistan.
3. Investment in indigenous cybersecurity tools: Develop local hardware-software
stack to reduce foreign dependency.
o Eg:– DRDO’s Netra platform monitors and counters advanced persistent
threats for strategic assets.
4. Capacity-building and skilling at scale: Integrate cybersecurity in school curricula
and vocational skilling schemes.
o Eg:– Digital India FutureLABS (2024) launched to train 75,000+
cybersecurity professionals annually (MeitY initiative).

Conclusion
Cyber resilience is no longer a reactive domain but a proactive national imperative. Building

75
layered, decentralised, and indigenous cybersecurity architecture will define India’s
sovereignty in the digital age.

Q Identify the key limitations in India’s digital payment security architecture.

Examine how predictive intelligence tools like the Financial Fraud Risk Indicator
(FRI) aim to bridge these structural gaps. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s rapid digitalisation in financial services has increased exposure to cyber frauds. The
launch of the Financial Fraud Risk Indicator (FRI) by the Department of
Telecommunications in May 2025 reflects a shift from reactive to predictive security
governance.

Body

Limitations in India’s digital payment security architecture

1. Absence of real-time intelligence sharing mechanisms: Risk signals are not

integrated across telecom and financial institutions.
o Eg: RBI Annual Report 2022–23 highlighted that over 40% of digital
frauds were detected only after the transaction due to siloed risk monitoring.
2. Exploitation of short SIM lifecycle for frauds: Fraudsters use short-lived SIMs
before detection and disconnection.
o Eg: As per DoT MNRL data (2024), over 66,000 mobile numbers used for
frauds were disconnected within a few days of activation.
3. Fragmented regulatory architecture: Lack of synchronisation among CERT-In,
DoT, RBI hampers rapid response.
o Eg: The Standing Committee on Finance (2023) flagged inadequate
convergence between telecom and financial fraud surveillance.
4. Limited predictive analytics at platform level: Most payment platforms still rely on
static rules, not behaviour-based AI models.
o Eg: PhonePe Protect (2025) was one of the first to apply FRI-based
predictive alerts, unlike conventional filters.
5. Inadequate user alert systems and risk disclosures: Users are often unaware of
fraud risks during transactions.
o Eg: Google Pay (2024) introduced on-screen warnings and transaction
delays only after a surge in phishing fraud cases.

FRI’s role in bridging structural gaps

1. Enables mobile number–based fraud risk scoring: Classifies numbers as Medium,

High or Very High risk using multi-agency data.
o Eg: PhonePe data (2025) showed high predictive accuracy in fraud detection
for Very High FRI-tagged numbers, as confirmed by DoT.
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 2. Supports pre-emptive intervention by stakeholders: Enables rejection or delay of
transactions before the fraud happens.
o Eg: Paytm and PhonePe, using FRI, now decline or delay payments to
flagged numbers, lowering success rate of fraud attempts.
3. Operationalises DIP for real-time risk sharing: The Digital Intelligence Platform
(DIP) enables swift alert circulation.
o Eg: By May 2025, DIP was fully integrated with PhonePe, Google Pay, and
Paytm, covering 90% of UPI volume.
4. Shortens intervention window against SIM-based frauds: Detects suspicious
numbers before full KYC flags them.
o Eg: As per DoT (2025), FRI reduces average detection lag by 3–5 days,
matching the active window of most telecom-linked frauds.
5. Creates a standardised national fraud-risk model: Offers an algorithmic and
scalable framework across sectors.
o Eg: Chakshu platform inputs are now routed into FRI, building a cross-
sectoral early warning system .

Conclusion

Tools like FRI mark a decisive shift towards anticipatory cybersecurity governance.
Scaling such innovations with legal safeguards, inter-agency protocols, and public trust
mechanisms is essential for a resilient digital economy.

Security challenges and their management in border areas -

linkages of organized crime with terrorism.
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.
Q. Explain the role of Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) in India's border
management. What challenges do they face in securing diverse frontiers? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s vast and varied land borders demand a specialised, layered security setup. CAPFs
serve as the first line of defence in peacetime border management across terrain and threat
spectrums.

Body

Role of CAPFs in border management

1. Guarding international borders: CAPFs prevent infiltration, illegal migration, and

smuggling across international borders.
o Eg: Border Security Force (BSF) patrols India-Pakistan and India-
Bangladesh borders, checking arms smuggling and infiltration (MHA
Annual Report, 2024).

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 2. Surveillance in high-altitude zones: They secure challenging Himalayan frontiers
and ensure strategic presence.
o Eg: Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is deployed along the 3,488 km
India-China border, especially active post Galwan clashes (2020).
3. Managing porous and unfenced borders: Ensures peace and checks transnational
crime in friendly neighbourhoods.
o Eg: Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) manages the Nepal and Bhutan borders,
countering narcotics and fake currency smuggling.
4. Support in border infrastructure and fencing: CAPFs coordinate with CPWD and
state agencies to improve border defences.
o Eg: BSF assisted in Phase-II of Smart Fencing (CIBMS) project across
Punjab and Assam sectors in 2024.
5. Intelligence and civic cooperation: CAPFs generate human intelligence and engage
with local communities for peacebuilding.
o Eg: SSB’s Village Defence Committees in Bihar and UP border zones help
in early-warning of suspicious activities.

Challenges in securing diverse frontiers

1. Harsh terrain and extreme climate: Leads to high attrition and logistical burden in
high-altitude regions.
o Eg: ITBP posts in Eastern Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh face sub-zero
temperatures and oxygen-deficient altitudes.
2. Lack of real-time coordination: Multiple agencies often operate without seamless
command-sharing, delaying response.
o Eg: BSF-ITBP coordination gaps reported during 2022 Siliguri corridor
vulnerability audit (Parliament Standing Committee, 2023).
3. Technological limitations in surveillance: Many sectors lack modern surveillance
tools like UAVs and thermal sensors.
o Eg: Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG, 2022) flagged delays in drone
procurement for ITBP and SSB.
4. Staffing shortages and deployment fatigue: Long postings and vacancy backlogs
affect efficiency and morale.
o Eg: CAPF vacancy rate stood at 11.2% as per MHA data (March 2025);
BSF had 9,000+ posts vacant.
5. Cross-border tensions and grey zone threats: Conventional patrolling is inadequate
for new-age threats like drone incursions.
o Eg: BSF reported 107 drone sightings from Pakistan in Punjab sector
(Jan–Mar 2025), carrying weapons and narcotics.

Conclusion
To secure India’s frontiers, CAPFs must be empowered through technological upgradation,
coordinated command systems, and timely staffing—turning them into both deterrents and
stabilisers across borders.

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Q. What were the operational limitations in India’s joint military commands that
necessitated a dedicated legal framework? Explain the key provisions of the
Inter-Services Organisations (Command, Control and Discipline) Act, 2023.
Propose mechanisms to ensure inter-service harmony and institutional
accountability. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s integrated defence architecture lacked a statutory mechanism for unified control in
joint commands, leading to delays, fragmentation, and inefficiency. The ISO Act 2023
resolves this systemic gap.

Body

Operational limitations necessitating a legal framework

1. Lack of unified disciplinary authority: Cross-service control was absent within

integrated commands.
o Eg: Andaman and Nicobar Command required Navy officers to refer Army
personnel’s disciplinary matters to Army HQ, delaying action (MoD Annual
Report, 2022).
2. Ambiguity in administrative command: Joint commands lacked a single
empowered legal head.
o Eg: Defence Cyber Agency was functionally operational but lacked legal
command authority over mixed-service personnel (Parliament Standing
Committee on Defence, 2023).
3. Delays due to repatriation for action: Offenders were sent back to parent units for
discipline.
o Eg: In Strategic Forces Command, tri-service personnel had to be reverted to
parent service for disciplinary action, slowing down decisions.
4. Fragmentation and duplication: Separate service rules led to overlapping
disciplinary inquiries.
o Eg: At National Defence Academy, incidents often led to multiple inquiries
under Army and Air Force Acts simultaneously (NDA Administrative
Records, 2021).
5. No protocol for command succession: Absence of legal delegation during
emergencies disrupted operations.
o Eg: During COBRA task deployments, absence of formal interim
appointments affected coordination (CAPF-Military Integration Task Force
Paper, 2022).

Key provisions of the Inter-Services Organisations (Command, Control and Discipline)

Act, 2023

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 1. Legal command to ISO heads: Full disciplinary and administrative powers to
Commanders-in-Chief and Officers-in-Command.
o Eg: As per Section 7, they now exercise powers equivalent to GOC-in-C,
FOC-in-C, and AOC-in-C.
2. Coverage of all three services: Tri-service personnel are brought under unified ISO
jurisdiction.
o Eg: Section 2 extends the Act to all service members from Army, Navy, and
Air Force within ISOs like Defence Space Agency.
3. Active service status: Enables government to declare ISO personnel “on active
service”.
o Eg: Section 10 allows uniform disciplinary enforcement even in peacetime
postings to ISO units.
4. Succession during absence: Legal provision for temporary command without need
for fresh posting orders.
o Eg: ISO Rules, 2025 specify temporary delegation if the Officer-in-Command
is on leave or absent.
5. Preservation of service conditions: Original service rules remain applicable to
maintain identity and fairness.
o Eg: An Air Force officer under ISO command still adheres to Air Force Act,
1950, despite joint administration.

Mechanisms to ensure inter-service harmony and institutional accountability

1. Joint legal training modules: Standardised training on ISO legal authority for tri-
service commanders.
o Eg: CDS Secretariat may introduce ISO-specific law modules at Defence
Services Staff College, Wellington.
2. Tri-service oversight board: An independent grievance redressal and audit body
under CDS.
o Eg: A Tri-Service Grievance Board can be set up following Shekatkar
Committee (2016) suggestions for synergy.
3. Legal and disciplinary audits: Annual review of ISO disciplinary matters to detect
overreach or bias.
o Eg: Empower Comptroller General of Defence Accounts (CGDA) to
conduct ISO-specific compliance audits.
4. Real-time command dashboards: Digital tools to track ISO disciplinary actions and
transitions.
o Eg: Use of iDEX-MoD supported platforms for tracking chain of command
and case flow.
5. Tri-service ethics framework: Harmonised code of conduct and ethical norms for
ISO postings.
o Eg: A Defence Ethics Charter rooted in Kargil Review Committee (1999)
recommendations can be introduced.

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Conclusion
The ISO Act is a long-pending legislative solution to operational silos in India’s joint
commands. Its true potential lies in combining legal clarity with institutional innovation and
ethical cohesion.

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