:he need tor a much better under­

ld productive development of Nile

e realization of the need for coop­
lificant progress in this regard. An
2
las, and is, given to water and agri­
eeds to be better consideration for Nile water and agriculture
institutions involved in water and
man and institutional capacity to
Past, present and future

ie, and Source of livelihood of the

Karen Conniff, David Molden, Don Peden and Seleshi B. Awulachew
:ient attentions and investment in

momic growth, food security and

the NBI programmes.
;Vater availability for food produc­ Key messages
Jeneficial' water to managed land
has been a dominant feature of Nile Basin countries for centuries. Irrigated
1expansion. There is ample scope expansion over the last hundred years, often driven by foreign powers, has
Lake Nasser. Further addition in caused change in the use of the Nile water, and continues to be a major intlu­
>peration and integrated manage­ ence on the decisions around the Nile River use today.
• Use of Nile River water is a cause for transboundary cooperation and conflict. More than
ty gains, fisheries and small-scale ever, the Nile Basin countries teel the pressure of expanding population requirements for
food production and energy to develop their economies. However, historical treaties and
nr~,rhr,>< continue to significantly shape directions of future Nile water use.
, improve productivity and Sif,'l1if..
1e landscape is high and can be • Power development is changing the Nile River. Many dams are planned and several are
under construction. The dam projects will have direct consequences for local populations
lensive agreement and the Nile and governments as they negotiate for water resources, land and power.
lOmic development and regional
Introduction
Iverty, productivity, vulnerability,
o make further in-depth research This chapter highlights the use of the Nile River in the past and the present, and its future
'stems, and to design appropriate possibilities for both agriculture (crops, livestock and fish) and the economic benefit of the
millions of people who live along the Nile. This brief glance at the historical and
later management interventions. current developments of Nile water includes the socio-political, environmental and human
alysis, economic modelling and consequences of these developments, and the direction towards which future in the
Nile Basin might lead. Ultimately, the benefits of the Nile River need to be shared among the
;ity to make this happen, from ten basin countries, with populations totalling approximately 180 million, of whom half are
below the poverty line (Bastiaanssen and Perry, 2009).

Geographical Nile
A short introduction to the physical Nile will help to visualize the situation and understand the
dynamics of historical and current power struggles. Figure 2.1 is used by the Nile Basin
Initiative (NBI) and the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Programme (NELSAP), a],J
shows the areas and countries drained by the Nile River.

5
 The Nile River Basin

NILE RIVER BASIN

RIVER

COUNTRY BOUNDARY

* CAPITAL CITY
• MAJOR CITY

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

20·N

1Ources, ar
.is tapped
identified
. (Howell e
Thel"
EI FIi$her
• Nile; thel
Sudan, tb
NORTHERN
SUDAN and flow.
particles
Originat
brought
waters Cl
confiuer
stream,t
called }
Ethiopi
and 14~
the hist

CONGO
KENYA
O·

Andel
withir
systen
evidel
tern.]
P(l?ure 2.1 The Nile River Basin
to 90
S"/lrre: World Bank, 1998
cattle
in ar

6
 Nile water and agriculture

The Nile River we know is quite different from the deep Eonile formed during the late
NILE RIVER BASIN Miocene period, 25 to 5.3 million years ago (mya) , when the Mediterranean Sea dried up
(Warren, 2006). The Cenozoic period of the Blue Nile was one of upheavals, plate movements
RIVER and volcanic eruptions that occurred more than 30 mya, and this is what defines the hydro­
COUNTRY BOUNDARY logical differences between the Blue and White Niles (Talbot and Williams. 2009). The meeting

* CAPlTAL CITY
of the Blue and White Niles is explained by two theories. Said (1981) believes that Egypt
supplied most of the water to the early Nile, and the Nile we know now was formed within
• MAJOR CITY
one of several basins more than 120,000 years ago fairly recent in geological years. The other
theory is of a Tertiary period river when the Ethiopian rivers flowed to the Mediterranean via
the Egyptian Nile (Williams and Williams, 1980). Sedimentation studies and the discovery of
an intercontinental rift system by Salama (1997) supports the Tertiary period Nile that formed
SAUDI ARABIA a series of closed basins that connected during wet periods 120,000 years ago; the filling of the
basins connected the Egyptian, Sudanese and Ethiopian Nile basins. The oldest part of the Nile
drainage is associated with the Sudd, believed to have formed 65 mya. What we see of the Nile
2O'N
now is also in a state of change as the landscape is excavated to construct large dams to re-divert
water and change the river's physiography.
The Nile River passes through severa! distinct climatic zones, is fed from different river
sources, and creates vast wetlands, high surface evaporation and a huge amount of enerb'Y that
is tapped for hydropower. Seventeen river basins feed into Lake Victoria, where John Speke
identified the source of the Nile in 1862, with the greatest contribution from the Kagera River
YEMEN (Howell et aI, 1988).
The Nile is a river with many names. Lake Victoria, it is the Victoria Nile or White
Nile; then, as it flows through Lakes Kyog'd and Albert, it is called the Albert Nile; arriving in
Sudan, the river is called Bahr el Jebel, or Mountain Nile; where it winds through the Sudd
and flows into Lake No it is called the Bahr al Abyad, or White Nile, because of the white clay
particles suspended in the water. Near Malakal the Ethiopian Sobat River joins the White Nile.
10'N
Originating in Ethiopia, the Hlue Nile born from volcanic divisions in the landscape that
brought up the Ethiopian plateau has carved impressive gorges and brings silt-laden Blue Nile
waters coiling around and collecting from many tributaries before flowing into the White Nile
ETHIOPIA confluence at Omdurman Sudan, where the name becomes Nile or Main Nile. Further down­
stream, the Atbara River joins the Nile. The current Nile is supplied mainly from the Blue Nile
called Abay in Ethiopia and fed by 18 tributaries. Contributions to the Main Nile from
Ethiopian rivers are 86 per cent (composed of 59% from the Blue Nile, 13% from the Atbara
and 14% from Sobat), all flowing into Egypt (Sutcliff and Parks, 1999). With this as background
the history of the Nile will unfold.

Early Nile history

Before the common era

Ancient rock carvings in Egypt depicting cattle show that they have had a special importance
within the Nile Valley cultures tor thousands of years (Grimal, 1988). Pastoral production
systems wild cereals have been documented from the mid-Holocene period with
evidence back to 10,000 BCE when the Nile Valley and the Sahara were one ecosys­
tem. Early hunter, gatherer settlements have been documented in Nubian areas of Sudan dating
to 9000 years back (Barich, 1998). Cave drawings trom Ethiopia depicting sheep, goats and
cattle date back to 3000 to 2000 BCE and Cebrian, 2002). People at that time were
in areas of unstable climatic conditions; began herding to replace fishing as a primary

7
 The Nile River Basin

source of protein ..Herding became a strategy aimed at reducing the elIects of climate variations
(Barich, 1998). Bantu-speaking people spread across the eastern and central areas ofAfrica over
4000 years ago. They were excellent pastoralists and farmers.
From 1000 BCE, agricultural patterns were established that remain characteristic to the
present time. Ethiopian cultural and agrarian history is determined in part by its geography. The
high plateau formed by volcanic uplifts is split by the African rift valley (Henze, 2(00), where
the Northern fringe of the rift constitutes the deepest and hottest land surface on Earth, 126 m
below sea level (Wood and Guth, 20(9). The origin of human beings had occurred in the split
in the rift valley highlands; from here began the domestication of several economically impor­
tant crops, such as coffee, teff, khat, ensete, sorghum and finger millet (Gozalbez and Cebrian,
20(2). Vavi)ov (1940), a Russian plant palaeol1tologist studying the origins of ensete and teff,
said the Ethiopian Highland region was one of the more distinctive centres of crop origin and
diversification on the planet. In the 19205, Vavilov found hundreds of endemic varieties of
ancient wheat in an isolated area of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia, considered to be the cradle of humankind, was the site where anthropologists
found early hominid remains from 3.18 mya (known as 'Lucy';Johanson and Edey, 1990). From
8000 BCE fishers and gatherers settled along lakes and rivers. The earliest reference to Ethiopia
was recorded in ancient Egypt in 3000 BCE, related to Punt orYam, where the early Egyptians ma
were trading for myrrh. Ethiopia \vas a kingdom for most of its early history, tracing its roots Iiccc:sst11l1 if
back to the second century BCE. Ethiopia's link with the Middle East is from Yemen on the llfelot)ed r
Red Sea, thought to be the source ofYemeni migrants speaking a Semitic language related to
Amharic, and bringing along animals and several grain crops (Diamond, 1997). Ethiopia has
connections to the Mediterranean where its religious and cultural ties to the ancient cultures
of Greece and Rome have played a role in its history.
In Egypt irrigated agriculture and control over Nile water have been continuous for more goods fron
than 5000 years (Postel, 1999). Traces of ancient irrigation systems are also found in Nubia or Muslim
North Sudan, where people grew emmer, barley and einkorn (a primitive type of wheat). The the 1850s)
people who settled along the Nile River in the Pharaonic kingdoms were cultivating wheat, 20(0). Ru
barley, flax and various vegetables. They raised fowl, cattle, sheep and goats, and fished. Irrigation faith in a ~
was also practised in Sudan and Ethiopia thousands of years ago, but to a lesser extent than in caught up
Egypt There are few, if any, ancient irrigation records from the upstream riparian countries of Henze,2C
Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, but For ce
most have sufficient rainfall and still rely more on rain-fed than on irrigated agriculture. they lackc
There are many theories about the spread of farming in the Nile Valley, but the consensus cally has
is that people moved to the upper Nile River when the fertile plains of the Sahara began to conquest
dry up, forming deserts. The Nile River was too large to control in ancient times but irriga­ in 1250,·
tion carne naturally with the annual Nile floodwaters, particularly in Egypt where early to the s
Egyptians pr.lctised basin irrigation (Cowen, 2007). Most of what is known about ancient irri­ improvel
gation practices was from the Pharaonic civilization in 4000 BCE, recorded in hieroglyphics embank1
where an ancient king was depicted cutting a ditch with a hoe to let water flow into the fields allowed
(PosteL 1999). The early Egyptians were linked to the Nile; they worshipped it, based their floods).'
calendar on it, drank from it and lived in harmony with the alternating cycles of flow. It was as evide
the control of the yearly floods that allowed the Egyptians to irrigate using a system of dikes tenure;
and basins. When the floodwaters receded water was hfted with a device called a shadoof to get The
it to where it was needed. Irrigation was so successful that Egypt was referred to as the bread­ irrigati c
basket for the Roman Empire (Postel, 1999). the Nil
Egypt's dynastic periods were characterized by periods of advancement and stagnation. The how II
Egyptians' attachment to the Nile River, land and ability to irrigate led to wealth and a strong Napolc

8
 Nile water and agriculture

: the elfects of climate variations government, but this was followed by periods of stagnation in economy and population: 'It's
I and central areas of Africa over not clear whether strong central government resulted in effective irrigation and good crop
production, or whether strong central government broke down after climatic changes resulted
lat remain characteristic to the in unstable agricultural production' (Cowen, 2(07). Flooding periods came and went just as the
led in part by its geography. The ruling powers changed over and over again; in a period of decline the Assyrians took over
rifi: valley (Henze, 2000), where (673-663 BCE), followed by the Persians (525 BCE), who were conquered by Alexander the
est land surface on Earth, 126 m Great in 332 BCE. Alexander the Great's death in 323 BCE signalled the start of the Ptolemaic
beings had occurred in the split dynasty; Cleopatra VII, last of the Ptolemaic rulers, took over and was subsequently defeated in
of several economically imp or­ 31 BCE, and the Roman Empire took over until the Arab conquest (El Khadi, 1998).Years of
. millet (Gozalbez and Cebrian, occupation of Egypt only added to and improved the irrigation systems.
: the origins of ensete and telf,
ctive centres of crop origin and
Invaders and conquerors: the common era
ndreds of endemic varieties of
From 300 to 800 CE, Bantu pastoralism helped shape the economy in the wet equatorial
the site where anthropologists regions of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Oliver and Page, 19(2). The trade and import of crops
·ohanson and Edey, 1990). From from the Far East further changed the influence of agriculture on the people in this region.
be earliest reference to Ethiopia From the setdements around the equatorial lakes many of these people grew and developed a
Yam, where the early Egyptians trade in many crops, especially bananas. Cultivation of bananas and other crops was very
ts early history, tracing its roots successful in the wet equatorial region, and trade from cities in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda
Idle East is from Yemen on the developed rapidly.
g a Semitic language related to Slaves were sought, used and exported from Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda from the
(Diamond, 1997). Ethiopia has fifth century. Between the seventh and the fifteenth centuries, Arab slave traders introduced
lral ties to the ancient cultures both Islam and slave trade to many regions in Africa, where they controlled the slave trade
(Ehret, 2002). Arabic and Portuguese traders shaped the economy in East Africa, bringing in
lave been continuous for more goods from China and India and trading them for ivory, gold and slaves.
ms are also found in Nubia or Muslim armies also tried to enter Ethiopia in the 154(),;, but unsuccessfully. Only later (in
I primitive type of wheat). The the 18505) did Ethiopia begin to open up and interact more with foreign powers (Henze,
¢oms were cultivating wheat, 2000). Ruled for centuries by kin!::,"S trotn the Solomonic Dynasty and isolated by its Coptic
lnd goats, and fished. Irrigation faith in a sea ofIslam, Ethiopia was spared from conquests by foreign powers until the Italians
., but to a lesser extent than in caught up in the conquest for Atrica invaded Ethiopia during 1936-1941 (Pankhurst, 1997;
upstream riparian countries of Henze, 2000).
[ida, Tanzania and Uganda, but For centuries, both Egypt and Sudan have viewed the Nile as their main lifeline, because
on irrigated agriculture. they lacked other main freshwater sources. l-Iowever, the dominant user of Nile water histori­
Nile Valley, but the consensus cally ~as been Egypt, which maintained its highly successful irrigation systems throughout the
.plains of the Sahara began to conquest periods - beginning with the Arab conquest in 641, followed by Turkish Mamelukes
1>1 in ancient times but irriga­ in 1250, until the Ottomans took over in 1517. The Arabs realized how important the Nile was
:ularly in Egypt where early to the success of their control over Egypt (EI Khadi, 1998). It was the Arabs that lIlade
t is known about ancient irri­ improvements in the irrigation practices with new types of water-lifting devices, building
:E, recorded in hieroglyphics embankments and canals, and monitoring the Nile flow with about 20 Nilometers (devices that
) let water flow into the fields allowed them to measure river levels, compare flow over years and predict the oncoming
ey worshipped it, based their floods). While the Mamelukes were warriors with periods of fighting, they were also builders,
~rnating cycles of flow. It was as evidenced by several beautiful mosques in Cairo. Their main agrarian successes were in land
l'igate using a system of dikes tenure and property rights, which also had an effect on land productivity (El Khadi, 1998).
I device called a shadooI to get The Ottomans took over in 1517 and were defeated in 1805,The Ottomans did not change
I was referred to as the bread­ irrigation much, but they did keep detailed records. The Ottomans were also very attentive to
the Nilometer because it determined the health of the country, predicting floods, which meant
.ncement and stagnation. The how much tax the Ottomans would put on the Egyptian farmers. The French, under
~te led to wealth and a strong Napoleon, attacked Cairo in 1798 and defeated the Mamelukes at the battle of the pyramids;

9
 The Nile River Basin

per cent of the popu

during the attack they partially destroyed the Nilometer at Roda. Tn a costly expedition to
Egypt in 1798, Napoleon wrote: for growing sugar can<
1888, the Imperial Br
east Africa. The Uganl
There is no country in the world where the government controls more closely, by
means of the Nile, the life of the people. Under a good administration the Nile gains
in 1894 the British ql:
on the desert, under a bad one the desert gains on the Nile. .,eerneIlt put Burundi, R,
for wanting Kenya,
(A1oorehead, 1983)

To obtain peace with the Egyptians they rebuilt the Nilometer. Mohamed Ali Pasha Because of Egypt's total
finally drove the Mall1elukes and the Ottomans frol11 Egypt. making embankm
iInlIllU[I..Il,
called the delta barra
When Mohamed Ali Pasha took control of both Egypt and Northern Sudan in 1805 there
.,.._ .... ~ to spread to raise tb
was an active period of agricultural expansion, increased irrigation and excavation of more
canah. Mohamed Ali's polices gave priority to agricultural production, and of cotton and The barrage was complet
purpose of the dam was tl
other crops were boosted by year-round Mohammed Ali established the first agri­
cultural school in 1829. This school closed and reopened several times in several locations; In 1890, Ethiopia was 1
education has been a high priority for (lDRC and MoA, 1983). Later, Mohammed sible for the allocation 0
Ali, with help from French engineers, began the construction of two at the Damietta Agreement, between Gre
and R.osetta branches to control water into the delta (El Khadi, 1998). influence (Tvedt, 2004)."
they held interests in the
any irrigation work wh
Colonial past and control of the Nile (Abraham, 2004). Anglo-
Beginning in the early 1700s and continuing to the late 1800s, Europeans to realize the 1892.With these agreem
importance of understanding the Nile R.iver, where it came from., how much water there was watch over its interests i
and how to control it. Finding the source of the Nile was a necessary step needed to make British took over Sudan
treaties and the use of Nile waters. The English, because they had much to gain, were The British were fai
very central to most of the actions taken on the White Nile, mapping, clearing from other European p<
canals lor in the Sudd and allocating water. Scientific measurements of Nile flow area of Eritrea, and they
began in the 1900s with the installation of modern meters along the Nile (Hurst et ai., was supported by Britai
1(33). French were supportin!
Explorations by Europeans on the upstream sections of the Nile began mainly during the (Ofcansky and Berry, 1
period 1770-~ 1~7 4. A Portuguese monk who f()unded a Catholic church at Lake Tana is alerted Britain, France
believed to be the first European to note the Blue Nile source in Ethiopia in 1613 (Gozalbez negotiated an agreeme:
and Cebrian, 2(02). The length of the main Nile River, plus the of passing 1981).
In 1902, the Britis
through cataracts and the swaLlps in southern Sudan, gave explorers trouble for many years.
The White Nile ,ource caused confusion and acrimony between Richard Burton and John plans for projects on t
Speke, and it was 1862 when Jolm Speke's claim was contlrmed that the river flowed out of the Sennar for irrigati
lake Victoria through Rippon Falls. Grant and Speke would also follow the flow to lakes disliked these plans. C
Kyoga and Albert, and on to Bahr el Jebel. Europeans began vigorous scientific explorations, By 1925, a new wate
making maps and hydrological measurements. In 1937 a German scientist explorer named Dr water agreement betv
Burkhart Waldecker traced the Kagera River to its southern-most source. with its head,vaters gave 4 billion cubic
in Burundi. In 2006, a National Geographic group of explorers have claimed to be the first to January to July, plus .
travel the length of the Nile to its true source in Rwanda's Nyungwe Forest (Lovgren, 2(06). ment for Egypt was'
Using modern geographic information system (GIS) equipment they believe they have accu­ on any of its territ.
rately identified the source. To ease the confusion, the National Geographic has in the Newton (2007), 'Thl
past two sources of the Nile, one in Rwanda and one in Burundi. the technical questic
powers were involved in shaping the history of the southern Nile nations. A committee of
Kingdom, Germany and I3elgiUlll were all colonial power players in Kenya, Aswan Low Dam v..
Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. They brought diseases that are estimated to have killed off was raised several tir

10
 Nile water and agriculture

I. In a costly expedition to 40-50 per cent of the population in Burundi. The colonialists were interested in large planta­
tions tor growing sugar cane and cotton to send back to Europe.
In 1888, the Imperial British East African Company was given administrative control over
mrois more closely, by all of east Africa. The Ugandan leader signed a treaty of friendship with the Germans in 1890,
'strdtion the Nile gains but in 1894 the British quickly made Kenya and Uganda protectorates. An Anglo-German
agreement put Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika into German control.The United Kingdom's
(Moorehfad, 1983) reason tor wanting Kenya and Uganda was to protect their interests on the Nile in Egypt and
Sudan.
meter. Mohamed Ali Pasha Because of Egypt's total dependence on the Nile River, Egypt continued to develop more
control, making embankments and creating more structures. The fIrst structure was a diversion
rthern Sudan in 1805 there dam called the delta barrage, which was built across the Nile north of Cairo, where the delta
on and excavation of more begins to spread to raise the water level for upstream irrigation and for navigation on the river.
ion, and yields of cotton and The barrage was completed in 1861 after rebuilding and improving the structure. The main
Vi established the first agri­ purpose of the dam was to improve irrigation and expand the agricultural area in the delta.
( times in several locations; In 1890, Ethiopia was the only independent country in Africa. British influence was respon­
\, 1983). Later, Mohammed sible for the allocation of Nile water, beginning in 1890 with a treaty, the Anglo-German
~o barrages at the Damietta Agreement, between Great Britain and Germany, which put the Nile under Great Britain's
adi,1998). influence (Tvedt, 2004). The following year, Great Britain signed a protocol with Italy when
they held interests in the Blue Nile region of Eritrea in which Italy pledged not to undertake
Ie any irrigation work which might signifIcantly affect the Hows of the Atbara into the Nile
(Abraham, 2004). Anglo-French control over Egypt ended with outright British occupation in
opeans began to realize the 1892. With these agreements Great Britain secured control of the Nile, and occupied Egypt to
trow much water there was watch over its interests in the Suez Canal and to grow cotton for its textile mills. In 1898, the
ssary step needed to make British took over Sudan and established cotton as a major export crop.
ey had much to gain, were The British were fairly secure in their control over the Nile River, but there were threats
pping, measuring, clearing from other European powers. In the middle of the nineteenth century Italy had colonized the
rleasurements of Nile How area ofEritrea, and they wanted more of Ethiopia. Italy's show of power in Ethiopia and Eritrea
ong the Nile (Hurst er al., was supported by Britain hoping to squash the Mahdist threat in Sudan; on the other side, the
French were supporting King Menelik's opposition to the Italians to back their own interests
~ began mainly during the (Ofcansky and Berry, 1991). King Menehk's weakening health and control over the country
c church at Lake Tana is alerted Britain, France and fraly and to avoid a more serious situation in the region; the three
tmopia in 1613 (Gozalbez negotiated an agreement that later became known as the Tripartite Agreement of 1906 (Keefer,
,hysical dangers of passing 1981).
,$ trouble for many years. In 1902, the British formed the Nile Project Commission, with expansive development
:tichard Burton and John plans for projects OIl the Nile River. The plans included dams on the Sudan/Uganda border,
at the river Howed out of the Sennar for irrigation in Sudan and one to control the summer Hooding in Egypt. Egypt
follow the How to Lakes disliked these plans. Control over Nile water by the British was the same as control over Egypt.
us scientific explorations, By 1925, a new water commission made acceptable for development plans led to the 1929
entist explorer named Dr water agreement between Egypt and Sudan. Great Britain sponsored the 1929 agreement that
JUrce, with its headwaters gave 4 billion cubic metres per year (m' yr') to Sudan, and the rest of the yearly tlow from
claimed to be the first to January to July, plus 48 billion tn' yr' to Egypt. The most important statement in the agree­
e Forest (Lovgren, 2006). ment for Egypt was 'Being guaranteed that no works would be developed along the river or
1 believe they have accu­ on any of its territory, which would threaten Egyptian interests.' According to Wolf and
raphic Society has in the Newton (2007), 'The core question of historic versus sovereign water rights is complicated by
Burundi. the technical question of where the river ought best be controlled - upstream or down.'
e southern Nile nations. A committee of international engineers in Egypt built the first true dam on the Nile; the
lower players in Kenya, Aswan Low Dam was completed in 1902 at the time of the first signing of treaties. The dam
nated to have killed off was raised several times, and as irrigation demands increased and floods threatened it was raised

11
 The Nile River Basin

iDCaawattS (MW). Blo

once more in 1929. Extensive measurements and studies made it clear that another dam was
shows little ben·
needed after the near overflow of the low dam in 1946. The main reason for building the Aswan
due to limitatior
High Dam (AHD) was to control the flow of water and to protect Egypt from both drought (2010) present
and floods. This allowed Egypt to expand irrigated agriculture and supply water to attract
tWwourable results for
industries (Abu-Zeid, 1989; Abu-Zeid and El-Shibini, 1997). The British and Americans orig­
that success of
inally agreed to fund the AHD under Nasser, but the funding was suddenly halted just before
_.Uo1J.......'l!> of water, clir
construction began due to the Cold War and Arab/Israeli tensions in the region (Dougherty,
economic plannir
1959). The Soviet Union agreed to assist the construction and funding to help complete the
of the Nile have
project with the Egyptians.
Nile flood that
Unhappy with plans for the AHD, Sudan demanded that the 1929 treaty be renegotiated.
market was in r
Great Britain was involved in all Nile water concessions until 1959 when Egypt and Sudan
funded and built by
signed a bilateral agreement to allocate Nile water between the two countries. Egypt did not
126,000 ha of cot
bother to consult or include upstream riparians, except Sudan in the reallocation of Nile water
was needed; indeed, i
(Arsano, 1997; Abraham, 2002). This 1959 agreement set the maximum amount of water that
needed the 1959 a!
could be withdrawn by these two countries with Egypt getting 55.5 billion m' out of a total
ilDll'Occeea with building
average flow of 84 billion m' yr~l, allowing 10 billion m' yr~' for evaporation and 18.5 billion
imtm:)ve irrigated agri<
m' yr~1 to Sudan.
IBiI'iU.CU in the Gezira sC
They also had a growing demand for irrigation and eners'Y for their expanding population.
Until 1959, treaties v
A section of the 1929 treaty was integral to the 1959 agreement, which said 'Without the
1929 and 1959 tre~
consent of the Egyptian government, no irrigation or hydroelectric works can be established
and Egypt, respec
on the tributaries of the Nile or their lakes if such works can cause a drop in water level harm­
states, the focus of
ful to Egypt' (Carroll, 2000). This guaranteed Egypt a set amount of Nile water, which could
(iameworks. As a cons~
not be changed. This agreement included a pact to begin construction of the AHD in Egypt,
. negotiations, and powel
and Roseires Dam and the Jonglei Canal in Sudan with benefits to be gained by Egypt and
The 1959 treaty left
northern Sudan.
and Ethiopia and the S4
the 1997 United Nat
Post-colonial Nile concerning allocation
recognize the 1959 tt
Many African countries gained their independence from colonial powers in the late 1950s and
sharing proposals. Th~s
early 19605. The return to African rule was difficult after the colonizing powers had realigned
by the rest of the III
borders and tribal ethnic groups. This was particularly true in the equatorial countries of
complex, as several up
Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. The negotiations that took place between Great Britain and
riparian nations, espe(
Egypt were not as important in Burundi, where they have enough rainfall; but neither did they
treaties and (ii) these t
feel obligated to acknowled~e the accords that were made prior to independence. The equato­
convention. The upst
rial countries (Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania) agree that agreements
need Egyptian perml
prior to independence were no longer valid. Only the post-independence agreement in 1959
the development of.
between Egypt and Sudan, which did not include any of the equatorial countries, can be
The NBI was fOJ
disputed.
develop the river 11
Once the agreement between and Sudan was signed in 1959, work began on the
promote regional pi
second Aswan Dam. The construction began in 1960 after moving ancient temples and a large
World Bank, the N
Nubian population, and was completed in 1970. There were complications, including increased
permanent membe
salinity and reduced fertility, but also many benefits, of which power was the most important
Uganda and Tanzar
for the development ofE!;''Ypt (Abu-Zeid and EI-Shibini, 1997;Abu Zeid, 1998; Biswas, 2002).
the Nile waters. La.
In 1964, while the negotiations were going on between Egypt and Sudan, Ethiopia had
of agreement bet'"
employed the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) to study the hydrology of the
include the ambig
upper Blue Nile Basin (US Dept of Interior, 1964). The study identified potential new irriga­
differing claims ot
tion and hydroelectric projects within Ethiopia. Preliminary designs for four dams were
refused to sign the
prepared for both the Blue Nile and Atbara rivers that would increase power production by

12
 Nile water and agriculture

; made it clear that another dam was 5570 megawatts (MW). Block et al. (2007) took a renewed look at the USBR study using a
Ie main reason for building the Aswan model that shows little benefit! cost ratios tor the use of both hydropower and irrigation for
to protect Egypt from both drought agricultnre due to limitations in timely water delivery. Recent climate change studies by Block
'iculture and supply water to attract and Strzebek (2010) present a cost!benefit analysis giving several climate change scenarios that
97). The British and Americans orig­ report favourable results for water conservation behind the dams in Ethiopia, but less favourable
tding was suddenly halted just before results given that success of the dams, purpose of hydropower and irrigation will depend greatly
~ tensions in the region (Dougherty, on the tinting of water, climate variability and climate change. They emphasize close coopera­
n and funding to help complete the tion and economic planning that secure eneq.,'Y trade between neighbouring countries.
i
Waters of the Nile have been used for centuries for irrigation in Sudan, taking advantage of
~at the 1929 treaty be renegotiated. the annual Nile flood that builds up from heavy summer rains on the Ethiopian plateau. When
. until 1959 when Egypt and Sudan the world market was in need of cotton it became Sudan's fIrst commercial crop. The Sennar
n the two countries. Egypt did not Dam, funded and built by the British just south of Khartoum in 1918, was to supply water to
n in the reallocation of Nile water irrigate 126,000 ha of cotton in Gezira to supply British textile mills. But by the 19505 more
e maximum amount of water that land was needed; indeed, it had to double, and irrigation water was not enough (Wallach,2004).
tting 55.5 billion m' out of a total Sudan needed the 1959 agreement mentioned above to increase its allotment of Nile water and
~I for evaporation and 18.5 billion to proceed with building the Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, which was completed in 1966
to improve irrigated agriculture and to supply hydropower.Approximately 800,000 ha yr~' were
jrgy for their expanding population. irrigated in the Gezira scheme by the end of the 1960s.
~reement, which said 'Without the Until 1959, treaties were geared towards allocation of Nile water resources for irrigation.
!roelectric works can be established The 1929 and 1959 treaties were meant to secure irrigation water tor the Gezira scheme in
In cause a drop in water level harm­ Sudan and Egypt, respectively. However, after 1959, and following independence of other Nile
!mount of Nile water, which could basin states, the focus of Nile agreements shifted away from water-sharing to more cooperative
fonstruction of the ABD in Egypt, fi:ameworks. As a consequence, irrigation water demand was overlooked in favour of Nile
~nefits to be gained by Egypt and negotiations, and power supply took over (Martens, 20(9).
i
The 1959 treaty left a legacy for potential conflict between Egypt and Sudan, on one side,
and Ethiopia and the seven other riparian countries, on the other. Experts who have analysed
the 1997 United Nations Watercourses Convention say it cannot resolve the legal issues
concerning allocation of Nile water (Shinn, 20(6). Egypt says that all Nile countries must
~onial powers in the late1950s and recognize the 1959 treaty before any new agreements are implemented, including benefit­
~ colonizing powers had realigned sharing proposals. This is not negotiable, according to Egypt; this claim has not been favoured
lie in the equatorial countries of by the rest of the riparian countries (Wolf and Newton, 20(7). The issue becomes more
!place between Great Britain and complex, as several upstream riparian countries have recently criticized the 1959 treaty. Several
lough rainfall; but neither did they riparian nations, especially Ethiopia, state that (i) they were not included in the 1929 and 1959
r or to independence. The equato­ treaties and (ii) these treaties violate their right to equitable utilization as stated in the 1997 UN
~ Tanzania) agree that agreements convention. The upstream countries with their own development issues do not feel that they
lndependence agreement in 1959 need Egyptian permission to use Nile water.Attempts to unite the Nile Basin countries led to
i the equatorial countries, can be the development of the NBI.
The NBI was formed in 1999 to 'cooperatively develop the Nile and share the benefits,
~ed in 1959, work began on the develop the river in a cooperative manner, share substantial socio-economic benefits and
fVing ancient temples and a large promote regional peace and security' (NBI, 2(01). Funded by several donors, including the
lomplications, including increased World Bank, the NBI is headed by a council of ministers of water affairs, comprising nine
b power was the most important permanent members and one observer, Eritrea. In May 2010, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda,
r7; Abu Zeid, 1998; Biswas, 2002). Uganda and Tanzania signed a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to equitably share
I Egypt and Sudan, Ethiopia had the Nile waters. Later, Burundi and the DRC also signed the CFA. Meantime, and due to lack
l) to stndy the hydrology of the of agreement between the different parties, a proposal emerged to rephrase Article 14b to
ridentitied potential new irriga­ include the ambiguous term 'water security' in order to accommodate and harmonize the
designs for four large dams were differing claims of the upstream and downstream riparian countries (Cascao, 2008). Egypt
d increase power production by refused to sign the CFA if the change in Article 14b on 'benefit sharing' was not made and has

13
 The Nile River Basin

threatened to back out of the NBI if all the other countries sign the agreement. Arsano (1997) 20,000 ha in the
believes the NBI has been able to bring the riparian states on board for dialogue towards estab­ plans to expand,
lishing plans for cooperative utilization and management of the water resources, and to make small- and large­
an effort towards establishing a legallinstitutional framework. in various parts c
The NBI has been instrumental in promoting information-sharing and initiating small proj­ hydropower proj
ects, but it is still struggling to be a permanent river organization, to obtain signatories for the Sudan develc
ratification for a new Nile Treaty as agreed by all members and to implement new large Nile complete (Walla
Water projects (Cascao, 20(8). Criticism has been aimed at a lack of coordination in develop­ Dam in 1960 bl
ment activities between the NBI and the governments of the Nile Basin countries. Basin-wide tenth was operal
collaboration has, as Bulto (2009) states, 'hit a temporary glitch, casting doubt over the prospect Blue Nile water
of reaching a final framework agreement over the consumptive use of Nile waters'. average (Wallac·
basically a resel
Nasser was fillel
Recent agricultural expansion was poorly pIal
Except for E6'YPt and Sudan (who have a longer history of irrigation and control of the Nile forcing them tc
water), the other Nile Basin countries have relied more on rain-fed agricultural potential for lenges of rehab
their available water resources. Some reasons include limited financial resources, infrastructure, In the 1990~
governance and civil wars. Increasing populations in the riparian countries mean a greater south of Kha
demand for food, water and energy. Poverty has led some countries to sell land to foreign government-rr
buyers in hope of developing agricultural infrastructure and bringing jobs and money into areas 1920s.When tl
of extreme poverty (IFPRI, 20(9). Since 2008 Saudi investors have bought heavily in Egypt, west. Cotton i
Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan (BEC, 2010; Vidal, 2010; Deng, 2(11). Generally, yid
The Egyptian government has built over 30,300 km of channels and large canals in Egypt irrigation watt
(EI Gamal, 1999). Egypt has used desert lands to expand cultivation of horticultural crops such Water, land
as fruits, nuts, vineyards and vegetables. Reclamation of desert lands allows Egypt to expand very much !ir
production and use drip irrigation from groundwater reserves. The use of drip irrigation and necessary for
plastic greenhouses has increased attempts to save water.These are more expensive for the tradi­ improved wa
tional farmers, but many investors have put these to use and have successfully supplied produce improve exist
to the local markets.
Aquaculture in the Nile Delta is booming, and demonstrates high water productivity while N
using drainage water flows. Aquaculture in Egypt's Delta makes use of recycled water and also
shows promise of providing an important source of dietary protein and income generation.
Aquaculture has rapidly expanded, and yields have grown from 20,000 tonnes in the 1980s to
more than 600,000 to.mes in 2009, due to run-off from sewage and fertilizer-enriched water Large wetlan
(Oczkowski ct at., 20(9). countries. Tl
Egypt's plan to develop the North Sinai Desert is a huge land reclamation project, estimated Nile River i~
to cost nearly US$2 billion when completed. From October 1997 the AI-Salam Canal was The Sudd is
delivering water to irrigate about 20,200 ha of the Tina Plain, which is actually outside the being imper
natural course of the Nile. The north Sinai agriculture development project is planned to even­ more recent
tually divert 4.45 billion m' yr 1 of Nile water to develop irrigated agriculture west and east of More th:
the Suez Canal. The 261 km-Iong AI-Salam Canal is the summation of both first and second ecosystems (
phases. The AI-Salam Canal runs eastwards, taking Nile water horizontally across the Sinai. The again to con
second phase extends further east, passing under the Suez Canal to open nearly 168,000 ha of ratios vary, a
irrigated agricultural lands; both phases require a 1:1 mix of Nile water with drain water, keep­ billion m' y
ing salinity and pollutants at a minimum (Mustafa et al., 2(07). values inclu
According to several reports, Ethiopia has about 3.7 million ha that can be developed for irri­ images havt
gation; about half of this is in the Nile Basin, but only 5-6 per cent has been developed so far the swamps
(Awulachew ct aI., 2007, 2009). Their current irrigated area is about 250,000 ha, with less than estimate du

14
 Nile water and agriculture

; the agreement. Arsano (1997)

20,000 ha in the Nile Basin; most of the current agricultural production is rain-fed. Ethiopia
'n board for dialogue towards estab­
plans to expand agricultural production by an additional 3 million ha with the addition of many
of the water resources, and to make
small- and large-scale irrigation schemes, both private and government-funded, and distributed
k
in various parts of the country. Water for the schemes will come from several new multi-purpose
m-sharing and initiating small proj­
hydropower projects that are completed and planned for future development.
~atlOn, to obtain signatories for the
Sudan developed two schemes in the 1960s that proved untenable and too expensive to
and to implement new large Nile
complete (Wallach, 2004). The scheme at Rahad was intended to use water from the Roseires
a lack of coordination in develop­
Dam in 1960 but lacked financial resources to develop canals. It was delayed, and fmally one­
e NIle Basin countries. Basin-wide
tenth was operational in 1978. It is a 122,000 ha scheme irrigated from the Rahad River, using
ch, casting doubt Over the prospect
Blue Nile water; it is plagued by siltation and irrigation inetIiciency, and yields have been below
ave use of Nile waters'.
average (Wallach, 20(4). New Haifa built to use water from the Khashim el Girba Darn was
basically a resettlement scheme for Halfawis people who lost land and homes when Lake
don Nasser was filled. The Khashill1 el Girba Dam built for the HaIfa scheme silted too quickly and
was poorly planned (E1 Arifi. 1988). These two schemes were good lessons for the planners,
irrigation and control of the Nile
forcing them to consider rehabilitation of existing schemes. Wallach (2004) describes the chal­
irain-fed agricultural potential for
lenges of rehabilitation and IIlodernization of irrigated agriculture in Sudan.
lfinancial resources, infrastructure
In the 19905 Sudan had a 2 million ha modern irrigation system developed in a fertile valley
lparian countries mean a greate;
south of Khartoum between the Blue and White Niles. More than 93 per cent was
~oUntri~s to sell land to foreign
government-managed. This area was originally the Gezira scheme started by the British in the
rmgmgJobs and money into areas
19205.When the Nile agreement with Egypt was signed in 1959 the area was expanded to the
rs have bought heavily in Egypt
west. Cotton is a mandatory crop, but in the 1970s cotton was partly replaced by sugar cane.
011). '
Generally, yields are poor, partly due to government policies, poor canal maintenance, lack of
la~nels and large canals in Egypt irrigation water and inefficient use of water (Molden ef al., 2011).
/atlOn of horticultural crops such
Water, land, food, energy and development are tightly and crucially interlinked. Water is also
rt lands allows Egypt to expand
very much linked to the potential for peace in the region. Dialogue between the riparians is
5. The use of drip irrigation and
necessary for the area to solve water-sharing issues. Rehabilitation of irrigation systems,
\lIe more expensive for the tradi­
improved water management including rain-fed agriculture and policy reforms will help
lYe successfully supplied produce
improve existing agricultural performance.

rS high water productivity while

~ use of reeycled water and also Nile environmental challenges: wetlands, lakes and Blue Nile
~rotein and income generation.

r
L20,OOO tonnes in the 1980s to
and fertilizer-enriched water
TheSudd
Larbe wetlands forming about 6 per cent of the basin area are found in of the Nile Basin
countries. The largest and the most important wetland to the hydraulics of the downstream
reclamation project, estimated
Nile River is the Sudd (meaning 'blockage'), located in South Sudan (SurditT and Parks, 1999).
1997 the AI-Salam Canal was
The Sudd is an extensive area (average 30,000 km') of mainly papyrus swamp legendary for
which is actually outside the
being impenetrable, high in biodiversity, having high evaporation and transpiration rates, and
ent project is planned to even­
more recently oil and conflict.
d agriculture west and east of
More than 50 per cent of the water that flows into the Sudd and circulates within its
tion of both first and second
ecosystems evaporates; thus, less than half of the water flowing into the Sudd actually flows out
izontally across the Sinai. The
again to continue north to Khartoum (Sutdiffe and Parks, 1999). Estimates of intJow to outflow
to Open nearly 168,000 ha of
ratios vary, as do the size and evaporation rates; for example, Mohamed et al. (2004) estimate 38.4
water with drain water, keep-
billion m' , and Sutcliff and Parks (1999) estimate 16.1 billion m' yr~l. Reasons for different
values include different means of calculation, as well as different times of measurement. Satellite
at can be develop ed fix irri­
images have helped improve information on the Sudd. Mohamed et al. (2006) have t()Und that
nt has been developed so far
the S\vamps are larger than previously thought and the fluctuation in evaporation is difficult to
ut 250,000 ha, with less than
estimate due to the size, and estimated the evaporation at 29 billion m 1 yr-I.

15
 The Nile River Basin

From the early 1900s, British engineers began to think of creating a canal through the
swamps in South Sudan (Howell et ai., 1988). Their concern over high rates of evaporation
from the swamps prompted the development of the Jonglei Canal to channel water out of the
swamps and send it north for the benefit of agricultural production in North Sudan and Egypt.
In the 19805, a large digging machine from France was brought to begin the canal. Scheduled
for completion in 1985, the still incomplete canal, due to its size (80 m wide, 8 m deep and
roughly 245 km long), is visible from satellite images (NASA, 1985). Work on the canal was
abruptly stopped during the civil war in 1983.
The Jonglei Canal was supposed to bring about 5-7 per cent more water to irrigation
schemes of both Egypt and Sudan. Egypt and Sudan have been in discussions to revive the proj­
ect, but without the consent of southern Sudan this will not be possible (Allen, 2010).
However, the social-environmental issues of drying wetlands, loss of traditional grazing lands,
biodiversity and collapse of fisheries are reasons given to discontinue the canal (Ahmad, 2008;
Lamberts, 2009). Counter-arguments state that the drying wetlands will create new grazing
lands and the canal can be used for fisheries (Howell et al., 1988). Furthermore, the conse­ Som~

quences of draining the wetland on the larger regional and micro-climatic conditions are poverty
difficult to predict. Meanwhile, southern Sudan and the Sudd area have vast potential for devel­ climate
opment and improvement of agriculture with large areas of land suitable for mechanized ores to
farming (UNEP, 2007). exports
Oil development is an added threat to both the ecosystem and human communities. Oil factors
drilling conducted by foreign companies brings in workers from outside of Sudan, providing formed
very little benefit to the local communities. Conflicts arise over loss of grazing lands, loss of tries to
traditional livelihoods and increases in diseases (e.g. AIDS/HIV). Damages to the human
communities, wedands and ecosystems need monitoring and responsible management for
future generations (UNEP, 2008).
The Sudd possesses huge potential for enhancing the livelihoods of local inhabitants Most.
through development of improved agriculture, pasture lands and fisheries, while supporting a the Bl
rich ecosystem, and water resources. Controversy continues over the decision to finish the Nile 1
Jonglei Canal or abandon it. At present, it remains to be seen what the newly formed govern­ is the
ment of South Sudan will decide. itisk
m' S-I
billio
Victoria Nile T
The outflow at Jiqja, which was once thought to be the source of the White Nile, is a deter­ rain I
minate point f0" measuring Nile flow fro111 the lake. Nearly 80 per cent of the water entering arm
Lake Victoria is from precipitation on the lake surface, and the remainder is from rivers, which EN1
drain the surrounding basin (Howell et al., 1988). Some 85 per cent of water leaving the lake milli
does so through direct evaporation from its surface, and the remaining 15 per cent leaves the milli
lake near Jinja in Uganda, largely by way of the Victoria Nile. Three countries Kenya (6%,), (i.e.
Tanzania (51 %) and Uganda (43%) - share the lake shoreline, and six countries share the basin: cenl
Burundi, ORe, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The area around Lake Victoria has the voiI
fastest-growing population in East Africa, estimated to be more than 30 million in 2011
(LVBC, 2(11). ing
In the 1940s Nile perch were introduced to boost fisheries production, which had already del'
begun to fall. Nile perch depleted the endemic species and hundreds became extinct. Recently, Nil
Nile perch populations have dropped due to overfishing allowing some remaining endemics to cie
make a slow comeback (Hughes, 1986). Lake Victoria produces a catch of over 800,000 tons of
fish annually, an export industry worth US$250 million (LVFO, 2011).

16
l
Nile water and agriculture

creating a canal through the Lake Victoria is important for agriculture, industry, domestic water supplies, hydropower,
lVer high rates of evaporation fisheries, travel, tourism, health and environment. It is highly sensitive to climate change and
~ to channel water out of the climate variability. The shallow lake is threatened by sewage, industrial and agricultural pollu­
~n in North Sudan and
tion, algal growth, overfishing, invasive flora and fauna, low water levels and deforestation (Kull,
to begin the canaL Scheduled 2006;Johnson, 2009). Many of the biological effects directly affect the socio-economic factors
e (80 m wide, 8 m deep and of the people living on, and supported by, Lake Victoria fisheries (Onyango, 2003).
985). Work on the canal was Dropping water levels have caused alarm in many of the downstream countries. Kull (2006)
estimated that in the past two years, the Ugandan dams have released water at an average of
~nt more water to irrigation
almost 1250 m' sec'; that is 55 per cent more than the flow permitted for the relevant water
discussions to revive the proj­ levels. Diminishing water levels have acute consequences for several economic sectors depend­
t be possible (Allen, 2(10). ent on the lake, such as fisheries and navigation. Variations in the water level affect shallow
• of traditional grazing lands, waters and coastal areas, which are of particular importance for numerous fIsh species and
rlUe the canal (Ahmad, 2008; health of the lake. The largest projected climate change for rainfall and temperature changes for
nds will create new grazing the interior of East Africa is over the Lake Victoria Basin (Conway, 2011).
:8). Furthermore, the conse­ Some of the greatest concerns for management are related to reducing vulnerability and
icro-climatic conditions are poverty and improving livelihoods of the people living beside Lake Victoria. Coping with
have vast potential for devel­ climate change effects on Lake Victoria requires a range of strategies, including proactive meas­
nd suitable for mechanized ures to improve the health of Lake Victoria and a reduction of the dependency on Nile perch
exports Oohnson, 2009). Victoria Basin countries and organizations need to address all the
Id human communities. Oil factors that affect the watershed and the lake. The Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) was
Outside of Sudan, providing formed with the East African Community (EAC) to develop strategic plans for the basin coun­
loss of grazing lands, loss of tries to sustainably develop and protect the lake from further destruction (LVBC,2011).
'). Damages to the human
~sponsible management for
Blue Nile
hoods of local inhabitants Most of the main Nile flow can be explained by rainfall variability in both Lake Victoria and
isheries, while supporting a the Blue Nile Basin (Conway, 2005). The upper Blue Nile Basin is the largest section of the
. the decision to finish the Nile Basin in terms of volume of discharge and second largest in terms of area in Ethiopia and
the newly formed govern- is the largest tributary of the Main Nile. It comprises 17 per cent of the area of Ethiopia, where
it is known as the Abay, and has a mean annual discharge of 48.5 billion m\ (1912-1997; 1536
m' S~I; Hughes and Hughes, 1992), with variation from less than 30 billion m' to more than 70
billion m" according to Awulachew et al. (2007).
This part of the sub-basin is characterized by a highly seasonal rainfall pattern, most of the
the White Nile. is a deter­ rain fallil,g in four months Oune to September), with a peak in July or August. Soil erosion is
cent of the water entering a maior threat in the l3lue Nile Basin (Conway and Hulme, 1993). A report prepared by
linder is from rivers, which ENTRO (2006) estimates the total soil eroded within the Abay Basin alone is nearly 302.8
It of water leaving the lake
million tonnes per annum (t yr l ) and erosion from cultivated land is estimated to be 101.8
ring 15 per cent leaves the million t yr- I (33%). Thus about 66 per cent of soil being eroded is from non-cultivated land,
:e COuntries Kenya (6%), (i.e. mainly from communal and settlement areas; Molden et aI., 2011). About 45 per
, countries share the basin: cent of this reaches the stream system annually causing heavy siltation of downstream reser­
)Und Lake Victoria has the voirs.
than 30 million in 2011 The Nile's ecosystems are threatened by many human activities, but by far the most damag­
ing are agricultural practices. Good agricultural practices to control erosion, pollution and land
uction, which had already degradation can enhance other ecosystem services. From Lake Victoria, the Sudd's and the l3lue
became extinct. Recentl;, Nile's control over pollution, overgrazing, mining and erosion will help good governance, poli­
ne remaining endemics to cies and organizations that could, in turn, help in regulating and monitoring the ecosystems.
:h of over 800,000 tons of
1).

17
 The Nile River Basin

Recent irrigation developments

WaterWatch (2008) estimates that the total irrigated area in the Nile Basin is 4.3 million ha,
based on GIS measurements. Irrigated agriculture in the basin is dominated by Egypt, with 35
milion ha, while Sudan has 1.8 million ha and Ethiopia 0.3 million ha (CIA, 2011). Egypt and
Sudan are almost completely dependent on Nile water for irrigated agriculture. Sudan's arable
land is estimated to be 105 million ha, with about 18 million ha under cultivation, most of the
latter being rain-fed. Sudan now irrigates about 1 per cent of its arable land.
Huge new irrigation projects in Egypt and Sudan are being planned and executed. Egypt's
AI-Salam Canal, some parts of which are built under the Suez Canal, diverts Nile water and
drains water from the Oamietta Canal to irrigate land in northern Sinai, which will require
4.45 billion m' yc'. The Toshka Lakes were formed in 1997 when Egypt developed pumping
stations and canals to send'excess' Nile water into a depression in the southwest desert about
300 km west from Lake Nasser. Named the New Valley Pr~ject, if complete in 2020, it will
require an additional 5 billion m' yc ' of water, be home to 3 million people and irrigate 25,000
m' ha~'. This expansion is to be sustained by transferred water but it could mean disaster in the
future if there is no spill water available to send to the lakes.
Upstream Nile countries, dependent on rainfall, have experienced a greater frequency of
droughts and cannot ignore the need to grow more food and expand production even at great
costs; this requires irrigation. Ready to claim its share of Nile water, Tanzania is planning to
build a pipeline 170 km long that will take water from Lake Victoria south to the Kahama irri­
gation project in an arid poverty-stricken area where thousands of people will benefit. Other
upstream Nile countries also feeling more confident and pressed to find solutions to fight
hunger and poverty will try to use their 'share' of Nile water and are planning to build multi­
purpose hydropower dams.
Increasing climate variability, population growth, food prices and vulnerability to food
shortages mean that larger, wealthier countries need to look elsewhere to buy or produce more
food. How can they produce more when all their arable land is currently cultivated or they lack
the resources to produce more food?

Power on the Nile: past and future

Many of the Nile Basin countries are classified as some of the poorest in the world in terms of
GDP and food security (FAO, 201 0). Most people lack electrical power and the necessary means
of obtaining electricity; average electrification rate is 30 per cent (per capita per annum) and this
drops to 15 per cent when Egypt and ORC are excluded. This is a very low proportion,
according to Economic Consulting Associates (2009). Hydropower is underexploited in most of
the basin countries affecting growth and development. Deforestation for charcoal production in
the Lake Victoria Basin is one example of the need to produce affordable power for people in
the area. Hydropower dams and the generated power offer other benefits that include additional
irrigation water, controlled releases, water storage and further social and industrial development.
Figure 2.2 shows the placement of early dams on the Nile (Nicol, 2(03).
Aswan High Dam (AHD), completed in 1970, is the largest man-made reservoir and
produces 2100 megawatts (MW) of electricity about half of Egypt's total power supply. It was
planned to resolve both floods and droughts and irrigate about 283,000 ha. At the time, only
Sudan was consulted before the AHO was built. Now other Nile countries will build more
dams on the Nile (Table 2.1). Egypt feels that they should give permission for any develop­
ments on the Nile. Figure 2.2 I

18
 Nile water and agriculture

tlents
1 the Nile Basin is 4.3 million ha, t Delta baTage
:in is dominated by Egypt, with 35 2 Assyutdam
million ha (CIA, 2(11). Egypt and 3 Aswandam
rrigated agriculture, Sudan's arable 4 Aswan hqI dam
:l ha under cultivation, most of the 5 Jabal aI-AuIta dam
)f its arable land, 6 KJlaSIYn af-OIfbah dam
ing planned and executed. Egypt's
Sinnarcsam
uez Canal, diverts Nile water and
Lorthern Sinai, which will require
RosetfeS dam
· when Egypt developed pumping
0Nen Falls dam
ion in the southwest desert about EGJ'PT
oject, if complete in 2020, it will
million people and 25,000
r but it could mean disaster in the

:perienced a greater frequency of

i expand production even at great
jle water, Tanzania is planning to ••
lktoria south to the Kahama irri­ ••
.nds of people will benefit. Other •
)ressed to find solutions to fight ••
· and are planning to build 11lulti­ ••
•••
Sll1....'
•
•
•••
prices and vulnerability to tood
l~ewhere to buy or produce lUore
.s currently cultivated or they lack .-­
- ~ dMW"SlOf'l ....•
- , ,... '"'

.-­ ­
..
(\M\tin&$hed)

Ilture '"• -.W3Ierbnds

e.
Sudd

.-... ",
,. •• ETH/OPL..

.,,..
\h,
" ,.
';
...
· poorest in the world in terms of "
'~'" .~.

al power and the necessary means "!, •••

-".J"'~

'.•
.....*
Ilt (per capita per annum) and this
,,'
· This is a very low proportion,
:lwer is underexploited in lUost of '­. KIoga
•
;tation for charcoal production in
:e affordable power for people in
er benefits that include additional
Dcial and industrial development.
col,2003).
argest man-made reservoir and
Egypt's total power supply. It was
ut 283,000 ha. At the time. only
Nile countries will build more
ive permission fi)r any develop-
Figure 2.2 Placement of ear.ly darns on the Nile. (The map is not to scale.)

19
 The Nile River Basin

Sudan built two dams, which led to the development of the 1929 treaty: the Sennar in 1926 reI
was built primarily to irrigate cotton, while the Jabal Awliya was built in 1936 for both power ability in
and irrigation. Later, the Roseires Dam was begun in 1950, and Egypt protested, but reached to the Be
an agreement with Sudan in the 1959 treaty. Roseires Dam will be raised to add an additional In Apr
420,000 ha of irrigated land. The Khashm Al Gerba on the Atbara River was built in 1964 to started. Pl
irrigate the AI-Gerba agricultural scheme and generate 70 MW of power. Recent funding, and Suda
mostly from China, has helped develop several other huge projects, including the US$l.2 (Verhoev.
billion Merowe Dam, which displaced 50,000 people and destroyed a number of archaeologi­ its neigh!
cal sites. The Merowe Dam at the fourth Nile cataract, not up to capacity yet, currently energy Sl
generates 5.5 TWh per year. Controversy is growing on the proposed Dal and Kajbar dams. Nalut
These two dams above Merowe will transform the stretch of fertile land north of Khartoum Uganda,
into a string of five reservoirs filling in the last remaining Nile cataracts. The Kajbar, located at Falls. De
the third cataract on the Nile River, will cover the heartland of the Nubiam, and the Dal at to doub]
the second cataract will cover what remains of Nubian lands both present and ancient. built furl
The signing of an agreement for the largest construction project any Chinese company has South }
taken on in Sudan is for the Upper Atbara and Setit dam project consisting of two dams. the bydropo
Rumela Dam on the upper Atbara River and Burdana Dam on the Setit River, located south Concer]
of the Khashm EI-Qurba Dam. The project benefits include an aim~ to increase irrigated area dement
and agricultural production in New Haifa area currently irrigated by the Khashm EI Qurba Also
Dam, regulate flow and reduce flooding, and support development in eastern Sudan. rainfall
South Sudan, now after a successful referendum to secede from North Sudan, will consider to the . .
several hydropower projects in order to modernize southern Sudan. The Nimule Dam, on the Tanzan
border with Uganda, proposed in the 1970s is being considered again as South Sudan needs Nile B:
the Juba to Nimule stretch of the Nile for further power generation. Three large dams have sought.
been proposed for this part of the Nile (Mugrat, Dugash and Shereik dams, with projected Dam a:
power generation of 1140 MW) and three additional smaller run-of-the-river projects would Rwan(
also be considered (FAa, 2(09). South Sudan might also consider reviewing the Jonglei Canal, Kabare
but this is a highly political issue and a hypersensitive area in southern Sudan, such that a restart dams a
of the canal will need careful consideration (Moszynski, 2(11). basis 0
Ethiopia has the capacity to become the basin's main power broker as it has huge De
hydropower potential in the volume of water with a steeply sloping landscape. The estimated produ
potential from the Blue Nile (Abay) alone is about 13,000 MW Ethiopia has at least six new Progr;
dams proposed and four under construction. Ethiopia's first big dam, the Finchaa Dam, was ENS}
completed in 1973 on the Finchaa River that feeds into the Blue Nile. According to Tetera and Regi<
Sterk (2006), land use changes from the dam have increased soil erosion from expansion of create
agricultural area, displaced people and reduced grazing areas, swamps and forests.
The Tekeze Dam on the Tekeze River was completed and began operating in 2009. Located
at the border with Eritrea, Tekeze was an expensive headache for the Chinese construction
company that engineered and built it.Trouble with landslides destabilized the dam and delayed Wha
construction. Now the tallest arched dam in Africa (188 m), it cost the Ethiopian government appe:
US$350 million. The benefits are the ability to provide water year-round for the downstream incre
areas, besides the generation capacity of 300 MW The concerns are the construction cost, the soutl
sedimentation issues and loss of ecosystems. 2011
On the Abay River, downstream of Lake Tana, the Tis-Abay I hydroelectric project began Nile
to transmit power in 1964; later, the CharaChara weir in 1997 was built to boost power supplies ical
and in 2001 another weir, Tis-Abay II was commissioned to boost power supplies by another pree
20 per cent. Awulachew et al. (2009) analysed the possible effects of development on the water
resources of Lake Tana and found that water levels would be affected. Later, McCartney et al. din

20
 Nile water and agriculture

f the 1929 treaty; the Sennar in 1926

(2010) reported that the natural environment around Lake Tana has been affected by the vari­
iya was built in 1936 for both power ability in lake levels caused by the weirs. The Tana Beles Dam will transfer water via a tunnel
50, and Egypt protested, but reached to the Beles catchment for hydropower and irrigation.
m will be raised to add an additional In April 2011, the third and newest large dam in Ethiopia, the Grand Millennium Dam, was
Ie Atbara River was built in 1964 to
started. Placed about 40 km from the Sudan border the dam is expected to benefit both Egypt
70 MW of power. Recent funding, and Sudan. The new dam, estimated to generate 5250 MW, will be completed in about 2017
Ilge projects, including the US$1.2 (Verhoeven, 2011). Funded by the Ethiopian government, it is hoped that future power sales to
destroyed a number of archaeoJogi­ its neighbours will cover the construction cost, besides helping to boost its own domestic
, not up to capacity yet, currently energy supply and access.
:he proposed Dal and Kajbar dams. Nalubaale Dam, previously Owen Falls at Jinjawas, the first large dam constructed in
I of fertile land north of Khartoum
Uganda, was completed in 1954. Downstream, a new dam is under construction at Bujagali
'-lile cataracts. The Kajbar, located at Falls. Delayed four years by many setbacks, the dam was finally started in 2010. It is projected
md of the Nubians, and the DaJ at to double power production for Uganda. When BujagaJi is finished the Isimba Dam will be
ds both present and ancient.
built further downstream at Karuma falls. Two smaller run-of-the-river dams, North Ayago, and
1 project any Chinese company has
South Ayago together will boost power by at least 500 MW Uganda still needs more
?roject consisting of two dams, the hydropower and plans to build a total of 14 hydropower dams in the future (Onyalla, 2007).
n on the Setit River, located south Concerns about environmental issues and implementation of mitigation measures are essential
.e an aim to increase irrigated area elements that are needed, but often lacking in the planning of many dam projects.
;rigated by the Khashm El Qurba Also in the power development scheme are Burundi, DRC and Rwanda; they have more
Ipment in eastern Sudan.
rainfall and are desperate for power, but lack financial resources. The Kagera River, important
~ from North Sudan, will consider to the water balance of Lake Victoria, originates in Burundi and defines borders with Rwanda,
Sudan. The Nimule Dam, on the Tanzania and Uganda. Most of the Kagera flows through Rwanda. Burundi's interest in the
lered again as South Sudan needs Nile Basin is centred on the Kagera River, where development of hydropower generation is
'eneration. Three large dams have sought. Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania are jointly constructing the multi-purpose Rusumo
nd Shereik dams, with projected Dam and a power plant at Rustlmo Falls where the Kagera River forms the boundary between
r run-of-the-river projects would Rwanda and Tanzania, which are on target to transmit power to Gitega in Burundi, Kigali to
ider reviewing the Jonglei Canal, Kabarondo in Rwanda, and Biharamuro in Tanzania. The details of existing and planned major
Duthern Sudan, such that a restart dams and barrages in the Nile Basin are summarized in Table 2.1. The table is compiled on the
).
basis of multiple sources, as listed below the table.
power broker as it has huge Development goals of most Nile Basin countries are to reduce poverty, increase agricultural
~loping landscape. The estimated production and provide power for industrial growth. This is where the NBI's Shared Vision
lW Ethiopia has at least six new Program is set to help joint electrification projects across countries and by regions where
big dam, the Finchaa Dam, was ENSAP and NELSAP form joint investments for power transmission between countries.
ue Nile. According to lefera and Region-wide transboundary electric trading has yet to be completed due to complications
'soil erosion from expansion of created in multi-country agreements.
Wamps and forests.
~gan operating in 2009. Located
~ for the Chinese construction Future Nile
estabilized the dam and delaved What is the future of the Nile? Over the past 10 years the topic of Nile water conflict has
~ost the Ethiopian governm~nt appeared in countless articles and news brief~. The number of articles asking this question has
rear-round for the downstream increased with the signing of the 2010 Cooperative Framework and with a referendum in
f are the construction cost, the southern Sudan in January 2011, leading to a New Nile Basin country, South Sudan, in July
2011. Climate change is also looming in both current and future water developments on the
, I hydroelectric project began Nile River (Hulme et al., 20(1). Pressure on water resources remains the key factor in the polit­
IS built to boost power supplies
ical and economic development of the Nile Basin countries, especially with population growth
bst power supplies by another predicted to reach 600 million by 2030.
of development on the water 'Climate change will hit Africa worst', according to Waako et ai. (2009), who states that
ected. Later, McCartney et al. climate change is now becoming a key driver in considerations over food and energy security

21
 The Nile River Basin

Table 2.1 Major darns and barrages t1nished, untlnished and planned in the Nile Basin Table 2.1 Continued

¥Car {ompleted Stora}?e (Ill ') COl/tractor Country Name ofd,

Country Name of dam Ril!er Power
(or to be started) (i\JW) ...-~

19005 to 1970 post-independence Dams proposed (date

Egypt Assiut barrage Main Nile 1902 Irrigation DRC Sernliki

Egypt Ema barrage Main Nile 1908 Irrigation Ethiopia Jerna
Ethiopia Karadobi
Egypt Nag-Harnady Main Nile 1930 Irrigation
Ethiopia Border
barrage
Ethiopia Mabil
Egypt Old Aswan Darn Main Nile 1933 450,000
Ethiopia BekoAb
Egypt High Aswan Dam Main Nile 1970 2100 1,110,000
Ethiopia Menday,
Ethiopia Tis-Abay Lake Tana 1953 12
Ethiopia Chemo(
Sudan Sennar Blne Nile 1925 48 0.93
five daIr
Sudan Jebel Anlia White Nile 1937 18
Ethiopia Baro I
Sudan Khashm EI Gibra Atbara 1964 35 1.3 Baro II
Ethiopia
Sudan Rosdres Blue Nile 1966 60 2.386 Nimule
Sudan
Uganda Owen/Nalubaale White Nile 1954 180 0.230 Sudan Dal-l
1970 to present Sudan Kajbar
South Bedder
Ethiopia Tekeze 5 Tekeze 2009~2010 300 9.2
Sudan
Sudan Merowe Main Nile 2009-2010 350 12 Shukol
South
Ethiopia Finchaa Finchaa 197112013 134 1050 Sudan
Ethiopia CharaChara Blue Nile 2000 84 9126 South Lakki
Ethiopia Koga Blue Nile 2008 Irrigation 80 Sudan
Ethiopia Tana Beles Blue Nile 2011 460 South Fula
Kenya Sondu !\1iri u Victoria 2007 60 1.1 Japan Sudan
'Uganda Kiira/ extension White Nile 1993~2000 200 Uganda Isimb;
Uganda Kalag
Under construction (date gives completion date)
Uganda KarUl
Sudan Roseires Blue Nile 2013 Multi- Uganda Mure
heightening national Uganda Ayag<
Sudan Burdana Setit/ Atbara 135 China/ Uganda Ayag
Kuwait Uganda 15 Sf

Sudan Rumela Atbara 135 China/ run-

Kuwait Rwanda Kika
Sudan Shiraik Main Nile 300 Rwanda Nya
Ethiopia FAN Finchaa 2011 China! Rwanda/ Rus
Italy Tanzania/
Ethiopia Tekeze 11 Tekcze 2020 Burundi
Ethiopia Megech Abay Irrigation Multi- Kenya GO!
national Kenya Ma'
Ethiopia Ribb Abay 2011 Kenya Kil!
Ethiopia Grand Blue NIle 2017 5250 China/ Kenya Ew
Millennium Italy Note: ENSAP =
Rwanda Nyabarongo Nyabarongo 2011 27.5 Aus[[alia/ Sources: Ofcallsky
India World Bank, 20
Uganda Bujagali White Nile 2011 250 Italy Verhoeven, 2011

22
 Nile water and agriculture

d in the Nile Basin

Table 2.1 Continued
~er
StoraJ?c (m ') Contractor Country Name of dam Rivcr Year completed Power StoraJ?c (m') Contractor
W)
(or to be startcd) (MW)

Dams proposed (date gives potential start date)

gation
DRC Semliki Sernliki
~ation
Ethiopia Jema Jema
~ation
Ethiopia Karadobi nlue Nile 2023 1600 ENSAP
Ethiopia Border Blue Nile 2026 1400 ENSAP
450,000 Ethiopia Mabil nlue Nile 2021
1,110,000 Ethiopia BekoAbo Blue Nile 2000 ENSAP
Ethiopia Mendaya nlue Nile 2030 1700 ENSAP
0.93 Ethiopia Chemoda/Yeda Chel11oga/ 2015 278 China
five dams proposed Veda rivers
1.3 Ethiopia Baro I Sobat
2.386 Ethiopia Baro II Sobat
0.230 Sudan Nil11ule Nile
Sudan Dal-l Nile 400
Sudan Kajbar Nile 300
9.2 South Bedden Bahr el Jebel ltaly/NBI
12 Sudan
1050 South Shukoli Bahr el Jebel Italy/NnI
9126 Sudan
tion 80 South Lakki Bahr el Jebel Italy/NBI
Sudan
South Fula Bahr el Jebel ltaly/NBI
1.1 Japan Sudan
Uganda Isil11ba White Nile 2015 87
Uganda Kalagala White Nile 2011 300 India
Uganda Karuma White Nile 2017 200
Multi­
Uganda Murchison White Nile 600
national
Uganda Ayago North White Nile 2018 304
China/
Uganda Ayago South White Nile 234
Kuwait
Uganda 15 small Kagera
China/
run-of-the river
Kuwait
Rwanda Kikagate Kagera 2016 10
Rwanda Nyabarongo Kagera 2012 27
China/
Rwanda/ Rusumo I & II Kagera 2012 60 NELSAP
Italy
Tanzania/
Burundi
)!1
Multi- Kenya Goronga Mara
national
Kenya Machove Mara
Kenya Kilgoris Mara
China/ Kenya EwasoNgiro Mara 2012 180 UK
Italy
Note: ENSAP = Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program
Australia/
Sourres: Ofcansky and l:lerry, 1991; Nicol, 2003; Scudder, 200S; Dams and Agriculture in Africa, 2007; McCartney, 2007;
India
World Bank, 2007; UNEI', 200S; African Dam.s l:lriefmg, 2010; Dams and Hydropower, 2010; Kizza ct ai., 2010;
Italy
Verhoeven, 2011; Sudan Darns Implementation Unit, undated

23
 The Nile River Basin

in the Nile. Models have been developed to prepare tor climate change, but the results are
inconclusive (Conway and Hulme, 1993, 1996; Strzepek and Yates 1996; Conway 2005; Kim et
al., 2008; Beyene et al., 2009; Kizza et al., 2010; Taye et al., 2010). The issues that users of Nile
water face are growing. Most upstream countries are going to want more water, but water is
limited and the needs are growing. This creates the potential for conflict. Innovative policies
and agricultural practices for the riparian countries are needed, before the situation comes to
a hostile end. What steps need to be taken?
There is good news: the greatest potential increases in yields are in rain-fed areas, where
many of the world's poorest rural people live and where managing water is the key to such Democrac
increases (Molden and Oweis, 2007). Leaders need to allow for the creation of better water and Abu-Zeid. M
land management practices in these areas to reduce poverty and increase productivity. September
Abu-Zeid,M
Protecting ecosystems is vital to human survival and must be achieved in harmony. There are
209-217.
opportunities in rain-fed, irrigated, livestock and fisheries systems -- for preserving, even African Dams
restoring, healthy ecosystems. 6les/AfrD
Upgrading the current irrigation systems and modernizing the technologies used in irriga­ Ahmad,AdH
tion will improve production and make a sustainable irrigation sector in several Nile countries opment,l
struggling to maintain systems that are no longer productive. Integration of livestock, fisheries Allan, T. (200
Allen, John (:
and high-value crops will help boost farm incomes. March. V'i
There is a need to plan for the tuture, using financial assistance to develop technical train­ 2012.
ing in all countries, work on regional climate models for short- and long-term conditions, and .t\rsano,Yaco'
develop methods for hydrometeorological forecasting and modelling of environmental condi­ Conferer
Awulachew,
tions. Climate change will be a main factor in the Nile Basin water security in terms of filling
and Irrig'
dams and irrigation systems, and creating treaties. Extremes in longer droughts and heavier rains Colomb<
with floods are predicted over the vast areas of the Nile Basin; to cope with these extremes, Awulachew,
UNEP and NBI joined forces in 2010 to create a project to prepare for climate change. Ethiopial
It is clear that more cooperation has the potential to generate more benefits equitably from Worksh(
cation il
Nile waters. However, the road to cooperation is not easy. But missing that road opens the door
Bastiaansser
to unilateral decision-making, leading to more stress between communities and countries, IrrigatiQt
possibly with disastrous impacts. Beyene,T.,
basin: ir
BBC (201C
Conclusion ness-ll
Biswas,Asi
Yes, there are challenges, but there are solutions that can help: dialogue, trust and sharing bene­ Cooper,
fits of the Nile water will help solve lllany of the conflicts between the Nile Basin countries. Block, Pau
Cooperation is the key. While the role of the NBI has not yet ended, a comprehensive conclu­ the Bil
sion is more important now than ever, with water scarcity, increased development and clilllate Journal
Block, P.,
change. While there have been important steps for cooperation, much more needs to be done
Ethiopl
urgently. Bulto,T. S
For future success in dealing with larger issues of poverty, food insecurity and climate in the
change it will be necessary to conduct successful research with multinational teams working Carroll,C
together effectively across borders in the Nile Basin. This is also important to avoid duplication Enviro
Cascao,A
of efforts, to ensure results are easily accessible and make all information commonly available
Altern
to all the Nile Basin countries. CIA (Ce
In the chapters that follow, new insights on poverty, water-related risks and vulnerability, tionSI
including mapping of these, are provided for the Nile Basin. There is scope for improvement Conway,
of crop, livestock and fish production in upstream countries, as will be described. Water produc­ abilit'
Conway,
tivity in the Nile Basin has a large variation. Use of hydronomic zoning in the Nile Basin has
C/im,
helped to identifY various zones such as water source zones, environmentally sensitive zones

24
 Nile water and agriculture

, climate change, but the results are and farming zones. Finally, through an all-inclusive sustainable and comprehensive agreement,
ndYates 1996; Conway 2005; Kim et with support from the Nile Commission and the NBI, contributions can be made to agricul­
,2010). The issues that users of Nile ture and socio-economic development in the Nile Basin. The past has made the Nile what it
19 to want more water, but water is is today; it is up to the future to make the Nile provide for all who depend on it.
1tial for conflict. Innovative policies
:eded, before the situation comes to
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26
 Nile water and agriculture

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