Introduction

The Definition and Scope of International Relations.

Q: Describe the evolutionary through International Relations has

acquired the status of an Academic Discipline.

Introduction:
International relations can be identified as actual relations between states. However, with the
advancement of human civilization and the development of states, international relations
gained a great significance in human lives and became an essential aspect for the survival
of individuals and states. Although in the beginning of human history, international relations
were limited only to a field of activity, it gradually developed into an academic discipline
gaining worldwide recognition. International relations were subjected to many changes in its
evolvement process.

International Relations as a Field of Activity:

In ancient times, Aristotle said: “Man by nature and necessity is a social animal.” A man
who can live without other beings is either a God or a beast. In modem times, we can safely
say that no nation or country can live in isolation. International Relations have thus assumed
great pragmatic and academic significance in present times.

Ancient International Relations:

Though International Relations as an academic discipline is of a recent origin yet relations
among nations were as old a phenomenon as history. There were inter-tribal, inter-city state
and inter-Kingdom relations even in ancient age. Mostly they were not global but merely
regional in character.

Treaty of Westphalia:
Many scholars trace the history of International Relations back to Peace of Westphalia in
1648 which was a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system and the
international relations.
According to Philpot the importance of Peace of Westphalia to international relations are as
follows:
Firstly, the diplomatic communications and foreign policy designs of contemporary great
powers after Westphalia revealed a common understanding of a system of sovereign states.
Secondly, Westphalia brought an end to intervention in matters of religion.

Industrial Revolution:
There was manifold increase in the needs of the various countries after the industrial
Revolution. Trade, transit and transactions between the nations became the order of the
day. This further emphasized the importance of International Relations.
International Relations as an Academic Discipline:
According to Hartman “International Relations as a field of study is focused upon the
process by which states adjust their national interest to those of other states.”
International Relations can be considered as a distinct academic discipline as it has evolved
into a field of study which is formally taught in universities. Padelford and Lincoln define it
as the “Interactions of state policies within the changing patterns of power relationships.”

First World War:

First World War was probably the most important political event of the modern global
system. The trauma of the First World War made people demand a better understanding of
foreign relations and drew people’s attention to the growing importance of international
relations as an academic discipline.

Establishment of the Department of the International Relations:

As a result, in 1919, a department of international politics was established in the University
College of Wales. It was followed by the establishment of the department of international
relations in early 1920s in the London School of Economics. As an academic discipline,
international relations initially focused on the study of political and diplomatic relations and
then later commercial relations among sovereign states.

Role of League:
The League of Nations also played its role in developing International Relations as a
separate subject. The league sponsored a series of International Studies Conferences
through its Institute of International Cooperation.

Second World War:

After the First World War, Second World War was the most widespread and deadliest war in
history. This highlighted the compelling need to improve the techniques of international
relations for the survival of the human race. After the Second World War, a new
development stage of International Relations began. People lost faith in the political idealist
approach and a new approach emerged in International Relations known as Realism.
Realism focuses on the actual situation at hand rather than the idealist outlook. Hans.J.
Morganthau once said “All politics is a struggle for power.”

Development of International Relations:

Kenneth Thompson divided the development of international relations into following stages:
1. The period of 1900-1918 - up to the end of the First World War International
Relations were taught by diplomatic historians who were more interested in history
than in politic.
2. The period of 1918-1930 - starting after the end of the First World War, it was
focused only on the study of current affairs.
3. The period of 1930-1938 - Scholars during this time tended to take a more moralistic
and legalistic approach towards studying International Relations. More emphasis was
laid on the importance of international Law and International Organizations. The
Idealist approach became popular during this time.
 4. The period after 1945-After the devastation of second world war people had lost faith
in the power and authority of international organizations and international law as a
tool of maintaining peace, because of the failure of the League of Nations to prevent
another world war. Therefore, the emphasis shifted towards a scientific analysis of
the developments of international politics. Scientific studies were conducted on what
causes war, how to avoid war, what influences the behaviour of states, etc.

Cold War:
Due to the fear of another world war United Nations was formed as an attempt to maintain
the world order. During the cold war between the USA and the USSR world came to the
brink of destruction. International Relations ascended to the very top in the international
system acting as the only solution for world issues.

Defence of Human Civilization:

With the end of the Second World War came the nuclear technology. Nuclear proliferation
completely changed the factors governing international relations. The question of war and
peace became the key issue for mankind. The study of International Relations has already
moved from a mere academic curiosity to the very defence of human civilization in a nuclear
age.

Theories:
In order to become a distinct discipline, any social science has to create own theories and
approaches. International Relations were recognized as a distinct discipline once it created
its own theories and approaches. International Relations have many approaches and
theories. The approaches can be classified as the Idealist approach, Realist approach,
Behavioural approach, Post-Behavioural approach, Neo-Realism approach and others.

Conclusion:
International relations, as an activity has a long history. It has gone through many changes
and advancements and has been developed as an academic discipline today. In a world
where the struggle for power created conflicts and wars, an international system to maintain
the order of the world and to hold peace was much needed. In order to create such an
international system, it was required to investigate and understand International Relations in
depth.

SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS:

The study of IR involves the mastery of some basic concepts. As a field of study, IR has elastic
boundaries. The sub-fields it encompasses define its scope.
▪ IR studies relations between states in their political and economic prospects primarily.
▪ IR covers the realm of 'foreign affairs' in all its dimensions.
▪ IR deals with the recording and studying of International History with the aim to find out
the basis of states' relations in the past.
 ▪ IR studies International Law in the context of how international rules define and govern
the relations between states.
▪ IR embodies its scope with the inclusion of not only states but also the non-state actors
in international relations.
▪ IR deals with the international events of;
▪ War
▪ Peace
▪ Nuclear world
▪ International political economy
▪ Globalization
▪ International institutions
▪ Conflicts among states
▪ Foreign policy and decision making
▪ National powers and interests

Conclusion:
International Relations has a wider scope. The points elaborated above as its scope are not
final. This discipline broadens its scope with the changing events of the world and new
dynamics of international relations. It is a subject along with being a practical course adopted
by nations of the world and the international institutions.

Read Only:
The Five Principles of IR include mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity,
mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual
benefits, and peaceful coexistence.

The Nation-State System

Q: Discuss the significant feature of “Treaty of Westphalia” and development of modern

national state system.

Introduction:
It was the treaty which ended the thirty years war. It was one of the most destructive wars in
the history of Europe. International relations (IR) from the mid-17th century to the mid-20th
century were founded on the decisions by the Peace Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. However,
from the beginning of the 21st century, the IR are once again more and more framed by the
international standards established in 1648. The Peace Treaty of Westphalia did not restore
peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination.

Westphalian sovereignty:
The principle of international law that each nation-state has sovereignty over its territory and
domestic affairs and no external power has the right to interfere in its internal affairs and that
each state (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law. The doctrine is named
after the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648.

The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia established three focal principles in regard to IR:
1. The sovereignty of the states meant that the ruler is fully autonomous within his own
domain and not a subject to the political will of anyone else. The settlement recognized
the absolute power of rulers over sovereign states.
2. Collective Security with the fundamental task to maintain the peace among the key
actors in in the world. Its aim was to establish a kind of regulated world government
under the international law and accepted standards of acting.
3. The balance of power: It indicates the relative distribution of power between the states.
In principle, it refers to the situation in which no one state predominates over others. It
is the policy of a power equilibrium in IR which assumes that unbalanced power is
dangerous for the regional or global security.

Implications:
All three of these focal principles remained as the foundations of global politics and IR up to
1945 and became revived after the Cold War in the updated form.

Sovereignty:
The treaty marked the start of the modern system of IR between the states by legitimizing the
governmental authority to be sovereign over its own people within its own political entity
(state). Such arrangement meant that the government has the final say in their internal affairs
no foreign state can dictate their terms in their affairs. In essence, to be a sovereign meant
two essential things:

1. To live according to your own legislation.

2. To arrange your own internal affairs by yourself, i.e. without interference from outside.

Collective Security:
Westphalian System of IR (WSIR) established the principle of Collective Security (CS). It
required a common action in order to secure the European and global security in which an
agreement was reached between a group of states to act as a unified opposition to any
member state that illegally violates the peace by the act of aggression.
Nation Sates:
The principle of state’s sovereignty promoted in 1648 became soon the crucial pivot for the
creation of the national-states, first across Europe and later around the world. The essence of
modern national-state became the Westphalian idea that political legitimacy has to come from
secular legal authority rather than from divine sanction as it was a practice in the Middle Ages.
This is how the way to the constitution and constitutional government was paved by the Peace
Treaty of Westphalia which also helped the monarchs to consolidate the power over the state’s
territories. A modern system of taxation and tax-collections was introduced for the sake to
obtain greater manpower and financial resources needed to strengthen the armies.

The Fundamental Elements of Sovereign Equality between the

States:
Basically, up today global security and IR are formally shaped, with some cosmetic
modifications after 1945, according to the ideas of the Peace Treaty of Westphalia in 1648,
which established principles of sovereignty of each independent state and collective security.
The principle of sovereignty implies the fact that other states do not have legal right to interfere
into the internal affairs of any other state, at least without direct legal permission by some
authorized organization (the UNO).

According to international law, all sovereign states are equal and such proclaimed sovereign
equality has the following principal elements:

1. All states are legally equal on the international scene and in relations to each other,
regardless of their size, manpower or economic or military might.
2. Every state enjoys the same rights inherent in full sovereignty’s meaning.
3. Every state is under full obligation to respect the legal entity of another state including
territorial integrity.
4. The territorial integrity of a state cannot be breached unless the action is sanctioned
by the supreme international security authority (the UNO or similar).

5. Every sovereign state has a full and unrestricted right to develop its own political,
social, economic, and cultural systems without the interference from the outside.
6. Each state is obliged to carry out a full range of all accepted international obligations
as an equal member of international community.

7. Every state has an obligation to live in peace with all other states.

Conclusion:
The treaty of Westphalia was a land mark event in the European history. It played a key in
establishing peace and security in Europe. It recognised the sovereignty of the state and
established the collective security. It also created a basis for national self-determination.
 Read Only:
Metternich (Congress of Vienna of 1815) had three goals at the congress: first, he
wanted to prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong
countries; second, he wanted to restore a balance of power (see above), so that no
country would be a threat to others; and third, he wanted to restore Europe's royal
families to power in their respective countries.

Q: Describe and discuss Nation State System. Also identify the

challenges to it.

Introduction:
The nation state system is the pattern of life in that the people are separately organized that
interact with one another. The modern nation system is based on the Treat of Westphalia. It
recognizes the sovereignty of the state. But in the contemporary world due globalization,
decentralization, role of non-states and sub-nationalism are the major challenges to nation
state system.

Background:
Nation state system is as old as the human history. It will be more correct to say that the history
of nation state system starts with the political consciousness of man. In ancient
times, Aristotle said: “Man by nature and necessity is a social animal.” A man who can live
without other beings is either a God or a beast. In modem times, we can safely say that no
nation or country can live in isolation.

Nation State System:

According to Palmer and Perkins, "The nation state system is the pattern of life in that the
people are separately organized that interact with one another in varying ways and various
degrees." In International law nation state means "Legitimacy, sovereignty and duty." The
state will have to recognize the legitimacy of other states. The state should be sovereign
both externally and internally and its people must observe their duties.

Origin of National State System:

To understand the origin of nation state system it is necessary to fall light on history. Before
17th century, nation states were existed but under the control of Roman Catholic Church
headed by pope and the nation state had no sovereign status.
Treaty of Westphalia:
Westphalian treaty laid the foundation for the development of modern nation state system.
The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia established three focal principles for state system:
4. The sovereignty of the states meant that the ruler is fully autonomous within his own
domain and not a subject to the political will of anyone else. The settlement recognized
the absolute power of rulers over sovereign states.
5. Collective Security with the fundamental task to maintain the peace among the key
actors in in the world. Its aim was to establish a kind of regulated world government
under the international law and accepted standards of acting.
6. The balance of power: It indicates the relative distribution of power between the states.
In principle, it refers to the situation in which no one state predominates over others. It
is the policy of a power equilibrium in IR which assumes that unbalanced power is
dangerous for the regional or global security.

Significance of Nation State System:

A new phase of international relations emerged with the development of the nation states.
Nation states formed relations with each other with the intention of realizing their national
interests. The process of achieving national interests often led to the break-out of war and
then to the study of international relations.

Modern State System:

This system similar to that of Westphalia. It is a pattern in which the independent countries of
the world organize themselves into independent sovereignty political entity and built relations
with other nations.

Challenges to Nation State System:

Despite all the criticisms about its Western origins, the concept of state and nation, took firm
roots in most parts of the world – not without conflicts and bloodshed. However, it is now
facing existential challenge from four different trends namely globalization, decentralization,
nationalism and regional groupings.

Globalization:
Peace of Westphalia not only redrew the borders in Europe but also gave sanctity to them
howsoever arbitrary they may be. This fundamental principle of international relations,
respected all over the world is now under attack by the rapid globalization. This rule is
almost intact in theory but breached by the multilateral institutions and by the human rights
movements.

Decentralization:
While the nation state is facing the above-mentioned challenge of rapidly globalizing world
coming from abroad, shaking its very foundations, it is under attack from another source.
This is the rise of the demand for greater decentralization by its federating units and even by
the mega-cities under its jurisdiction. It is now common for provinces, states and cities to
deal directly with the other nation-states, corporations and other big cities

Nationalism and Self-determination:

Most of the modern nation-states are artificial creations, results of dissolution of empires or
end of colonialism. Being multi-ethnic entities, nation states are under pressures from the
emerging sub-nationalism in their areas of jurisdiction. With the gradual withdrawal of
religion as a source of cohesion of a society, there is emerging a wide legitimacy gap for
keeping the people together; to create a solid foundation of unity that religion used to do in
the old times.

Regional Groupings:
Increased business activities due to rapid expansion and modernization led to emergence of
the capitalistic societies. These capitalistic groups need bigger areas to carry out their
business activities which is only possible within bigger units of administration. This led to the
formation of unions such as European Union. They are now more involved in internal affairs
of countries. Thus, they are challenging the sovereignty of the states.

Future Scenario-towards One World Government? (Read Only)

These regional groupings are just another milestone in our slow but steady journey towards
the formation of World Government. Within next two centuries, all the current state borders
will be abolished, and nation-states will be replaced by continent-size units of governance,
with maximum devolution/decentralisation for provision of basic services to the people. While
UNO will act as the world Parliament to formulate global policies, its constituent units such
as UNICEF, WHO etc will be acting like global ministries with the World Bank as the central
bank English will be recognised as the universal language with inputs from different
languages towards its vocabulary.

Challenges to Nation State System in 20th Century

1. MNCs
2. International Organizations
3. Regional Organizations
4. Terrorist groups
5. Military technology

The rise of several powerful non-state actors, constraints imposed by the nuclear age, and
increased interdependence among nations together proved to be a big source of weakness
for the nation-state system. From a state-centric international system, it started developing
into a system characterized by decreased role of the nation-state and as a system with an
increasing role of the non-state actors and some supranational actors.