ASIATIC, VOLUME 5, NUMBER 2, DECEMBER 2011

Literature for Life: The Context and Conditions of Its

Emergence in Thailand, 1940s-50s

Thanapol Limapichart1
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand

Abstract
This article examines the context and conditions of the emergence of “literature for
life” (wannakham phuea chiwit) in Thailand. In contrast to previous works that
emphasised a single prerequisite such as the role of the Writers‟ Club, the Communist
Party of Thailand, or the importation, translation and circulation of Marxist literature
in the country, this article argues that the concept of “literature for life” developed out
of the dynamic contestations and exchanges among writers, journalists, social critics,
and literary scholars of various political and ideological inclinations, namely the
conservative, the “liberal” and the communist, as each attempted to assert its cultural
legitimacy in the period between the end of the Pacific War and the early phase of the
Cold War in Thailand.

Abstract in Malay
Makalah ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji konteks dan kondisi yang membolehkan
kemunculan „sastera untuk penghidupan‟ (wannakham phuea chiwit) di Thailand.
Berbanding dengan kajian-kajian yang lampau di mana peranan persatuan penulis, parti
komunis Thailand atau penerapan pengaruh Marxist di Thailand, makalah ini
membahaskan konsep „sastera untuk penghidupan‟ muncul dari suasana dinamik para
penulis, wartawan, pengkritik social dan sasterawan dari pelbagai fahaman politik dan
idealogi yang konservatif, liberal mahupun komunis, di mana masing-masing ingin
menerapkan nilai budaya mereka di akhir era Perang Pasifik dan awal fasa Perang
Dingin di Thailand.

Keywords
Literature for life, cultural legitimacy, literary public, Marxism, the Cold War, Thailand

Keywords in Malay
Sastera untuk penghidupan, legitimasi budaya, khalayak sastera, Marxisme, Perang
Dingin, Thailand

1
Thanapol Limapichart is a lecturer of Southeast Asian History at Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand. His specialisations are modern Thailand, with particular emphasis on the 19th century
and 20th century intellectual and social history, history of literature, print culture and
historiography. He is currently conducting research on the historiography of Prince Damrong
Rajanubhab and the history and ideology of “culture” in Thailand.

Asiatic, Vol. 5, No. 2, December 2011 40

 Literature for Life

The years between the October 14th, 1973 Uprising and the October 6th, 1976
Massacre were times of great political turmoil and ideological conflict in
modern Thailand. They witnessed not only the spread of political activism and
violence, but also the fierce battles for cultural hegemony among various
groups, particularly between the radicals and the conservatives. According to
Prajak Kongkirati, literature was one of the most contested sites of this cultural
and ideological struggle as was manifested by the call for the “burning of Thai
literary classics” (phao wannakhadi) by a group of radical students (452).2 Thai
literary classics were, according to them, legacies of the Thai feudal past for they
served as the vehicle through which the ruling class indoctrinated the people
with the idea that they were karmically destined to be superior. These works
were, moreover, viewed as pornographic and obscene since they were usually
comprised of several love scenes.3 Prajak argued that it was for these reasons
that the radical students dismissed the literary classics and advocated instead the
“literature for life” (wannakham phuea chiwit), which they defined as literature that
served the interests of the common people and promoted social justice and
progress in the hope of changing the society for the better (449, 452).
The literature for life that was promoted by the radical students in the
1970s was neither a newly invented concept nor a newly translated term.
Literary critics and Thai historians agree that it had already emerged and
become widely known in the 1950s. These scholars disagree, however, as to
how the concept developed and which groups should be credited with its
popularisation. After the October 6th, 1976 massacre, the young literary scholar,
Trisilpa Boonkhachorn, and the critic, Sathian Chanthimathon, pointed out in
their unrelated works that the emergence and dissemination of the notion of
literature for life owed much to a series of debates that took place at a literary
organisation called The Writers‟ Club.4
Writing from a different perspective and in different contexts, two former
radical students, Somsak Jeamteerasakul and Kasian Tejapira, proposed for
alternative interpretations of the emergence and dissemination of literature for
life. In his dissertation on the communist movement in Thailand, Somsak
asserted that the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) and its network were
mainly responsible for introducing and popularising the concept of literature for
life. The political scientist Kasian agrees with Somsak on the influence of the
communists but places his emphasis less on the CPT itself. In his book,
Commodifying Marxism: The Formation of Modern Thai Radical Culture, 1927-1958,

2
This call was however more of a provocative act of criticism than to actually burn the books.
3
See Rai-ngan kan sammana rueang “khuan phao wannakhadi thai ruemai” (The Report from
the Seminar on “Should We Burn Thai Literature [classics])”?
4
See Trisilpa Boonkhachorn 145-46 and Sathian Chanthimathon 279.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

Kasian argues that the process of importing, circulating and translating Marxist
texts and ideas by different groups of various political inclinations were
indispensable factors that eventually led to the rise of literature for life.
This article does not dismiss the importance of the different factors and
preconditions that the above scholars claim to have led to the rise of literature
for life. It argues, however, that this literary genre did not emerge out of a single
prerequisite. It developed instead out of a series of dynamic contestations and
exchanges between various political and literary groups as each attempted to
assert its cultural legitimacy in the period between the end of the Pacific War
and the early phase of the Cold War in Thailand.

The Postwar Thai Literary Public Sphere

The period between the 1932 Revolution and the Pacific War saw great
expansion of print capitalism in Thailand. According to Chusri, the production
of cheap and popular paperback fiction, locally known as the 10-satang-fiction,
became an industry (93). Famous publishing houses that concentrated on
popular fiction, such as Phloenchit, Hem Wetchakon, Uthen and Udom, also
came into being and grew into maturity, as is evidenced by their large print runs.
With only a few exceptions, the first printing of a paperback work of fiction in
the 1920s was generally around 1,000 copies (Sathian Chanthimathon 127). In
the 1930s, however, the publishing houses were printing not only a few
thousand copies but eight, nine or even thirty thousand copies of paperback
works of fiction, depending on the popularity of the writer (Sathian
Chanthimathon 127).
This trend of expansion slowed down during the war. A number of
political and socioeconomic factors contributed to it, but two important sets of
factors are worth mentioning. First, the Phibun government‟s language and
moral policies aimed not only to promote Thai cultural nationalism, but also to
establish government control over public language usage and literary
production. These policies included an imposition of a new spelling system and,
even more controversially, the censorship of the content of fiction. According
to Trisilpa Boonkhachorn, at the introduction of these measures, many
prominent writers such as Malai Chuphinit and Chot Phraephan stopped
writing in protest (89).
The shortages and the price increase of paper, along with the
government‟s regulation of its distribution, also contributed to the decline in
literary production in this period. As Chot Phraephan pointed out in early 1945,
the Phibun government regulated the distribution of paper by controlling access
to paper factories. He highlighted that the government only allowed certain
newspapers to purchase paper from the factories at a negotiated price, but left
publishing houses to buy it on the black market, where the prices were twenty

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 Literature for Life

times higher than they were at the factories (Yakhob 1-42). Publishing fiction
thus became increasingly more difficult in the final years of the war.
The Thai literary market was, however, rejuvenated as the war came to a
close, and by the late 1940s, it had entered a new phase of expansion. Not only
did the old publishing houses recover and become prosperous once again, but
new houses also started to mushroom.5 Hundreds of new literary works were
published along with a number of old works by well-known writers from the
late 1920s to the beginning of the war, including works by Kulap Saipradit,
M.C. Akatdamkoeng Raphiphat and Itsara Amantakun. No less important a
phenomenon in this period was the boom experienced by weekly and monthly
literary magazines and special issues of newspapers (the Sunday or Monday
issue of many newspapers devoted most of its space especially to short stories
or serialised novels each week). These magazines and newspapers, Bo Daeng,
Phloenchit rai sapda, Sayam samai rai sapda, Roengrom rai sapda, Deli mel wanchan and
Piyamit wan-athit, to name only a few, were significant outlets for writers and
crucial suppliers of new material to the continuously expanding reading public.
In fact, nearly all of the famous Thai novels from this period were first
serialised in these weekly and monthly magazines and newspapers.
In addition to the dramatic increase in the publication of literary works,
the postwar literary public sphere also witnessed the birth of new literary genres.
An example of these new genres was “the crime and violence romance,” which
was, as the historian Chalong Soontravanich argues, a byproduct of the
proliferation of modern small arms and the spread of crime and violence during
and after the war (26-46). Another and more controversial example of the new
literary genres that emerged after the war was pornography. There previously
existed various literary genres that contained erotic and sexual representation,
including bot atsachan (erotic or sexual portrayal) of Thai classical literature,6
risqué and humorous poetic tales, traditional and modern or scientific manuals
for carnal knowledge and sexual education, and the so-called “indecent books”
(nangsu po) of the 1920s and 1930s. However, the war and its aftermath saw the
emergence of more sexually explicit genres such as erotic fiction and hardcore
pornography.7

5
Interview with Sombat Phlainoi, September 29, 2004. Also see, for instance, Yot
Watcharasathian 211 and Chusri Kalawantavanit 105-107.
6
Sexual or erotic portrayal is a significant part of Thai classical dramatic epics and romance
poems. See, for instance, Phra lo, Phra aphra aphaimani, Khun chang khun phaen, and various
works of Nirat.
7
The story of the widespread publication of pornography (nangsu po) in the postwar period is
legendary. Interview with Sombat Phlainoi, September 29, 2004. Also see, Nangsu an len phit
sinlatham (Immoral Books), file NA. (3) SR. [Office of the Chief Secretary to the Cabinet]

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 Thanapol Limapichart

Another significant development in the Thai literary sphere after the war
was the establishment of various politico-literary groups, which was the result
of the transformation of the Thai political and ideological landscapes. The
defeat of the Axis and the Japanese by the Allies brought about the fall of the
authoritarian government of Phibun, which allied itself with the Japanese. This
demise of the ruling government led, in turn, to the re-emergence of various
political groups that had previously been suppressed or silenced. One of these
groups was Pridi Banomyong8 and his many supporters. Pridi was the leader of
the Free Thai movement (Khabuankan Seri Thai) and represented the liberal/
leftist political stance. Upon his return to power, Pridi also brought back the
royalists by granting amnesty to those who were jailed or forced into exile
during the Phibun regime as well as by restoring King Prajakhipok‟s honours
posthumously (Baker, Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit 141-42). In addition to the
liberal/ leftist fraction of Pridi and the conservative royalists, the Communist
Party of Thailand also enjoyed postwar political transformation. As Kasian
points out, after the war the communists “emerged triumphantly from prison
and from the underground.” With the support of Pridi and his clique, the Anti-
Communist Act implemented in the mid-1930s was abrogated in 1946, and
communism was legalised. The Communist Party of Thailand and its associates
could then begin publicly organising their political, social and intellectual
activities (Kasian Tejapira 56-57).
These political changes stimulated literary activities among the different
political and ideological groups. A group of conservative scholars led by M.R.
Sumonchat Sawatdikul and M.L. Chitti Noppavong did, for instance, found a
literary club called Wong wannakhadi (Literary Circle) in early 1946. The club
published a monthly journal under the same name and organised an annual
meeting for literary discussions (Chonlada Ruangraklikit, Runruthai Satchaphan
and Duangmon Chitchamnong 169-70). In addition to regular republications of
the works of King Chulalongkorn, King Vajiravudh and other royal elites,
including Prince Damrong Rajanubhab and Prince Bhidayalongkorn, the journal
also published works of prominent literati such as Phraya Anumanratchathon,
Worawet Siwasariyanon, Wit Siwasariyanon, P.S. Sattri, Thanit Yupho, Chuea
Satawethin and Samak Burawat. The majority of the articles published in Wong
Wannakhadi focused on the subjects of Thai classical literature, literary art and

0201.55/52, National Archives of Thailand. Not only were pornographic books widespread, so
were pornographic movies (nang po). See Noi Inthanon (Malai Chuphinit) 4.

8
Pridi was a founding member of the People’s Party that overthrew the absolute monarchy in the
1932 Revolution. He served as the finance minister in the Phibun government before he left the
post to become regent in 1941 because of his conflict with Phibun over the latter’s decision to ally
with the Japanese. During his time as regent, Pridi gradually developed a better relationship with
some members of the royal family with whom he later formed an alliance against the Phibun
government.

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 Literature for Life

history, unlike other journals of its kind which laid their emphases more on the
publication of short stories or serialised novels.9
The Wong Wannakhadi journal was endorsed by King Ananda [r. 1935-46],
who claimed to read and enjoy it. Thus, in his comment on the first anniversary
of the journal, Prince Dhani Nivas praised Wong Wannakhadi not only for its
intellectual value as a treasure of literary knowledge but more significantly for its
express loyalty to the monarch (2-4). Later, the journal also published regular
reports on the activities and well-being of King Bhumibol [r. 1946-], King
Ananda‟s brother and successor. In a sense, the founding of the Literary Circle
can arguably be interpreted as the royal elite‟s attempt to reassert the link
between the monarchy and literature (wannakhadi), specifically the monarch‟s
patronage of Thai literature, an idea that had diminished since the 1932
Revolution.
On the opposite ideological and political pole, the communists and leftists
in general arose as producers and providers of new literary work, knowledge
and criticism.10 Soon after the fall of the Phibun government, the CPT-affiliated
newspaper Mahachon (The Masses) “emerged from clandestineness as a legal
commercial weekly publication with a newly expanded, competent and versatile
editorial staff” (Kasian Tejapira 152). Its new staff included the Marxist and
Maoist literary critic Udom Sisuwan and the radical poet and critic Atsani
Phonlachan. The newspaper regularly published short stories by “progressive”
writers such as Sot Kuramarohit, Itsara Amantakun, Thida Bunnag and Po
Buransinlapin (Puan Buranapakon) (Kasian Tejapira 152).
Another example of this postwar literary activity among the leftist/
progressive groups was the publication of the monthly magazine Aksonsan
(Inscribed Advice) in 1949. Founded and published by Supha Sirimanon, a
leftist/ progressive and pro-Pridi journalist, and his wife Chinda, the magazine
had a short publishing life but made major contributions to the literary public
discourse by serving as an intellectual platform for political and literary debates
as well as a source of new literary ideas and theories, including Marxist, Leninist
and Maoist literary doctrines. However, unlike Mahachon which was committed
to Marxist ideology, Aksonsan initially aimed at representing various ideologies,
ranging from the conservative to the liberal to the socialist and finally to the
communist point of view. As Kasian notes, however, its position would
gradually turn “left” and become more radical as time went by until it was
finally attenuated by the press censorship in the aftermath of the military coup
in late 1951 (164-70).

9
However, it published a number of short stories by internationally celebrated writers, such as
Rabindranath Tagore and W. Somerset Maugham.

10
For a history of early influence of Marxist and socialist thoughts in Thai literary public sphere,
see Smith Thanomsasana 48-52.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

These newspapers and literary journals not only represented the different
political fractions that emerged after the war, but also generated discussions
about literature and criticism that captures the ideological contestation among
them. These discussions focused on such issues as the proper role of writers,
the social function of art and literature, the place of literature in politics, and
vice versa, as well as the distinction between art and obscenity.

The Marxist Introduction of a New Concept of Literature

In January 1947, Udom11 published a critical review of Po Buransasinlapin
(hereafter Puan)‟s recent book Chiwit chak mum mut (Lives from the Dark
Corner) in Mahachon. It was not simply a regular book review but was an
attempt to introduce a new concept of literature and literary writing to the Thai
public. In it Udom, writing under the pen name O Sisuwan, criticised the idea
of art for art‟s sake.12 He argued that “art was not what was in the mind of a
writer but what belonged to the people.” Udom believed that art was, like other
social entities, inevitably involved in politics and always a part of its struggle.
Whether or not a writer was conscious of this, he had responsibilities toward his
readers and thus should always remind himself “for whom he writes and how
he should write it” (O Sisuwan 6, 8-9).
Influenced by Romain Rolland, a famous French writer and pacifist,
Udom believed that writers had the obligation of shaping tolerant, motivated
and courageous readers “who strove toward knowledge, beauty, love of
humanity and public progress” (O Sisuwan 6). He consequently hailed Puan‟s
book as a truly ground breaking work that not only attempted to portray the
lives of the poor and the outcasts, but also showed the dignity and humanity of
its poverty-stricken characters. To affirm the value of Puan‟s book, Udom
ended his review with the note that “an art that only entertained the well-to-do
was less valuable than the one that spoke for the poor” (O Sisuwan 8, 10).

11
Udom was an ethnic Chinese and a member of both the Chinese Communist Party and CPT. As
a young man, he went to China in the late 1930s and spent time there fighting the Japanese and
studying in the communist party’s school, where he learned, in his own words, “economics, about
surplus value and commodities and New Democracy, Yenan literature, self-cultivation and the
Communist Manifesto” (Somsak Jeamteerasakul 14-15, 208-09). He was asked to return to
Thailand in 1945, and became a staff member of Mahachon.
12
The idea of art for art’s sake had frequently been mentioned along with the concepts of “literary
art” (wannasin) and of “the writer as an artist” (sinlapin) by a number of writers and literary
scholars, both conservative and “liberal,” during the Pacific War. After the war, it was further
discussed and popularised by the conservative journals such as the Wong Wannakhadi and
Sinlapakorn and the group called “Chakkrawat Sinlapin” (The Empire of the Artist). However, it
should be noted that even among the conservative scholars, there were some who tried to argue
against the extreme interpretation of the idea that art should only exist for its own sake. See
Thanapol Limapichart 61-72.

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 Literature for Life

A few months after the publication of Udom‟s book review, Mahachon

announced its contest for a short story of the week. Writers whose stories won
the contest would receive an award of 40 baht, and the story would be
published in the newspaper. In the announcement, the newspaper‟s staff
offered the following guidelines for the kind of story they would look for:

In our opinion, a story should not be only about the art of creating
affection, sentiment, happiness and sadness through the use of language.
The value of writing should be more than that. That is, it should guide the
society, expose the [society‟s] wickedness and shape the mind [of the
readers]. It should benefit the majority of the people who live in hardship
and oppression. For us, this is the true meaning and value of writing.
(“Katika prakuat „rueang ek pracham sapda‟” 6)

Arguably, the announcement and the contest indicated the attempt of the
newspaper and perhaps the CPT itself to promote the new concept of literature
that was also outlined by Udom in his book review.
In 1947 and 1948, Mahachon published at least two short stories weekly.
Nearly all of the stories followed the guidelines above. For instance, most of
their heroes or heroines were servants, workers, prostitutes and peasants who
suffered or were taken advantage of by greedy factory owners, heartless
landlords and corrupt officials. Most of the stories published in the newspaper
during this time were not from the contest entrants but from the party
associates and amateur writers such as Sombat Phlainoi (more commonly
known as So Phlainoi), who was not at all radical or interested in Marxism
(Somsak Jeamteerasakul 297).13 As the historian Somsak argues, the party also
tried to encourage some already well-known writers to produce works of this
kind. His observation is confirmed by the fact that some writers, for example,
Ko Surangkhanang (Kanha Khiangsiri), then wife of Puan, Somchai
Atsanachinda, Thida Bunnag, Itsara Amantakun and Nongyao Praphasathit,
published their stories in Mahachon. One should note, however, that although
most of their works were about the poor and their sufferings, they were not
necessarily ideologically oriented.
As the radical Mahachon tried to establish a new type of literary work and
criticism, the progressive journals also began to open up questions about the
meaning and value of literature. An editorial essay in the new weekly literary
journal Suphapburut chabap krapao (The Gentleman: A Pocketbook Version)
promoted, for example, a new concept and function of literature which its

13
Sombat Phlainoi would later become a famous feature writer.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

author called, in English, a “story of a purpose.”14 Using the works of

Nongyao15 as an example, the author declared that a writer of stories with a
purpose was someone who intended to make his readers think, either through
his criticism of the society or his portrayal of people who were suffering. In
other words, the work aimed not at entertaining any person in particular but at
benefiting humanity as a whole (“Chintanakan khong nakpraphan” 77-78).
In his introduction to Kulap‟s short story in Aksonsan, the editor, Supha,
expressed similar views about the function of literature and described Kulap‟s
writings especially Songkhram chiwit (The War of Life) as works with “the
purpose… of revolutionising thought and reforming society” (276-78). In
another introductory essay published a few months later, Supha further
developed this new concept of literature and coined the term nawaniyai thi mi
khwam mungmai (novels with a purpose). The term, as he defined it, referred to a
group of works that possessed the power to transform the readers‟ mind and
inspire them to cast off the oppressive forces of tradition (282-84).
Supha pointed out that this new literary genre had, historically speaking,
flourished in the West in the past hundred years. His examples ranged from
classics such as most of Charles Dickens‟s novels, Victor Hugo‟s Les Miserables,
Voltaire‟s Candide and Harriet Beecher Stowe‟s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, to the
contemporary works of American progressive writers such as Sinclair Lewis,
Upton Sinclair and Howard Fast. In the Thai case, he mentioned the works of
Itsara, especially those written after the war. According to Supha, Itsara‟s
postwar works indicated a shift in his direction as a writer. As he gained more
experience of the world and as a writer, he came to acknowledge the existence
of social injustice, inequality between the haves and have-nots, and “the
bloodsucking behaviours of the demigods” (sommutdithep). Supha concluded the
essay on the hopeful and confident note that the dissemination of these works
would be able to overthrow any oppressive power (282-84).
The influence that Marxist and progressive thinkers and their new
concept of literature in this period had on the emergence of the concept of
“literature for life” has long been noted by historians such as Somsak. As
unmistakable as this influence might have been, however, it was hardly the only
factor that contributed to the rise of this new literary genre. Literature for life
was arguably also shaped by the debates that took place at Chomrom Nakpraphan
or the Writers‟ Club. It was, as will be shown in the next section, during these
debates that Marxist and progressive thinkers and their ideas came into

14
Although the article did not contain the author’s name, it is possible that the piece was written
by Puan Buranapakon.
15
Nongyao Praphasathit belonged to the early generation of female writers. She worked with
Kulap Saipradit at Prachachat newspaper in 1937, and later at Prachamit-Suphapburut newspaper
during the war.

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 Literature for Life

contestation with their more conservative counterpart, which in turn helped

refine their new concept of literature that would later become known as
“literature for life.”

The Intellectual Debates at the Writers’ Club

The Writers‟ Club was established and organised by three well-known writers
and journalists: Malai, Wilat Maniwat and Prayat So Nakhanat, who also served
as the Club‟s president. It was financially supported by Ari Liwira, the owner of
Thai Phanitchayakan, one of the biggest and most influential publishing houses
after the war. The original purpose of the club was, according to Wilat, to allow
writers to meet, discuss and exchange ideas so as to contribute to the general
progress of the art of writing. In this sense, its claim was not much different
from previous literary organisations that had been established by the
government or the ruling elite.16 Wilat implied, however, that the inspiration for
the club actually derived from various international sources and examples,
including Flaubert‟s opening his house in Paris for his writer friends, the
gatherings of American writers such as Emerson and Thoreau in Concord,
Massachusetts, the activities of the Bloomsbury Group in England, and the
regular meetings among Thai poets and writers at Prince Bhidayalongkorn‟s
house in the 1930s (Wilat 80-83).
The Writers‟ Club organised over twenty meetings between 1950 and
1951 to discuss various topics concerning literature. The meetings were
attended by well-established writers, literary critics and literary scholars of both
genders and from all political and ideological backgrounds. The details of each
meeting were afterwards reported by Wilat, writing under the pen name Olan,
in the Thai Phanitchayakan weekly and monthly newspapers, first in Roengrom rai
sapda, then in Phim thai (wanchan) – Roengrom rai sapda, and later on, in Phim thai
rai duean. The publication of the reports in such widely-distributed newspapers
meant that the debates could be followed by the general public as well as writers
who did not themselves attend the meetings. It followed, therefore, that the
issues that were debated among the members of the Writers‟ Club had an
impact that reached beyond the club‟s circle. During its first meeting, which
took place at the Thai Phanitchayakan office in late January 1950, the club
decided to discuss “the duty and responsibility of writers,” an issue that was
critically important to the participants and would be taken up again in later
debates.
Those who participated in the debate on this particular issue could be
roughly divided into two groups. The first saw literature as an art form and
thought of themselves and other writers as artists whose sole responsibility was
to the art itself. When commenting on the role of writers, for example, Malai

16
See Thanapol Limapichart.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

elaborated on his own personal approach to writing by saying “when I have a

story to tell, I will write about it, and think of nothing else. I am honest only to
myself and responsible to my characters…. As for the people, I am not
concerned about them. I do not worry about whether or not they will like my
work. I write to satisfy myself alone” (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai
sapda 3.137: 21-24, 28).
Another participant in the debate who held a similar position with regards
to the responsibility of writers was Wit, a young, European-educated literary
critic and scholar. Wit observed, in his address to the club, that Thai people
tended to place too much emphasis on moral lessons (khati), which were, for
him, not the objective of art. Writers, he suggested, should remind themselves
that their duty was not to preach to all of humanity (prot sat) but to create a
work of art (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.137: 23). Wit did not,
however, push his position to the extreme. He claimed instead that the idea of
art for art‟s sake and for nothing else was untenable although he never
elaborated on how to create a work of art that did not exist solely for its own
sake (Olan, Phim thai rai duean 3.26: 34).
Interacting against these ideas were those espoused by the Marxist and
leftist thinkers who were, as we have seen in the previous section, starting to
formulate ideas about a new genre of literature. Atsani claimed, for instance,
that writers should not write simply to satisfy themselves but should try to serve
the cause of the people especially the poor and the disadvantaged. He declared,
for example, that he and other writers “are with the people; [they] are part of
the people” (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3. 137: 23). Though
himself a conservative scholar, Pluang Na Nakhon agreed with Atsani that
writers had responsibilities not only to themselves but to others as well. He did
not think, however, that writers had an obligation to promote the people‟s
interests. He believed instead in the didactic function of literature and argued
that writers should answer the call from both the state and the society to use
their works in order to uphold the standard of morality (Olan, Phim thai
(wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.137: 23).
The discussion of the role and responsibility of writers was taken up again
when the club took on the issue of the political novel. The debates were intense
because the participants not only held different views on the function of art and
literature but also realised, for the most part, that writing a novel could be
political. Sa-ngop Suansiri humorously remarked: “except for the homework a
teacher assigns, everything else is political” (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom
rai sapda 3.137: 28). Speaking from the “art for art‟s sake” position, M.R. Kukrit
Pramoj, a royalist politician and writer, argued that writing a novel was not
about shaping people to be good or evil. It was rather a vehicle for a writer‟s
artistic and emotional expression. If anyone wanted to write in order to

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 Literature for Life

admonish the people, Kukrit believed he should become a preacher rather than
a writer (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.137: 28).
Agreeing with Kukrit, Banchop Chuwanon, a journalist and newspaper
editor, expressed his opinion during the debate on the meaning of “art for art‟s
sake” that “artists, either writers or painters, do not, in fact, think of the people.
What they are concerned with is how they can translate their imagination into
their works. Whatever the critics think is not important” (Olan, Phim thai
(wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 4.141: 21-23). He further criticised the idea of “art
for people” as being beyond the realm of art itself as it had a tendency to be
involved in politics. He said everything seemed, at that moment, to be all about
nationalism and politics, and it would be a loss if art too was exploited for
nationalistic and political ends.
In contrast to Kukrit‟s and Banchop‟s autotelic view, Kulap believed that
literature has the function of serving the people‟s interests.17 He explained that,
in the past, artists had no artistic freedom because they worked under the
patronage system of the traditional elite. After the market system has replaced
the earlier patronage one, however, artists were still not completely free because
they had to follow the demands of the market. The question for Kulap was
how, under these new circumstances, writers could offer the greatest benefits to
the greatest number of people, that is, how writers could make the poor and the
disadvantaged realise the inferiority of their situation and want to change their
lives for the better (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.137: 28).
Although those who attended the Writers Club‟s meetings seemed to be
divided into two camps on the issue of the role and responsibility of writers, it
is important to note that some also tried to reach a compromise between the
two positions. Itsara declared, for example, that “[his] first responsibility is [to
himself]. The people come second” (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda
3.137: 22). Unlike other proponents of the “art for art‟s sake” approach,
however, Itsara did not feel that he could write anything with impunity as long
as it expressed his artistic vision. He added, for instance, that “[he] won‟t give
poison to the people [prachachon]. If [he has] to give them poison, [he] will
inform them, to make sure that they know what they are consuming” (Olan,
Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.137: 23).
Wilat was another writer who tried to reach a compromise between the
two main positions on the role and responsibility of writers. He did so by

17
Arguably, Kulap might have been seriously interested in radical and Marxist literature when he
went to study in Australia from 1947 to 1949. As Scot Barmé mentions, the Australian officials
who checked out Kulap’s book collection were quite surprised to see “a stack of Marxist books
and pamphlets in one corner of the living room” in his apartment. After he came back from
Australia, he wrote the novel Chon kwa rao cha phop kan ik (Till We Meet Again), which would
later be regarded as the first work of socialist realism, or of literature for life. See Scot Barmé
xxxix, Trisilpa Boonkhachorn 150 and Somsak Jeamteerasakul 13.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

arguing that the two approaches to art were, in fact, not radically different from
each other. They simply had different emphases. Those who thought first and
foremost of the people were not, according to Wilat, necessarily disregarding
the artistic aspect of writing. They too wanted their works to be artistic. Those
who believed that art should exist for its own sake were, likewise, not
necessarily disregarding the people. They were, after all, inspired by their
contemplation on the people‟s lives, and the works that they created did, in
turn, affect the people‟s feelings and emotions (Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) –
roengrom rai sapda 4.140: 23-24).
Yet another writer who tried to compromise between the two approaches
to art was Malai. After he expressed his view during the first meeting of the club
that a writer should write for himself alone, Malai seemed to reconsider his
position. He argued, in a later meeting on the topic of the political novel, that
there were two ways of writing. The first was to instigate actions (khian hai koet
patikiriya), and the second was to call for understanding and create feelings of
sympathy. Malai himself preferred the latter, more peaceful approach even
though he acknowledged that it might take more time to lead to real changes
(Olan, Phim thai (wanchan) – roengrom rai sapda 3.136: 24, 34).
In addition to the role and responsibility of writers, another issue that was
heavily debated among the participants of the meetings was art and obscenity
(anachan). Its focus was on Thai literary classics, in particular Khun chang khun
phaen, one of Thailand‟s greatest folk epics. The issue at hand was on the status
of this particular text as either a piece of art or a work of obscenity. The debate
was particularly intense because it was less about aesthetic tastes and more
about political and ideological beliefs between two sides, that is, between the
liberal and conservative on the one side, and the Marxist on the other.
Wit argued that we needed to consider the author‟s intention in order to
decide whether or not a piece of work should be labelled as obscene or
pornographic. If the writer wanted to provoke the reader‟s sexual desire, the
work would be considered obscene. If, however, the author simply wanted to
represent an aspect of love and life, his work should not be considered
pornographic. Agreeing with Wit, Pluang asserted that a love scene in poetic
form should not be considered obscene because it was rendered beautifully
(Olan, Roengrom rai sapda 3.124: 38). Thus, for both writers, Thai literary classics
like Khun chang khun phaen were far from being pornographic. Wit even declared
that Khun chang khun phaen was the work that most thoroughly explored all
aspects of life, so if one were to consider it obscene simply because it included
love scenes, one would have to consider life itself obscene (Olan, Roengrom rai
sapda 3.124: 22).
Disagreeing with Wit and Pluang, the Marxist thinker Atsani insisted that
Khun chang khun phaen and, by implication, other Thai literary classics were
indeed obscene, adding that intention was less important than expression.

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 Literature for Life

Atsani further developed these ideas in an article that was published in Aksonsan
after the series of debate on art and obscenity took place at the Writers‟ Club.
The essay was entitled “Lilit phra lo… wannakhadi sakdina” (“Lilit Phra Lo”…
The Feudal Literature), and it was one of the most famous and controversial
works of criticism in Thai literary history. Atsani‟s criticism of Lilit phra lo was
twofold. First of all, he regarded this literary classic as the apparatus of the
“feudalists” to indoctrinate the people. Second of all, he criticised Lilit phra lo on
the grounds of its obscenity [wannakhadi lamok]. Specifically, he asserted that the
love/sex scenes in Lilit phra lo were not true art but were examples of the
feudalists‟ idea of artistic beauty.

The Rise of Literature for Life

The publication of articles, discussions and book reviews in the newspapers and
journals (particularly Mahachon, Sayam samai and Aksornsan) had, as other
historians have noted, an undeniable influence on the later emergence of the
concept of art for life and people. As mentioned above, however, it was not the
only factor that contributed to the rise of this new concept. By providing a
forum where the nascent ideas of literature that sided with the poor and of
literature that had a social purpose came into contestation with their more
conservative counterparts; the series of debate at the Writers‟ Club arguably
helped shape what later became known as literature for life. The clearest
examples of the influence that the Writers‟ Club debates had on the emergence
of the new concept of art and literature can be found in Atsani‟s and Udom‟s
works.
While participating in the Writers‟ Club debate on obscenity, Atsani put
forth his idea that art was composed of two parts: form and content. If the
content was obscene, the art was also obscene – or what he called the art of
obscenity. True art must be good in both form and content.18 Atsani also
criticised those who said that art and obscenity could not be distinguished from
each other. He declared that they were either using the title of “art” to cover up
their own obscene works or were trying to mislead and suppress the people
(Inthrayut 164-166).
The distinction between artistic form and content later allowed Atsani to
develop a formula for “revolutionary literature” (wannakhadi fai patiwat), which
was Atsani‟s name for the type of literature that later became known as
literature for life. Writers of revolutionary literature would not, according to
Atsani, dismiss form in favour of content. In fact, they could even use the old
forms of classical literature whose artistic beauty had already been endorsed by

18
His idea of art constituting of both form and content was evidently derived from Mao Tsetung’s
talks on art and literature at the Yenan forum (1942). As mentioned above (see fn. 30), Atsani
translated and published Mao’s Yenan talk in the magazine Aksonsan, in the December 1949, and
January and February 1950 issues. Also, see Mao Tsetung 250-86, particularly, 275-76.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

the reading public. What they needed to do was create new material, so that
their literature would be “national in form, but Socialist in content” (Inthrayut
198). It followed then that revolutionary literature could potentially be as artistic
as reactionary literature (wannakhadi fai patikiriya) but would, at the same time,
present new content that was neither obscene nor oppressive (Inthrayut 198).
Another Marxist thinker who was influenced by the debates that took
place at the Writers‟ Club was Udom. Unlike Atsani, Udom did not himself
participate in the debates. He did, however, closely follow their published
reports and wrote his most celebrated articles “Du wannakhadi chak sangkhom,
du sangkhom chak wannakhadi” (Study Literature through Society, Study
Society through Literature) in part as a reaction to the discussions that took
place at the club.19 Udom published the article under the pen name Pho
Muangchomphu in Mahachon in late June 1950, just a few weeks after the series
of discussion on the topic of “art for art‟s sake” had taken place (Banchong
Banchoetsin 49-96).20 In it he tried to define the idea of art for life. He wrote
that art was a reflection of life and society. Its value must, therefore, be
measured by how meaningful it was to human beings. If it had no meaning to
human life, then it had no meaning at all (Banchong Banchoetsin 56). He
dismissed, for instance, a poem that described the beauty of the full moon for
having no value when one realised that all around people were dying of hunger
(Banchong Banchoetsin 58-59).
Udom also responded to those who tried to find a middle ground
between the two approaches to art by calling for a discourse of sympathy such
as Malai and Wilat. Udom believed that if an artist were to see people suffering
from natural disasters, he should use art to urge for sympathy and to call for
help. If, however, he were to see them suffering at the hands of other people, it
would not be enough to encourage the readers to sympathise with them. What
the artist should do instead was to use his art to reveal the social wickedness
and injustice in order to fight for freedom from hunger and oppression
(Banchong Banchoetsin 52, 57-59). Udom‟s idea corresponded with the notion
of proletarian art (Wannakhadi chonchan kanmachip) and literature that had
developed in the West. Writers of proletarian literature not only respected the
virtue of workers and protected the interests of the poor, but they also joined
their fight for justice. This idea was, as Udom himself noted, the origin of the
motto, “art for people‟s sake” (Banchong Banchoetsin 61-62).

19
Udom mentioned that the article was inspired by two developments. One was the Writers’ Club
debates on “what art is for,” and the other was the publication of Siburapha’s (Kulap’s) book
Chonkwa rao cha phop kan ik (Till We Meet Again). The novel was often regarded as a starting
point for literature for life.
20
Udom finished his article on June 18, 1950. The Writers’ Club held three sessions of debate on
the topic of “art for art’s sake,” on May 3 and 19 and June 2, 1950. (Note: Banchong Banchoetsin
is another pen name of Udom).

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 Literature for Life

As has been shown, the debates at the Writers‟ Club had considerable
influence on scholars who were trying to formulate their ideas of a new genre of
literature that would later come to be known as literature for life. One should
note, however, that the notion of art or literature for life was not restricted to
intellectual debates alone but was actually practiced by several writers. In 1952,
Wilat, writing under the pen name Chunlathat, made an observation about a
changing trend in the style of short story writing in the magazine Chao krung
(The Bangkokian) (Chunlathat, Chao krung 1.2: 93-94).21 This new style
sometimes looked like an essay or a dialogue with no plot or climax. Examples
of these short stories could be witnessed, according to him, in the works of
Isara, Kulit Inthusak (a pen name of Atsani), and other progressive writers.
More importantly, Wilat pointed out that back in 1949, most editors and readers
were not at all interested in this kind of story. Malai, for instance, used to
criticise this kind of short story written by a young writer as “too serious,” in
other words, radical. A year or two later, however, Malai praised a similar style
of work highly for being full of ideas and for being driven by the desire to
create a just society (Chunlathat, Chao krung 1.4: 90-92).22 In 1952, a young
writer named Seni Saowaphong (a pen name of Sakchai Bamrungphong) also
claimed, in his well-known book Attaniyom kap chintaniyom (Realism and
Romanticism), that Thai literature was in a transition period – a period in which
“art for life” was its motto (Seni Saowaphong 173-238).
Wilat‟s observation and Seni‟s assertion indicated a rise of the concept of
art and literature for life in the early 1950s that was confirmed by the numerous
publications of short stories, novels, poems and essays on literary theory.
Among them were O Udakon‟s short story “Karl marx, klin dinpeun lae
nanthiya” (Karl Marx, Gunpowder Smell and Nanthiya), Srirat Satapanawat‟s
novel Phaendin ni khong krai (Whose Land is It?) (1951), Seni Saowaphong‟s
novels Khwamrak khong wanlaya (Wanlaya‟s Love) (1952) and Pisat (The Ghost)
(1953), Atsani‟s poem “Isan” (The Northeast) (1952), and Udom‟s two articles
“Sinlapawannakhadi kap chiwit” (Art, Literature and Life) (1952) and “Chiwit
and khwam faifan” (Life and Dream) (1952).
This enthusiasm for literature for life was briefly subdued during the
aftermath of the Peace Movement in late 1952.23 It was renewed, however, in

21
The magazine was founded by Kukrit and had Wilat as its editor. Also, as the title might
suggest, it was inspired by the magazine The New Yorker.
22
Malai’s praise for a work labeled as literature for life did not mean that he totally agreed with its
approach or message. As seen in the Writers’ Club debates, Malai had subtly criticised Kulap’s
version of art/ literature for life.
23
The Peace Movement was “a Stockholm-based campaign against nuclear weapons which
Beijing patronized to bring international pressure against U.S. military action in China and Korea.”
See Baker, Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit 145.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

the mid-1950s as evidenced by the establishment of literary journals such as

Pithuphum (which also had a French title, La Patrie, and a motto, “newspaper for
life and hope”) (1955) and Saithan (Stream) (1958). These journals effectively
revived the discussion on literature for life by publishing works of this particular
genre.24 Every issue of the biweekly Pithuphum contained, for example, an
instalment of serialised “novels for life” (nawaniyai phuea chiwit).25 These novels
had as their protagonists the poor and the disadvantaged and featured the
themes of poverty and social injustice.
Perhaps the most important contribution to the revival of the discourse
of art and literature for life in the mid-1950s was, however, the work of the
Marxist intellectual Jit Phumisak. Jit wrote and published many articles in both
Pithuphum and Saithan as well as in the popular newspaper Sanseri (Free Voice).
Among all of his works on art, literature and criticism, the most well-known
(and, in retrospect, the most influential) was Sinlapa phuea chiwit (Art for Life).
The book was a collection of four articles written between 1955 and 1957. It
touched upon most of the themes that had been debated among writers, literary
scholars and critics since the end of the war. Jit stated that the book aimed “to
wash out the old idea of art,” by which he meant the doctrine of art for art‟s
sake (Jit Phumisak 9).
Citing Tolstoy‟s What is Art? as an authority, Jit emphasised that art must
serve the people (Jit Phumisak 27-28). Art that served the people meant “art
that wakes people up to the objective reality of life, and prompts them to turn
their lives around” (Jit Phumisak 74). The metaphors that Jit often used in his
writing were art as a spear and a lamp. The spear served, according to Jit, “to
hurt the enemies of the people – the enemies that make their lives miserable.
The lamp helped lead the people to better conditions by revealing: first, the
sufferings that they are currently enduring; second, the causes of these
sufferings; third, the solutions to these sufferings; fourth, examples of the
decent lives that they would soon be living” (Jit Phumisak 74-75). Although Jit
did not mention it, it is not difficult to recognise that the formulation of these
four revelations was profoundly influenced by the Buddhist notion of the Four

24
Pithuphum was owned and edited by Pluang Wannasi, a journalist and poet. He was also
arrested in 1952 during the government’s crackdown of the Peace Movement. He founded
Pithuphum in 1955 after having been released from prison. Saithan was owned by Thongtoem
Samerasut, a friend of Itsara. According to Somsak Jeamteerasakul, the journal was owned by the
CPT. See Plaung wannasi: kawi-nakkhit-nakkhian-naksu (Pluang Wannasi, Poet, Thinker, Writer,
and Fighter) 12-16, and Somsak Jeamteerasakul 221.
25
Although these works were called “novels” (nawaniyai), they were, in fact, short stories and
novellas.

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 Literature for Life

Noble Truths.26 In this sense, we may say that Jit‟s concept of art was not only
influenced by the great Russian writer but also by Buddhist teachings.
In the same work, Jit also criticised Thai classical literature (wannakhadi)
and its sexual representations as pornographic. In addition, he considered rueang
chakchak wongwong (folk tales about royal characters from an imagined past) as
the ruling elite‟s instrument to brainwash the people and bolster the feudal
(sakdina) system. According to Jit, these stories usually portrayed the ruling elite
as talented and beautiful characters, while at the same time presenting poor
people as either villains or clowns. Good people were those who were loyal to
the ruling class (Jit Phumisak 81-82, 125-126, 132). Despite his criticism of
feudalism and its art, Jit contended that art for life had actually existed in every
period of history including in feudal times. There were, for instance, the poems
of Sri Prat in the Ayuthaya period and the play Raden lan dai by Phra
Mahamontri (Sap) in the Early Bangkok period. These works reflected, Jit
argued, the struggling spirit of the common people (Jit Phumisak 129-130).
In addition to the literary classics, Jit also disapproved most contemporary
popular fictions which he identified as bourgeois utilitarian art (Jit Phumisak
138, 141-142). He criticised these fictional works, such as those by Cha-um
Panchaphan, a popular writer at the time, as nonsensical and fanciful. For Jit,
these popular fictions were, by and large, influenced by imperial American
culture such as Hollywood movies and rock-and-roll music, which had flooded
into Thailand after the end of the Pacific War. At the same time, he denounced
works of famous writers such as Kukrit Pramoj‟s Si phaendin (Four Reigns) as
nostalgic for the good old days of feudalism. In contrast to these works, Jit
lauded the later works of Kulap and those of Seni, Itsara, Atsani, as well as
himself as works that served the interest of the people. He lauded them, in
other words, as examples of art or literature for life (Jit Phumisak 147-148).

Conclusion
Art and literature for life were the products of their time. As this article has
demonstrated, they came into being during times of crucial political and
ideological struggles among various fractions, namely the progressive, the
conservative, the royalist and the communist, with each trying to assert its
political power and cultural hegemony. Some scholars have argued, as discussed
above, that the concept of art and literature for life was initially introduced and
promoted by the CPT and its network. This article has shown, however, that it
actually developed out of the dynamic exchanges and debates among writers,
journalists, social critics and literary scholars of various political and ideological
inclinations.

26
The Four Noble Truths in Buddhist teaching are as follows: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering
involves a chain of causes, 3) suffering can cease, and 4) there is a path to such cessation.

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 Thanapol Limapichart

After their emergence in the early 1950s and their renewed prosperity in
the middle of that decade, art and literature for life were swept away by the
1958 military coup that resulted in a long-running authoritarian regime (Baker,
Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit 148). The coup was followed by massive
crackdowns, arrests and censorship. Progressive writers and intellectuals were
put in jail (e.g. Udom, Jit and Pluang Wannasi, who all went to the jungle after
being released), exiled (e.g. Kulap), went to the jungle and joined the CPT (e.g.
Atsani), kept silent, wrote something else, or stopped writing altogether (e.g.
Seni, Supha, Srirat and Khamsing Srinok). Progressive and leftist newspapers
and journals (among them Pithuphum and Saithan) were also ordered to close
down (Prajak Kongkirati 380-382 and Sathian Chanthimathon 344-350). Most
progressive and radical works disappeared from the literary market and were
unavailable to the reading public. It would not be until the early 1970s that the
concept was once again revived by radical students and intellectuals.

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