English is a language, not a subject.

English is L2, not L1.

What is a language?
Language is the collection of sounds used for
communication. It is a source of
communication. It is rather a window to the
world.
1. Language of sounds (regional) (Sindhi,
Punjabi, Chinese, Russian, English) (6909)
(2100) (500 languages will be left) (The
century of language death)
2. Language of gestures/signs
(cosmopolitan/universal) (the language of
sign used for deaf and dumb) (special child,
disabled (other-way abled)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nsR3fHC4y3o&t=70s
Skills
There are four skills:
1. Listening (input) 80 % (understanding)
(blind) (ears)
2. Reading (input) 20% (comprehension)
(deaf; dumb) (eyes)
3. Speaking (output) (lisping)
(stutter/stammer
4. Writing (output)
In L1, the learner covers two skills:/
namely/i.e./viz. listening and speaking at
home, and learns reading and writing at
school, whereas in L2, the learner needs to
focus on all four skills during the learning
process.
Language L1 L2
Listening (at home) (at school)
Speaking (at home) (at school)
Reading (at school) (at school)
Writing (at school) (at school)
(،‫سوال جواب‬ ،‫سبق‬ ،‫لفظ‬ ،‫ت‬ ‫اب‬
‫)صورتخطي‬
(ABC, Letter, word, sentence, lesson, dictation,
questions and answers)

Essentials of Language
Levels of language acquisition: Foundation,
correctness, greatness.
1. Semantics (Vocabulary/words): Learn
phrases/ words and their meaning and use
them in short sentences.
2. Syntax: grammar, composition, order,
sequence (Not traditional but functional
grammar)
3. Phonetics: (Pronunciation) (accent)
(dialect)
 L1 accent must not affect the L2
languages.

a (‫( )اَي‬day, say, pay, okay, lay, may)

o (‫( )َا او‬go, no, so, low)
o (‫( )او‬law, saw)
p (‫( )پهه ڦ‬put, pick, pen)
k (‫( )کهه ک‬kill, kite, can, cat, come, cool)
t (‫( )ڻهه ٺ‬time, teach, took, tea, tell)
ch (‫)ڇهه ڇ‬: Teacher, chair
r (‫)آ‬ 1. (ca{r}, teache{r}, fathe{r},
mothe{r}, docto{r}
2. fo{r}get, fo{r} give, cha{r}ming,
ai{r}po{r}t
3. bi{r}d, gi{r}l, hea{r}t, hu{r}t, ca{r}t,
pa{r}t, po{r}t, lo{r}d, fo{r}m, fa{r}m
4. cream, train, friend, tree, write,
(a,e,I,o,u)

th (‫ )ث‬nothing, thank you, thanks, thumb

I (‫ آ ِاي‬،‫ )آ اي‬High, bye, tie, eye, life, wife,
mine, nine, diet, kite, light, write, flight,
slight, line,

faithless, helpless, hopeless

goodness, badness, kindness,

development, agreement, arrangement,

government,

interested, wicked, cricket, biscuit, wicket,

message, marriage, college, knowledge,

village, passage, advantage, language

bomb, tomb, climb, dumb, thumb, debt,

doubt, comb
 fall, small, tall, all, ball, call

glove, stove, above, love,

adjective, adjourn, adjust

of (‫)آو‬, off (‫)آف‬

(our, are, or, for, far, farm, form, foam, we,

cupboard, receipt, comfortable, equation,
saw, so, law, low, forgive, forget,
telephone, television, theory)

Antireestablismentarianism
Anti re establish ment arianism
Vocal Organs: Lungs, pharynx, teeth, lips,
tongue, palate (soft and hard), nasal cavity,
nostrils
Structure of Language
1.Letters (a b c d…) ((‫( اب ت‬Latin 24, English 26,
Arabic 29, Urdu 36, Sindhi 52/56 +, (( ،‫ نهه‬،‫لهه‬
،‫ سنهي‬،‫گهوڙو‬،‫ ُج هولو‬،‫ گهه‬،‫ جهه‬،‫ڻهه‬
‫ ملهه‬،‫( ماڻهو‬ideography) Chinese, Japanese,
Korean (Mathematic) (algorithm), (computer
programming)
2.Syllable/sound (‫ َبهيڙ‬،‫ ُپَٽ ؛ ِبهيڙ‬، ‫ ِپَٽ‬، ‫)َپَٽ‬
(phonology) (beau, fa, ther, ) (diacritic marks
or two or more letters: ‫ُج و‬،‫ با‬،‫( )آ‬kgsd; sdkj;
jfqd) (kigsod) (Vowels and Consonants: beau,
fa(a,e,i,o,u) (sky, fly, by, my, happy) (yellow,
yummy)
3.Words: (beautiful, father) (meaning)
4.Phrase: A phrase is a group of words that functions
as a single unit but lacks a subject and predicate, so
it does not express a complete thought. (A group
of words having partial thought.) (E.g. on the
table, in the morning, last night)
5.Clause: A clause is a group of words with a
subject and a predicate. It can be independent
(stands alone as a complete thought, e.g., "She
 runs", “I finished my homework) or dependent
(needs another clause to make sense, e.g.,
"Because she was late" “When she comes”,
“Realizing my mistake). (Partial thought)
6.) Sentence: A sentence is a complete thought
with at least one independent clause,
conveying meaning on its own (e.g., "The
bright sun shines."). It can include multiple
clauses or phrases.)
7.Paragraph: (idea) (Topic sentence, supporting
sentences (ideas), concluding sentence)
8. Essay: (topic) (Introductory paragraph,
body/development paragraph and conclusive
paragraph)
(Allama Iqbal: education, poetry, politics,
philosophy)
(Computer: history, parts, uses, disadvantages,
advantages)

WORD CLASSES/ PARTS OF SPEECH/LEXICAL

UNITS
Noun: book, Asma, Tufail, teacher
(recognition) (monotony) (repetition)
Pronoun: I, we, you, he, she, they, one, it,
(substitution/replacement) (variety)
(pro/anti)
Adjective: new, cute, dedicated, regular, good,
old, three (noun, pronoun) (degrees)
Verb: (work) teach, play, come, go, study
Adverb: (how) slowly, fast, regularly, weekly
(adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,
conjunction)
Preposition: (logical) to, in, at, on,
under/beneath, over, around, onto, into, out
of, about, upon, against, beside, behind, in
front of, opposite to, along, across, through,
by, with.
(Fixed) look at, listen to, ill with, the key to,
notes on, good at, bad at, laugh at, wrong
with, marriage to, fill the form in red ink,
teacher enters the classroom.
Conjunction:
Coordinate conjunction (fanboys: for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so) (compound sentence) I
came to meet you, but you were sleeping.
Subordinate Conjunction: after, although, as,
because, before, even if, even though, if, in
order to, once, provided that, rather than,
since, so that, than, that, though, unless,
until, when, whenever, where, whereas,
wherever, whether, while, why. (Complex
sentence) If you give me your number, I will
call you.
Ali writes a letter. (Simple sentence) I came to
meet you, but you were sleeping. (Compound
sentence) Because you are sick, you should
rest. (Complex sentence)
Interjection: (Sudden feelings of happiness,
sorrow, surprise, and excitement) Alas!
Hurrah! Hurray! Wow! Voila!, Yippee! Pooh!
Ough! Phew! Ouch!
Alas! He is dead. Alas, he is dead!
Article: Indefinite articles: (a/an) and Definite
article (the)

Noun: (Proper (Ali, Badin), common

(book/apple/water). (Common: uncountable
(water; food; flour; milk; petrol; sugar/rice) or
countable (stars)(Stars can be
infinite/countless, but they are countable),
(Countable: singular or plural) (*****)
Noun, common, countable, singular
(generalize (indefinite: a/an), specify (Definite:
the)
Infinite/countless (stars), countable z
An MPA, an egg, an MA in English, an honest
person, an hour, a book, a pen, a university
Singular Plural Uncountable
Book/apple books water
a some some
an few little
the a few a little
the few the little
many much
a lot of/ lots of lot of /a
lot of
I saw a lion in a jungle. The lion was with a
lioness. The lioness was with a cub. The
cub was limping after the lioness in the
jungle.
Ali is my friend. He is a doctor. He is a good
doctor. The doctor treats patients. The doctor
treats them properly. He treats at the Civil
Hospital. He works at the Civil Hospital, and he
also works at a private hospital.
Ali is a my friend. He is a teacher. He is a good
teacher. He teaches. He teaches
slowly/fast/well/effectively/properly. He
teaches at the Paragon Academy Badin, and
he also teaches at a university. Hurrah! He has
won a Nobel Prize. Alas, he is dead now!
Nasir, doctor, treats
Nasir is a doctor. He is a doctor. He is a good
doctor. He treats. He treats
effectively/properly. He treats at the Civil
Hospital, and he also treats at the Agha Khan
Hospital.
He is a very good teacher. (adv-adj). He runs
fast. (Adv-verb). He runs very fast. (adv-adv).
The bullet went straight/exactly into the eye.
(Adv-prep) They left earlier before we arrived
there. (adv-conjunction) He teaches slowly
(manner). He teaches daily (time). You should
wait outside (place). He called me twice
(frequency). He never wished me good luck
(negation) I rang the bell to call the peon.
(reason)

Noun: (Proper (Ali, Badin), common

(book/apple/water). (Common: uncountable
(water) or countable (stars) (Stars can be
infinite/countless but they are countable;
(****), (Countable: singular or plural) (bat-
bats, glass-glasses, life-lives, leaf-leaves,
(exception: handkerchief(s), roof(s), chief(s)),
party-parties, key-keys, mango-mangoes, zoo-
zoos, (hair, sheep, fish, deer, news (is)
(trousers, pants, shorts (are) child-children,
foot-feet, thesis-theses, medium-media,
stratum-strata, phenomenon-phenomena)
(genders: masculine (boy), feminine (girl),
common (teacher), and neuter)
(non-living/inanimate)

Pronoun: (Cases: subjective (I, We, You),

objective (me, us, you), possessive (mine,
ours, yours), possessive adj. (my, our, your),
reflexive (myself). (This is my book (owner).
This book is mine (property).) (She speaks to
herself.) (Reflexive). (My father himself came
to invite you. (Intensive).
I teach you. We teach them. (me teach they).
(Her teaches I.)
Adjective: (Degrees: positive (new),
comparative (newer), superlative (newest)
Ali is clever. Ali is cleverer than I (am). Ali is
the cleverest student in the whole class. Latif
is the greatest poet of Sindh. Latif is one of the
greatest poets of the world.
(fast-faster-fastest, brave, braver, bravest,
happy-happier-happiest, gray-grayer-grayest,
big- bigger-biggest, handsome - more
handsome - most handsome, good-better-
best)

Verb: (work) (Forms: root(write), infinitive/1st

(to write), past/2nd (wrote), past participle/3rd
(written), present participle/4th (writing),
gerund/verb noun (writing)) (apply, to apply,
applied, applied, applying, application) (Types:
action/main verb, helping/auxiliary/tense
verb, linking verb/copular verb, modal verb
(can, may, must, should, had better, ought to,
used to, would), causative verb: make/get)
(she makes me laugh. I get my hair cut.)
Verbs: Tenses) (Present, Past, Future Tense)
Adverb: (Degrees) slowly, fast, regularly,
weekly (Types: Adverb of time, manner, place,
frequency, reason,). Ali writes cleverly. Ali
writes more cleverly than I. Ali writes the most
cleverly in the whole class.
Preposition: (Logical) to, in, at, on, under,
over, around, onto, into, about, upon, across,
though, beside, behind, in front of, opposite
to.
(Fixed) look at, listen to, ill with, the key to,
notes on, good at, bad at,
Conjunction: (coordinate (fansboy) and
subordinate conjunctions (because, when,
while, )
Interjection: (Sudden feelings of happiness,
sorrow, surprise, and excitement) Alas!
Hurrah! Hurray! Wow! Yippee! Pooh! Ough!
Phew! Ouch!
Alas! He is dead. Alas, he is dead!
Article: Indefinite articles: (a/an) and Definite
article (the)
Noun, common, countable, singular
(generalize (indefinite: a/an), specify (Definite:
the
An MPA, an egg, an MA in English, an honest
person

Noun: proper or common; the common noun

is either uncountable or countable. The
countable nouns are either singular or plural.
Stars are countable, not uncountable.
(infinite/countless)
Noun: (Proper (Badin, Amjad) or common
(water/star), common: uncountable (water) or
countable (star), countable: singular (star) or
plural (stars), singular (generalize (indefinite:
a/an), specify (Definite: the)
Singular Plural Uncountable
Book/apple books water
a some some
an few little
the a few a little
the few the little
many much
lots of lot of /a lot of
He is an honest person. He is a person. Please
suggest me a movie. Please suggest me an
educational movie.
Stars are countable, though they are infinite or
countless. ***
Noun: Proper (Ali), common (pen, water)
Common: uncountable (water), countable
(pen, star)
Countable: singular (pen/star), plural
(pens/stars)
Singular and plural: book-books, copy-copies,
Bat-bats; chair-chairs; ball-balls; moustache-
moustaches
glass-glasses; class-classes; box-boxes; fox-
foxes; match-matches; watch-watches; flash-
flashes; fox-foxes
life-lives; leaf-leaves; thief-thieves, knife-
knives; wife-wives; self-selves; shelf-shelves;
calf-calves; (chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs)
(hoof-hoves/hoofs)
company-companies; baby-babies; sky-skies;
cry-cries, fly-flies
boy-boys; toy-toys; key-keys
mango-mangoes; tomato-tomatoes; potato –
potatoes (photo(s); kilo(s))
zoo-zoos; bamboo-bamboos
foot-feet; tooth-teeth; mouse-mice; louse-lice,
man-men; woman-women; child-children; ox-
oxen
، ‫ بوَٽ‬، ‫ بوُٽ‬، ‫ ُاَٺ‬، ‫ُاُٺ‬
،‫ گِڏهه‬،‫ َگَڏهه‬،‫ ُڪِڪڙ‬، ‫ُڪُڪُڙ‬
two deer, three fish, five sheep (peoples,
fishes)
Medium-media; stratum-strata; criterion-
criteria; phenomenon- phenomena; basis-
bases; crisis-crises; thesis-theses, syllabus-
syallbi
My pants/trousers/shorts/scissors/twisters/
pliers/socks are new.
One pair of pants. Two pairs of pants.
One piece of my socks is missing.
One piece of music/news. I have one piece of
work for you. Please bring two pieces of chalk.
I have two pieces of news. I will sing two items
of music.
My hair is long/short. (stride, streak)
The police are coming.
The team is/are good. Family is/are coming.

Noun: Gender
Masculine: boy, man, father, horse, dog, poet,
lion, mister
Feminine: girl, woman, mother, mare, bitch,
poetess, lioness, mistress
1. Boy-girl; men-women; horse-mare; dog-
bitch; grand-father-grand-mother;
father-in-law- mother-in-law
(paternal/maternal)
2. Poet-poetess; lion-lioness
 3. Actor-actress; master-mistress
Common: teacher, doctor, cousin, friend,
driver, student, patient,
Neuter: (inanimate) table, chair, pen, window,
cellphone, fan, copy
CASES OF PRONOUN

Perso Subjecti Objec Possess Possess Reflexiv

n ve Or tive ive ive e Case
Nomina Case Case Adjecti
tive (Thing) ve
(Owner
)
First I Me Mine My Myself
Perso We Us Ours Our Ourselv
n es
Prono
un
Secon You You Yours Your yourself
d yourselv
Perso Thou Thee Thine thy es
n thyself
Prono
un
Third He Him His His Himself
Perso she her hers her herself
n it it its its itself
Prono they them theirs their themsel
un one one one’s one’s ves
oneself
I teach you. You teach me.
This is my pen. This pen is mine.
This is my pen. (owner)
This pen is mine. (thing). This pen is yours.
(your’s sincerely).
Thou art my students. (You are my students)
She hath a problem. (She has a problem)
Where doth she live? (Where does she live?)
This is my book. (owner)
This book is mine. (object’s possession)
This is mine book. (This is my book.)

(Case of pronoun)
I/you/we/they teach Ali. (subjective case)
Ali teaches me/us/him/her/you. (objective
case)
This is my/our/his/her car. (possessive
adjective)
This car is mine/ours/yours/hers/his/theirs.
(possessive case)
I teach myself. She teaches herself. They
play themselves. (reflexive case)
I myself gave you money, how come you say
that you did not receive it. (intensive case
for emphasis)
She wants to sell her/hers car.
 I want to sell mine/my car. This car is
mine/my.
They want to sell them/theirs/their cars.
I teach she/her. Her/She teaches I/me.
ORDER OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

a) When singular pronouns of different

persons are used in a sentence, the second
person in singular comes first and the first
person pronoun appears in the end:
Example: a) You and I write in same way.
b) You, he and I read same lesson.
c) You and he go to Karachi.

b) Plural pronouns, however, follow another

order. The first person plural comes first,
second person plural and third person plural
follow respectively:
Example: a) We, you and they go to Karachi.
b) We and they go to Karachi.
 c) You and they play the match.

Adjective: degrees
Beautiful
Cute baby, informative/knowledgeable
lecture, charismatic personality, elegant
dress/clothes,
experienced/kind/polite/cooperative teacher,
wholesome water, perished/rotten
fruits/vegetables, luxurious car, spacious car,
Positive: Ali is clever.
Comparative: Ali is cleverer than I (am).
Superlative: Ali is the cleverest student in the
class.
Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan. Karachi
is one of the largest cities in the world.
Latif is the greatest poet of Sindh. Latif is one
of the greatest poets in the world.
Homer from Greece, Virgil from Rome, Dante
from Italy, Goethe from Germany,
Shakespeare from England, Milton from
England, Walt Whitman from America, Rumi,
Firdausi, Hafiz, Attar. Jami, Iqbal, Buleh, Bahu,
Mir, Momin Khan Momin, Galib, Tulsidas,
Meeran,

Positive comparative superlative

Small smaller smallest (tall, hard,
dark, soft, kind, slow, rich, poor)
Able abler ablest (fine, nice,
large, close, brave, loose, quite)
Heavy heavier heaviest (happy, lazy,
funny, fancy, gloomy, noisy, ugly
busy, thirsty, easy,
wealthy, stormy, sunny,
rainy, pretty)
Gay gayer gayest (grey)
Thin thinner thinnest (big,
slim, red, hot)
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
(powerful, intelligent,
Good better best (irregular
adjectives’ degrees are different)
Bad/ill/evil worse worst

Order of Adjective:

Number, size- general description-age-shape-

colour-material-origin-purpose

(a) three old red leather Spanish riding boots

(number, age, colour, material, origin,
purpose)
(b) A funny brown German beer mug
(description, colour, origin, purpose)
(c) a long sharp knife (size, description)
(d) an old plastic bucket (age, material)

Bad, new, playing red bat

Red, wide, wooden ladle
Descriptive, writing, new manual.

Bad new red playing bat

The wide red wooden ladle
New descriptive, writing manual.

Ali is an intelligent, smart, hardworking, and

serious student.

1. VERB
The verb tells what work is done. (forms)
(write, wrote, written, writing)
Example: teach, laugh, drive, kill, come, go,
write, sleep, cut, swim, walk, run, exercise,
operate, fight, flow, play, call, fall, see, sow,
sing, read, go, come, wear, run, eat, write, dry,
say, talk, kill, sift, knead, bake, eat, chew,
swallow/gulp down, digest, belch/burp,
sneeze, cough, yawn, snooze/doze/nap, snore,
hiccup,
I have the memory like a sieve. (dose)
(superstition) (good/bad omen) (myth)
She sings. They play. We meet. I teach.

Types of Verb
Action or main verb, auxiliary/helping verbs,
linking/ copular verb, modal verb, causative
verb
1. Action Verb: write, play, come, go,
read, walk, laugh, run, sneeze, yawn,
snore, belch, sift, knead, bake, chew,
 swallow, digest, (I have a memory like a
sieve)
Form of Verb: (write, to write, wrote,
written, writing, writing)
1. Write a letter. (Imperative/root)
2. I want to write a letter. (Infinitive/1st). I
write a letter. (bare infinitive)
3. I wrote a letter. (Past/ 2nd)
4. I have written a letter. (Past Participle/
3rd)
5. I am writing a letter. (Present
Participle/-ing form/ 4th)
6. My writing is weak. (Gerund/ Verbal
Noun)
I want to play. He used to play. She ought to
wait. (infinitive)
I can (to) go. He may (to) go. He will come. She
should wait. He would play. (bare-infinitive)
(Satisfy, to satisfy, satisfied, satisfied,
satisfying, satisfaction)
(apply, to apply, applied, applied, applying,
application)
Write, to write, wrote, written, writing,
writing)
(come, to come, came, come, coming, coming)
(bat, to bat, batted, batted, bating, bating)
I am writing. My writing is weak.
Ali is bowling. His bowling is fast.
She is going. Her going will make no
difference.
I am coming. My coming is useless.
He is playing. His playing is
futile/useless.
I am coming. My coming will make no
difference.
Satisfy him. (Imperative/root)
I want to satisfy him. (Infinitive/1st)
I satisfied him. (Past/2nd)
I have satisfied him. (Past Participle/ 3rd)
I am satisfying him. (Present Participle 4th)
It is the matter of my satisfaction.
(Noun/Gerund Noun/Verbal Noun)
Forms of verb
Regular Verb: kill-killed; play-played
Irregular Verb
1. Shut, cut, put, hit, read, let, spread,
telecast, broadcast
2. Beat, beat beaten
3. Come, came, come
4. Buy-bought; think- thought; bring-
brought;
5. Go, went, gone, eat, ate, eaten,
Lay, laid, laid
Lie, lay, lain

2. Helping/Auxiliary/ Tense verb: do,

does, is, am, are, has, have, has been, have
been (for present tense); did, was, were,
had, had been (for past tense); shall, will,
shall be, will be, shall have, will have, shall
have been, will have been (for future
tense).
She is writing. (Present)
She was writing. (Past)
She will be writing. (Future).
He is going to Karachi. (Present)
He was going to Karachi (Past)
He does not play. (Present)
He did not play. (Past)
He will not play. (Future)
They did not go. (Past)
 3. Linking/Copular verb: Ali is a teacher.
They are sick. She was a teacher.
Example: (be, were, shall have been, should
be, shall be, will have been, would be, am, will
be, can be, could be, is, has been, may be,
should have been, are, have been, might be,
would have been, was, had been, must be,
could have been) (appear, feel, look, seem,
sound, taste, become, grow, remain, smell,
stay, turn)

HV+AV LV+ Noun/Adjective

Ali is writing (HV). Ali is a teacher/sick (LV)+
(Noun/adj)
They are waiting. They are sick. (LV+Adj)
Gun sounds loud (AV). You sound logical in
your choice.
She has written a letter. She has four brothers.
4. Modal Verb: The common words, which are
generally used as modal verbs, are: can, could,
may, might, should, had better, ought to, used
to, dare, must; for example:
a) I can drive a car. ("Can" for potential,
ability, or capability)
b) May I come in? May he use your car? No,
he may not. ("May" for permission)
c) He may phone. It may rain. ("May" for
possibility)
d) May God bless you! May it rain! May
you die! May you break your leg! ("May" for
wish/desire and curse)
It may rain. May it rain! The doctor may
come. May the doctor come!
e) He goes to Karachi so that he may attend
the meeting. ("May" for purpose)
(She is sleeping. She my be sleeping. She has
slept. She might have slept. He was doctor.
He might be doctor. He is doctor. He may be
a doctor.)

f) You must submit your documents. (Strong

obligation)
g) You ought to consult a doctor because you
are ill with malaria. (Strong Advice)
h) You should consult a doctor because you
are ill with malaria. (Advice in an
authoritative style)
I) You had better consult a doctor because you
are ill with malaria. (Advice in suggestive
tone)
j) He used to smoke when he was living in
Karachi. (Past habits) (British English). (BrE)
 I would play cricket. (American English)
(AME)
“Used to” as an adjective. How do you get up
so early? I am used to it. Initially, you will
feel some problems, but with the passage of
time you will get used to it. After some days,
you will get used to operating computer.
k) How did you dare (to) enter my office? How
dare you?
would you like to have a cup of tea with us?
Would you please sit there?

5) Causative Verb: There are two causative

verbs namely “get” and “make” that cause
someone to work for others:
Example:
I) a) She makes me laugh. (Make is
followed by a subject (use the first form
 of the verb))
b) She (causative subject) makes
(causative verb) me (active subject)
laugh (active verb). He makes me call.
He makes me steal. He makes me beg.
He makes me lie. I make students
study. The old man makes the boy hold
a spoon.
II) a) I get my hair cut. (Get is followed by
an object (use the third form of the verb)
(I: causative subject, get (causative verb),
hair cut (object) (the subject is a barber)
b) I get an essay written. I get the room
cleaned. I get the car repaired.

Modal Verb: (can, may, should, had better,

ought to, used to, must, dare)
1. He … get permission.
2. The train ... come on time.
 3. They … live in Karachi.
4. It is the last date today. You … submit
your fees.
5. … he live long!
6. How … she came in my office?
7. I … drive.
Key
1. He should/had better get permission.
2. The train may come on time.
3. They used to/would live in Karachi.
4. It is the last date today. You must
submit your fees.
5. May he live long!
6. How dare she came in my office?
7. I can drive.

Action Verb
Write, play, come, go
a) FORMS OF VERB
The table showing forms of verb:

Imper Infiniti Past Past Presen Gerun

ative ve 2nd Partici t d/
(root) 1st ple Partici Noun
3rd ple
4th
eat to eat ate eaten eating eating
write to wrote writte writing writing
write n
apply to applie applie applyi applica
apply d d ng tion
satisfy to satisfie satisfie satisfyi Satisfa
satisfy d d ng ction
i) Imperative/Root: Shut the window. Eat
the mango. (Order/Request). Cook fish.
ii) Infinitive/bare-infinitive (1st From): I
want to write a letter. I write a letter. I
want to cook fish. I cook rice. To swim in
the open sea is a big challenge.
iii) Past (2nd Form): I wrote a letter. Mother
cooked fish.
iv) Past Participle (3rd Form): I have eaten a
mango. I have cooked the meal. She had
cooked rice.
v) Present Participle (4th From): I am writing
a letter. Mother is cooking rice/meat/fish.
We are playing. He is bating. She is
bowling.
vi) Noun/Gerund: My writing is poor. My
cooking is good/bad/
marvelous/tasty/delicious. My coming will
not make any difference. (He is coming).
His going will not make any difference (He
is going). Swimming in the open sea is a
big challenge.

b) Regular Verb: They need ‘ed’ to make

second and third forms. (walk, walked,
walked)
 c)Irregular Verb: They have irregular forms
(go, went, gone).

Verb: work
Action verb: forms
Regular verb: Walk walked
Irregular verb:
1. All are identical: cut, put, shut, spread,
read,
2. 1st and 2nd are identical: beat, beat,
beaten
3. 1st and 3rd are identical: become, became,
become
4. 2nd and 3rd are identical: bring, brought,
brought
5. All are different: go, went, gone
Helping/auxiliary/tense verb: (do, does, is, am,
are, has, have, has been, have been, did, was,
were, had, had been, will, shall, will be, shall
be, will have, shall have, will have been, shall
have been) She is writing. She was writing. She
will be writing.
Linking verb (noun/adjective): She is a teacher.
She is happy.
Modal verb: can, could, may, should, had
better, ought to, used to/ would, dare, need
not, must
Causative verb: (get) I am getting my hair cut, I
get an essay written. I get the car fixed.
(make) She makes me laugh. I make students
write an essay. He makes me call.
Tense
 5.ADVERB
Adverb adds how the work is done. (degrees).
I work slowly. She comes daily. He is standing
outside. She works slowly. They wait daily.
Ali/He is teaching well.
He plays fast. She runs slow. I came late.
Adjective Adverb
Ali is a fast bowler. Ali bowls fast.
Ali is a fast batsman. Ali bats fast.
Ali/He is well. He teaches well.
She is hurt/happy. She went happily

An adverb can qualify to an adjective, verb,

adverb, preposition and conjunction
He is a very intelligent person. He is very
poor. (adv-adj)
Ali works hard. He runs fast. I teach slowly.
They run fast. (adv-verb).
Ali works very hard. He runs very fast.
(adv-adv)
The stone fell exactly onto the head of the
boy. The bullet went straight into the
heart. (adv-preposition)
I came later before they had left. (adv-
conj)
I had directly called him, before he slept.

Degrees of adverb versus adjective

Ali is a serious worker. (Positive) (adj)
Ali is more serious worker than he (is).
(Comparative) (adj)
Ali is the most serious worker in the team.
(Superlative) (adj)
Ali works seriously. (Positive) (adv)
Ali works more seriously than I (do).
(Comparative) (adv)
Ali works the most seriously in the class.
(Superlative) (adv)
 She gets up late. I went early. They were
playing hard. I work hard. She ignores me
always. She is laughing wildly. They reap
annually. Ali sleeps late.

She gets up late. I went early. They were

playing hard. I work hard. She ignores me
always. She is laughing wildly. They reap
annually. Ali sleeps late.
You plough/cultivate the land. You sow seeds.
You water them. You look after them. When
they are ripe, you harvest/reap them.

PREPOSITION
Preposition shows the position/place. The
book is on the table (logical). I am afraid of
dog (fixed)
Logical preposition: to, in, at, on,
under/beneath, over, around, about,
upon, into, onto, out of, across, through,
above, below, beside, behind, in front of,
opposite to, between, among, along,
against, with, by
I go to school. I live in Badin at Shahnawaz
Chowk. The book is on/under/beneath the
table. I will come on Monday/ 14
December at 7 pm sharp. The cat jumps
over the wall. I want to jump into the
water. Keep the book onto the shelf. The
tiger jumps upon the deer. The earth
moves around the sun. The sun shines
about the sky. He lives beside/behind of
my house. My shop is opposite to Habib
Bank. The car is in front of Habib Bank. The
water flows through the pipe. The water
flows across the field. There is a fight
between Ali and Aslam. There is a fight
among the students of class eight. I paint
by hand with a brush. The chairs were
lined up along the wall. The ship sailed
along the coast. (I go along with my father
(adverb). The temperature is going
high/low, up/down (not: on, under). Keep
the ladder against the wall. My car struck
against the tree. We will leave after lunch.
The child went after his father (I will call
you after I finish my work (conjunction). I
could come the next week or the week
after (adverb). We moved to London
before the war. A lion appeared before
me. (Think carefully before you choose
(conjunction) I had met him once before
(adverb).

The person received five bullets: two went

into the body whereas three went through
the body. One bullet under the right eye
went into the body, one bullet went into
the left shoulder, two bullets went through
the right side of the chest and one bullet
went through the right thigh.

Fixed/Definite preposition:

I am a lecturer in English. These are notes

on chemistry. She is afraid of dogs. What is
the aim in your life? Try is the key to
success. Ali is ill with malaria. I am sick of
you. I am fed up with studies. The sun rises
in the east. In the name of Allah, the most
Beneficent, the most Merciful. She is
devoid of pity/mercy/feelings. Kindly listen
to me. Please look at the board. I want to
speak to/with the principal. She is worried
because of her brother. Who is knocking at
the door? You must/should abide by the
laws of the school. The teacher enters (not:
 in/into) the class. Catherine was married
to David. The marriage of Catherine to
David will be on next Monday. Translate it
into English. Do not laugh at the poor. Why
do you smile at her? Why are you
gazing/staring at me? Ali is fond of
sweets. Divide it into three chapters. Fill
this form in red ink. Why do you insist on
going to Karachi? Why does she persist in
playing outside? Please do not key in the
lock, just knock at the door. It is typical of
you to bunk the class every Monday. We
will punish the students hard, who play
truancy. They are interested in music. Boys
and girls are inclined towards fashion. The
attitude of teachers towards students
should be polite and positive.
because of/ owing to/ due to; look at; divide
into; translate into; cry for; wait for; wrong
with; sorry for/about, attitude towards,
inclined towards, indulge in, proud of,
ashamed of, abstain/refrain from, prevent
from, kind to, nice to, angry with/about, agree
on/about (sth), agree with (sb/sth), good at,
bad at, clever at, adept at/in, trip over,
addicted to, pity for (sb/sth), pity on sb, listen
to, look at, knock at, ill with, sick of, aim in,
key to, notes on, afraid of, fed up with, speak
to/with, insist on, persist in, married to,
marriage to, laugh at, deride at/ mock (no
preposition)/ look down upon, smile at, glare
at, stare at, glance at, arrive at, reach (no
preposition), enter (no preposition), enter into
a contract, retire from, believe in God, believe
people, access to, reason for, protest against,
typical of, revolt against, difficulty with/in,
accuse of, elaborate on, succumb to, liable to,
answerable to, accountable to,
Hear: can you hear?
Listen: Listen to the song.
Talk: can you talk?
Speak: Speak with his father.
See: can you see?
Look: look at the board.
Watch the television. Watchman,