NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 1 An Introduction To

Sociology
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An Introduction To Sociology
Chapter: 1

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

Q.1. Write true or false against each statement:

1. Industrial revolution took place in U.S.A.

Ans. False.

2. Auguste Comte is called father of Sociology.

Ans. True.

3. Sociology is the scientific study of social relations.

Ans. True.

4. Sociology is not the study of human society.

Ans. False.

5. Human behaviour is flexible and dynamic.

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with correct words:

1. Application of objective methods of investigation is called ……………. .

Ans. science.

2. Traditional method of sociology is …………….. .

Ans. positivism.

3. Functionalism focuses on ……………. and ………….. .

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Ans. social order, stability.

4. Sociological perspectives are broad …………….. about society and social

behaviour.

Ans. assumptions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

Answer the following (all the three questions) in 8 to 10 lines:

Q.1. What is the scope of sociology?

Ans. Scope of Sociology:

(i) Sociology is a systematic and objective study of social life, which is created by a
variety of interactions between individuals and groups. When similar behaviour is
repeated in a given situation it becomes a norm or an institution.

(ii) People in different status and performing different roles, interact with other people
formally or informally. All these repetitive actions are part of the culture of a given group
and define the social organisation. Sociologists study individual’s actions in different
social relationships such as between husband and wife, teacher and student, buyer and
seller. They also study different social processes such as child rearing, co-operation,
competition, conflict and migration etc. and they study different organisations and groups.
For examples family, caste, associations and state etc.

(iii) Sociology, therefore, is the study of social life as a whole. It has a wide range of
concerns and interests. It seeks to provide classifications and forms of social
relationships, institutions and associations relating to social, economic, moral, religious
and political aspects of human life.

Q.2. What is the relevance of sociology in day to day life?

Ans. The relevance of sociology in day to day life:

1. The improved understanding of a given set of social circumstances often gives us all a
better chance of controlling them.

2. Sociology provides the means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing policies
to be based on an awareness of divergent cultural values.

3. We can investigate the consequences of the adoption of particular policy programmes.

4. Finally and perhaps most important, sociology provides self-enlightenment, offering

groups and individuals an increased opportunity to alter the conditions of their own lives.

Q.3. What are the four characteristics of science?

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Ans. The four characteristics of sociology as a science are:

1. Theoretical.

2. Empirical.

3. Cumulative.

4. Non-ethical.

A brief description of the above characteristics is given below:

1. Theoretical: It attempts to summarize complex observations in abstract logically

related propositions, which purport to explain causal relationships in the subject matter.
Its main aim is to interpret and inter-relate sociological data in order to explain the nature
of social phenomena and to produce hypotheses

whose final validity can be checked by further empirical research.

2. Empirical: It is based on observation and reasoning, not supernatural/speculative

revelations, and its results are not speculative. In the early stages of their creative work,
all scientists speculate, of course, but ideally at least, they submit their speculations to the
test of fact before announcing them as scientific discovers. All aspects of sociological
knowledge are subjet to evaluation made about social behaviour or can be put to test for
empirical evidence.

3. Cumulative: Sociological theories are built upon one another, extending and refining
the older ones and producing the new ones. As such theoretical integration becomes a
goal in the construction of sociological formulations. Thus, sociology is cumulative.

4. Non-ethical: Sociologists do not ask whether particular social actions are good or bad;
they seek merely to explain them. It addresses issues. Study of human relations is the
prime consideration in sociology. In the context, Morris Ginsberg observes that ethical
problems should be dealt with neutrality. Objectivity and rationality based on a thorough
knowledge of a situation alone can ensure scientific status to the discipline of sociology.

Conclusion: In all these respects, sociology is far from having reached perfection; but is
being steadily made.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What is meant by sociology?

Ans. (i) A French philosopher named Auguste Comte coined the word ‘sociology’ in 1830,
for that branch of science which studied human behaviour.

(ii) Sociology is derived out of two Latin root words socils meaning companion or
association, and logos meaning science.

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(iii) There is a general agreement that sociology is the science of human society and of
social relations, social groups and social change.

(iv) It is one of the several social sciences others being social anthropology, economics,
political science, psychology, human geography, public administration, mass
communication etc.

(v) Hobhouse explained how sociology studied the interaction of human minds.

(vi) However, Emile Durkheim was more precise he said that sociology is a study of
collective, representation. All our thinking, feeling and doing constitute social facts.

(vii) Social fact, according to Emile Durkheim is exterior to human mind and it puts
constraints on human behaviour.

(viii) Emile Durkheim says that all that which is a social fact constitutes the subject matter
of the study of sociology.

(ix) Max Weber defined sociology differently. He said that human activities are oriented
towards some action, which fulfils some goals. Individuals in the society are busy in
action for obtaining of decided or given objectives or interests.

(x) Actions, according to Max Weber, constitute the subject matter of sociology. Since
every social activity is directed at some other person, sociology studies the interaction
system which shape social institutions, like polity, the hospital and bureaucracy.

Q.2. What is the distinctiveness of sociological perspective?

Ans. The distinctiveness of sociological perspective: Sociological perspectives are

broad assumptions about society and social behaviour that provide a view point for the
study of specific problems. There are two main descriptive perspectives in sociology.
These are positivistic (the traditional scientific perspective) and phenomenology, which
can be described as ‘less scientific’ in that some researchers reject the idea of building
theories by the application of the scientific method preferring to use more interpretative
methods.

1. Positivistic Perspective or Positivism: Positivism is the traditional method of

sociology, which is generally associated with Auguste Comte. Comte’s emphasis on
reporting of social facts is like what wo find in natural sciences where accuracy and
objectivity in understanding and analysis are core characteristics. Logic in recording of
facts is an added element in scientific method.

Within the Positivism school of sociology, there are two dominant theoretical perspectives,
which tend to produce their findings from scientific techniques.

They are:

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(i) The Functionalist Perspective: Functional analysis also known as functionalism and
structural functionalism is rooted in the origin of sociology.

(ii) The Conflict Perspective: The conflict theorists stress inequalities and regard society
as a system made of individual and groups which are competing for scarce resources.
These groups may form alliances or co-operate with one another, but underneath the
surface harmony lies a basic competitive struggle to gain control over scarce resources.

2. Phenomenology (Interpretive Perspective): The second theoretical perspective is

called Phenomenological. It stems most prominently from Max Weber. The
phenomenologist is concerned with understanding of human behaviour from the actor’s
own frame of reference. The phenomenologist thus examines how the world is
experienced. For him or her, the important reality is what people imagine to be.

Each of the sociological perspectives described focuses on the different aspects of social
reality, functionalism on social order and stability; and theory of conflict on social tension
and changes and phenomenological perspective on the subjective interpretations of
actors of the social reality. Each of these perspectives has a significant role to play in
understanding and analyzing the nature of society.

Q.3. Why is Auguste Comte called the father of sociology?

Ans. Auguste Comte is called the father of sociology because he coined the word
‘Sociology’ in 1830, for that branch of science which studied human behaviour. In fact, he
created a hierarchy of sciences in which he put sociology at the top. He argued that
sciences dealing with simple phenomena were first to arrive. Since sociology deals with
the most complex phenomena of social behaviour it is a recent addition to the sciences.

He suggested first of all that sociologists should use the tools of research developed by
natural sciences. He developed a rational approach (scientific method) to the study of
society based on observations and experiments.

Q.4. What was Emile Durkheim’s concern in sociology?

Ans. Emile Durkheim was more precise (in defining the sociology) and he said that,
‘Sociology is study of social phenomena. He says that all that which is a social fact
constitutes the subject matter of the study of sociology.

Emile Durkheim was one of the founders (the second one was Herbert Spencer) of the
functionalist perspective of sociology. He viewed society as ‘self-regulating and self-
maintaining social system’ with certain basic needs such as social order, providing for the
supply preserving of goods and services and protecting the young ones. If these needs
are met, he believed that society would remain in balance or equilibrium.

Emile Durkheim implies by social organization almost exclusively social integration and
regulation through consensus about moral a values.

Q.5. What is sociology? Discuss scientific nature of sociology.

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Ans. I. Sociology is the study of society and human behaviour. The word sociology is
derived out of two Latin root words socils meaning companion or association and logos
meaning science. There is a general agreement among the scholars that the sociology is
the science of human society and social relations, social groups and social change.

II. Scientific nature of Sociology:

(i) Sociology is a scientific discipline. It is a science in the sense that involves objective
and systematic methods of investigation and evaluation of social reality in the light of
empirical evidence and interpretation.

(ii) However, it is also a fact that sociology cannot be directly modelled on the patterns of
natural sciences, because human behaviour is different from the world of nature.

(iii) Among other differences the subject matter of natural science is relatively static and
unchanging whereas human behaviour, the subject matter of sociology, is flexible and
dynamic.

(iv) The founder fathers of sociology were concerned with the study of social order and
change. They also desired to model the science of society or sociology as exact a
discipline as natural sciences.

(v) No doubt sociology is a science because it fulfils the basic requirements of objective
and rational knowledge of social reality.

Q.6. Explain various perspectives in sociology.

Ans. Various Perspectives in Sociology:

(i) To study social structure and social change.

(ii) To improve people’s understanding of breakdowns and rearrangements of social

structures.

(iii) The knowledge gained through a scientific approach should be used to plan society’s
welfare.

(iv) To provide opportunities for study of institution or organisations like politics, family
religion, social control, and industry or work, associations, communities, division of labour
social differentiation of stratification, art and aesthetics.

(v) Philosophers like Karl Marx urge that real objective of the sociology is to help the
people to unite the working class against the capitalists and to create a classless society
from a class struggle, so that the society can became exploitationless.

Q.7. Discuss the nature and scope of sociology.

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Ans. Nature of Sociology: Sociology is a scientific discipline. It is a science in the sense
that it involves objectives and systematic methods of investigation and evaluation of
social reality in the light of empirical evidence and interpretation.

Sociology cannot be directly modelled on the patterns of natural sciences, because

human behaviour is different from the world of nature.

Scope of Sociology:

(i) Sociology is a systematic and objective study of social life, which is created by a
variety of interactions between individuals and groups. When similar behaviour is
repeated in a given situation it becomes a norm or an institution.

(ii) People in different status performing different roles, interact with other people formally
or informally. All these repetitive actions are part of the culture of a given group and define
the social organisation. Sociologists study individual’s actions in different social
relationships such as between husband and wife, teacher and student, buyer and seller.
They also study different social processes such as child rearing etc.

(iii) Sociology, therefore, is the study of social life as a whole. It has a wide range of
concerns and interests. It seeks to provide classifications and forms of social
relationships, institutions and associations relating to social, economic, moral, religious
and political aspects of human life.

Following are four main aspects of society that are the core subject matter of
sociology:

(a) Culture: Culture is the totality of learned and socially transmitted behaviour from one
generation to the next. It includes symbols, signs and language, besides religion, rituals,
beliefs and artefacts.

(b) Social Organisation: The term ‘social organisation’ refers to interdependence of

different aspects of society. This is an essential characteristic of all enduring social
entities, such as groups, communities and collectivities. Currently, social organisation is
used to refer to the interdependence of parts of in-groups of all sizes, form a clique of
workers in hospitals, and factories to large scale societies and organisations.

(c) Social Institutions: A social institution is a procedure, practice and an instrument,

hence an ensemble of a variety of customs and habits accumulated over a period of time.

In every society, people form social institutions to meet their basic needs of survival.
Institutions are tools and instruments of human transactions. These are stable clusters of
rules, values and norms.

(d) Social Structure: It is a pattern of inter-relations between individuals. Every society

has a social structure, a complex of main groups, institutions and arrangements relating
to status and power.

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It is said by some scholars that the study of social structure is comparable to the study of
human anatomy and that of social organisation to that of physiology. But that is only a
partial and not a complete analogy.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the name of two applied social sciences.

Ans. (i) Business Administration.

(ii) Management.

Q.2. In which century the scientific studies of society and social groups began?

Ans. In the nineteenth century.

Q.3. What was the nature of writings of the 19th century about society?

Ans. Those writings were philosophical or literary.

Q.4. Who is the author of ‘An Invitation of Sociology?

Ans. Peter Berger.

Q.5. Who is called ‘Father of Sociology’?

Ans. Auguste Comte.

Q.6. To which country Comte belonged?

Ans. France.

Q.7. What attempts are made by the sociologist as a scientist?

Ans. As a scientist, the sociologist tries to be objective, to control his / her personal
preferences and prejudices to perceive clearly rather than to judge normatively.

Q.8. In the initial stage how did sociology and social anthropology separate from
each other?

Ans. No doubt both sociology and social anthropology study human society. What
separated them initially was the type of society being studied. Sociologists, studying their
own society and anthropologists studying oth mainly tribal society.

Q.9. Write about the work of sociologist according to Peter Berger? What does he
say about the nature of this discipline?

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Ans. (i) In his work ‘An Institution of Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, Peter
Berger describes a sociologist as someone concerned with understanding society in a
disciplined way’.

(ii) The nature of Sociology is scientific. This means that what the sociologist finds and
says about the social phenomena the studies occur within a certain rather strictly defined
frame of reference.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Distinguish between theological, metaphysical and positivistic stage.

Ans. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) believed in the possibility of formulating laws of society
like the laws of physics. He argued that in all societies ideas and beliefs about the world
move through three inevitable, step-by-step, evolutionary stages. This is known as the
law of three stages.

(i) Theological Stage: The first stage of law is the theological stage. In this stage,
explanations are supernatural.

(ii) Metaphysical Stage: This is the second stage of the law. In this stage. explanations
are not supernatural, but are based on traditions, institution and guesswork. They are not
supported by evidence.

(iii) Positive Stage: Third stage of the law is the positive stage. In this stage explanations
are based on observed facts and on logical reasoning.

Q.2. What was Emile Durkheim’s prime concern in sociology?

Ans. Emile Durkheim’s prime concern in sociology was the study of social organisation.
He stressed upon the importance of broadly shared-moral values and collective
institutions. He emphasized on research method and use of statistics. Social fact was a
key concept for him. His main fields of works were social fact, suicide, religion and social
order.

Q.3. What is the Spencer’s view on the evolution of society?

Ans. Spencer’s theory of social evolution holds that all societies change from simple to
complex through natural processes. This led him to oppose all forms of governmental
control on social life. Because of the logical similarities with Darwin’s Theory of Evolution,
Herbert Spencer’s views on evolution of societies became known as Social Darwinism.

Q.4. Distinguish between sociology and literature or journalism.

Ans. Sociology is different from literature or journalism.

(i) Poets and novelists also describe society, but they can take liberties with facts. What
makes their writings (or works) attractive are. the flights of their fancy.

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(ii) Like a writer or poet, a journalist does report on events occurring in society but the
demand for meeting deadline leaves them with little time to double check their findings.
They do not fell obliged to use scientific methods of data collection. The same subject
matter can be seen from a variety of perspectives.

Q.5. In which circumstances or conditions the science of sociology was born in

Europe?

Ans. (i) The science of sociology was born in the nineteenth century Europe
Enlightenment Industrial Revolution and French Revolution (1789) initiated a process of
thinking about society especially the results of revolutionary happenings.

(ii) Industrial Revolution (1740-1850) accelerated the process of urbanization.

Urbanization in its turn created problems of housing and slum dwellings. Creation of
industries resulted in conflicts between owners and factory workers.

(iii) French Revolution led Europeans to rethinking about the form of government and
practice of democracy.

(iv) In short, we can say that in Europe changes were all around in economy, polity and
community living. Sociology took birth in such a climate of industrialization, urbanization
and capitalism.

Q.6. Name and define the sister discipline of sociology. In which circumstances it
was born in the nineteenth century?

Ans. (i) The sister discipline of sociology is Anthropology.

(ii) Anthropology is defined as the scientific study of man. In its early days of origin it
became the study of other cultures.

(iii) Anthropology took birth side by side with sociology in Europe in the nineteenth
century. As a result of Industrial Revolution, societies of Europe came in contact with non-
European cultures in Asia, Africa, America and in the island countries in the Pacific and
the Caribbean. While scholars of sociology started studying their own societies (i.e. the
European), anthropologists went to far-off places to study the primitive tribal communities
as societies distinct from the Western societies.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 2 Emergence And
Development Of Sociology
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-2

July 15, 2023

Emergence And Development Of Sociology

Chapter: 2

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1

Answer the following questions in one sentence:

Q.1. Which statement of Aristotle is believed to have sown the seeds of sociology?

Ans. Man is a social animal.

Q.2. After which revolution of which year is sociology supposed to have emerged?

Ans. French Revolution of 1789.

Q.3. Who is regarded as the “Father of Sociology”?

Ans. Auguste Comte.

Q.4. Define positivism.

Ans. Positivism: It is where phenomena are explained in terms of scientific approach.

Q.5. What are the various stages according to Comte through which human society
has passed?

Ans. The various stages according to Comte through which human society has
passed are:

(i) Theological.

(ii) Metaphysical. and

(iii) Positivism.

Q.6. Name the book that Sir Herbert Spencer wrote.

Ans. Principles of Sociology.

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Q.7. Who is the author of the book titled “Suicide”, which was published in 1897.

Ans. Emile Durkheim.

Q.8. Name anyone book that Max Weber wrote.

Ans. Basic Concepts in Sociology.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2

Answer the following questions

Q.1. In how many phases can you divide the growth of Indian sociology?

Ans. We can divide the growth of Indian sociology in three phases.

These are:

(i) 1769-1900 foundation of sociology.

(ii) 1901-1950 sociology became a profession,

(iii) after independence-planned develop and ment.

Q.2. In which year was the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal founded and by whom?

Ans. (a) The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1774.

(b) William Jones founded Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Q.3. What was the contribution of Max Muller?

Ans. Max Muller translated several classical Indian texts into German, which were later
translated into English.

Q.4. Who wrote the book titled Ancient Law?

Ans. Henry Maine wrote the book titled Ancient Law.

Q.5. Which society did W.H.R. Rivers study?

Ans. A pastoral community of the Nilgiris. the Todas studied W.H.R. Rivers.

Q.6. Who studied the castes and tribes of Cochin and Mysore?

Ans. L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer studied the castes and tribes of Cochin and Mysore.

Q.7. When and where was the first department of anthropology founded?

Ans. In 1921, a department of anthropology was established in Calcutta.

Q.8. Who started the journal, contributions to Indian Sociology?

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Ans. Dumont started journal ‘Contributions to Indian Sociology’.

Q.9. List the names of a couple of the communities that sociologists have studied
after the independence.

Ans. (i) Coorgs.

(ii) Santhals. and

(iii) Piramalai Kallar.

Q.10. Which professional society did G.S. Ghurye found in 1951?

Ans. G.S. Ghurye founded the Indian Sociological Society.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Describe the contribution of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber to the
development of sociology. (M. Imp.)

Ans. I. The contribution of Emile Durkheim to the development of Sociology:

1. Along with Karl Marx and Max Weber, the French sociologist Emile Durkheim is one of
the key classical theorists in sociology. He is best known for founding sociology as a
scientific discipline and for defining the boundaries of its subject matter.

2. Emile Durkheim was the author of some of the most programmatic statements about
what sociology was and how it should be done. Emile Durkheim’s key theoretical
statement lies in his claim that social phenomena are realities that can only be explained
by other social facts.

3. The most important concern for Emile Durkheim was the establishment of sociology as
a distinct discipline. His goal was to provide firm definition of the field and a scientific
basis of its study.

4. Emile Durkheim’s second concern was the issue of social solidarity or integration in
society. He inquired into

(a) The sources and nature of moral authority as an integrating force in society.

(b) as well as the rise of individualism in society.

Finally, Emile Durkheim a strong interest in the practical implications of social scientific
knowledge.

II. The contribution of Max Weber to the development of Sociology:

(i) Max Weber was one of the leading German social thinkers of his time. Despite long
periods of physical and mental ill-health, he has left a rich legacy of sociological writing.

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(ii) Max Weber wrote extensively on several subjects but focussed on developing an
sociology of social action and of power and domination.

(iii) Another major concern of Max Weber was the process of rationalisation in modern
society and the relationship of the various religions of the world with this process.

(iv) He argued that the over all objective of the social sciences was to develop an
‘interpretative understanding of social action’. These sciences were thus very different
from the natural sciences which aimed to discover the objective ‘law of nature’ governing
the physical world.

(v) Since the central concern of the social sciences was with social action and since
human actions necessarily involved subjective meanings, the methods of enquiry of
social science also had to be different from the methods of natural sciences.

(vi) Max Weber was among the first to the special and complex type of ‘objectivity’ that
the social sciences had to cultivate. The social world was founded on subjective human
meanings, values, feelings, prejudices, ideals and so on.

(vii) The ideal type was used by Max Weber to analyse the relationship between the
ethics of ‘world religions’ and the rationalisation of the social world in different civilisations.

(viii) Max Weber again used the ideal type to illustrate the three types of authority that he
defined as traditional, charismatic and rational-legal.

Q.2. Describe in your own words the development of sociology in India.

Ans. Development of Sociology in India: The development of sociology in our country

(i.e. India) can be divided into following three phases:

(i) Firstly, from 1789 to 1900, the foundation of sociology was laid down in India.

(ii) Secondly, sociology became a profession, a university subject during this phase from
1901 to 1950.

(iii) Thirdly, the third phase of development of sociology in India, began after her’s
independence. This phase was marked by programmes of planned development,
increased interaction of Indian Sociologists with their counterparts, availability of money
for research and intensification of research and publication.

A brief description of above referred three stages is given below:

1. Foundation of Sociology in India: During the course of exercising their rule in India,
the British officials realized that for smooth administration, it was important that they
acquired knowledge of Indian society and culture. Information was also required about
affluent families and their customs, which could be used for revenue collection. If local

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societies were administrated according to their laws and customs, it was thought, there
would be peace and harmony. Hence, their laws and customs needed to be recorded
meticulously in detail. This prompted the origin of sociology in India.

2. Professionalization of Sociology in India: During the initial years of this phase, the
British officials continued with the bulk of their investigations into the lifestyles, customs
and laws of people. A number of volumes on castes and tribes were prepared under the
supervision of these scholars, such as Crooke, Sherring, Thurston, Russell, Hiralal,
Ibbetson and others. Each volume consisted of a short description of each of these
societies, its population and spread. The possibility of tribes transforming into castes was
also pointed out in some of these volumes. In his People of India (1916), Sir Herbert
Risley was one of the first ones to take note of the tribe-caste continuum.

3. Development of Sociology since India’s Independence: After India’s independence,

Indian sociologists and anthropologists came in contact with their counterparts in the
United States of America. Earlier, their academic contact was mainly with the scholars of
the United Kingdom. Several collaborative projects of Indian and American sociologists
began. Publications and researches increased. More teaching and research positions
were created, as sociology and social anthropology became university subjects and more
and more of their departments were opened up. In other words, there was a sharp
increase in the popularity of sociology and social anthropology.

Q.3. Write the major contributions of S.C. Roy. (M.Imp.)

Ans. The major contributions of S.C. Roy in the field of Sociology: Sarat Chandra
Roy (1871-1942) important was another accidental anthropologist and pioneer of the
discipline in India. After completing his education Sarat decided to go to Ranchi
(Jharkhand) in 1898 to take up a job as an English teacher in Christan missionery school.
He remained for the next forty four years at Ranchi. He gave up his school job and began
practising law at the Ranchi eventually being appointed as official interpreter in the court.

Roy became deeply interested in tribal society as a by-product of his professional need to
interpret tribal customs and laws to the court. During his entire career, Roy published
more than one hundred articles in leading Indian and British academic journals in addition
to his famous monographs on the Orain, the Mundas and the Kharias.

Sarat Chandra Roy soon became very popular among anthropologists in India and Britain
and was recognised as an authority on Chhotanagpur. He found the journal Man in India
in 1922, the earliest journal of its kind in India that is still published.

Q.4. What were the major contributions of sociology after India’s independence?
(M. Imp.)

Ans. The major contributions of sociology after India’s independence:

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(a) After India’s independence the sociologists were engaged actively in planning and
development programmes. The Census Organisation, the Central Social Welfare Board,
the Office of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, the Tribal Research Institutes, and
institutions associated with the Community Development Programmes, needed the
expertise sociologists and anthropologists,

(b) During this phase, a number of village studies were undertaken. Several village
monographs resulted from them, some of which are still of tremendous value, such as
McKim Marriott’s edited volume titled Village India (1955), S.C. Dube’s study of village in
Hyderabad, called Indian Village (1956) and M. N. Srinivas’s edited volume, India’s
Village (1956). Some other important works were accomplished after India’s
independence. Kathleen Gough studied a Tanjore village and described the changes that
had come in it because of British rule.

(c) In addition, several Indian communities, both tribes and castes, were also intensively
studied. Srinivas re-worked the data he had collected on the Coorgs in the 1940s for his
later book published in 1952 that proposed the concept of upward mobility in caste
system (ie. sanskritization). Louis Dumont, a French sociologist, studied the Paramalai
Kallar of Tamil Nadu and discussed their social organisation, especially their marriage
system. TN. Madan studied the nature of kinship and family of Kashmiri Pundits.
Sachchidananda carried out intensive studies among certain tribal groups of Bihar and
Jharkhand.

(d) Besides contributing to empirical studies of Indian society, Indian sociologists have
also arrived at important theoretical insights from their works. We noted earlier that from
his study, Srinivas gave the concept of sanskritization. Another work of theoretical
significance was of Dumont, who is his book called Homo Hierarchicus, discussed the
basic principles and characteristics of caste system. He also started one of the leading
journals in sociology, Contributions to Indian Sociology. Several Indian sociologists
examined in theoretical terms as the interaction of the Indian tradition with modernity eg.
The analysis is by Singh in his book on Modernization of Indian Tradition.

(e) In the last decade, there has been an increase in the studies dealing with the issues.
of ethnicity, gender, violence, development, stratification, etc. With all this, Indian
sociology and anthropology have been able to make a mark at the international level.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Mention one cause of the emergence and event, provided background for its
emergence.

Ans. 1. Human beings have always been interested in knowing and thinking about their
society.

2. The subject of sociology came into existence after the French Revolution.

6/7
Q.2. Who and when the term sociology was coined?

Ans. Auguste Comte coined the term sociology in 1838. Comte proposed a scientific
study of society because the knowledge thus gathered could be used for social
betterment.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the names of two scholars-one from France and another from Germany
who made a major contribution to the development of sociology. After which event
this discipline had developed tremendous?

Ans. Emile Durkheim and Max Weber made a major contribution to the development of
sociology in France and Germany respectively.

As a discipline, sociology has developed tremendously after the Second World War.

Q.2. Mention at least three important facts concerning the development of

sociology in India. (M. Imp.)

Ans. 1. In India, the development of sociology can be traced to the colonial rule. With the
founding of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, sociological researches received a
tremendous boost.

2. The first full-fledged department of sociology was started in Bombay University in 1919.

3. Village studies began in India after the independence especially because of the
collaboration of Indian sociologists with their American counterparts. After independence,
the number of sociology departments has increased in India and so is the increase in
research projects.

Q.3. Discuss some facts concerning Lucknow, as an important centre of sociology

and anthropology. (Imp.)

Ans. After 1920, Lucknow also emerged as an important centre of sociology and
anthropology. In 1921, a combined department of economics and sociology was created
under the leadership of Radhakamal Mukherjee. A year later, D.P. Mukherji joined the
department, and in 1928, D.N. Majumdar was appointed to teach ‘primitive economy’.
Because of these three scholars, Lucknow emerged as one of the prime places of
teaching and research in sociology and anthropology. However, an independent
department of sociology came into existence in 1951, followed by a joint department of
sociology and social work.

7/7
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 3 Sociology: Its
Relationship With Other Social Sciences
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-3

Sociology: Its Relationship With Other Social Sciences

Chapter: 3

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

Q.1. Find out if the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’. Write ‘T’ after the true
statement and ‘F’ after the false statement.

1. History studies the past societies.

Ans. True.

2. Sociology is an observational science.

Ans. True.

3. Political science conducts a study of all institutions of human society.

Ans. False.

4. A study of mid-term elections will be conducted by historians.

Ans. False.

5. Sociologists collects their data from archives.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

Answer the following questions in one. sentence only:

Q.1. What is meant by social work?

Ans. Social work is concerned with the ‘technology of application’ of ideas for improving
human lot.

Q.2. What is the meaning of economics?

Ans. Economics studies the aspects of production, distribution and exchange and
consumption in society.

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Q.3. Which types of societies do economists study?

Ans. Economics concentrates upon the study of economic systems in modern, complex
and urban-industrial societies.

Q.4. Which methods do sociologists use for their study?

Ans. The sociological approach is inductive.

Q.5. What is applied sociology?

Ans. The branch of sociology that takes up the areas of application is called applied
sociology.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word or words:

1. Psychology is the study of …………….. facts.

Ans. psychic.

2. Status refers to the …………… that an individual occupies.

Ans. social position.

3. The subjects that studies both biological and socio-cultural aspects of human
beings is known as ……………. .

Ans. anthropology.

4. In the beginning, social anthropology studied ……………. societies.

Ans. tribal.

5. …………….. has made a significant contribution to survey methodology.

Ans. Sociologists.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. How is sociology different from history and what is the similarity between the
two subject? Write in your own words.

Ans. Similarities between Sociology and History:

(i) Society is common between sociology and history.

(ii) Both are social science disciplines.

(iii) Sociology and history both are concerned with human activities and events.

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(iv) History is concerned primarily with the record of the past. The historians want to
describe, as accurately as possible, what actually happened to man during a given time.
The sociologists use, to all intents and purposes the same record to the past.

(v) Apart from philosophy today the historian is considerably depending upon sociological
concepts and narrations. We convey that modern historiography and modern sociology
have been influenced by each other.

Differences between Sociology and History:

(i) Sociology is concerned with the present and in some extent with future, History studies
the past.

(ii) Sociologist borrow from historical sources and sociological analysis and vice-versa.
The Sociologists use, to all intents and purposes, the same record of the past.

(iii) Generally, we may say that history occupies it self with the differences in similar
events and sociology deals with the similarities in different events.

(iv) Historians generally restrict themselves to the study of the past, from the more recent
to the remotest one. Sociologist shows interest in the contemporary scene or the recent
past.

(v) In short we may say that, sociology and history may be distinguished. The former
generalized about society, the latter is a particularizing or individualizing discipline.
Sociology in an analytical discipline whereas history is a descriptive discipline.

(vi) Sociology emphasizers on the regular and the recurrent whereas history investigates
the unique and the individual.

(vii) An event that has occurred only once in the human past is of no sociological
importance unless it can be related to a pattern of events that repeats itself generation
after generation, historical period after historical period and human group after human
group. If the past is concerned of as a continuous cloth unrolling through the centuries,
history is interested in the individual threads and strands that made it up: sociology
analysis the patterns that human society exhibits.

Q.2. Describe how political science is different from Sociology and state the
similarity.

Ans. Sociology and Political Science:

(a) Sociology is devoted to the study of all aspects of society, where as conventional
political science restricted it self mainly to the study of power as embodied in formal
organisation.

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(b) Sociology stresses the interrelationships between sets of institutions including
government, where as political science tends to turn attention towards the processes
within the government.

(c) Sociology long shared similar interests of research with political science. Sociologists
like Max Weber worked in what can be termed as political sociology. The focus of political
sociology has been increasingly on the actual study of political behaviour.

Q.3. How is sociological work different from the work of an economists? Discuss.

Ans. Difference between social work and the work of an economist:

(a) The sociological approach looks at economic behaviour in a broader context of social
norms, values, practices and interest. The corporate sectors managers are aware of this.
The large investment in the advertisement industry is directly linked to the need to re-
shape lifestyles and consumption patterns.

(b) The define scope of economics has helped in facilating its development as a highly
focused, coherent discipline, Sociologists often entry every the economists for the
precision of their technology and the exactness of their measures. And the ability to
translate the results of their theoretical work into practical suggestion having measure
implication for public policy. Yet economists predictive ability often suffer precisely
because of their neglect of individual behaviour, cultural norms and institutional resistance
which sociologists study.

(c) Sociology unlike economics usually does not provide technical solutions. But it
encourages a questioning and critical perspective. This helps questioning of basic
assumptions. Recent trends have been seen a resurgence of economic sociology
perhaps because of both this wider and critical perspective of sociology.

(d) Sociology provides clearer or more adequate understanding of a social situation than
existed before. This can be either on the level of factual knowledge, or through gaining an
improved group of why something is happening (in other words, by means of theoretical
understanding).

Q.4. What do you mean by ‘pure science’ and ‘applied science’? Explain it.

Ans. I. Meaning of Pure Science: Chase of unmixed science is called pure science. It is
a clear compartment of science. It has the quality of being pure. It is essentially concern
with human interest or for human welfare. Mainly it is concerned with acquiring
knowledge about the working of society or of a branch of knowledge or discipline and
leads a philosophical dialogue on it.

II. Meaning of Applied Science: Putting knowledge to use is called applied science. For
example, social work is concerned with the ‘technology of application’ of ideas for
improving human lot. The relation between sociology and social work is like the relation

4/8
between a ‘pure science’ (just acquiring knowledge) as ‘applied science’ (is just
application of knowledge in practical field or life).

Social work is concerned with the ‘technology of application’ of ideas for improving human
lot.

In the early twentieth century, it was realized that social scientists were mainly concerned
with acquiring (or getting) knowledge about working of society and leading a philosophical
dialogue on it.

The question of the ideal society also figured in some countries of the western world, but
which technology should be adopted for building it up was not given a serious thought.

Knowledge is of no importance unless it is put to use. Social work is a product of this

background. It charts out the suitable knowledge for human upliftment.

Q.5. What is the distinction sociology and anthropology? (V. Imp.)

Ans. Distinction between Sociology and Anthropology:

(a) Anthropology is most countries in corporates archaeology, physical anthropology,

cultural history, many branches of linguistics and the study of all aspects of life in “Simple
Societies”. Our concern here is with social anthropology and cultural anthropology for it is
that which is close to the study of sociology.

(b) The anthropologists of the past documented the details of simple societies apparently
in a neutral scientific fashion. In practice they were constantly comparing those societies
with the model of the western modern societies as a benchmark.

(c) Other changes have also redefined the nature sociology and social anthropology.
Modernity as we saw led to a process whereby the smallest village was impacted by
global processes. The most obvious example is colonialism. The most remote village of
India under British colonialism saw its land laws and administration change, its revenue
extraction alter, its manufacturing industries collapse.

(d) Today the distinction between a simple. society and a complex one itself needs major
rethinking. India itself is a complex mix of tradition and modernity of the village and the
city, of caste and tribe, of class and community. Villages nestle right in the heart of the
capital city of Delhi. Call centres serve European and American clients from different
towns of the country.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What was thought of the Sociologists of the 19th and early 20th century about
sociology?

5/8
Ans. Sociologists of the nineteenth and early twentieth century thought that sociology was
a ‘natural science of society’.

Q.2. Mention any two essential difference between history and sociology?

Ans. The essential difference between history and sociology is that the former is
concerned with present day societies. While history does not concern itself with
contemporary societies, sociology certainly extends its frontiers to include past societies
in its scope.

Q.3. What is the primarily concern of political science? Make clear briefly.

Ans. Political science, as its name implies, is primarily concerned with political institutions,
i.e. those that deal with the distribution of power in a society and the maintenance of law
and order. An important area in political science is of political philosophy, pertaining to the
emergence of state and the need for order.

Q.4. What was the approach to understand the world in ancient time?

Ans. People in ancient times made effort to understand the world around them. Their
explanations were not based only on observations, but were mixed with magic and
superstition as well.

Q.5. What is Sociology? Write names of its methods of study also.

Ans. Sociology, is the study of society and human behaviour.

Sociologists apply two scientific methods namely,

(i) Observation. and

(ii) Statistical enumeration.

Q.6. What is the useful way to compare different sciences and to understand
sociology in a better way?

Ans. A useful way of comparing different sciences and of obtaining a better understanding
of sociology is to divide them into natural and social sciences.

Q.7. Write the names of Natural Sciences.

Ans. Natural sciences are divided into several branches. Popular names of these
branches are:

(i) Physics.

(ii) Chemistry.

(iii) Biology etc.

6/8
Q.8. Write the names of popular social sciences.

Ans. Popular social science are:

(i) Sociology.

(ii) Anthropology.

(iii) Economics.

(iv) Political Science.

Q.9. Write the names of four main branches of Anthropology.

Ans. (i) Physical Anthropology.

(ii) Social Anthropology.

(iii) Cultural Anthropology.

(iv) Applied Anthropology.

Q.10. Write the names of both branches of Economics and four main branches of
Sociology.

Ans. Economics:

(i) Micro Economics.

(ii) Macro Economics.

Sociology:

(i) Rural Sociology.

(ii) Urban Sociology.

(iii) Political Sociology.

(iv) Industrial Sociology.

Q.11. Define the following briefly:

1. History.

Ans: History: History is the written record of human progress. This is concerned primarily
with the record of the past. History seeks to establish the science in which events
occurred.

2. Sociology.

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Ans: Sociology: It is the scientific study of social structure, social relating to production,
consumption, exchange and distribution.

3. Economics.

Ans: Economics: It investigates all the phenomena relating to production, consumption,

exchange and distribution.

4. Political Science.
Ans. Political Science: This studies political institutions such as state, government,
political parties, executive, legislative and judicial institutions.

8/8
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 4 Methods And
Techniques In Research Of Sociology
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-4

Methods And Techniques In Research Of Sociology

Chapter: 4

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1

I. Write True or False against each question:

1. A society cannot be fully understood without comparing with other societies.

(True/False)

Ans. True.

2. Murdock Cliduat use cross cultural methods to examine the structure and
functions of the family. (True/False)

Ans. False.

3. Durkheim set out the significance of comparative method. (True/False)

Ans. True.

4. Experiment is possible in sociology. (True/False)

Ans. True.

Q.5. What are the sources of historical method? (M. Imp.)

Ans. Sources of information used by historians include written records of all types, laws,
public records, reports, business documents, newspapers, diaries, letters, genealogies,
travellers, accounts and literature in all forms-as well as physical survivals in the form of
buildings and certificates.

The historical method involves the study of origins, development and transformation of
social institutions.

In historical method, a sociologist uses information pertaining to one or more societies

over long periods of time. The main approach is to try to get some insights from the past
experiences with regard to social behaviour.

Q.6. How methods of social research are there in sociology?

1/18
Ans. Five methods.

Q.7. What is the difference between functionalism and functional analysis?

Ans. The differences between functionalism and functional analysis:

2/18
Functionlism Method Functional Analysis

1. The functionalist method, in 1. Functional analysis requires from the

sociology and social anthropology researchers (research scholars) that he/she
appeared initially (in the beginning) explain or analysis his/her observations of
as a reaction against the method and recurring phenomena in terms of their
claims of the evolutionist. The term consequences for the wider social system
functional analysis and functionalism within which they exist. In this context,
are often equated functionalist functional analysis is a method of sociological
method focuses on systems as a and anthropological enquiry, which consist in
whole, how they operate, how they examining social and cultural items by locating
change and the social consequences them in a wider context.
they produce. Hence, functionalism
provides a perspective from which is
attempt an analysis of a society. The
central concern is with the source of
order and stability in society.

2. In functionalism the focus is on: 2. Usually, functions analysis means showing

(a) The way social institution help to how different items affect and affected by other
maintain order in social life, and with which they coexist overtime within the
(b) The way structural arrangements same social system.
insociety influence behaviour.

3. In functionalism, society is 3. Functional method (of analysis) refers to the

concerned of as a system of functional analysis which is also known as
interrelated parts on which no part functionalism and structural functionalism.
can be understood in isolation from
the whole. A change in any part is
seen as leading to a certain degree of
imbalance, which in turn results in
changes in other parts of the system
and to some extent to a re-
organisation of the system as a
whole.

4. The development functionalism in 4. In sociology, the functionalist method is

the nineteenth century was based on traced primarily to the pioneering work of the
the model of the organic system nineteenth century French sociologist Emile
found in the biological sciences. Durkheim and in the twentieth century, to the
American sociologist Talcott Parsons and his
students.

3/18
 5. Auguste Comte and Herbert 5. Functional analysis’s anthropological roots
Spencer used on organic analogy, extend to the work of Bronislaw Mainowski and
analyzing society as a kind of living A.R. Radicliff-Brown.
organism. Just as a biological
organism has inter-related tissues
and organs that function together,
they wrote, so does society. Like an
organism, if society is to function
smoothy, its different parts must work
together in harmony. For instance,
just as the heart has the function of
circulating the blood, so also do
social institutions have specific
functions for society as a whole.

6. Robert K. Marton dismissed the 6. From the perspective of functional system,

organic analogy but continued with the group is a functioning whole, with each part
the essence of functionalism. The contributes to the welfare of the whole.
image of society as a whole as he Whenever we examine a smaller part, we need
maintained composed of interrelated to look for its functions to see how it is related
parts. Marton used the termfunctions to the larger unit. This basic approach can be
to refer to the beneficial applied to any social group, whether an entire
consequences of people’s actions society, a college or even a group as small as
that help to maintain the equilibrium the family. Finally, we may view that functional
of a so a social system. In contrast, analysis is a method, which refers to factors
dysfunctions are consequences that and forces of integration, equilibrium and also
undermine a system’s equilibrium. disequilibrium. At a given point of time inter-
relation between different components of
society can be studied from the functional point
of view.

Q.8. What technique are used in the empirical method?

Ans. The empirical method refers to the collection of data from the field. The facts of
social life are studied and described as they exist. The techniques used in this method
are observation, survey, experimental, case studies.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2

Q.1. What are the types of data collection?

Ans. There are two types of data collection.

These are:

(i) primary data. and

(ii) secondary data.

(i) Primary data: Are that which sociologists collect themselves by means of interviews,
questionnaires observation and so on, directly from respondents.

4/18
(ii) Secondary data: Are that which the sociologists collect from other sources and which
has already recorded (although not necessarily for public consumption).

The sources of secondary data are:

(a) Biography, autobiography, letters, diaries, novels.

(b) Journals, quality newspapers, radio broadcasts, T.V. programmes etc.

(c) Census data records from business firms, registration data, birth and death
departments etc., government records, relating to economy etc. data from charities,
personal groups, etc.

Q.2. Name five techniques of data collection. (M. Imp.)

Ans. The most important techniques of data collection are:

1. Observation.

2. Survey.

3. Case study.

4. Questionnaire.

5. Interview.

Q.3. What are two main types of observation?

Ans. The observations is possible in following two types of ways:

(i) Participant observation.

(ii) Non-participant observation.

Q.4. Can survey be used in case study method?

Ans. Yes, survey may be used in case study research. Sociologists use different types of
survey in their research depending upon the nature of the study.

Q.5. What are the two types of interview?

Ans. There are two types of interviews:

(a) The structured formal interview follows a set pattern. All the questions are decides
before hand and the exact wording remains the same in each one. It is standardized and
controlled.

(b) The informal, unstructured interview allows the respondents to expand and develop
answers. A tape-recorder may also prove very hands if allowed by the respondent.

5/18
TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Explain the following methods:

(i) Historical.

(ii) Comparative.

(iii) Experimental. and

(iv) Functional methods.

Ans. I. Meaning:

(i) Historical Method:

(a) The historical method engages in the evaluation of sources of information about the
past to determine their authenticity and the analysis of authentic sources for detailed data
about the period being studied.

(b) Sources of information used by historians include written records of all types, laws,
public records, reports, business documents, newspapers, diaries, letters, genealogies,
travellers’ accounts and literature in all forms-as well as physical survivals in the form of
buildings and artefacts.

(c) The historical method involves the study of origins, development and transformation of
social institutions. In this method, a sociologist uses information pertaining to one or more
societies over long periods of time. The main approach is to try to get some insights from
the past experiences with regard to social behaviour.

II. Two forms of it:

The historical method in sociology has taken two principal forms:

(i) The first is that of the early sociologist, influenced by the philosophy of history and
afterwards by the biological theory of evolution. This method involves a certain order of
priorities in the problems for research and theory. It concentrates upon problems of the
origins, development and transformation of social institutions, societies and civilizations. It
is concerned with the whole span of human history, with all the major institutions of
society, as in the works of August Comte, Spencer and

Hobhouse.

(ii) Yet another form of historical method is characteristic of the works of Max Weber. This
is exemplified especially in his studies of the origins of capitalism, the development of
modern bureaucracy, and the economic influence of the world religions. The main
methodological features of these studies are that particular historical changes of social

6/18
structures and types of society are investigated (and these are compared in certain
respects with other types of changes in society). In this process, both causal explanation
and historical interpretation find a place.

(iii) Comparative Method:

1. The analyses of social change in history are carried out with the help of several
methods. One of the most favoured methods is the comparative method used in
sociology. This entails the study of different groups and institutions in order to examine
similarities and differences.

2. All sociological research involves the comparison of cases or variables, which are
similar in some respects and dissimilar in others.

3. A major methodological issue (problem) is whether or not the units of comparison

(whole societies, major institutions, religions, groups, and so on) and the indicators
selected to compare similarities or differences are genuinely comparable and can
legitimately be used outside their particular cultural settings.

4. The characteristics under examination can take place within the same society, for
instance rates of mobility between different castes and classes belonging to the same
society can be mutually compared, or, the same variables may appear in various
societies like the rates of social mobility among the same strata but different societies.

5. The comparative method is greatly used in anthropological and ethnological research.

6. George P. Murdock, feeling the necessity for storing the information, which was
continuously building up and the importance of having it at the disposal or social
scientists everywhere, opened a Cross cultural Survey at Yale, University.

7. Today, the Human Relations Area File has been developed on the basis of Murdock’s
idea and material, and is one of the main ‘databank’ which sociologists possess.

8. Incidentally, in the Victorian age, Herbert Spencer had already started a significant
systematic inventory of information about social institution in a large number of countries.

9. Today, all types of data banks are developing different places, making significant
factual information, readily and widely. available.

10. The systematic use of comparison and contrast as method of enquiry became widely
accepted among sociologists and social anthropologists in the first half of the twentieth
century.

11. Radcliffe-Brown sought to extend Emile Durkheim’s sociological theory of totemism by

comparing and contrasting the relationship between social structure and religious
practices among the Australian Aborigines – who had taterism and the Andaman
Islanders who did not have it. He also proposed that a relationship could be established
through systematic comparative study between ancestor worship and lineage structure.

7/18
(iii) Experimental or Laboratory Method: The experiment is an operation in a controlled
situation in which the researcher tries to discover the effects produced by introducing one
new variable into an experimental group and not into an otherwise identical control group.
It the behaviour of the experimental group changes and that of the control does not, and
then the change can be attributed to the introduction of the new variable. This a method
favoured in the natural sciences. Laboratory conditions enable the experimenter to control
all the variables excepting the one which is being experimented. However, there are
examples in sociology of ‘field-experiments’. These take place in the ‘real-world’ and not
in a laboratory. Those whose behaviour is studied in response to ‘actors’ engaged by the
researcher do not know that a study is being conducted. Some of these types of research
studies have certain of the characteristics of the comparative method.

(iv) Functional Method:

The functionalist approach, in sociology and social anthropology, appeared initially as a

reaction against the methods and claims of the evolutionists. It was a criticism of the
intention and claim of the evolutionists to give a scientific account of the whole social
history of mankind.

Functional analysis is a method of sociological and anthropological enquiry, which

consists in examining social and cultural items by locating them in a wider context. This
generally means showing how these items effect and are affected by others with which
they coexist over time, within the same social system.

This method refers to factors and forces of integration, equilibrium and also
disequilibrium. At a given point of time, interrelation between different components of
society can be studied from the functional point of view.

Q.2. What is an empirical method? Discuss its techniques of data collection.

Ans. I. Meaning of the Empirical Method: The empirical method refers to the collection
of data from the field. The facts of social life are studied and described as they exist. The
techniques used in this method are observation, survey, experimental, case studies.

II. The Techniques of Data: Sociologists use different types of techniques for data
collection keeping in view the nature of the problem under study. We will discuss here the
most important techniques of data collection, which are as follows:

1. Observation.

2. Survey.

3. Cast study.

4. Questionnaire.

5. Interview.

8/18
A brief description of all the above five points is given below:

1. Observation: Observation is used as a tool of collecting information in situations

where methods other than observation cannot prove to be useful, e.g. voters’ behaviour
during election time. The purpose of observation is to explore significant events and
situation. capturing human conduct as it really happens.

There are four types (or ways) of observation:

1. Participant Observation and Non-Participant Observation.

2. Participant as Observer.

3. Observer as Participant.

4. Observer as Observer.

1. Participant Observation and Non-Participant Observation:

(a) It is one of the techniques of data collection. In small and pre-literate society, this
technique can be usefully employed. But its use can become challenging and
problematic, when society we are observing is complex. He takes role performance. The
method achieves good result when the identity of the observer is not quite apparent.

(b) The main characteristic of participant observation is that analysis is carried out
sequentially and each stage is different by logical sequence. That is, each succeeding
stage depends on some analysis in the preceding stage. They are further differentiated by
different forms of conclusions.

(c) In some cases, participant observation becomes very difficult and fought with risks
particularly when the issue being inquired has sensitive and explosive dimensions, e.g.
exploring the situation of communal riot.

(d) Participant Observation is a method in which the investigator becomes a part of the
situation he is studying. He involves himself in the setting and group life of the research
subjects. He shares the activities of the community observing what is going on around
him, supplementing this by conversions and interview.

2. Participant as Observer: This is not disguised participant. Observer enters the

community as observer not as role performer. Here the identity of observer is known.

3. Observer as Participant: In this case, observer visits a person and establishes

relationship and puts certain questions and observes the situation. Observer is here
‘observer’ as well as ‘participant’ with the interviewer.

4. Observe as Observer:

(a) In this case, observer observers the situation but those being observed are not aware
of it. The observer has to be perceived in terms of skills and training.

9/18
(b) The quality of the observer is more important than investigators in other forms of data
collection. Observation especially, participant observation, relies much on the attributes of
the researcher for both amount and quality of information.

(c) Exact knowledge of the subject (or issues), previous experience, ability to deal with
varied situations, adaptability, flexibility, ability to get along with others, and to remain
unbiased and free from ideological constraints, are of great significance. Training must
concentrate on the issues that are central to the study.

2. Survey: Social survey is a systematic and comprehensive study of a particular

community with a view to analyze social problem with a diagnostic purpose in mind, so
that it is also accompanied by certain set of recommendations. The purpose of survey is
to provide information. The more accurate and comprehensive the information the better
can be the planning. The goals of the community can then be achieved more fully.

The techniques of survey are: mail questionnaire or interview to elicit information

directly and interpreting the resulting data by means of statistical analysis. It provides an
alternative to the experimental method or participant observation and is widely used in
sociology. Surveys may use sampling in order that inferences may be made from the
sample about a wider population with a known degree of accuracy, as in government
surveys and investigation of public opinion. When the populations are small, sociological
surveys may cover whole groups rather than samples. Even when taking a sample from a
wider population, sociologists may treat the sample as a self-contained whole and may
not attempt to for the wider population from the sample. Surveys may be used in case
study research. Sociologists use different types of survey in their research depending
upon the nature of the study.

3. Case study:

Various related methods are used in case study namely:

(a) Social surveys.

(b) Questionnaires.

(c) Interviews.

(d) Attitude scales.

(e) Projective techniques.

Besides above referred five techniques, personal documents, diaries, autobiographies,

latters, life history, data etc. are also used.

Criticism of the Case Study Methodo logical Implications:

10/18
1. The case study method is very time consuming and very demanding of the researcher.
The possibility of becoming involved emotionally is much greater than in survey research,
thus, making detached and objective observation difficult and sometimes, impossible.

2. Another problem in the use of case study method is that, since, only one example of a
social situation or group is being studied the result may not be representative of all
groups or situations in the category. In other words, the specific mental hospital ward,
slum, or suburb may not be typical of all mental hospital wards, slums, or suburbs.

3. Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can
offer no grounds for establishing reliability of generality of findings. Others feel that the
intense exposure to the study of some specific cases biases the findings.

4. Some critics dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool.

4. Questionnaire:

1. Questionnaire poses a structured and standardized set of questions, either to one

person or to a small population, or most commonly to respondent in a simple survey.

2. Structure here refers to questions appearing in a consistent, predetermined sequence

and form. The sequence may be deliberately scrambled, or else arranged according to a
logical flow to topics or question formats.

3. Questionnaire are distributed through the mail or by hand, through arrangements such
as the ‘drop-off’ where a field-worker leaves the questionnaire for respondents to
complete by themselves, with provision either for mailing the complete from back to the
research office, or for a return call by the fieldworker to collect the questionnaire.

4. A questionnaire administered in a face-to-face interview, or over the telephone

(growing in popularity among researchers) is usually termed ‘schedule’. In deciding upon
one of these methods, researcher balances the cost, probable response rate and the
nature of the questions to be posed.

5. The questionnaire is particularly useful when the respondents are scattered in a large
geographical area but the schedule is used when the respondents are located in a small
area so that they can be personally contacted.

6. The wording of the questions in the questionnaire has to be simple, since the
interviewer is not present to explain the meaning and import of the question to the
respondent. In the schedule, the investigator gets the opportunity to explain whatever the
requires to know.

5. Interview:

1. The set of structured questions in which answers are recorded by the interviewer
himself is called interview schedule or simply the schedule.

11/18
2. Interview schedule is distinguished from the questionnaire in the sense that in the later
(questionnaire) the answers are filled in by the respondents himself or herself. Though
the questionnaire is used when the respondents are educated, schedule may be used
both for the illiterate and the educated respondents.

Q.3. Define observation and discuss its types.

Ans. I. Definition of observation: Observation is used as a tool of collecting information

in situations where methods other than observation cannot prove useful, e.g., voter’s
behaviour during election time. The purpose of observation is to explore important events
and situations capturing human conduct as it actually happens. The observation is
possible in two ways:

(i) Participant Observation.

(ii) Non-Participant Observation.

Participant Observation: It is one of the techniques of data collection. In small and pre-
literate society, this technique can be easily used. But its use become quite complicated,
when society is complex. It is possible to administer this technique with good results
when the identify of the observer can be clocked, that he or she mixes with the inmates of
the situation and look at it from inside. At the same time, a successful employment of this
method requires a high degree of maturity, because quite often the observer may get lost
into the nuances of the situation, so much as to lose objectivity.

Non-participant Observation: In non-participant observation, the observer remains

detached and does not participate or intervene in the activities of those who are being
observed. He merely observes their behaviour. Sometimes this place the persons being
observed in an awkward position and their conduct becomes unnatural.

Non-participant observation is not dependent on a systematic plan of observation.

However, it facilitates the standardization of social situations to be observed and admits
of a systematic plan of the whole observation process and the recording of results. This is
because the observer is not required to participate actively in the social processes at
work in the social field he is observing. Since he is not himself immediately affected by
the demands of the situation, he can concentrate his whole attention easily on systematic
observation of the

situation and what is happening in it.

II. Types of Observation: Sarantakos (1998) has discussed six types of observation.

These are as under:

1. Structured observation: Structured observation is characterized by a careful

definition of the units to be observed, information to be recorded, the selection of
pertinent data for observation and standardization of conditions of observation.

12/18
2. Unstructured observation: The unstructured observation is diametrically opposed to
the structured observation in its ideal-typical formulation. Structured observation, in so far
as it is used mainly in studies starting with relatively specific formulations, normally allows
for much less freedom of choice with respect to the content of observation than is allowed
in unstructured observation.

3. Natural and Laboratory observation: Natural observation is one in which observation

is made in natural settings while laboratory observation is one in which observation is
made in a laboratory.

4. Open and Hidden observation: Open observation is one in which the identity of the
researcher as well as the purpose of study are known to the participants. In hidden
observation, both these remain hidden from the people under observation.

5. Direct and Indirect observation: Indirect observation, the observation plays a passive
role, i.e. there is no attempt to control or manipulate the situation. The observer merely
records what occurs. Indirect observation is one in which direct observation of the object
is not possible because either the subject is dead or refuses to take part in the study. In
most of the cases, it is used by criminologists to observe the situation of murder etc.

6. Convert and Overt observation: In covert observation, subject are unaware that they
are being observed. Generally, the researcher in this type of observation is himself a
participant in all the activities; otherwise it becomes difficult for him to explain his
presence. These observations are mostly unstructured. Sometimes this causes them to
act differently than they do normally. For example, if a policeman in a police station knows
that his behaviour is being watched by a researcher, he will never think of using third-
degree methods in dealing with the accused persons; rather he would show that he is
polite and sympathetic.

Q.4. What is a case study? Distinguish between survey and case study.

Ans. Case study: Case study is a method of studying phenomena through the analysis of
an individual case. The case may be a person, a group, an institution, a classroom, an
episode, a process, a society or any other unit of social life. All data relevant to the case
are gathered and all available data are organized in terms of the case. The case study
method gives a unitary character to the data being studied by inter-relating a variety of
facts to a single case. It also provides an opportunity for the intensive analysis of many
specific details that are often overlooked with other methods. This approach rests on the
assumption that the case being studied is typical of a cases of a certain type, so that
through intensive analysis generalizations may be made which will be applicable to other
cases of the same type.

In brief, case study is a closely-focused analysis of a single unit in which all behaviour
examined using a range of methods. Some measurement is likely to be required (for
example, frequency with which males wash-up in a household). The techniques of case
study are: observation; interviews; questionnaire; press reports; letters; diaries;
participation.

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II. Distinguish between Survey and Case Study:

1. Case Study: A research approach that involves a detailed and thorough analysis of a
single case of unit is called case study.

2. Survey: A survey is a form of planned collection of data for the purpose of description
or prediction as a to action or analyzing the relationship between certain variables.

3. Surveys are generally, conducted on a fairly large scale as contrasted with case
studies which tend to be more intensive but on a smaller scale.

4. Case Study is done in terms of limited space and broader time, whereas survey is
done in terms of limited time with broader space.

Q.5. Define and distinguish between questionnaire and interview schedule.

Ans. 1. The questionnaire: The must be carefully prepared and tested to check its value.
Words and phrases must be familiar and simple; questions must not be ambiguous; it
should demand short and easy-to-analyze answers; it should be value-free and it should
provide the data from which the hypothesis can be tested. The researcher must decide
whether to use it in a face-to-face interview or to send it through the post. Questionnaires
are normally sent by post to the respondents.

2. Interviews: Interview is a conversation between an investigator and an informant for

the purpose of gathering information. A number of the social sciences use the interview
as one of their techniques of data collection. The interview-schedule is filled by the
researcher himself while engaged in the face-to-face interview of the respondent.

There are two types of interviews:

(a) The structured, formal interview follows a set pattern. All the questions are decided
beforehand and the exact wording remains the same in each one. It is standardized and
controlled.

(b) The informal unstructured interview allows the respondents to expand and develop
answers. A recorder may also prove very handy if allowed by the respondent. The
interviewer must be skilled and able to direct the respondents in order to obtain
information relevant to the study.

The choice of the interview method depends on the aim of the study, the time and funds
available and the skill of the researcher. The more standardized answers may help to
provide a more specific picture of attitudes and opinions since comparisons can be made
between answers. The more open-ended answers help to provide a more detailed picture
which is particularly useful in a case study.

These methods are not necessarily exclusive. There can be combination of them. The
purpose of all these methods, in a way, is try to answer the question: ‘why do people
behave the way they do?’ The sociological theories and concepts have emerged as a

14/18
result of these studies. These methods are not necessarily alternatives: they can be used
in conjunction with each other. It depends on what you wish to discover. One method may
be more appropriate than another for different aspects of the same study. A survey, for
example, also requires observational detail to supplement it.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Why sociology is called a social science?

Ans. More than any other discipline, sociology deals things that are already familiar to
most people. All of his live in society, and we already knew a lot about the subject matters
of sociology-social groups, institutions, norms, relationship and so on through own
experience.

Q.2. What is the nature of methods or of the procedures through which the
knowledge is gained in sociology?

Ans. Method or the Procedure: As with all scientific discipline, the crucial elements here
in method or the procedures through which knowledge in gathered. For in the final
analysis, sociologist can claim to be different from lay persons not because of how much
they knew or what they knew, but because of how they acquire their knowledge. This is
one reason for the social importance of method in sociology.

Q.3. What is meant of the following terms/words:

(i) Equilibrium.

(ii) Manifest Functions.

(iii) Ethnographic.

Ans. (i) Equilibrium: A state of balance between parts within a social system.

(ii) Manifest Functions: Functions of a social system which are intended and/or overly
recognized by the participants in that social system.

(iii) Ethnographic: Written record of small society based on direct observation.

Q.4. Explain the meaning of the term “Functionalism”.

Ans. Functionalism: It is a doctrine, which asserts that the principal task of sociology
and social anthropology is to examine the contribution, which social items make to the
social and cultural life of human collectivities.

Q.5. What is meant of the following terms/words:

(a) Case Study.

15/18
(b) Close-Ended Questions.

(c) Coding.

(d) Rapport.

(e) Reliability.

(f) Community Study.

(g) Concept.

(h) Control Group.

(i) Questionnaire.

Ans. (a) Case Study: A research approach that involves a detailed and through analysis
of a single case or unit is called case study.

(b) Close-Ended Questions: Questions followed by a list of possible answers to be

selected by the respondents.

(c) Coding: Categorizing data is called coding.

(d) Rapport: A feeling of trust between researcher and subjects is called rapport.

(e) Reliability: It shows the consistency, objectivity and lack of ambiguity of a statistical
test or a set of measurements.

(f) Community Study: Research that focuses on the detailed analysis of a single
community an application of the case study approach is called community study.

(g) Concept: A word or set of words that expresses a general idea about the nature of
events or thing, or the relations between them; it usually provides a category for
classification.

(h) Control Group: In an experiment, the group from which the independent variable in
withheld, called control group.

(i) Questionnaire: A printed list of questions to be answered by respondents by himself

or herself.

Q.6. Write the short the meaning of the following terms/words:

(a) Non-Participant Observation.

(b) Methodology.

(c) Field Study.

(d) Interview Bias.

16/18
(e) Generalization.

(f) Interview.

(g) Independent Variable.

(h) Selection.

Ans. (a) Non-Participant Observation: It is a method of observation in which an

investigator directly observes a group without becoming a functioning member of the
group or taking part in its activities.

(b) Methodology: The conceptual, logical and research procedures by which knowledge
is developed.

(c) Field Study: A kind of research in which the subjects of investigations are observed
under their usual environmental conditions.

(d) Interview Bias: Effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biassed
answer.

(e) Generalization: A general statement of preposition based on specific observations.

(f) Interview: Face-to-face method of collecting serial data at the individual level.

(g) Independent Variable: A variable whose occurrence or change results in the

occurrences or change of another variable, in a controlled experiment, the variable that is
introduced into the experimental group.

(h) Selection: Here the selection means that there is a focus in observation and also
editing before, during and after the observations are made.

Q.7. Write in brief the meaning of the followings:

(i) Participant Observation.

(ii) Open-ended Questions.

(iii) Corporative Analysis.

(iv) Dependent Variable.

(v) Observation.

(vi) Documents.

(vii) Experimental Group. (M. Imp.)

Ans. (i) Participant Observation: It is a method of observation in which an investigation

participates as a member of the group he is studying.

17/18
(ii) Open-ended Questions: Questions that a respondent is able to answer in his or her
own words.

(iii) Corporative Analysis: Research involving observation in more than one social
system, or in the same social system at more than one point in time.

(iv) Dependent Variable: A variable whose occurrence or change is believed to be

affected by one or more independent variables.

(v) Observation: It is the examination of behaviour directly by an investigator or by

persons who serve as observes.

(vi) Documents: Written sources such as official and other useful records.

(vii) Experimental Group: In an experiment, the group into which the independent
variable is introduced.

Q.8. What should be done to know the nature of society? Why is it difficult to know
it?

Ans. 1. Observer and social reality are two distinct entities that need to be bridged in
order that some correct and dependable inferences are possible about the nature and
structure society and the social phenomena.

2. This is difficult to state the complex and dynamic nature of social reality, which is
changing every moment even while it is being studied.

Q.9. Distinguish between a response and a datum. (V. Imp.)

Ans. A response is some manifest kind of action. On the other hand, a datum is the
product of the recording of the response.

Q.10. Write those four ways in which the observation is possible.

Ans. The observation is possible in the following four ways:

(i) Participant Observation.

(ii) Participant as Observer.

(iii) Observer as participant. and

(iv) Observer as Observer.

18/18
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 5 Society,
Community, Associaiton & Institution
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-5

Society, Community, Associaiton & Institution

Chapter: 5

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.1

Write answer in one sentence:

Q.1. Define society.

Ans. Society is a web of social relations.

Q.2. Out of ‘difference’ and ‘likeness’ which one has greater importance for the
survival of society.

Ans. Likeness.

Q.3. Husband-wife form a social relationship. Do you agree with the statement.

Ans. Yes.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.2

Put a tick (✔) mark against the right answer:

Q.1. Which of the following is an clement of difference between community and

society?

(a) Definite locality.

(b) A group of people.

(c) Likeness of interest.

(d) Sentiment of oneness.

Ans. (a) definite locality.

Q.2. Select the correct characteristics of community from the following:

(a) Abstract.

(b) Dynamic.

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(c) Concrete.

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (b) dynamic.

Q.3. Which of the following is not an example of community?

(a) city.

(b) village.

(c) town.

(d) none of the above.

Ans. (b) village. and (c) town.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.3

(a) Which of the following is an example of an association?

(i) Indian society.

(ii) The Brahmin caste.

(iii) Ladies club.

(iv) Group of hippies.

Ans. (ii) Ladies club. and (iv) Group of hippies.

(b) One of the important distinctions between society and association is that the
latter has:

(i) Unwritten rules.

(ii) Written rules.

Ans. (ii) Written rules.

(c) Which of the following has territorial basis?

(i) Society.

(ii) Community.

(iii) Association.

(iv) Group.

Ans. (i) Community.

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(d) Which of the following is created by people for a specific goal?

(i) Association.

(ii) Society.

(iii) Community.

Ans. (i) Association.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.4

Q.1. Identify an example of institution from the following:

(i) Cricket club.

(ii) Hospital.

(iii) Jail.

(iv) Religion.

Ans. (iv) Religion.

Q.2. Tick the correct choice from the following Institutions represent:

(i) Rule and procedures.

(ii) Human aspect.

(iii) Concrete.

Ans. (i) Rule and procedures.

Q.3. Institution regulates the social life. Do you agree with the statement or not.
(Yes/No)

Ans. Yes.

Q.4. Tick the correct choice.

Following are examples of institutions and associations:

(i) School.

(ii) Political party.

(iii) Family.

(iv) Family and Cricket club.

Ans. (iv) Family and Cricket club.

3/8
TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Was society created overnight? Describe in your own words. (V. Imp.)

Ans. 1. Society was not created overnight. Society is term used in everyday life with a
particular meaning. A layman often defines society as aggregating or collection of
individuals. But in sociology, the term is used in a different sense. It refers to the sum total
of the relationship existing between them.

2. In term of common sense, society is understood as a tangible object, where as in

sociology it refers to an intangible entity. It is a mental construct, which we realize in every
day life but cannot see it.

3. Society is the web of social relationship. And it is always changing. An individual

becomes part and parcel of several layer groups through different mutual relationship.
There relationships do not occur at random. Rather these are patterned. In short we can
say, society as the pattern of social relationships formed through interaction of its
members.

Q.2. Distinguish between society and community. (M. Imp.)

Ans. (i) The term community refers to human relationship that are highly personal,
intimate and enduring, those where a person involvement is considerable if not total, as in
the family, with real friends or a close know group.

(ii) Society refers to everything opposite of ‘Community’, in particular the apparently

impersonal, superficial and transitory relationships of its members in a informal way. The
relations are re-calculating, rational and self-interesting approach to one’s dealings with
other.

(iii) Society includes every relation, which is established between people. They go beyond
territorial boundaries. For example, Indians spread across the world feel that they are part
of Indian society, demarcation of boundary is meaningless here.

(iv) Sense of belongingness is there, but it is less pronounced than in case of community.

(v) Society is an abstract mental construct.

Q.3. What is difference between association and community? (V. Imp.)

Ans. Difference between association and community:

4/8
 Association Community

1. People organize with a particular purpose 1. Community is spontaneously

in mind. created through social grouping.

2. May be short-lived. 2. It has more endurance, continunity

and has a long past.

3. Importance is attached to the group 3. Community as a system of social

members and specificity of the goal. relationship can exist.

4. Mostly functions through written laws and 4. It functions through customs,

rules. tradition and unwritten laws.

Q.4. What are primary institutions? Explain with the help of examples.

Ans. Some of the institutions are basic to the survival of any society. Some sociologists
call them primary institution. There are six primary institutions found in all societies.

They are:

(i) Economic institutions: (e.g. agriculture, industry or any other occupation).

(ii) Social institutions: (e.g. family, marriage and kinship).

(iii) Political institutions: (e.g. political parties or political groups).

(iv) Education or Socialization: (for instance schools, colleges, universities).

(v) Religion: (for examples, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism,
etc.).

(vi) Expressive institutions such as music, dance, fine arts and literature, etc.

They are found in all human societies.

5. Give an example of society and describe its prerequisites in 100-200 words.

5/8
Ans. Society is web of relationship. For example a group of families, kinship, marriage,
caste, neighbourhood, peers, political parties, religions, occupation etc.

In their book on “Society”, Mac Iver and Page define: “Society is a system of usages and
procedures of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controlling of
human behaviour and of liberties. This ever-changing, complex system, we call society. It
is the web of social relationships. And it is always changing.”

This definition reflects that society is a network of social relationships. An individual is

related to other through the ties of kinship, marriage, neighbourhood, caste, occupation,
religions, political parties and peers (friends groups). Thus, an individual becomes part
and parcel of several layer groups through these different multiple relationships. These
relationships do not occur at random. Rather these are patterned. Therefore, sociologists
define society as the pattern of social. relationships formed through interaction of its
members.

Prerequisites of Society:

The collectivity of individual created society over a long period of time. Sociologists have
identified certain attributes of society.

They are:

1. Likeness and differentiation;

2. Inter-dependence;

3. Cooperation and conflict.

1. Likeness and differentiation: In the first place, there should be an aggregate of

individuals who share the sense of likeness. No society can come into existence unless
its members feel that they are like one another. Members of the family and kin group,
persons belonging to the same village or small town and members of the same caste
generally have this feeling of likeness. However, the first likeness is that of physiognomy.
Man along with other animals cannot make a human society.

However, we cannot say that society is not marked by differentiation. The members of a
society differ from one another in terms of caste, class, occupation and education, etc.
Even within the family, members differ from one another in terms of gender, age,
personality, outlook and personal preferences. However, these differences complement
each other in such a way that family stability is maintained. Similar principle is also
applicable to wider society where the differences are subordinated to likeness, which is
quite essential for maintaining social harmony.

2. Inter-dependence: is another attribute of society. The members of a society depend

on one another for its smooth functioning. In a traditional village or your neighbourhood,
members of different caste groups depend on each other in every day life. For example,

6/8
washerman, carpenter, cobbler, ironsmith, bus conductor, Brahmin, sweeper are seen to
be doing their own tasks yet depending upon each other. No individual can perform all
functions on one’s own. Therefore, individuals depend on each other live in society.

3. Co-operation: is another essential attribute of society. No society can come into

existence or continue to persist unless the members cooperate with each other. Co-
operation is obtained at every level of society such as interpersonal relationship like:

(a) between husband and wife and other family members.

(b) between neighbours.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is the meaning of sociology? What is done by it for understanding

relationships between individual life and social processes?

Ans. Sociology is a science of society which focuses on certain basic units to understand
how human beings live and carry out their activities. These units provide the basis for
understanding relationships between individual life and social processes.

Q.2. Briefly write the meaning of “Association”.

Ans. An association is a group of people, who come together and get organised for
fulfillment of specific goals or purpose. Sometimes limited number of goals exist behind
such organisations. For example, you may have seen the working of Mohalla Sudhar
Samities, or cricket club in your neighbourhood. There are also many other such
associations like voluntary associations, music club and trade unions.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Define community and briefly make clear its meaning.

Ans. Society is an abstraction (notion, idea, thought) community is a concrete entity.

According to sociologists, “whenever the members of any group, small or large, live
together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, we call that
group a community.” Thus, a community refers to a group of individuals living in a
geographical area. They share the same physical environment and the basic conditions
of common living. A neighbourhood or a village are good examples of a community.

Q.2. Mention three similarities between society and community.

Ans. Similarity between Society and Community:

(i) Both are spontaneously created social groups, but a community can also be created
with a specific interest in mind.

7/8
(ii) Both serve wider ends.

(iii) Members of both have a sense of belongingness.

Q.3. Mention four characteristics of Association.

Ans. Characteristics of Association:

(i) It consists of a group of individuals.

(ii) The people are organized.

(iii) There are certain rules and regulations for the conduct of activities of association.

(iv) These people carry out activities to attain certain specific goals.

Q.4. Write two sets of meanings of the term ‘Institutions’.

Ans. (i) By institution, people generally mean an organisation, for example people call
hospitals and schools as institutions.

(ii) However, in sociology the meaning of institution is different. Here, this term is used to
understand the ways of doing things.

8/8
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 6 Social Group
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-6

Social Group

Chapter: 6

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1

Write answer in one sentence:

(a) What do you understand by a social group?

Ans. Social groups refers about basic units where human beings live.

(b) Can groups be called ‘Social bricks’ if so, why?

Ans. Yes, groups can be called ‘social bricks’ because as bricks make build of similarly
groups make society.

(c) Do you agree with the statement that society is made up of groups?

Ans. Yes, I agree with the statement that society is made up of groups.

(d) Give an example of group.

Ans. Family or Political party is an example of group.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.2

Write answer in one sentence:

Q.1. Write the three classifications of roups based on nature of contacts.

Ans. (a) Primary groups.

(b) Secondary groups.and

(c) Tertiary groups.

Q.2. In which type of group do you find face to face relations?

Ans. In primary group, find face-to-face relation.

Q.3. In what type of political party covers?

Ans. Secondary.

1/6
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.3

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from this section:

1. An examples of Horizontal groups is ……………… group.

Ans. peer.

2. Case, class and bureaucracy are examples of …………….. groups.

Ans. vertical.

3. For uneducated unemployed, salaried class constitute a ………………. group.

Ans. reference.

4. In open groups mobility of members is …………….. .

Ans. possible.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.4

Tick mark (✓) the correct answer and put (x) against wrong answer:

1. We feeling marks primary group.

Ans. (✓).

2. Group is marked by a standard rules and norms.

Ans. (×).

3. Group consists of many communities.

Ans. (×).

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Distinguish between primary and secondary groups. (V.Imp.)

Ans. Distinguish between primary and secondary groups:

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Q.2. Describe the characteristics of a social group.

Ans. A social group has the following characteristics:

1. Number of person: At least two persons have to be there in a group.

2. Membership consciousness: Each member is conscious of his or her membership in

his or her group.

3. Organised structure: Every group structurally organised.

4. Interaction with a meaning and purpose: Interaction takes place between members
with definite meaning and purpose.

5. Sense of belongingness: There is a ‘We’ feeling in a group.

6. Common goals and interests: Members of a group often share common goals and
work together for their realisation, e.g. members of a cricket club are bound with each
other to play the game of cricket to win a match.

7. Group norms: Each group has its own rules or norms, which the members are
expected to follow.

8. Comparative enduring character: Each group possesses relative permanency.

9. Nomenclature: Largely each group is known by a name.

10. Specific culture likes language and symbols: Each group possesses specific rules
of behaviour, specific styles of interaction and language and symbols to communicate.

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11. Reciprocal relations: The members of a group are reciprocally related to each other.
For instance in a family, all the members are bound with each other through bonds of
kinship.

Q.3. What is difference between group and community? (M.lmp)

Ans.

Group Community

1. Group is created. 1. It grows naturally and is also Created.

2. Group may be formed for certain 2. Community involves the Whole life of its
purposes. members.

3. Comparatively temporary. 3. Comparatively permanent.

4. Group is a part of community. 4. Community consists of many groups.

Q.4. Describe in-group and out-group in your own words.

Ans. In-group and out-groups: On the basis of feeling we can make distinction between
in-group and out-group.

1. In-group refers to that aggregate members who interact with a sense of intra-group
solidarity (solidarity with group). Thes members possess prejudices (biases) are
superiority-inferiority complex, toward several other groups, which are called ‘outgroups’.

2. In-group always evaluate out-group based on own cultures. So, superiority and
inferiority dimensions take place. The consciousness is identified as ‘ethno-centrism.

Example: For instance, in a village upper castes and lower castes are ‘in-group’
themselves but for one another each become an ‘out-group’.

3. In common sense in-groups are called ‘we-groups’ and out-group are known as the
groups’.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with suitable word or words:

(a) Concepts like society, community, association and institutions refer to

…………….. that help us to make sense of how human beings live.

Ans. groups.

(b) Social groups are the basic units where human beings live, lead their life and
enter into meaningful …………….. .

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Ans. inter-actions.

(c) Human beings living in society do not lead an …………….. life.

Ans. isolated.

(d) Human beings are social …………….. .

Ans. animals.

(e) A …………….. group is simply a number of people who interact with each other
on a regular basis.

Ans. social.

(f) In a family, all the members are bound with each other through ……………… .

Ans. bonds of kinship.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Explain the major criteria used for classifying groups.

Ans. Major criteria used for classification of Groups: Generally criteria like size,
proximity, complexity membership, goal and means are used to classify groups.

We know very well that all groups are not alike. Everyone of us can see differences
among various groups based on size, proximity, complexity, membership, goal and
means.

1. Size: Some groups are small while others are large. For example, a family is generally
a small group in size, while political party may be very big i.e. membership.

2. Other Major Criteria: Groups may be divided into primary, secondary, in-groups, out-
groups, membership, non-membership, formal informal, etc.

3. Relationship: On the basis of individual’s orientation in relation to a group, the concept

of – group has also taken shape in sociology.

4. Intimate Groups: These groups are always large in size.

5. Impersonal Groups: These groups are always large in size.

6. Primary Group: These are always small in size. It refers to small associations of
people connected by ties of emotional feelings.

7. Secondary Group: Impersonal, formal and indirect relations prevail among the
members of this type of group.

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8. In Group: These groups are ‘we groups: any individual ‘Ingroup’ is the group to which
he belongs. The groups with which the individual identifies himself are his ingroups:
family, tribe, sex, college, or occupation by virtue of one’s awareness of likeness or
consciousness of kind.

9. Out Group: These groups are ‘They group’ or ‘Others group’. An outgroup is a circle of
people to which an individual feels no sense of belongingness. For examples, a tiller of
the soil in our country views his landlord as outgroup. It follows that outgroup is defined
by the individual with relation to the ingroup, generally expressed in the contrast between
‘we’ ‘they’ or ‘other’.

10. Formal Groups: These groups tend to be either large or a part of a large
organisation. An army and a labour union is the example of formal group.
11. Informal Groups: These are social units which have all group characteristics. They
have established system of interpersonal relations, joint activities, the feeling of
belongingness to a group but they lack any legal staus. For example clubs or sports
sections, societies etc.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 7 Social Structure
And Social System
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-7

Social Structure And Social System

Chapter: 7

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1

Q.1. Tick (✓) mark the correct answer:

1. Social structure refers to

(a) Statuses and roles.

(b) A value.

(c) The way the unit of a group or a society relate to one another.

Ans. (c) The way the units of a group or a society relate to one another.

2. Which of the following is a unit of the social structure?

(a) A status.

(b) An organisation.

(c) All of the above.

Ans. (c) all of the above.

3. An organisation means

(a) coordination of social relationships.

(b) coordination of parts.

(c) certain positions.

Ans. (a) coordination of social relationships.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

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(a) Role means …………….. behaviour. (assigned, expected, definite).

Ans. expected.

(b) The position an individual has in society is called …………… . (rank, position,
status).

Ans. status.

(c) The members of a social structure are interrelated for pursuing a common
……………… . (goal, rule, law)

Ans. goal.

(d) The stability of social structure depends upon the effectiveness of ……………….
system. (sanction, positive, negative)

Ans. sanction.

(e) Being an elderly women, an orphan child, a doctor, a lawyer is a ……………….. .

(status, need, value)

Ans. value.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.3

Q.1. Choose the correct answers:

1. The main constituent of social structure is

(a) Group.

(b) Institutions.

(c) Human beings.

Ans. (c) Human beings.

2. A status is a

(a) Socially defined position in a group or society.

(b) Socially defined behaviour expected of someone.

(c) All of the above.

Ans. (a) Socially defined position in a group or society.

3. A role is

(a) The behaviour expected of someone with a given status in a group or society.

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(b) Socially defined position in a group or society.

(c) None of the above.

Ans. (a) The behaviour expected of someone with a given status in a group or society.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.4

State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Social system is not based on interaction.

Ans. False.

2. Social system is in related to cultural system.

Ans. False.

3. There is a functional relationship between the part of a social system.

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.5

State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Norms are the standards for determining what is right and wrong.

Ans. True.

2. Rank is not equivalent to standing.

Ans. False.

3. Power refers to the capacity to control and deprive others.

Ans. True.

4. Sanction can only be negative.

Ans. False.

5. Statuses are ascribed and achieved.

Ans. True.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Describe in your own words what do you mean by social structure and social
organisation.

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Ans. Social structure is the way a society is organised into expected relationship. It is
concerned with the principle forms of social organisation, that is types of groups,
associations and institutions.

Chief characteristics of social structure are normative system, positive system, system of
sanctions and system of anticipated responses. The bases of social structure are the
need to pursue a goal, preparedness to accept one’s role and status, norms and mores.

Social organization: The descriptive term used for social structure is social organisation
which refers to the arrangement of parts of persons.

Social organisations such as family, a political party, religious organisation, economic

organisation are found in every society. All these organisation, members organize
according to their social positions or statuses, to perform various functions.

Q.2. Define the following concepts with examples (word limit 100 to 150):

(a) Role.

(b) Status.

(c) Norm.

(d) Sanction.

(e) Power.

Ans. (a) Role: It is the expected behaviour of a person (or an individual) who holds a
certain status.

(b) Status: It is a position occupied by an individual in a group or in a society.

(c) Norm: It is shared standards of desirable behaviour which people follow while
interacting with others.

(d) Sanction: It is a duly permission obtained from legal authority or well-established

social organization norms etc. It may be negative as well as positive.

(e) Power: It is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their ends (goals or
objectives) in spite of opposition from others.

Q.3. Explain the chief characteristics of social system. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Main characteristics of Social System are:

(i) Social system is based on the interaction of plurality of individuals.

(ii) The interaction must carry a meaning.

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(iii) Social system is a unity. Here, various parts like institutions, customs, traditions,
procedures and laws are arranged in an integrated manner.

(iv) There exists a functional relationship between parts of the social system. To
understand this functional relationship, we can take example of a bicycle, which is made
up of handle, two wheels, free wheels, free wheel and chain, etc. But to move, the cycle
wheels must be related to the free wheel and chain etc. It means parts are
interdependent and interactive.

(v) Social system is related with cultural system. Culture determines the nature of inter-
relation and interaction.

(vi) Social system has an environmental aspect. It is related to a particular age, a definite
territory and particular society. Environment has an impact over whole activities of the
life.

Q.4. State the elements of social system. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Elements of Social System: Followings are the main elements of social system:

1. Belief and Knowledge: Any proposition about any aspect of the universe that is
accepted as true may be called a belief. Belief is the basis for social action.

2. Sentiment: Sentiments are closely related to beliefs. A sentiment denotes ‘what we

feel’ about the world. Sentiments are the products of the experience and cultural training.
Sentiment may be of various types, i.e., intellectual, ethical and religious, etc. Sentiments
also have a background of historical and cultural legacy.

3. Goal or objective: Objectives create social system. Members along with relevant
social structures of a social system expect to accomplish a particular end or objective
through appropriate interaction. The human needs, goals and ends determine the nature
of social system. Primarily, human beings are united to accomplish the basic needs of life,
e.g., food, clothing and shelter.

4. Norms: Norms are the standards for determining what is right and wrong, appropriate
and inappropriate in social relationships. Every social system possesses norms, which
the individuals are obliged to observe.

5. Status and Role: In a social system each individual has a status. The status may be
ascribed or achieved. The ascribed status is one, which is conferred upon an individual
by the group or society. It may be based on sex, age and caste, etc. The achieved status
is one that an individual achieves by his own efforts. For instance, an individual may be of
lower caste origin but may acquire a high status through a good economic achievements.

6. Ranks: Rank here is equivalent to ‘standing’. It includes the importance an individual

has for the system in which a rank is accorded to him. An individual is given a rank on the
basis of two factors. One is the evaluation made of him and the other is his act in

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accordance with the norms of the system. For instance, a business corporate executive
enjoys higher rank than a teacher in modern society, whereas in ancient times the teacher
often enjoyed higher rank than even a king.

7. Power: Most of us often feel that even though we vote and send the politicians to
power positions, we actually do not mater to them in case of many decisions. Power
refers to the capacity to control and deprive others. State and policing systems are the
expressions of such power.

8. Sanction: It refers to the rewards and penalties given out by the members of social
system as device for inducting conformity to its norms and ends. Sanction can be positive
or negative. The negative sanction is, for instance, the death penalty whereas positive
sanction is any rehabilitative effort for the convict.

9. Facility: A facility has been defined as a means used to attain ends within the system.
It is necessary that the individuals in a social system should be provided with adequate
facilities to enable them to perform their roles efficiently. Facilities should not only exist
but should also be realized. The goals or objectives of a social system are realized only
through the utilization of facilities.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is status?

Ans. Status: It is a position occupied by an individual in a group or in society.

Q.2. What is socialization?

Ans. Socialization: This is a process by which a child (or a human infant) learns the
norms, rules and skills of the society.

Q.3. What is role-set? Describe the role-set of a doctor in a hospital.

Ans. I. Role-Set: The array of roles associated with a particular status is called role- set.

II. The Role-Set of a doctor in a hospital: For instance, a doctor in a hospital is

interacting with other doctors of the hospital, with nurses and other employees of the
hospital, with the patients, and with the doctors of other hospitals and even with the
doctors of other country for interaction.

Q.4. What do you mean by role-strain and role-conflict? Give suitable examples.

Ans. 1. Meaning sometimes people find it difficult to meet the demands associated with a
role. When conflicting demands are made into a role, an individual performing the role
may undergo role-strain.

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2. Example: For instance, a Sarpanch of the village may be asked to take a decision in a
case where his family members are vis-à-vis other villagers involved.

The demands from these two sets (or groups) of people are in direct conflict. Sometimes,
performance of one-role may be in conflict with another role. This situation is called as
role-conflict.

Q.5. Explain the meaning and role of social institutions.

Ans. Social Institutions:

1. Social systems work on the basis of widely accepted cluster of norms and values
called social institution developed by the society to meet the basic requirements of a
society.

2. Institutions (such as family) are the ideas and customs, around which life in a society is
organized.

3. Members of the social system are usually supposed to follow the norms, but there may
be some differences.

Q.6. What do you understand by accommodation?

Ans. Accommodation: This is a process of social interaction among individuals in a

society by which they try to adjust themselves.

Q.7. Explain the term ‘Co-operation’.

Ans. Co-operation: It is a social process where individuals interact among themselves

and work together. In this process, they make effort to adjust among themselves.

Q.8. Write four significant traits or aspects for social interactions.

Ans. The following four traits or aspects are may significant for social interaction:

(a) Social contact are a prerequisite of interaction.

(b) Communication is the medium of interactions.

(c) The different ways or modes in which social forces operate influence the kinds of
interaction. and

(d) Social interaction always occurs within a social structure.

Q.9. What is meant by Master Status?

Ans. Master status is a status that dominates over other statuses of an individual.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

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Q.1. Write a short note on “A Social System”.

Ans. Social System:

1. A social system is an orderly and systematic arrangement of social interaction.

2. Characteristics of social system are based on the interaction of plurality of individuals.

3. Social system is a unity. Its various parts like institutions, customs, traditions,
procedures and laws are arranged in an integrated manner.

4. Social system is related with cultural system and it has an environmental aspect too.

5. The elements of social system are belief and knowledge, sentiment, goal or objective,
norm, status and role, rank, power, sanction and facility.

6. The structure of social system is based on the interaction of plurality of individuals.

7. Social system relates to the functional aspect of social structure.

Q.2. Make clear the meaning of the both:

(a) Macro-level of social structure.

(b) Micro-level of social structure.

Ans. (a) Macro-level of Social Structure: The large social pattern that shapes an entire
society is called Macro Level of Social Structure.

(b) Micro-level of Social Structure: The pattern of personal (or an individual) interaction
that defines everyday life, is called micro-level social structure.

Q.3. Discuss briefly the meaning of social structure and also define it in your own
words.

Ans. I. Meaning of Social Structure: Social structure allows performing most of the
activities of everyday life with some efficiency. It spares us from hundreds the human
perform of all those little jobs that would otherwise have to be performed before every
small act, and it also gives groups and societies a degree of stability and continuity. Social
structure is basically the social reality, which influences our daily life.
II. Definition of Social Structure: Social structure refers to the way the units of a group
or a society relate to one another. According to some sociologists, social structure is the
term applied to the particular arrangement of the inter-related institutions, agencies and
social patterns as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the
groups. It may be said that social structure refers to the overall composition of a society.
Its units are groups, institutions, associations and organizations. As we know all men and
women relate themselves to each other and they establish a structural form; it may be a
group, an association or an organization.

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9/9
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 8 Norms And Values
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-8

Norms And Values

Chapter: 8

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.1

Q.1. Tick (✔) mark the right answer:

1. Which of the following would be an example of value?

(a) Nandini believes that it is wrong to cheat in a test.

(b) Rajesh believes that it is good for his children to read books.

(c) Sanjib believes that children should not drink tea or coffee.

(d) All of the above.

Ans. (d) All of the above.

2. An example of a positive sanction would be

(a) A jail sentence.

(b) A cash award from a government for being a good citizen.

(c) Someone smiling at you for being kind to a lost child.

(d) Both (b) and (c).

Ans. (b) A cash award from a government for being a good citizen.

3. Norms may be

(a) The normal behaviour in a group.

(b) Unwritten laws.

(c) Statements about what is believed to be good or bad.

(d) All of the above.

Ans. (b) unwritten laws.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words from the brackets:

1. Norms are ……………. expectations. (individual shared, group shared)

Ans. group-shared.

2. Norms are backed by different kinds of ………….. punishment. (reward, sanction)

Ans. sanction.

3. Three kinds of norms are folkways, ………………., custom. (tradition, mores,

ritual)

Ans. mores.

4. Norms give ……………… to society. (cohesion, threat, competition)

Ans. cohesion.

5. Norms help to ……………… social order. (break, maintain, sustain)

Ans. maintain.

6. In case of ……………… social norms contradict each other or just simply

breakdown. (deviance, normlessness)

Ans. normlessness.

7. In case of normlessness, social control becomes ……………. . (effective, strong,

ineffective)

Ans. ineffective.

8. Without appropriate norms society is threatened with ……………. . (punishment,

disorganization, instability)

Ans. disorganization.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words from the brackets:

(i) Any change in social structure will take place with changes in social
………………. . (institution, values, action)

Ans. values.

(ii) Indian socialism is based on the principle of allocation of resources and roles
based on ……………… . (birth, merit, class)

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Ans. merit.

(iii) ………………. emphasis the equality of opportunity. (socialism, holism,

democracy)

Ans. democracy.

(iv) In case of holism, individuals should pursue …………….. goals. (individual,

collective)

Ans. collective.

(v) Socialism is based on the principle of ………………. distribution. (merit based,

status based, need based)

Ans. merit based.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Answer the following questions in 100 to 250 words:

Q.1. Define the following terms:

(a) Norms. and

(b) Value and explain then in your own words.

Ans. (a) Definition and explanations of the word Norms:

(A) Meaning: Norms refers to the guidelines people follow while interacting with other
persons. Norms are shared standards of desirable behaviour. They indicate how people
have to believe in a particular situation.

(B) Explanation:

1. Norms are rules followed by people in different situations.

2. Norms vary from society to society, from group to group and from situation to situation.

3. What may be most desirable action in one society, may be considered disgraceful in
another.

4. Norms are prescriptive as well as proscriptive, which means that norms prescribe or
require us to behave in a certain way but at the same time prohibit people from doing
certain activities.

5. How one has to behave in classroom (in a group of students and a teacher) in the
presences of a teacher in a court in the presence of a will be applicable to those who are
present in that situation.

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6. Some norms are more important to the members as compared to some other norms.

7. Norms also govern our emotions and perceptions. For example, people are supposed
to feel sad and depressed while attending a funeral. Members of all societies follow these
automatically without questioning.

(b) Definition and explanation of the word ‘Value’:

A. Definition: Harry M. Johnson has defined values “as a conception, or standard,

cultural or merely personal, by which things are compared and approved or disapproved
relative to one another-held to be relatively desirable or undesirable, more meritorious or
less, more or less correct.” He further says that all kinds of things, such as feelings, ideas,
actions, goals, means etc. can be evaluated.

B. Explanations:

1. It is very clear that value is concerned with what is good and desirable, which is
indispensable for the survival of society.

2. Values have through ages.

3. Norms can be seen as a reflection of values.

4. Norms are unwritten laws.

5. Variety of norms can be seen as an expression of a single value.

6. Thus now we can say that, an ordered and stable society is not possible without
shared norms and values.

Q.2. State the relationship between norms and values.

Ans. Relationship between norms and values: Values may be defined as a measure of
goodness or desirability. They provide general guidelines for conduct. In this sense they
are often referred to as “higher order norms”. But norms are given much more specific
meaning. They define appropriate and acceptable behaviour in particular situations.
Values are cherished only through the observance of norms. The relationship between
the two can be made clear by the following example. A society may cherish the value of
“privacy”. This value provides only a general guide to behaviour. Norms define how the
value of ‘privacy is translated into action in particular situations and circumstances.

Example: For instance, norms relating to privacy may insist that person letters must not
be opened without permission etc. A person’s private life or individual life is his own
concern and others must not interfere into the personal matters. In this way a series of
norms direct how people should behave in terms of the value of ‘privacy’.

Q.3. What are different types of norms? Describe in your own words.

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Ans. Types of Norms: There is no standard classification of the norms in the sociology
texts. Each sociologists has presented a somewhat different list. There can be divided
into two preliminary groups of categories.

These are:

1. First Group of Category of Norms:

Norms are both (i) prescriptive. and

(ii) proscriptive.

(i) Prescriptive norms: There norms dictate what people should do.

(ii) Proscriptive norms: These norms tell us what people should not do.

Conclusion: Frequently, the prescriptions and proscriptions come in pairs, that is, we are
required to do something and forbidden not to do something we are required to wear
cloths in our society and forbidden to go naked outside (or on the street or mohalla).

2. Second Groups of Category of Norms: The second group of category of norms is

that some of the norms pervade in entire society and others, less pervasive, prevail only
in certain groups. We shall call the command norms and the later associated norms.

Example:

(i) Communal Norms: A communal norms would be the custom of shaking hards upon
meeting a new acquaintance, a custom that appears throughout our society, in all group
and classes.

(ii) Associational Norms: The example of associational norm would be the custom of
wearing scared thread among Hindus and it applies to the members of upper castes but
not to all other castes.

Conclusion: The above referred both ways of classifying norms as prescriptive or

proscriptive and as communal or associational repovesent categories that cross each
other.

However, all the norms may be subsumed under three major concepts-folkways, mores
and custom, which we shall discuss here:

(i) Mores. and

(ii) Folkways:

(i) Mores: Mores represents yet another category of norms. Mores is a term used to
denote behaviour patterns, which are not only accepted but prescribed.

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(ii) Folkways: In simple words, when the folkways clearly represent group standards, the
group sense of what is appropriate, right and necessary for the well being, then they are
known as folkways.

Mores may be positive or negative. Positive mores represent what should be for example,
respecting elders, speaking the truth, etc. While negative mores represent ‘don’ts’,
examples like do not steal, do not tell lies. Mores are the means by which individuals gain
identification with their fellows. As a result mores bind people into one strong cohesive
group. In this way the mores help to maintain social order. For example, students must
wear uniform is school. It is not only accepted but also prescribed form of behaviour. This
prescription creates pressure on students, and they cannot deviate from this rule. And,
this dress code undoubtedly gives the students a common identification in the school.

(iii) Customs: Customs another kind of social norms, are socially accepted way in which
people do things together in personal contacts. Our accepted procedures or practices of
eating, meeting people, playing, working etc. can be called custom. Custom preserves
our culture and transmits it to the next generation. For example, it is the custom to touch
the feet of elders before examination or at different other auspicious and religious
occasions in India, but not in western countries. People have seen their elders to maintain
this customs. People have learnt this and they themselves maintain this. In this way this
particular custom has become a part of our culture from generation to generation. They
have added stability and certainty to our social life. Customs are found in all the
communities of the world. No society can do without them. Therefore, customs act as an
effective means of social control. Individual can hardly escape their grip. Customs also
provide the background from the formulation and establishment of rules. Customs
become laws when the state enforces them as rules to be abided by the citizen.

Q.4. What is the importance of value in our society? Explain with example.

Ans. The importance of values in Indian Society: Values are important for the following
reasons:

1. Values provide stability in group interaction: They hold the society together
because they are shared in common. Since they are shared, the members of a society
are likely to see others as “people like themselves.”

2. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities: The rules are
accepted and followed because they embody the values.

3. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different sets of
rules: For example, if India cherish the value of equality they will have to modify the rules
governing the interpersonal relationships between husband and wife and man and
woman and woman and between castes.

Q.5. What do you mean by normlessness? Explain with example.

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Ans. Meaning and explanation of the “Norm/essness”: Normlessness is a sense of
detachment from existing social norms or rules, mostly society functions in an orderly
fashion. A good number of people conform to the norms of their respective groups
unconsciously. Thus, ordinarily people do what is expected from them by society. This
keeps the society running smoothly. But this is not always the case. In a state where
existing social norms contradict each other or face a collapse, people feel detached from
their own fellows. This is a state when there exists lesser consensus or a lack of certainty
on values or goals. At those moments people have little commitment to shared norms,
and lack societal guidelines for personal conduct. They are inclined to pursue their private
preferences without regard to the interest of the society as a whole. Social control
becomes ineffective. Hence, the society is threatened with disorganization. This situation
is called anomie.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is meant by following terms:

(a) Norms.

(b) Values.

(c) Culture Pattern.

(d) Monocultural.

(e) Personality.

Ans. (a) Norms: The norms are the rules of behaviour approved by society.

(b) Values: The values refer to what ought and what ought not to be done.

(c) Culture Pattern: A typical type of culture or specific type of culture.

(d) Monocultural: Some type of culture or one type of culture.

(e) Personality: It refers to that totality of a person which of biological constitution,

attitudes, values, views, habits and behaviour patterns.

Q.2. What do you understand by the ‘Agency’? (Imp.)

Ans. Agency: Agency here means the institutions which are responsible or the
socialisation. A mental construction of the person is called self. By it (self) an individual or
the person sees her/him – reflected by others, in their reaction.

Q.3. Define Self. (Imp.)

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Ans. Self: A mental construction of the person is called self. By it (self) an individual or
the person sees her/him-reflected by others, in their reaction.

Q.4. What is the meaning of cultural environment? Write very briefly. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Cultural environment means man made environment. It includes all cultural
institutions and even the customs and of the community.

Q.5. Write the meaning of the following:

(a) Individual.

(b) Inherited.

(c) Process.

(d) Instinctive.

Ans. (a) Individual: Human being or person.

(b) Inherited: The transmission of rights of property.

(c) Process: It is a continuous action.

(d) Instinctive: The inmate motivation drives leading to species, specific behaviour
patterns.

Q.6. Make distinction between personal and social norms.

Ans. We can make a distinction between personal or private norms and social norms.
Private norms are purely individual in character and they live with individuals only. They
may influence only the behaviour of the individual concerned. For example, an individual
may make some resolutions on the New Year’s Day, say, he would stop smoking and
decide to abide by it.

8/8
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 9 Status And Role
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-9

Status And Role

Chapter: 9

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:

1. Members in a social system are different according to ………….. they occupy in

the group.

Ans. Social positions.

2. Two parts of a social position are …………. and ……………. .

Ans. Role and status.

3. You occupy a status but you play a …………….. in society.

Ans. Role.

4. Two types of status are …………….. and ……………. .

Ans. Ascribed, Achieved.

5. Give an example of ascribed status ……………… .

Ans. Brahamin, male – female.

6. Give an example of achieved status ………………. .

Ans. Engineer; Doctor; Teachers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.2

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:

1. A ……………. is the dynamic aspect of status.

Ans. Role.

2. A combination of various roles associated with a particular status is called

…………….. .

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Ans. Role-set.

3. Role cannot be ……………… from status.

Ans. Isolated.

4. The normative aspect of role is ……………… .

Ans. Culture.

5. Two types of roles are …………….. and ……………. .

Ans. Ascribed, Achieved.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.3

Q.1. What is master status?

Ans. Although a person may hold a number of status, one of them, which we might call a
master status, defines the person socially.

Q.2. What are relational and participation status?

Ans. Relations and participatory statuses: Broadly status has two meanings in
sociology.

1. Relational Term: Most sociologists define status simply as a position occupied by an

individual in a social system. “Wife” and “husband” for example are statuses in martial
systems just as “lawyer”, “juror” and “judge” is statuses in court systems. Note that status
is purely relational term, which means that each status exists only through its relation to
one or more other statuses. “Husband”, for example, is a category that makes no sense
at all except in relation to the category “wife”, just as there can be no “judges without
corresponding positions that comprise the rest of a judicial system.

2. Participatory Status: Since statuses are positions in social systems, they exist
independently of the particular individuals who occupy them. Indeed, a status can exist
even though no one is occupying it at the time, such as the status of “Prime Minister”
when the current minister has died and new one has yet to be elected or the status of
“candidate” when there is no election forthcoming. People are associated with statuses
only through their participation in social systems that include them. In this relatively
simple principle lies the core sociological insight that social systems cannot be reduced to
the people who participate in them.

Q.3. Mention any four characteristics of role.

Ans. Characteristics of Role:

1. Role is a dynamic aspect of the status.

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2. Role exists in status. Role cannot be isolated status.

3. Role is not found in vacuum. It has a strong cultural aspect.

4. The normative aspect of role is culture.

5. Role is relative.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Define social position.

Ans. Social position: Social identity an individual has in a given group or society; Social
positions may vary in nature (such as those associated with gender roles) or may be
much more specific (as in the case of occupational positions).

Q.2. Define social status. Discuss the inter-relationships between social status and
role.

Ans. I. Definition of Social Status: The term status, like the term culture, has come to
be used with a double significance. A status, in the abstract, is a position in a particular
pattern. It is thus quite correct to speak of each individual as having many statuses, since
each individual participates in the expression of a number of patterns. However, unless
the term is qualified in some way, the status of any individual means the sum total of all
the statuses which he occupies. It represents his position with relation to the total society.

A status, as distinct from the individual who may occupy it, is simply a collection of rights
and duties. Since these right and duties can find expression through the medium of
individuals, it is extremely hard for us to maintain a distinction in our thinking between
statuses and the people who hold them and exercise the right and duties which constitute
them.

II. Social Role: The concept of status is related to the concept of “role” that is what Linton
calls the more dynamic aspect of status that we shall discuss both in this context and in
relation to reference groups. It is impossible fully to dissociate them. Thus, a role is the
dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. It is the dynamic aspect of status and is a
combination of rights and duties.

III. The inter-relationship between social status and role:

(i) There are no roles without statuses or statuses without roles. Just as in the case of
status, the term role is also used with double significance. Every individual has a series of
roles deriving from the various patterns in which he participates and at the same time a
role in general, which represents the sum total of these roles and determines what he
does for his society and what he can expect form it.

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(ii) Each status typically includes a number of roles. A person who holds the status of
teacher behaves one way with students, another way with other faculty members and still
another way with the principal. The collection of roles that goes with a given status is
termed a roles set.

(iii) Social roles regulate and organize behaviour. In particular they provide means for
accomplishing certain tasks. It can be argued, for example, that teaching can be
accomplished more effectively if teacher and student perform their appropriate roles. This
involves the exclusion of other areas of their lives in order to concentrate on the matter in
hand.

(iv) Roles provide social life with order and predictability. Interacting in terms of their
respective roles, teacher and student know what to do and how to do it. With knowledge
of each other’s roles they are able to predict and comprehend the actions of the other. As
an aspect of culture, roles provide an important part of the guidelines and directives
necessary for an ordered society.

Q.3. Define status and role, and distinguish between them, using examples.

Ans. Definitions status and role and distinguish between them:

1. The concept of status and role have a growing significance in the social sciences. We
want to define them and to distinguish between them.

Status: The social honour or prestige which a particular group is accorded by other
members of a society. Status groups normally involve distinct styles of life-patterns of
behaviour which the members of a group follow. Status privilege may be positive or
negative.

Role: A role is the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. It is a combination of right
and duties. Every individual has to play various roles of different roles, more than one.
Some roles are not prominent but one role may be a master role.

1. A distinction between status and role is simplified by Ralph Linton when he said, “you
occupy a status, but you play a role’. Every position or status in society carries with it a
set of expected behaviour patterns.

2. Status and role are two sides of the same coin’, say Linton. Although all statuses and
roles derived from social patterns are integral parts of patterns, they have an independent
function with relation to the individual who occupy. particular statuses and exercise their
roles.

3. The concepts of status and role are the initial tools for the analysis of social structure.
A status is simply a position in society or in a group. Every society and every group has
many such positions and every individual occupies as many positions as there are groups
to which he belongs.

4/11
Thus Each person holds a number of positions in society known as statuses. A woman
might be a musician, a teacher, a wife and a mother. Each of these social positions, with
the rights and duties it entails, is a status. Although a person may hold a number of
statuses, one of them, which we might call a master status, defines the person socially.

4. With the development of modern anthropology and sociology, the concept of status has
been broadened to encompass all culturally prescribed rights and duties inherent in social
positions.

5. Every status has one or more roles attached to it. Statuses are occupied, but roles are
played. Role is the expected behaviour pattern attached to a status, carrying certain
specific rights and obligations. A role is the manner in which a given individual fulfills the
obligation and enjoys its privileges and prerogatives. A role is what an individual does in
the status he occupies. It is obvious that different individuals do different things in the
same statuses, and it is the concept of role that enables us to take account of these
differences.

Q.4. What are the basic differences between ascribed and achieved status?
Illustrate each.

Ans. Basic differences between ascribed and achieved status: Statuses are culturally
defined, despite the fact that they may be based on biological factors such as sex, caste
and race. There are two different kinds of status that people occupy’ ascribed status, and
achieved status.

1. Ascribed status: An ascribed status is a social position that is assigned at birth and is,
therefore, usually permanent. Hence, an ascribed status is one into which a person is
born and in which he or she remains throughout his or her life, eg., sex, caste, race and
age. A Brahmin, for example, enjoys the ascribed status of a Brahimn by virtue of his
birth. In addition, sex, ethnic background, place of birth and family name supply assigned
statuses. Such statuses are said to be ascribed. Ascribed statuses are usually fixed at
birth.

Example: In India, caste status is generally ascribed although it has been going through
several changes through ‘sanskritization’ and ‘inter-caste marriages’. In some countries
social class also comes under ascribed status which is arbitrary given by society.

2. Achieved status: An achieved status is one that is chosen or achieve such as a

married person, a parent, a friend, a doctor or an engineer. An achieved status is
acquired through one’s own efforts. Society recognizes such changes in achieved status.
Statuses which are not fixed by inheritance, biological characteristics, or other factors,
over which the individual has no control, are known as achieved statuses. An achieved
status is entered as a result of some degree of purposive action and choice. Thus, an
achieved status, by contrast, is one that is based on something the person has done.

5/11
Example: The status of author is gained by publishing books; that of husband is gained
by obtaining a marriage license and getting married. No one is born as an author or as a
husband. Thus, an individual’s marital status and occupational status are achieved.

Q.5. What is role? Discuss different kinds of role.

Ans. 1. Meaning of Role: A role in the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status.
Status is occupied, but roles are played. We may say that a status is an institutionalised
role. It. is a role that has become regularised; standardised and formalised in the society
at large or in any of the specific associations of society.

II. Different kinds of Role:

1. Ascribed role: A role-pattern emphasizes “performance” if one pays particular

attention to what the occupant can do and how well he can do it, relatively regardless of
his age, sex and group memberships. Linton makes distinction between “ascribed” and
“achieved” roles. A role is said to be “ascribed” if its occupants acquire it automatically as
a result of certain objective characteristics or relations to other which are beyond their
control. The most important bases of ascription are birth a particular family, birth order,
sex and age.

A role that an individual acquires automatically at birth, or on the attainment of certain

age.

2. Achieved roles: The most universally ascribed role is one’s sex role, male and female.
Different age levels are also associated with different expectations. Roles bases on one’s
birth as a member of particular racial, caste or religious groups are ascribed. Thus, in
these types of roles, birth is the basic influence, for example traditionally speaking being
born in a certain caste will imply certain role behaviours as a priest’s sone will train to be
a priest.

Technically any role is said to be “achieved” if it is not “ascribed”. A role that an individual
has because he has either chosen or earned it. It is the result of his efforts and his action.
Thus, roles, whicha re gained by personal efforts, are known as achieved role such as a
general in the army, doctor or an engineer and so on.

Q.6. “Statuses are occupied, but roles are played.” Comment.

Ans. 1. Although status and role are generally found together, it is impossible to imagine
situations involving status without role and role without status.

2. People occupy statuses they play roles. The norms, however are attached to the
statuses. Since, the norms and constantly changing in a changing society, statuses too
do.

3. Statuses and roles may however, change in relative inter-dependence of each other.

6/11
4. New statuses arise in society and old ones disappear. In occupational statuses
especially competent and capable incumbents may expand the range of obligations and
priviledges whereas incompetent and incapable incumbents may exert our opposite
influence.

Q.7. What is role conflict? Discuss the mechanisms for handling role conflict.

Ans. I. Meaning: Role conflict is that situation in which people are confronted with
contrary or incompatible role expectations in the various social they occupy in their lives.

Examples: For instance, a parent may feel conflicting obligations to employer who
demand full devotion from him/her and children who require to be cared for, when they
are sick.

II. The mechanisms for handling role conflict:

1. There are a variety of responses for resolving or minimizing the effects of role conflict.
The first is to choose which role in more important and then violate the expectations
associated with the other role.

2. A second response is to leave one of the conflicting statuses (a person might quit a job
if it interferes too much with parenting responsibilities).

3. A third response is to engage in role regregation, the practice of separating various

role-partners from one another (doctor, for example, often refuses to treat members of
their own family).

4. A fourth response involves maintaining a role distance a method for minimizing role
strain associated with a disagreeable role. For instance, managers who must dismiss
large members of employees in order to lower costs and make firms more competitive
may resort to a variety of techniques to dissociate. themselves from what they have to do.

Q.8. Write short notes on following:

(a) Status set.

(b) Role set.

(c) Ascribed and Achieved Status.

(d) Ascribed and Achieved Role.

(e) Role strain and Role conflicts.

(f) Role distance.

Ans. (a) Staus set: A status is simply a position is society or in a group. Every society
and every group has many such position and every individual occupies may such
position. It must be apparent that each individual in a modern complex society such as

7/11
ours occupies many different types of status during the course of his/her life.

Example: For instance, you as a school student may be a student to your teacher, a
customer to your group, a passenger to the bus conductor or a bus driver, a brother or
sister to your sibling, a patient to the doctor.

Needless to say we could keep adding to this list. The small and simpler the society, the
fewer the kinds do status that an individual can have.

In a modern society our individual as we saw occupies multiple status which is

sociologically termed as status set.

Individuals acquire different status at various stages of life. A son becomes a father,
father becomes a grand-father and then great grandfather and so on. This is called a
status, which is attained in succession or sequence at the various stages of life.

(b) Role Set:

(i) A role is the dynamic or behavioural aspect of status. Status is occupied, but roles are
player. We may say that a status is an institutionalised role. It is a role that has become
regularised, standardised and formalised in the society as large or in any of the specific
associations of society.

(ii) People perform their roles according to social expectations i.e. role taking and role
playing.

(iii) A child learners to behave in accordance with how her behaviour will be seen and
judged by others.

(iv) Role are set by individual, by society and also changed and control by individual and
by respectively.

(c) Ascribed and Achieved Status:

Ascribed Status:

(i) An ascribed status is a social position, which a person occupied because of birth or
assumes involuntarily.

(ii) The most common bases for ascribed status are age, caste, race and kinship.

(iii) Simple and traditional societies are marked by ascribed status.

Achieved Status:

(i) An achieved status on the other hand refers to a social position that a person occupies
voluntarily by personal ability, achievement, virtues and choices.

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(ii) The most common bases for achieved status are educational qualifications, income
and professional expertise.

(iii) Modern societies are characterised by achievement. Its members are accorded
prestige on the basis of their achievements.

(d) Ascribed and Achieved Role:

(i) In traditional or backward societies roles are ascribed fixed. The base of this was
gender or caste. These societies had fixed roles for different persons.

(ii) Role stereotyping is a process of reinforcing some specific role for some members of
society. For instance, men and women are generally socialised in stereotypical roles, as
bread winner and homemaker respectively.

(iii) Social roles are generally wrongly seen as fixed and unchanging.

(iv) Achieved roles are obtained roles or assigned roles based on individuals’
qualifications, training, experiences, abilities. It is felt that individuals, learn the
expectations that surrounded social positions in their particular culture and perform these
roles largely as they have been defined.

(v) Through socialisation, individuals, internalise social roles and learn how to carry them
out. This views, however, is mistaken. It suggests that individuals simply take on roles,
rather than creating or negotiating them. In reality, socialisation is a process in which
human can exercise agency, they are not simply passive subjects waiting to be instructed
or programmed.

(vi) Individuals come to understand and assume social roles through on ongoing process
of social interaction.

(vii) Roles are not given and fixed. People make efforts to fight against discrimination
roles. For example, those based on caste or race or gender. At the same time there are
sections in society who oppose such changes. Likewise individual violation of roles are
often punished. Society thus functions not just with roles but also with social control on it.

(e) Role Strain and Role Conflict:

(i) Role obtained or provided by an individual or by society respectively may create strain
or tension in mind of an individual or even in the whole society and it may create conflict.

(ii) We have generally heartless phase; Everyone has to prove him or herself. In
traditional societies status and roles were defined or ascribed at birth. Even in modern
societies ascribed status or rule matters.

(iii) Status and prestige are interconnected terms. status and role is accorded certain
rights and values. Values are attached to the social position, rather than to the person
who occupies it or to his/her performance of to his/ her actions. The kinds of value

9/11
attached to the status or to the office is called prestige. People cannot status in terms of
their high or low prestige (based on role also). The prestige of a doctor may be high in
comparasion to a shopkeeper, even if the doctor may earn less.

(iv) It is vital to keep in mind that ideas of what occupation is considered prestigious
varies across societies and across periods.

(v) Most of the people (men/women or even children) perform their different roles
according to social expectations i.e. role taking and role playing.

Example: A child learns to behave in accordance with how his or her behaviour will be
and judged by others.

Role Conflict: For a functionalist perspective social control refers to, (a) the use of force
to regulate the behaviour of the individual and groups and also refers to the en-forcing of
values and patterns for maintaining order in society. Social control here is directed to
restrain deviant behaviour of individuals or groups on the one hand, and on the other, to
mitigate tensions and conflicts among individuals and groups to maintain social order and
social cohesion. In this way social control is seen as necessary to stability in society.

Conflict theorists usually would see social control more as a mechanism to impore the
social control of dominant social classes on the rest of society. Stability would be seen as
the writ of one section over the other. Likewise law would be seen as the formal write of
the powerful and their interests on society.

A sociological perspective that focuses on the tensions divisions and competing interests
present in human societies. Conflict theories believe that the scarcity and value of
resources in society produces conflict as groups struggle to gain access to and control
those resources. Many conflict theories have been strongly influenced by the writings of
Karl Marx.

(f) Role distance:

1. The role played by an individual or by a group may be away from the accepted norms
by the society or community or by caste. In every society we find social control. It may be
called informal social control or formal social control. Informal social control is personal,
unofficial and uncodified. They include smiles, making faces, body language forms,
criticism, ridicule, laughs etc. There can be great variations in their use within the same
society. In day-to-day life they are quite effective.

2. There are also various agencies of informal social control e.g. family, religion, kinship,
etc. We have head or seed about honour killing society provides sanction or improved
restrictions. A sanction is mode of reward or punishment that reinforces or punishment
that reinforces socially expected forms of behaviour. Social control may be positive or
negative according to the performance of role or role-distance.

10/11
3. Members of societies can be rewarded for good and expected behaviour. On the other
hand, negative sanctions are also used to enforce rules and to restrain deviance.

4. Deviance refers to modes of action, which do not conform to the norms or values held
by most of the members of a group or society. What is regarded as ‘deviant’ is as widerly
variable as the norms that values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures.

5. Likewise ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one period to another. For
instance, a woman choosing to become an astronaut may be considered deviant at one
time, and be applauded at another time even in the same society.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 10 Co-Operation,
Competition And Conflict
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-10

Co-Operation, Competition And Conflict

Chapter: 10

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1

From the given options choose the right answer by filling the blank or putting a tick
(✓) mark:

1. Cooperation involves:

(a) Common end and organized effort.

(b) Differential end and organized effort.

(c) Two ends and one ancient strategy.

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (a) Common end and organized effort.

2. The activity of ……………. characterize cooperation.

(a) Participating in debate.

(b) Building a house.

(c) Appearing in the examination.

(d) Contesting the election.

Ans. (b) Building a house.

3. Celebration of festivals say for e.g. Dussehra, Eid or Janamasthami etc. needs a
group effort which symbolise:

(a) Competition.

(b) Conflict.

(c) Co-operation.

Ans. (c) Co-operation.

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4. Co-operation is ……………… from of social interaction.

(a) Disjointed.

(b) Goal-oriented.

(c) Culture specific.

Ans. (b) Goal-oriented.

5. Sociologists have classified co-operation into …………….. .

(a) Direct and indirect type.

(b) Primary, secondary and tertiary type.

(c) Both the above (a and b).

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (b) Primary, secondary and tertiary type.

6. In modern society, one comes across more and more of ……………. kind of
cooperation.

(a) Indirect.

(b) Straight forward.

(c) Direct.

(d) Only competition.

Ans. (a) Indirect.

7. The principle of division of labour refers to a situation when:

(a) Each individual or a group has its specialized role to play.

(b) All individuals and groups performs the same task.

(c) Both of the above (a and b).

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (a) Each individual or a group has its specialized role to play.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.2 & 10.3

The given options choose the right answer by filling the blank or putting a tick (✔)
mark:

2/9
1. When the individuals and group try to achieve scarce items for which there are
many takers it indicates the ……………… amongst them.

(a) Co-operative behaviour.

(b) Competitiveness.

(c) Adjustment.

(d) Social contact.

Ans. (a) Co-operative behaviour.

2. Whenever the competitors shift their interest from the objects of competition to
other competitors it is called ……………… .

(a) Indirect competition.

(b) Treachery.

(c) Rivalry.

(d) Peaceful co-existence.

Ans. (c) rivalry.

3. Members of a society compete with one another when ………….. .

(a) More individuals applying for limited number of jobs.

(b) There are less number of individuals and more number of opportunities.

(c) Both of the above (a and b).

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (a) more individuals applying for limited number of jobs.

4. Competition is regarded as ……………… to progress.

(a) Hindrance.

(b) Conducive.

(c) Closed.

(d) Contradictory.

Ans. (b) Conducive.

5. Competitions is a struggle mainly carried out at ……………… .

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(a) Personal level.

(b) Conscious level.

(c) Impersonal level.

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (c) Impersonal level.

6. Interaction without social contact is called:

(a) Co-operation.

(b) Competition.

(c) Conflict.

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (b) Competition.

7. A social process is characterized by:

(a) Only co-operation.

(b) Only competition.

(c) Both the above (a and b).

(d) None of the above.

Ans. (c) Both the above (a and b).

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.4 & 10.5

State True or False against each statement:

(a) Conflict arises when the norms and values of one group comes in clash or
struggle with others.

Ans. True.

(b) In competition, the rules are observed but in conflict there are no rules.

Ans. True.

(c) Conflict never leads to violence or threat to peace.

Ans. False.

(d) Conflict never leads to social change.

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Ans. False.

(e) The process of cooperation, competition and conflict lie at the basis of all forms
of social interaction.

Ans. True.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Explain the concept and meaning of social process. (V. Imp.)

Ans. The concept and meaning of social process:

1. Society is not static. It is ever changing. Changes came through interaction among of
society. The interaction reflects in the activities of human being in society through contact
and communication.

In this context, there are certain mechanisms by which individuals and groups carry out
activities according to their needs and requirements, which are known as ‘social process’.

Thus “social process mean various modes of interaction between individuals or groups
including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development,
arrest and decay.” In other words, “social process is a manner in which the relations of the
members of a group, once brought together acquire a certain distinctive character.”

2. Cooperation, competition and conflict mark the basic principles of various types of
activities performed by the individuals in a given social context.

3. Social process has a wider connotation. It comprises of events that took place in the
past. It is also based on traditions, mores, morals and instincts. These may be abstract
and unconscious in nature, where as social interaction is concrete, based on reciprocity,
real and social contact situation.

4. Social process is concerned with different changes in life of the group. It depends upon
the nature of interaction, which may be include the historical, cultural, political and
economic, religious and social aspects. Interaction refers to an action done in response to
another action. It becomes social process when interaction is repeated.

5. When a husband and wife help each other out of love, affection and sympathy, it
assumes the form of co-operation and it becomes a social process.

Q.2. Describe the characteristics of competitions. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Characteristics of Competition:

(i) Competition is impersonal struggle. Competition is never personalised. According to

some sociologist competition refers to interactions without social contact. It is usually not
directed against any individual or group in particular.

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(ii) Competition is mainly an unconscious activity but at times conscious competition also
takes place. Whenever the competitions shift their interest from the objects of competition
to other competitors, it is called rivalry or personal competition. Personal competition or
rivalry is a conscious activity.

(iii) Competition is universal. No society is devoid of competition. However, the magnitude

and the degree of competition might vary from society to society. Competition is found in
all known human society and culture.

(iv) Competition is regarded as conducive to progress. Fair competition is conducive to

economics as well as social progress and even to general welfare because it spurs
individuals and groups to exert their best efforts. It obvious connection with what is called
“progress” has led some sociologists to regard it as the essential features of modern
civilization. Competition provides the individuals better opportunities to satisfy their
desires for new experiences and recognitions.

(v) At times competition can vicious both the individuals and groups. It may create
emotional disturbances. Unfair competition has the most disintegrating effects. Both co-
operation and competition constitute the underlying essence of most of the social
interactions in everyday life. No society is exclusively competitive or exclusively.
cooperative.

(vi) Competition refers to both associative and dissociative dimensions of social process.

Q.3. Write short notes on:

(a) Social interaction.

(b) Primary and Secondary cooperation.

Ans. (a) Social Interaction: Social interaction, as distinguished from social process, is
concrete, real and based on communication, social contact and reciprocal relationship.
The members of a society, bound together in a system of mutual influence is described as
social interaction. It refers mostly to the comtemporary social situation and thus
considered as concrete and real. In short, we can say that social interaction is a complex
process and comprises three major forms of interaction: co-operation, competition and
conflict.

Social interaction and social processes are interrelated. One does not exist without the
other.

(b) Primary and Secondary Cooperation: There are many types of cooperation. It can
be of direct or indirect type. Corporations can also classified into:

(i) Primary cooperation.

(ii) Secondary cooperation. and

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(iii) Tertiary cooperation.

(i) Primary cooperation: The co-operation found in primary groups such as family and
peer groups (friends) is called primary cooperation where people have to choose face to
face relations.

In there cases (i.e. family and peer groups) the interests (or selfs) of the individual merge
with the interests of the primary group.

(ii) Secondary cooperation: It is found in the secondary group such as:

(a) government.

(b) industrial houses.

(c) voluntary organization. And

(d) trade union etc.

where people cooperate for certain interest.

Q.4. What do you understand by cooperation of goal-oriented and organized?

Explain it.

Ans. Meaning of co-operation of goal-oriented and organized: Co-operation generally

means working together for a common goal (or objective). We have generally noticed the
behaviour of people in our village or neighbourhood, when a community festival like
Christmas, Durga-Puja, Janamasthami, or Ram Lila or Krishna-Lila organization or Guru-
Purab celebration, or Eid etc. Some volunteers more from home to home, from shop to
shop to collect donation (or funds) for the members who belong to their own community,
neighbourhood or village. All these donations are pooled together and the members of
celebration group decide the manner in which these should be spent.

Celebration of such festivals is not possible unless the members cooperate with one
another at every level.

Decoration of the festival place, and sacred observance of the rituals, etc. are example of
goal-oriented and organized cooperation.

Such cooperation is regular feature, which takes place every year. The volunteers and
organisers might change from year to year but the observance of the activity continues.

Cooperation of goal-oriented can be seen among organized group or political parties for
certain purposes. These groups or parties otherwise compete with one another, come
together and cooperate with each other for a specific purpose. For example, some
political- parties shake hands and accept minimum common programme to form a front
and capture power or form government. This type of cooperation may be for a short time
span.

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Cooperation is a process which is highly essential for the maintenance of social order.
Therefore, co-operation is considered as associative social process. It is a universal
phenomenon. If we are to live as members of the society, we cannot do without
cooperation.

Co-operation is goal-oriented and conscious form of social interaction. It involves two

elements:

(i) Common end. and

(ii) organized effort.

All the individual members have a common end, i.e. celebration of the festival. But they
can do it only when all members cooperate with one another in an organized manner.
This is an example, of cooperation at the level: for example, family, community and
nation.

Q.5. State different types of conflict.

Ans. Different types (or kinds) of conflict: Conflict can be of various types.

They are:

(i) war.

(ii) feud.

(iii) litigation. and

(iv) conflict of impersonal ideals.

War is a type of group conflict which all of us know. War results from a deep seated
antagonistic impulse in man. Feud is an intra-group form of ware caused by some
injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another. Litigation is a judicial form of
conflict. The best example of the litigation is the court case. Conflict carried out by
individuals for an ideal (not for themselves) is called the conflict of impersonal ideas.

Some sociologists have given various classification of conflicts. We shall discuss some
important ones:

(i) Conflict can be either.

(a) manifest (overt). or

(b) latent/covert.

The manifest type can be observed but the latent conflict primarily remains invisible.

(ii) Conflicts can be either

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(a) corporate. or

(b) personal.

Corporate conflict occurs among the groups within a society or between two societies.
Communal riots, war between nations, strike by the industrial labourer are the examples
of corporate conflict. On the other hand, personal conflict occurs within the group, due to
envy, hostility, jealousy or breach of trust.

(iii) Conflict can be purely temporary (ephemeral) or perpetual (enduring). Conflict

between individuals on a road side, village shop, city buses for small and petty reasons
are, the best examples of ephemeral conflicts. Such conflicts do not last over a long
period of time. People generally forget and come back to their normal life. On the other
hand, conflict between two rival groups of a village or two feuding clans of a tribe are the
examples of the perpetual conflict. In such cases conflict is also not continuous. It is
stretched over a long period of time and sometimes extends over several generations.
However, there are intermittent periods of peace and social harmony followed with
turbulent period of conflict.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 11 Acculturation,
Assimilation And Integration
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-11

Acculturation, Assimilation And Integration

Chapter: 11

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1

Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:

(a) Acculturation is a process of ……………. .

Ans. Culture change.

(b) Acculturation is a ………………. .

Ans. Two.

(c) It results due to mutual ……………… .

Ans. Contact.

(d) Culture contact is facilitated by …………….. and …………….. .

Ans. Transport and Communication.

(e) Acculturation means ……………… of cultural elements from one social group to
another.

Ans. Transmission.

(f) Acculturation is …………….. and ………………. process.

Ans. Universal and Continous.

(g) Acculturation is a pre condition to ………….. and …………….. .

Ans. Assimilation and Integration.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.2

Q.1. Which of the following statement is not True:

(a) Assimilation is a temporary form of acculturation.

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(b) Assimilation is a slow process.

(c) Assimilation is unconscious.

(d) Assimilation is a product of acculturation.

Ans. (a) assimilation is a temporary form of acculturation.

Q.2. Which of the following factors is a hindrance to assimilation?

(a) Inter-marriages.

(b) Economic equality with cultural homogeneity.

(c) Negative reciprocity with sharp cultural differences.

(d) None of these.

Ans. (c) negative reciprocity with sharp cultural differences.

Q.3. Assimilation is a process of ………………. (fusion, fission, cultural disjunction,

integration)

Ans. Fusion.

Q.4. In assimilation:

(a) Cultures involved are always equal.

(b) Cultures involved are characterized by homogenous social organization.

(c) One culture is dominant and the other culture is either numerically small or marginal.

(d) All of these.

Ans. (c) one culture is dominant and the other culture is either numerically small or
marginal.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.3

Mark the following as True or False:

(i) Group integration refers to social relationships between members of groups at

different levels of integration. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(ii) Acceptance and observation of various norms set by the group is not a factor.
(True/False)

Ans. False.

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(iii) The size of a group affects its integration. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(iv) The secondary group has greater potentiality as compared to primary group, to
integrate. (True/False)

Ans. False.

(v) Integration is referred to as the process of organisation. (True/False)

Ans. False.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Write answer in 100-200 words:

Q.1. Explain the concept and meaning of:

(a) Acculturation.

(b) Integration. and

(c) Assimilation.

Ans. (a) Acculturation: Acculturation means transmission of cultural elements from one
social group to another.

Acculturation is a process of culture change, which results due to contact between

communities belonging to different culture.

In case of acculturation both the cultures get mutually affected as the culture traits of one
culture move into the other culture and vice-versa culture contact operates in all societies
and groups. It is possible only when people are desirous of accepting the new traits and
continue to follow old traits.

Definition: A sociologist has defined the term “Acculturation” in the following words:

“Acculturation is the process by which a dominant group imposes its culture so effectively
on subordinate groups that they becomes virtually indistinguishable from the dominant
culture. It is called a acculturation.

Culture is not inborn. After birth an individual learns cultural values, practices traditions
and norms while growing up in the given physical and social environment. On the other
hand there is nothing called pure or pristine culture. Cultural insulation in an absolute
sense is not possible. No culture can survive in isolation. A culture is a dynamic process
characterized by continuity and change.

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Culture contact is facilitated by modern means of transport and communication. Such
contacts between members of two different cultures help in mutual borrowing of different
cultural traits. For example, the areas affected are art and artifacts dress and food habits,
language and literature, practices and rituals in the economic, social and religions life at.
Such borrowing is visible more in materials culture and values, which are more or less
common. Mostly in the process acculturation, borrowing of such cultural traits reflects
influence of dominant culture on those which are either numerically smaller or are new
comers or immigrant. Acculturation means transmission of cultural elements from one
social group another. Sometimes it could also be the other way round.

(b) Integration: Integration is a process of integration into a single unit, out of separate
parts.

Integration, therefore, brings members to remain together and forces the members to
remain in one group. Thus integration bring and stability in a group. It acts as a process of
organisation. It is opposite to social isolation and a process of alienation and segregation.
Group integration refers to group cohesion or group solidarity.

Integration is a group process and is mainly concerned with individuals living in groups or
in the presence of other groups. It is, therefore, important to understand the needs and
ways of forming groups. This knowledge will help us in understanding the degree and
extent of cohesion in these groups.

In order to keep the members together and maintain the solidarity of the group integration
is the binding force. The group stability depends up integration. It is this process, which
compels the members to remain united in the grow. Integration is a process to join
together the members of a group and keep them in a single unit.

Group integration refers to social relationship between members of groups at different

levels of integration. Such social relationships vary in degree and intensity and these may
be referred to as highly integrated, loosely integrated or moderately integrated.

(c) Assimilation:

(i) Assimilation again is the result of culture contact. It is a common belief that more the
persons interact, the more they are apt to like each other. The more they interact, the
more alike they tend to become.

(ii) There is a general belief that the more we know about others, the better we like them.
Assimilation means that a person or group has acquired the values of another group to
such an extent that it identity.

(iii) Assimilation is a process where close contact of persons of dissimilar cultures always
results in fusion of cultural traits although borrowing may not be so pronounced in one
direction as in the case of the other.

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(iv) Assimilation is also conceived as a natural and unassisted process and practice.
Assimilation is considered akin to the theory of “like mindedness”. This idea was partly an
outcome of the popular notion that similarities and homogeneity are identical with unity.
The idea of assimilation was conceived to be that of feeling thinking and acting a like.

(v) Another meaning of assimilation is that the immigrant has contributed in the past and
may be expected to contribute something of his own temperament, culture and
philosophy to the future. This conception has its origin among the immigrants and has
been formulated and interpreted by persons who are in close contact with them.

(vi) This recognition of the diversity in the easements entering into cultural process is not,
of course, inconsistent with expectation of an ultimate homogeneity of the product. It has
called attention to that fact the process of assimilation is concerned with differences quite
as much as with likeness.

Q.2. Compare between acculturation, integration and assimilation.

Ans. A comparison between acculturation, integration and assimilation:

A. Similarities: These three processes have some common points as well as certain
variations. Some of the common points are mentioned:

(i) The basic principles of culture contact are acculturation, assimilation and integration.

(ii) These form part and parcel of social processes. In other words, social processes
constitute these three processes of social change in different culture and social group.

(iii) Borrowing and acquiring various cultural traits are also common features in all the
three.

(iv) Transmission of cultural traits and their acceptance and adoption in different degree
and extent is also common characteristic of these three processes.

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B. Differences: The differences among acculturation, integration and assimilation could
be understood from the following description:

1. Assimilation refers to fusion of culture whereas, acculturation relates to transmission of

cultural elements on a bigger scale over a wide areas.

Integration on the other brings member together and maintains cohesiveness and
solidarity in the group. It brings unity and stability among various members of the group.

2. Acculturation is a continuous process as against integration, which is referred to as a

process of organisation. As distinguished from these two, assimilation is the end product
of social contacted interaction.

3. The process of assimilation takes a long period of time for fusion of different cultural
values and ethos. As against this, an integration refers to cultural pluralism, voluntary and
incomplete assimilation. This takes place in a short period of time. Acculturation at times

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is apparent, and causes quick social change.

4. Assimilation is also considered as a natural and unassisted process whereas

acculturation and integration are social processes and assisted by culture contact and
can be promoted directly.

Q.3. Differentiate between the characteristics of Acculturation, Integration and

Assimilation.

Ans. I. Characteristics of Acculturation:

1. A conscious or unconscious process: Acculturation could be either a conscious or

an unconscious process. People borrowing the culture traits of other groups might be
aware of the fact that they are borrowing or they might do it without realizing that these
are being borrowed by them.

2. Mutual exchange of cultural traits: Acculturation takes place when two or more
communities belonging to different cultures come together and start adopting each others
trait. So it is a two way process of culture change. Both the groups involved undergo
some change.

3. It is a long process: Acculturation does not take place overnight. It takes a long time
before the members borrow the culture traits from other communities. But the time taken
for acculturation is definitely shorter than the time taken for assimilation. So in
comparison to assimilation, acculturation consumes relatively less time.

4. Through direct and indirect contacts: Acculturation can take either through direct
first hand contact through indirect contact from a distance such as through radio,
television, newspaper, literature etc.

5. A pie-condition of integration or assimilation: Acculturation is a pre condition of

assimilation or integration. Once the situation of culture contact is obtained, it can lead to
either assimilation or integration.

II. Characteristics of Integration:

1. A complex process: Integration is at complex social process in comparison to

acculturation and assimilation.

2. Requires Adjustment: It is complex because it requires a lot of structural adjustments

on the part of the groups involved.

3. Changes and status in institution: The communities of groups undergo changes in

terms of some of the institution where as they retain the traditional features and practices
in case of other institutions.

4. Process of linking cultures: Integration refers to the process of uniting or linking

cultural parts with the whole or mainstream culture.

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III. Characteristics of Assimilation:

1. An unconscious process: Assimilation takes place without any deliberate and

conscious efforts on the part of the groups involved in the process. Hence assimilation is
an unconscious process.

2. A slow process: Usually assimilation takes long time to materialize. When two culture
come in contact with one another it is only after a considerable amount of time that one
gets merged with the other. Hence, assimilation is a slow process.

3. Role of dominant culture is more powerful: Assimilation occurs when the cultures
involved in the process are unequal. Some sort of ranking exists between them. One is
the dominant culture and the other one is the subordinate culture. Usually the dominant
culture absorbs the smaller cultures into its own fold leading to assimilation.

4. Lasting effects: Assimilation is not a temporary phenomenon. It has lasting effects.

The changes taking place in the culture due to assimilation continue for a long time.

Conclusion: The constituent cultures retain their cultural identity and at the same time
they share some aspects of the common with which they are integrated.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Mention only the names of social processes, concern with the nature of social
interaction between individuals or groups.

Ans. (i) Co-operation.

(ii) Competition.

(iii) Conflicts.

(iv) Acculturation.

(v) Assimilation. and

(vi) Integration.

Q.2. Write the names of culture traits which are common to all societies.

Ans. (i) Love and Hate.

(ii) Pride and prejudices.

(iii) Sex and Ceremonies.

Q.3. Where are the cultural differences reflected? Answer in one sentences.

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Ans. The cultural differences are reflected in geography, human ingenuity, technology,
education, conflict of interest, inherited and tradition backed notions.

Q.4. Is culture inborn? If not than what is its learning time?

Ans. Culture is not inborn. After birth of human being and individual learns cultural values,
practices tradition and norms in his family, peer groups, society, environment and
community.

Q.5. What is role or importance of social contract for transmission?

Ans. Social contact evern when slight or indirect is sufficient for transmission from one
cultural group to another.

Q.6. What is the importance of material cultural traits in cultural integration?

Ans. Adoption of material culture traits can acquire greater magnitude without associated
changes in the corresponding non-material dimensions such as ideology, norms and
value system.

Q.7. Give some examples of assimilation.

Ans. The ceremonial adoption and initiation of aliens and strangers among primitive
peoples are examples of assimilation.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 12 Marriage
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-12

Marriage

Chapter: 12

MODULE 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.1

Q.1. Write True or False against the statement:

Marriage is a social relationship that marks the beginning of family life.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Mark the correct answer:

Marriage is an important institution because:

(a) It is a permanent bond between husband and wife.

(b) It aims of procreation and maintenance of children.

(c) It regulate sexual behaviour and social harmony.

(d) All the above.

Ans. (d) All the above.

Q.3. Fill in the blank:

Society gives approval to the marital relationship of man and woman in ……………
and/or …………… ceremony.

Ans. Civil and Religious.

Q.4. What is marriage? Define it in one sentence. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Marriage is an institution to satisfy physical, psychological, social, cultural and

economic needs of men and women. It permits men and women to establish a stable
relationship with each other in order to form a family.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.2

Q.1. Mark the correct answer:

The form of marriage in which one man marries several women is called:

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(a) Fraternal polyandry.

(b) Non-fraternal polyandry.

(c) Polygyny.

(d) Polyandry.

Ans. (c) Polygyny.

Q.2. Write True or False against the statement:

Monogamy is the most widely prevalent form of marriage all over the world.

Ans. True.

Q.3. Fill in the blank:

Marriage by …………….. is the most common form of marriage among most of the
Indians.

Ans. negotiation.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.3

Q.1. Mark the correct answer:

Marriage of a man of high caste with a woman of lower caste is called:

(a) Anuloma marriage.

(b) Pratiloma marriage.

(c) Polygamy.

(d) Polyandry.

Ans. (a) Anuloma marriage.

Q.2. Fill in the blanks:

Marriage between a man and sister of his deceased wife is called …………….. .

Ans. Suroate.

Q.3. Write True or False against the statement:

Partiloma marriage is marriage between woman of low caste and man of higher
caste.

Ans. False.

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Q.4. Match the following:

(a) Exogamy (i) Marriage of a widow with her husband’s brother.

(b) Endogamy (ii) Marriage between the children of either two brothers or
two sisters.

(c) Levirate (iii) Marriage within one’s own social group.

(d) Parallel cousion (iv) Marriage outside one’s own social group.
marriage

Ans.

(a) Exogamy (iv) Marriage outside one’s own social group.

(a) Exogamy (iii) Marriage within one’s own social group.

(c) Levirate (i) Marriage of a widow with her husband’s brother.

(d) Parallel cousion (ii) Marriage between the children of either two brothers or
marriage two sisters.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.4

Q.1. Mark the correct answer:

Which of the following can be considered important function of family:

(a) Sexual fulfilment.

(b) Procreation of children.

(c) Economic support.

(d) All the above.

Ans. (d) All the above.

Q.2. Write True or False against the statement:

Marriage helps in the survival of groups as well as their culture. (True/False)

Ans. True.

Q.3. ‘Marriage performs important function for the group as well as individual.’
State whether this statement is right or wrong.

Ans. Right.

Q.4. Mention economic function of marriage. (M. Imp.)

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Ans. 1. Marriage provides valuable and reliable help to an individual in economic
activities. The couple i.e. the husband and wife, work together at home, in the field or
forest, in the cottage industry or in any other occupation to support the family they have
set up. They also look after each other’s economic needs.

2. Husband and wife (both of them), take care of their children’s economic requirements
such as food, clothing, shelter, education, medical and recreational needs and so on.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.5

Q.1. Write True and False against the statement:

The Hindu marriage can be dissolved at will.

Ans. False.

Q.2. Tick the correct answer:

The most popular form of Hindu marriage is:

(a) Brahma.

(b) Prajapatya.

(c) Daiva.

Ans. (b) Prajapatya.

Q.3. Match the following:

(a) Arsha (i) Marriage through proper negotiation between parents.

(b) (ii) Marriage by mutual consent of the boy and the girl.
Gandharva

(c) Daiva (iii) Marriage to a Brahmin priest.

(d) (iv) Marriage after presentation of a pair of cows or bulls by the groom to
Prajapatya the bride’s father.

Ans.

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 (a) Arsha (iv) Marriage after presentation of a pair of cows or bulls by the groom to
the bride’s father.

(b) (ii) Marriage by mutual consent of the boy and the girl.
Gandharva

(c) Daiva (iii) Marriage to a Brahmin priest.

(d) (i) Marriage through proper negotiation between parents.

Prajapatya

Q.4. Muslim marriage is a civil contract. State whether this statement is right or
wrong.

Ans. Right.

Q.5. What are the four forms of Muslim marriage?

Ans. (i) Nikah.

(ii) Fasid.

(iii) Muta. and

(iv) Batil.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.6

Q.1. Write True and False against the statement:

Hindu marriage are indissoluble even by legal means.

Ans. False.

Q.2. Mark the correct answer:

The attitude towards marriage is becoming:

(a) Utility-based.

(b) Tradition-based.

(c) Reasoning-based.

Ans. (a) utility based.

Q.3. Match the following:

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 (a) Traditional arranged marriage (i) Based on family status & caste considerations.

(b) Modern arranged marriage (ii) Based on caste and dowry consideration.

(c) Choice marriage (iii) Based on mutual likes and dislikes.

Ans.

(a) Traditional arranged marriage (i) Based on family status & caste considerations.

(b) Modern arranged marriage (ii) Based on caste and dowry consideration.

(c) Choice marriage (iii) Based on mutual likes and dislikes.

Q.4. Mark the correct answer:

Arranged marriages are opposed by the boys and girls because of:

(i) Exorbitant dowry demands.

(ii) Disregard of opinion of the boy and the girl.

(iii) Caste and religious restrictions while selecting mates.

(iv) All the above.

Ans. (iv) All the above.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Explain briefly the functions of marriage. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Functions of Marriage: Marriage in society performs the following basic functions:

(i) Satisfaction of sex: Marriage brings the two individuals together and allows them to
have sex with each other in a socially approved manner.

(ii) Procreation and nurturing of children: Marriage fulfils the functions of producing
child and bringing them up according to social norms. A human child requires much more
care and protection to survive than the off-springs of animals.

(iii) Economic co-operation and security: Marriage provides valuable and reliable help
to an individual in economic activities. Parents earn money doing works or services in
different professions. They generally take care of their children’s economic requirements
such as food, clothing, shelter, education, medical and other needs.

(iv) Companionship and economic support: Marriage provides a constant companion,

a life partner in the form of husband’s and wife. Affection of children for each other grows
with each passing year. Different members of the family help each other in managing the
family affairs.

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Q.2. Explain the types of marriage based on numbers of mates giving suitable
examples. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Types of Marriage on the basis of number of mates: Marriage may be classified
into two types on the basis of number of husbands or wives a person may have at time:

(a) Monogamy.

(b) Polygamy.

(a) Monogamy: (Mono = single, gamy = marriage) Monogamy is that form of marriage in
which a man/woman remains married to only one woman/man at a time. One can marry
in certain extraordinary circumstances such as the death of the spouse (husband or wife)
or divorce. Monogamy is the most prevalent form of marriage the world over.

(b) Polygamy: (poly = many, gamy = marriage) In this form of marriage, a man or
woman’s is permitted to marry more than one woman or man and live with all the wives/
husbands at the same time.

Polygamy may be further subdivided into two types:

(i) Polygyny.

(ii) Polyandry.

(i) Polygyny: (poly = many, gyny = female) Polygyny is that form of marriage in which a
man is married to more than one woman.

Polygyny is permitted among the Muslims. Many tribal societies also follow polygyny.
Historically also polygyny was practised. In ancient India you might recall that Raja
Dasratha, father of Lord Sri Ram, had three wives.

Q.3. State the objectives of marriage among the Hindu.

Ans. The objectives of marriage among the Hindus: In Hindu society, marriage is an
important Sanskar. It is a religious duty. Sanskar is a ritual which purifies a person. Every
Hindu must perform the religious duty i.e. dharma of getting married. Through this, a
person enters the second stage of life i.e. ‘Grihastha Ashram’, leaving behind the stage of
Brahmacharya Ashram.

In traditional Hindu society, only a married man gets the right to participate fully in all the
social and religious activities along with his wife.

The main objectives behind a Hindu marriage are the following:

(i) Performance of religious duty: Dharma.

(ii) Giving birth of children: Praja.

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(iii) Sex satisfaction: Rati.

Among the three objectives of Hindu marriage, the objectives of Dharma has been given
the greatest importance. It implies that one must marry in order to fulfil one’s socio-
religious duties. A married couple is expected to give birth to children who may carry on
the family tradition to the next generation.

Sex-gratification is considered yet another objective of marriage in Hindu society. But, it is

not the sole objective or the most important objective.

Q.4. How is Muslim marriage different from a Hindu marriage? (M. Imp.)

Ans. Differences between Muslim marriage and a Hindu marriage:

Muslim Marriage:

1. Muslim marriage or Nikah is a civil contract between a man and a woman for the
purpose of legalization, sexual relationship and the procreation of children. In this sense,
it is different from Hindu marriage.

2. The Muslim marriage-contract or agreement, can be broken at the will of the husband
or wife. It can also be broken if either the husband or the wife fails to carry out the
promises made at the time of marriage.

3. Muslim marriage is soleminized in the presence of witnesses including a priest-the

Maulvi. The Maulvi recites holy hymns from the Koran and asks the bride and the groom
to give their consent. Also, the husband much agree to pay the dower or the Mahr to his
wife in the event of a divorce.

4. There are four forms of Muslim marriage:

(i) Nikah.

(ii) Fasid.

(iii) Muta.

(iv) Batil.

5. Types of divorce among the Muslim are:

(i) Talaq.

(ii) Khula.

(iii) Mubarat.

6. Divorce among the Muslim is obtained by a very simple procedure. A husband can
divorce his wife by using the word, “talaq” thrice. But the husband must pay the dower
(Mahr) promised by him to compensate the loss of financial stability provided by him.

8/13
7. A wife can also obtain divorce from her husband provided he agrees to her proposal of
divorce. Such a divorce is called Khula (release).

8. If wife and husband separate by mutual consent, such dissolution of marriage is called
Mubarat.

9. Marriage can also be dissolved by legal means through Muslim Divorce Act, 1939.

Hindu Marriage:

1. Hindu marriage is a sacrament which purifies a person. Marriage is considered so

sacred that there is no provision for divorce in the Hindu texts. In fact, marriage is
considered a union of two souls which remain faithful to each other forever.

2. The martial rites are performed before the most sacred God Agni (the Fire God) by
reciting passages or mantras from the sacred scriptures. A sacred person, the Brahman,
solemnizes the marriage.

3. The bride and the groom exchange many promises to remain dutiful and faithful to
each other. Well-wishers bless the couple for a happy married life.

4. It is indissoluble in the eyes of religion, but divorce is now granted legal under Hindus
Marriage Act, 1955.

5. Educated boys and girls are opting for choice-marriage to avoid caste and religious
restrictions as well as dowry.

6. Divorce is increasing because husbands and wives are not ready to tolerate endless
misconduct from each other.

7. The Special Marriage Act, 1954 has recognized inter-caste and inter-religious
marriage. The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856 has permitted widows to remarry.

8. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 has banned giving and taking of dowry.

9. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has fixed the minimum age of marriage of the boy at
twenty one and the girl at eighteen.

Q.5. Write a short note on the following:

(i) Prajapatya marriage.

(ii) Sahi Nikah.

(iii) Types of divorce among the Muslims.

(iv) Changing attitude towards marriage.

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Ans. (i) Prajapatya Marriage: In Prajapatya marriage, a father gifts his daughter to a
man after proper negotiation with his parents. Most of the marriages among the Hindus
are of this nature.

(ii) Sahi Nikah: The marriage which conforms to the rules of marriage as laid down in the
Koran the holy book of Muslims, is termed as regular marriage or Nikah or Sahi Nikah.

(iii) Types of divorces among the Muslims: There are three (or four) types of divorce
prevail among the Muslims.

There are:

(a) Talaq or Sahi Talaq.

(b) Khula.

(c) Mubarat.

(d) Through legal means, under the 1939.

(a) Talaq or Sahi Talaq: Divorce among the Muslims’ is obtaining by a very simple
procedure. A husband can divorce his wife by using the word Talaq thrice. But husband
must pay the dowry (Mahr) promised by him to compensate the loss of financial stability
provided by him.

(b) Khula: A wife can also obtain divorce from her husband provided he agrees to her
proposal of divorce. Such a divorce is called Khula (release).

(c) Mubarat: If wife and husband separate by mutual consent, such dissolution of
marriage is called Mubarat.

(d) Divorce under Muslim Divorce Act: A Muslim marriage can also dissolved by legal
means through Muslim Divorce Act, 1939.

(iv) Changing attitude towards marriage:

1. Monogamy is becoming more popular: There has been a change in the form of
marriage, that is, from plurality of partners of polygamy to one partner or monogamy. In
modern era, monogamy is the most popular form of marriage.

2. Inter-caste marriage becoming more popular:

(a) Process of selection of marital partner has also undergone changes in many ways.
The boys and girls are selecting their mates who may belong to other castes. Such inter-
caste marriages are now coming to be increasingly accepted by society and the family.

(b) The Special Marriage Act, 1954 has recognized inter-caste and inter-religious
marriages. The boy and girl may marry in the presence of the Marriage Officer by signing
a document.

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3. New Basis of it is Mutual attractions and Good Nature: The selection of life-
partners is now done more and more by the boys and girls themselves on the basis of
mutual attraction and similarity of nature etc. The role of parents in the selection of mates
is decreasing-especially in urban areas.

4. Merits are considered by new couples: The criteria of selection has also undergone
considerable change. Earlier, the elders of the family finalized the marriage proposal after
considering family status, etc. Status is important even now but due importance is also
given to the comparative merit of the boy and the girl their likes and dislikes as well.

5. Later Age Marriage: The boys and girls are getting married at a later age. The Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955 has stipulated that the boy must have completed twenty-one years
and girl must be over eighteen years at the time of marriage. Child marriage has been
banned by The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.

6. Divorce permitted among the Hindus: The Hindu marriage was considered
indissoluble carlier. But the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has permitted divorce among the
Hindus. As a result, the stability of marriage has been adversely affected. But the good
aspect of it is that the husband and wife can get rid of each other if they are mutually
incompatible unhappy.

7. Widow-remarriage: Widow-remarriage has been permitted by the Hindu Widow Re-

Marriage Act, 1856. Earlier widows were not allowed to marry again.

8. Ban on Dowry:

(a) The dowry demand is touching new heights among certain sections of society. Girls
are being harassed and even killed by their in-laws for bringing insufficient dowry. The
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 has banned giving and taking of dowry. However, the Act is
not very effective.

(b) To fight dowry, caste, religious and parental pressures, the educated boys and girls
are going in for marriage by choice instead of accepting arranged marriages.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Define the following words/terms Marriage, Affinal relation, Exogamy,

Endogamy, Hypogamy, Taboo, Consanguineous relations. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Marriage: H.M. Johnson has defined marriage as a stable relationship in which a
man and a women are socially permitted, without loss of standing in to have children.

Affinal Relation: Relationship by marriage like husband and wife.

Exogamy: Marriage outside a defined group e.g. gotra, village.

Endogamy: Marriage within a defined group. e.g. kinship, caste.

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Hypogamy: Marriage of daughter to a man of lower caste class.

Hypergamy: Marriage of daughter with a man of higher class or caste.

Taboo: Prohibited conduct or behaviours.

Consanguineous Relation: Relationship blood like brother and sister.

Q.2. Discuss in short the following three terms / words:

(i) Polygamy.

(ii) Polygyny.

(iii) Monogamy.

Ans. Polygamy: When marriage involves more than one mate at one time.

Polygyny: When more than one woman is married to a man.

Monogamy: When marriage involves one husband and one wife above.

Q.3. Write the meaning of the Affinal Relation.(Imp.)

Ans. Affinal Relation: Relationship created by Marriage is called affinal relation. For
example, the relationship of husband and wife.

Q.4. What is the role played by society is establishing legal-sex relationship?

Ans. The sex-relationship in human society in highly constrained. Who, when, and with
whom will have this relationship is determined by society. For regulating legal sex-
relationship, society has designed and evaluated the institution of marriage.

Q.5. Why Marriage is called an universal institution? (V. Imp.)

Ans. 1. Marriage is called an Universal Institution because it is practised in all human

societies throughout the world.

2. Every society from primitive to modern time has had the institution of marriage but its
form and nature has varied from time to time, from society to society.

Q.6. Write in short three reasons responsible for the emergence of the institution of
marriage.

Ans. Three most important reasons for the emergence of the institution of marriage
are:

(a) Sexual gratification, which is a biological need.

(b) Legitimation of children born out of such union, which is a social need.

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(c) Economic co-operation which is an economic need.

Q.7. Write a short note on legitimi-sation of children.

Ans. Legitimisation of Children:

1. Regulation of cohabitation in civilized society is essential so as to grant legitimacy to

the children born out of the union.

2. Society puts a legal and moral responsibility on the shoulders of parents to care and
bring up the children for the perpetuation of society.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 13 Family
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-13

Family

Chapter: 13

MODULE 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.1

Q. I. Objective Questions:

1. Write “True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

Family members always share a common residence.

Ans. False.

2. Fill in the blank:

Family members are related to each other by blood ………….. or adoption.

Ans. marriage.

3. Mark the correct answer:

Family is the most important group in a person’s life because:

(i) The members have selfless devotion for each other.

(ii) The members are bound by blood, marriage or adoption to each other.

(iii) Family provides economic and social support to its members.

(iv) Family plays the most important role in the socialization of an individual.

(v) All the above.

Ans. (v) All the above.

Q.II. Family is called ‘the nursery of human nature’. Why? Explain in one sentence.
(M. Imp.)

Ans. Family is called the nursery of human nature because the manner in which the
children are brought up in a family decide to a treat extent, the way they react to different
situation. In other words, the family lays down the foundation of human personality.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.2

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Q.1. Write ‘True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

Early care and education of the child is the function of family.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blanks:

Providing emotional support in tense situations is the ………….. function of family.

Ans. psychological.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

The function of family is:

(i) To provide physical protection.

(ii) To provide economic support.

(iii) To socialize a child in the norms and values of society.

(iv) To provide economic support.

(v) All the above.

Ans. (v) All the above.

Q.4. Identify any single economic function of family.

Ans. Single economic function of family is that makes provision to look after the economic
needs of its members.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.3

Q.1. Write ‘True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

In the lineal joint family, a person lives with his one son and grandson.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

Mother is the supreme authority in the ………………. family.

Ans. Matriarchal.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

The type of family in which the newly wedded couple lives with the husband’s
maternal uncle is known as:

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(a) Matrilocal family.

(b) Patrilocal family.

(c) Avunculocal family.

(d) Neo-local family.

Ans. (c) Avunculocal family.

Q.4. What is a joint family? Write in one sentence.

Ans. Joint Family: Family consisting of members of three or more than three generations
staying together under a common roof and with common kitchen.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.4

Q.1. Write True’ or False’ against the statement:

Common residence is an essential characteristic of joint family.

Ans. False.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

In the joint family, blood relationship gets preference over ……………. relationship.

Ans. marital.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

In the joint family:

(i) One has to follow the dictates of head of the family.

(ii) Status of members in the joint family is not determined by money earned or
achievement in any profession.

(iii) Everyone shares joys and sorrows of other members of the family.

(iv) All the above.

Ans. (iv) All the above.

Q.4. Write two characteristics of joint family in India.(M. Imp.)

Ans. 1. In India, joint family has an authoritarian structure.

2. It has familistic organization.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.5

3/11
Q.1. Write True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

Early care and education of the child is the essential function of family.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

The modern family has become ……………….. centric.

Ans. child.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

A family:

(i) Provides the best environment for procreation and upbringing of children.

(ii) Provides selfless and life-long support of every kind to its members.

(iii) Gives social identity to its members.

(iv) Cares for its members in sickness, misfortune and old age.

(v) All the above.

Ans. (v) All the above.

Q.4. How the status of women has changed in the family? Write in one sentence.

Ans. The status of women has changed in the family due to spread of education,
awareness, democracy and reduction of the family size (from joint to nuclear family).

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What do you mean by family? Describe in your own words. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Meaning of Family: Family is the basic unit of society. In its minimal form, family
may consist of husband, wife and children. In its widest sense, it refers to all relatives of
several generation connected to each other by blood, marriage or adoption.

A family unit takes birth the living together of a legally wedded couple under one roof. The
married couple not only shares common residence but also co-operates with each other
physically, emotionally, socially and economically. They fulfill each other’s varied needs
and aspirations. The birth of children give completeness to the family. It further
strengthens the affection between husband and wife and their respective families.

In simple words, family is a socially defined set of relationships between at least two
persons who are related by birth, marriage or adoption.

Q.2. Explain the role of in personality formation. (M. Imp.)

4/11
Ans. Family is an important social group for an individual and society. Every individual in
this world is a part of one family or the other. All of us are born, brought up and our
character and personality’s traits are developed in a family.

Family is often the focal point, the centre around which our whole life revolves, we begin
our day with the family members, go out to perform our professional and social duties and
come back to be with the family members.

Family plays a vital role in the formation. of human society by binding men, women and
their children in a stable relationship with each other. It is called the nursery of human
nature because the manner in which the children are brought up in a family decides to a
great extent, the way they react to different situations, in other word, the family lays down
the foundation of human personality.

Family is also called the transfer point of culture. As we are aware, culture is man-made
part of environment. A child becomes familiar with every aspect culture in the family itself.
When he becomes an adult, he imparts this knowledge about social norms, customs as
well as material aspect of life to the your generation.

Q.3. State the general characteristics of family.

Ans. The general characteristics of family:

1. Mating relationship: A family is born when a man and woman get married according
to prescribed social norms. Marriage allows husband and wife to enter into socially
approved sexual union to satisfy their sex-instinct. Satisfaction of this basic instinct is
imperative for a healthy living.

2. Common habitation: Family members usually share a common residence in which

husband, wife, their children and other relatives live together.

3. Reckoning of descent: Family is basically a bilateral grouping made up of husband,

wife and relatives on both sides. But, the children inherit either father’s name and
property or mother’s name and property, depending on the local tradition.

4. Economic system: Every family makes provision to look after the economic needs of
its members. Usually, the elders of the family take up jobs and earn money to meet
economic requirements of all the family members. Provision is also made for looking after
the old and the sick members of the family.

Q.4. What are the economic functions of family? (M. Imp.)

Ans. The economic functions of family are: Family fulfills the economic needs of its
members to a certain extent by providing them food, clothing and shelter till they become
self-reliant. The head of the family takes up a job, business or occupation and meets the
requirement of other members out of his earning. Sometimes, the family members

5/11
collectively pursue a family occupation such as family business, cultivation, cattle rearing,
cottage industry, etc. This collective effort provides employment as well as income to all
members of the family.

The other economic function is that the family provides successors, of the assets and
liabilities of family, in the form of children.

Q.5. What are the characteristics of joint family in India? (V. Imp.)

Ans. The characteristics of joint family in India: In brief, the joint family in India is
marked by the following characteristics:

1. It has an authoritarian structure: The power to take decisions regarding matters

related to family and individuals lie in the hands of head of the family. His/her decision is
taken as final and everyone has to abide by it.

2. It has familistic organization: It implies that the interest of the family as a whole is
more important than the individual’s interest. One has to sacrifice one’s personal wishes,
likes and dislikes, these go against family norms or rules or traditions.

3. Status of members is determined by their age and relationship: The status of a

person higher in age is higher in a joint family than a person lower in age.

Similarly, a person is respected more because of the higher status in terms of martial or
blood ties. A husband, an uncle, an aunt and the in-laws are respected because of higher
status in a relationship. A person’s ability and achievement are not given importance in
determining status.

4. Blood relationship get preference over marital relationship: It implies that the
husband-wife relationship is subordinate to father-son or brother-brother relationship.

5. The family functions on the ideal of joint responsibility: Everyone shares the
problems of other members of the family and tries to help in whatever manner one can.

6. All members get equal attention: The family income is pooled together and needs of
the individual members are met according to their needs and not according their
contribution. However, the description of the joint family along with its characteristics as
given above constitutes an ideal picture. In reality, therefore, joint family functions is less
than ideal, manner having lost many of its ideal characteristics, at least partly.

Q.6. The family is facing the problem of instability. How?

Ans. The family is facing the problem of instability: Due to following charges and
factors are creating problems and threat for the stability of family:

1. Sometimes, conflict between older and younger generation is seen in the family
because of their inability to understand each other’s point of view. As a result, the level of
discipline and devotion towards each other has declined.

6/11
2. Some parents do not take care children adequately because of their jobs, busy
schedule or desire of freedom from responsibilities of children.

3. Boys and girls do not find it necessary to marry the mates selected by their parents.
They choose their marital partners on the basis of mutual attraction, carrier and
occupational similarity, financial benefits and so on. Class, caste and compatibility
between family values are no longer very important.

4. Kinship-ties are not very strong in today’s family set-up. The family members have
become more self-centred and self-reliant. They do not spare much time, energy and
money for their relatives or kinsmen.

5. The families have become child-centric. Parents spend most of their time, energy and
money on their children. Due to break-up of joint family, they no longer have to
compulsorily contribute towards the welfare of brothers and sisters. The entire of life of
the parents revolves around their children and all their future plans are made keeping
their children in mind.

6. Family is facing the problems of instability in western societies. Separation and

increasing rate of due to mutual disagreement has become common. This has put
maximum emotional and social strain on children of divorced parents. They don’t have
anyone to support them in their formative years. Those parents who take care of children
after divorce also face severe strain on their time and energies.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write in short the meaning of the following terms/ words:

(i) Family.

(ii) Nuclear family.

(iii) Joint family. (M. Imp.)

Ans. (i) Family: It is a universal institution and has existed throughout the history of
society. Family, basically, is made up of individuals having kinship, relationship among
themselves.

(ii) Nuclear Family: Family consisting husband, wife and unmarried children.

(iii) Joint Family: Family consisting of members of three or more than three generations
staying together under a common roof and with a common kitchen.

Q.2. Write the meaning of the following terms/words:

(i) Patrilocal.

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(ii) Matrilined.

(iii) Patrilineal.

(iv) Matrilocal.

(v) Gotra.

Ans. (i) Patrilocal: After the marriage bride goes and stays with the groom’s family.

(ii) Matrilineal: Tracing of lineage from the female side, is called matrilineal.

(iii) Patrilineal: Tracing of lineage from the male side.

(iv) Matrilocal: After the marriage bride and groom stay with the bride’s family.

(b) Gotra: In Hindus, gotra refers to a group of families which trace their origin from a
common mythical ancestor.

Q.3. Mention two characteristics of extended family? (M.Imp.)

Ans. Characteristics of Extended Family:

(a) If other closely related kins than those who form the nuclear or joint family are added
to the nuclear family, it takes the form of an extended family.

(b) The extended families can be their those to which the nucleus kins or those in which
the nucleus is surrounded by distant consanguineous kins or those in which kinship
universe is extended still further such as parents-in-law living in their son-in-law’s family.

Q.4. Write in short any two important characteristics of patrilineal family.

Ans. Characteristics of Patrilineal Family:

(a) Most of the families world over are of kind. In the patrilineal and patrilocal family,
ancestry is traced to the paternal line. Unlike matrilocal families, the ancestors in the
patrilocal families are men.

(b) The patrilocal family is also patriarchal. The authority lies with the male members and
the final authority rests with the eldest male member of the family.

Q.5. Write two characteristics of matrilineal family.

Ans. Characteristics of Matrilineal Family:

(a) This is the family in which the husband resides with his wife in her mother’s house.
The ancestry in his family is traced to the maternal line.

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(b) The matrilineal family is also matriarchal in nature because the authority in this family
lies with the mother. She is the head of the family. This is not a common form of The
Nayars of South India live in matrilocal families.

Q.6. Brief answer each of the following points in about 20-30 words:

(a) Characteristics of polygynous family.

(b) Characteristics of polyandrous family.

Ans. (a) Characteristics of the Polygynous Family: When a man marries more than
one wife, the family organisation with is formed a polygynous type. Most of the tribal
families are polygynous.

(b) Characteristics of the Polyandrous Family: This is a family in which a woman has
more than one husband. This is made of the fraternal polyandry where several brothers
marry one wife.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the two types of family based on number or size? Discuss division
briefly.

Ans. There are two broad types of family, the (or small family) and the joint family (or the
large family).

The joint families are further subdivided into two types:

(a) Patrilineal and Patrilocal family.

(b) Matrilineal and Matrilocal family.

A third type of family is the extended family which is not a very common form.

Q.2. Which two types of family which are generally found in tribal societies?

Ans. Two other types of family are there, which are generally found in tribal societies.

(a) The polygynous family. and

(b) The polyandrous family.

The former of the two (i.e.the polygynous) is based upon one man having more than one
wife, whereas the latter (i.e. polyandrous) is based upon one woman married to more
than one husband at the same time.

Q.3. Mention three characteristics of Nuclear family.

Ans. Characteristics of Nuclear Family:

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(a) The nuclear family is a group of persons consisting of husband, wife and their
unmarried children. This is a basic grouping of mates and their offsprings.

(b) The kinship relationships in nuclear family are: husband-wife, father-son, father-
daughter, mother-son, mother-daughter, brother-brother, sister-sister and brother-sister.
This is the smallest composite family unit.

(c) There may also be supplemented nuclear family units with a widowed parent of the
husband or his younger brothers and sisters as residents.

Q.4. Write three characteristics of joint family.

Ans. Characteristics of Joint Family:

(a) Joint family consists of more than one primary family. All the members are blood
relations (except wife and husband) or close kins and generally share common residence,
kitchen and property.

(b) Joint family usually have three or more generations. But two or more colateral families
living together in a common residence and sharing a common kitchen and property also
form a joint family.

(c) Joint family is the hallmark of traditional Indian society having very deep roots in
history. Joint family in its traditional shape is found in our country even today, though it is
running very fast.

Q.5. Discuss ‘Family as a social institutions.’ (V. Imp.)

Ans. Family as social institution:

(i) No other social institution appears more universal and unchanging as we find family as
a social institution. According to the functionalists the family performs important tasks.

(ii) Which contribute to society’s basic needs and helps perpetuate social order. The
functionalist perspective argues that modern industrial societies function best if woman
look the family and men earn the family livelihood.

(iii) However, practically we find that the nuclear family is seen as the unit best equipped
to handle the demands of industrial society by the functionalists. In such a family one
adult can work outside the home while the second adult cares for the home and children.

(iv) In practical terms, this specialisation of roles within the nuclear family involves the
husband adopting the ‘Instrumental’ role as bleadustmer and the wife assuming the
‘affective’, emotional role in domestic setting.This vision is questionable not just because
it is gender unfeest but because empirical studies across cultures and history show that it
is untrue. In modern society, in certain field of economy (such as the garment export),
women form a large part of the labour force such a separation also suggests that men are
necessarily the heads of households.

10/11
11/11
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 14 Kinship
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-14

Kinship

Chapter: 14

MODULE 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1

Q.1. Write True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

Kinship is a relationship based on blood ties or marriage.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

Kinship based on descent is known as ……………….. kinship.

Ans. Consanguineous.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

The family in which a person is born is his:

(i) Family of procreation.

(ii) Family of orientation.

(iii) None.

(iv) Both.

Ans. (ii) Family of orientation.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.2

Q.1. Write ‘True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

A person’s grandfather is his primary consanguineal kin.

Ans. False.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

Kinship is significant for the individual as well as ………………. .

Ans. Group.

1/9
Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

Kinship is significant for the individual because:

(i) It gives him identity and status.

(ii) It provides psychological security.

(iii) Defines his role and behaviour pattern.

(iv) All of the above.

Ans. (iv) All of the above.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3

Q.1. Write ‘True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

A descriptive term applies to one particular kin of specific status.

Ans. True.

Q. 2. Fill in the blank:

The kinship terms which are formed by joining suffixes and prefixes to the
elementary kinship terms are called …………….. kinship terms.

Ans. derivative.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

Kinship terms help us in understanding:

(i) The inter-relationship between various members.

(ii) The status and roles of the members.

(iii) The prevailing kinds of family-structure.

(iv) The extinct social features.

(v) All the above.

Ans. (v) All the above.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.4

Q.1. Write or ‘False’ against the statement:

Rules of descent connect an individual to a particular set of kins on the basis of

ancestory.

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Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blank:

The term …………… describes a person’s bilateral set of relatives.

Ans. kindred.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

A clan is a set of kins

(i) Whose members believe themselves to be the descendants of a known ancestor.

(ii) Whose members have a belief that they have descended from a common mythical
ancestor.

(iii) Such as mother, father and children.

(iv) None of the above.

Ans. (iv) None of the above.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.5

Q. 1. Write ‘True’ or ‘False’ against the statement:

Amitate is a kinship usage which assigns special role to one’s father’s sister.

Ans. True.

Q.2. Fill in the blanks:

The kinship usage in which two kinsmen do not address each other directly is
called ………………. .

Ans. Teknonymy.

Q.3. Mark the correct answer:

The kinship usage in which the maternal uncle plays significant role is termed as:

(i) Couvade.

(ii) Avoidance .

(iii) Joking relationship.

(iv) Avunculate.

(v) None of the above.

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Ans. (iv) avunculate.

Q.4. What is Couvade? Define in one sentence.

Ans. Couvade means that kinship’s behaviour which a husband follows a similar pattern
of behaviour including dietary restrictions as those followed by his pregnant wife in child
birth.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What are the types of kinship? Describe in detail. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Types of kinship: Family is the point of departure for studying kinship. There are
basically two types of kinship within a family:

(i) Affinal kinship.

(ii) Consanguineous Kinship.

(i) Affinal Kinship: This type of kinship is based on marriage. The most primary affinal
relationship is the one between a husband and wife which in its extended form includes
and siblings of both sides and their spouses and children. Hence, the relationship
between son-in-law and father-in-law is an example of affinal kinship. Similarly, one’s
brother-in-laws and their children are also examples of affinal kins.

(ii) Consanguineal Kinship: The types of kinship based on descent is called

consanguineal kinship, commonly known as blood relation.

The relationship between a child and his parents, between children of the same set of
parents, between uncles and nephews/nieces are examples of consanguineous kinship.

Q.2. What is the significance of kinship for the individual and the group? (V. Imp.)

Ans. The significance of kinship for individual and the group:

1. Kinship is significant in several ways for individual as well as groups.

2. It provides identity and status, social and psychological security and define patterns of
behaviour and roles to individuals.

3. Kinship is the basis of group formation.

4. It enhances group solidarity, organizes the group against enemies, control religious and
the social interaction, including marriage and regulates gathering of rituals and religious
ceremonies.

5. Inheritance of status, property and family name is decided on the basis of kinship.

6. Kinship groups help their kinsmen in securing political power, occupational benefits and
gains.

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Q.3. What are the various basis of classification of kinship terms? Discuss in
detail. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Basis of classification of kinship: The basis of classification kinship terms and
their types are the following:

(i) Linguistic Structure:

(a) Elementary terms.

(b) Derivative terms.

(c) Descriptive terms.

(ii) Modes of use:

(a) Terms of address.

(b) Terms of reference.

(iii) Range of application:

(a) Descriptive Terms.

Classificatory Terms: Rules of descent connect or affiliate individuals with particular set
of kins on the basis of known or presumed ancestor. There are two rules of descent.

They are the following:

(i) Unilaternal descent rules.

(ii) Bilateral descent rules.

Unilaternal descent rules are two types:

(i) Patrilineal descent.

(ii) Matrilineal descent.

Societies, without unilateral descent rules, are bilateral societies. Relatives on both the
mother’s and father’s sides of the family are of equal importance or more usually,
unimportant.

Kindered refers to bilateral set of relatives who may come together temporarily on
ceremonial occasions.

Q.4. Describe the various types of unilateral kinship groups.

Ans. Introduction: Kinship in itself is not a group but is one of the strongest basis group
formation.

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The well-known names of several unilateral kinship groups are:

(i) family.

(ii) lineage.

(iii) clan.

(iv) phratry. and

(v) moiety.

These kinship groups consist of persons who are genealogically related to each other
through descent or martial ties.

The feeling that ‘blood is thicker than water’ binds the kinsmen to each other in several
kin groups which may be close knit and small like family and lineage or may be loosely
knit like clan, phratry and moiety.

We will discuss these groups one by one:

(i) Family: It is the smallest kinship group. It is basically made up of a man, his wife and
their unmarried children. While the man and wife are related through marriage, the
children and parents are related to each other through descent or blood ties. The children
are related to each other through the kinship link of siblingship and common descent i.e.
blood tie.

Some of the important (other) groups based on principles of unilateral descent are
as follows:

(ii) Lineage: Family is bilateral but lineage is a unilateral descent group. It consists of all
the consanguineal blood relatives who claim their descent from a known common
ancestor or ancestors who existed in reality in the known past. The ancestor is not a myth
as is the case with a clan. Lineage is an exogamous group. It is a unilateral descent
group, it implies that a lineage includes all such family members who belong to the
father’s line alone. If the ancestor is a male figure, then the lineage is called patrilineage.
The descent is raced in the male live from father to son. If the lineage is traced from a
female figure, it is called matrilineage. Lineage members of a matrilineal group trace
relationship to each other through the mother.

(iii) Clan: A clan is also unilateral descent group. It includes a set of kins whose members
believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor, but the actual
genealogical link may not be demonstrated. The common ancestor is often a mythical
figure such as a saint or a Rishi in case of Hindu society. It may also be a supernatural
character or a totemic object such as tiger, fish and snake etc.

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Among the Hindus, the common descent is. traced from some sages such as Kashyap,
Bhardwaj, Gautam etc. In fact, the common ancestor of the kinsmen is most often an
unknown figure or object in the far off antiquity.

The members of a clan consider themselves to be blood relatives of each other as they
believe in common descent or blood tie. Hence, most often the members of a clan do not
marry each other. In other words, the clan is an exogamous kinship group.

The clan is patrilineal when the descent is traced through male lines. If the descent is
traced through female line, it is called matrilineal clan, as found among Khasi or Garo of
North-east India.

Clan is also known as ‘Gotra’ in Hindi. The clan grouping is mainly taken into account
while initiating marriage negotiations. Marriage is negotiated only with those who do not
belong to one’s own clan.

(iv) Phratry: A phratry is unilateral descent group composed of two or more clans which
are supposedly interrelated.

Like clan, the pantry organization is also exogamous. The members of phratry
organization believe that they have a common ancestor.

The clan constituting a phratry may retain their individual identities. But, they fulfil special
obligations on ceremonial occasions.

(v) Moiety: Moiety is a large social group that results from the splitting of a society into
two equal or unequal halves on the basis of descent. Each half thus formed is called a
moiety.

The members of moiety have a belief in a common ancestor which may or may not be
actually traceable.

Each moiety is gain sub-divided into a number of phratries. Each phratry is split up into a
number of clans and each clan into a number of lineage and finally, each lineage into a
number of families.

The Aimol Kuku tribe of Manipur has a set of moieties which are further divided into
phratries and so on.

Q.5. Discuss various kinship usages or behaviour.

Ans. Kinship usages or behaviour: Kinship behaviour or usages refer to definite and
comparatively stable patterns of behaviour of different members of a kin group. These
behaviour patterns may be verbal and/or non-verbal. Some the kinship usages are the
following:

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1. Avoidance: It is a type of usage through which some restrictions are imposed on close
interaction of certain kinsmen. Among the Hindus, as a result of such restrictions, certain
relatives avoid talking to each other directly, avoid physical contact and maintain minimum
social interaction with each other and so on. Some of the kins covered by such
restrictions among the Hindus are parent-in-law and daughter-in-law, mother-in-law and
son-in-law, husband’s elder brother and younger brother’s wife etc.

2. Joking relationship: It is just the opposite of avoidance. The relatives are free to
crack jokes at each other’s expense, tease each other and make fun of each other under
this form of behaviour. The relatives under this category are expected not to take offence
or to mind each other’s conduct.

Joking relation is generally found between a man and his wife’s younger sister or between
a woman and her husband’s younger brother.

3. Teknonymy: When the two kinsmen do not each other directly rather through a third
person or a symbol, the usage is known as teknonymy.

The practice is very common in rural India, where women generally do not utter the
names of their husbands or elderly in-laws. Women refer to their husbands as the father
of her child.

4. Avunculate: It is the kind of behaviour or usage which gives the maternal uncle an
important status so far as his sister’s children are concerned. The maternal uncle’s is
considered more important than even the father. The maternal uncle transfers his
property to his nephew (i.e. the sister’s son). The nephew works for him rather than his
own father. Sometimes the sister’s children are brought up in their maternal uncle’s family.
Avunculate is common in matrilineal societies.

5. Amitate: The kinship behaviour which assigns a special role to one’s father’s sister is
called amitate. Her role is similar to that of the maternal uncle under avunculate. The
children show special respect to their father’s sister. Sometimes, the children are brought
up in her house and inherit her property. She is called female-father in societies practising
amitate. It is usually found in patrilineal societies.

6. Couade: It is kinship behaviour in which a husband imitates the behaviour of his wife
during pregnancy and child birth. The husband also leads the life of an invalid alongwith
his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from active life, goes on sick diet
and observes certain taboos. This practice is common among Khasi tribe of Assam and
Toda tribe of Nilgiri Hills.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Explain in short the meaning of the following:

(a) Kinship.

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Ans: Kinship: Social relationship based on real, putative or fuctive consanguinity. It is the
system of the way in which the relations between individuals in the family and between
are organised.

(b) Affinal Relations.

Ans: Affinal Relation: Relationship by marriage like husband and wife.

(c) Consanguineous Relation.

Ans: Consanguineous Relation: Relationship by blood like brother and sister.

(d) Exogamy.

Ans: Exogamy: Marriage outside a defined group e.g. gotra, village.

(e) Endogamy.

Ans: Endogamy: Marriage within a defined group e.g. caste, kinship.

(f) Folkways.

Ans: Folkways: Customs and habits or typical behaviour patterns, characteristics of a

given community.

(g) Matrilineal.

Ans. Matrilineal: Tracing of lineage from the female side.

(h) Taboo.

Ans. Taboo: Prohibited conducted or behaviour is called taboo.

Q.2. Why is exogamy practiced?

Ans. Exogamy is practised because now people do not believe in casteism,

communalism and religionism. Inter-caste marriage and inter-community marriage are
seen in society. Modern generation is more advanced and do not like to follow named
tradition taboo. Industrialisation, urbanisation, individualism, spread of education etc. are
other reasons promoting exogamy practise.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 15 Economy, Polity
And Religion
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-15

Economy, Polity And Religion

Chapter: 15

MODULE 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.1

Q.1. Answer the following in one sentence:

(i) Give the definitation of non-governing elite.

Ans. They excel in their respective works but do not govern.

(ii) Name the basic institutions of human society.

Ans. Kinship economy, political and religion.

(iii) What is meant by the term power?

Ans. Economy is concerned with production exchange and distribution and consumption
of goods and services.

(iv) What are the constituents of religion?

Ans. Power is the ability to take decision for oneself and others and see that others abide
by the decisions taken on their behalf.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.2

Fill in the blanks:

1. Societies that lack the use of money are known as …………… societies.

Ans. Unmonetized.

2. …………. societies have a large number of jobs and specializations.

Ans. Industrial.

3. Hoe is associated with ……………. cultivation.

Ans. Horticulture.

4. Pastoralists are generally found in …………… and ………….. area.

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Ans. Semi arid and Desert.

5. Tribes of Baigas in India are ……………… .

Ans. Hunting and food gathering.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.3

Q.1. Write ‘T’ after the statement that is true and ‘F’ for the statement that is false:

1. Food collection came before food production.

Ans. True.

2. Family is a unit of production in complex societies.

Ans. False.

3. Reciprocity is between persons who are equally placed in their society.

Ans. True.

4. Markets are universally found.

Ans. True.

5. Barter is an exchange in the absence of money.

Ans. True.

6. Markets in simple societies are economic entities.

Ans. True.

7. Development is only economic in nature.

Ans. True.

8. Communities should not be involved in development programmes.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.4

Q. Match the column ‘A’ with ‘B’:

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 A B

(a) Political System (i) They do not have government or legal system.

(b) Stateless (ii) maintains law and order and supervises the functions of
societies society.

(c) Charisma (iii) when people look for extra ordinary qualities which may not
be natural.

Ans.

A B

(a) Political System (ii) maintains law and order and supervises the functions of
society.

(b) Stateless (i) They do not have government or legal system.

societies

(c) Charisma (iii) when people look for extra ordinary qualities which may not
be natural.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.5

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

1. Sect is a ……………….. group.

Ans. Protest.

2. The oldest of all great religions is ………………. .

Ans. Hinduism.

3. The Hos of Jharkhand call the idea of the impersonal power by their local term
……………….. .

Ans. Banga.

4. Sacred things are ……………… and ………………. .

Ans. Set apart, Forbidden.

5. Confucianism is an example of ……………… religion.

Ans. Ethical.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What do you mean by economy? Describe the characteristics of economic

organization.

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Ans. I. Meaning of Economy:

1. Economy is concerned with production, exchange, distribution and consumption of

goods and services.

2. If human beings have to survive, they have to eat. They are not like other animals that
are parasites on nature on nature and consume its raw products. Human beings not only
produce what they need for their sustenance, but also transform the raw products of
nature by cooking and processing them.

3. One of the remarkable characteristics of human beings is that they transform the raw
into the cooked. Fire making and the use of fire are associated principally with human
species.

4. None of the activities associated with economy are carried out in isolation. In their
system of production, human beings enter into relations with other human beings.

5. Distribution and exchange also assume the existence of relations between people. The
nature of these relations conditions the quality of distribution and exchange, and the
quality of the things (goods and services) exchanged.

6. Human relations and social values also determine the patterns of consumption.

7. In other words, in a sociological study of economy, one is concerned with the social
rélations that are built in the systems of production, distribution and exchange, and
consumption.

II. Characteristics of Economic Organization:

(a) So far we have learnt that economy or the economic system consists of those
institutions that provide for the production, distribution and exchange and consumption of
goods and services. In this section, our concern will be with the characteristics of
economic organization.

(b) Generally when we think of economy we think of goods and services involving money.
A teacher teaches in a school for a month, at the end of which he receives a certain
amount of money in the form of currency notes and coins. He spends the latter for buying
goods and services, for instance, food, haircuts, travel tickets, etc. that he need for his
survival.

(c) However we should note that there are societies where the concept of money as we
understand does not exist. By money, we mean a standardized unit of exchange, by
which we can buy anything we need, whether a commodity or service. Societies like tribal
and peasant, which do not have the concept of money, are called non- monetized (or
unmonetized).

(d) Division of labour is found in economic organization.

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(e) Modern economy is called industrial economy.

(f) There are several types of economic system depending upon the ways in which people
acquire their livelihood. Broadly speaking we may divide economic system into-two types,
those concerned with food collection, and secondly those concerning with food
production.

Q.2. Explain political system.

Ans. 1. Political system or polity is concerned with the distribution of power in a society. In
each social relationship, there are some who exercise power over others. Even in a group
of two individuals (what is technically called a dyad), one of them exercises power over
the other. Thus, no human relationship is without the exercise of power. For sociologists,
power is universal characteristic of human society.

2. Political system is that system of society which defines the roles that human beings
occupy in order to maintain law and order on the one hand, and supervise the functioning
of the society on the other One of the functions of political system is to maintain the legal
order, and this, in fact, is its main function in simple societies. In complex societies, along
with this function, its other function, is to distribute resource for for social and economic
development.

3. An important component of political system is the state Here, we should note that there
have been societies in the world which did not have the institution of state. Hunting and
food-gathering societies, several types of pastoral and agricultural societies do not have a
king, chief or lord who is the center of power. These societies do not have a centralized
authority. Neither do they have governments or legal systems. Nor is there a division of
society into classes of rich and poor, or privileged and unprivileged. These societies are
known as stateless.

4. They are different from those societies that have a centralized authority, government,
legal system and classes. They are the state societies. The prominent examples of
stateless societies are the Australian Aborigines, the Yako and Ibo of Nigeria, the Masai
and Nandi of East Africa, the Nuer of Sudan. Among the simple societies an outstanding
example of the political state comes from the Zulu of South Africa.

5. Absence of political state does not imply that these societies lack an orderly existence.
They certainly are not in a state of anarchy They have other institutions that try to
maintain order in society.

6. For instance, the elders may resolve the conflicts between individuals. Or, there may
be persons occupying religious offices who are approached for their intervention in
conflicting situations. The Nuer, for example, have a religious chiefs, known as leopard-
skin chiefs, because they wear leopard skin and are approached in matters of homicide,
that is, a man accidentally killing another man. In other man words, no society is free from
conflicts and violations on rules of behaviour. And, each society, some or the other ways
resolves these conflicts.

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Q.3. Distinguish between power and authority.(V. Imp.)

Ans. Distinguish between power and authority:

Power is different from authority. What distinguishes these two is legitimacy i.e. whether
the exercise of power is legitimate or warranted under the existing and acceptable set of
rules in society or not. The meaning of legitimacy is ‘rightfulness’, whether the ‘individual
has been given the right to exercise power. Force is exercise by both-the robber and the
policeman-but the force that the latter exercises is legitimate, and not the one which the
former exercises. The state has been defined as an institution that has the power to
exercise ‘legitimate violence’ over a territory. When the exercise of power is legitimate, it
is termed authority. The concept of power itself does not tell us whether it is legitimate or
not, because here, the emphasis is on the exercise of force and its compliance. In the
concept of authority, the emphasis is on legitimacy. So, legitimate power may be defined
as authority.

Q.4. Name two functions and dysfunctions of religion.

Ans. Functions and dysfunctions of Religion:

1. Religions is functional because it binds people in a moral community. It integrates the

society. It produces the feeling of we-ness, one-ness and solidarity. Later, sociologists
also pointed out that religion is an important instrument of social control. It provides a
blueprint of the society, for example, the case of caste system. Hinduism is the basis of
caste System.

2. Although this theory is still respected, sociologists also say that it is applicable to those
societies that have a single religion. It is here that religion can produce social integration.
But, it may not be the case in societies having two or more different types of religion. In
these societies, religion may also create conflicts between the believers of different
religions. Thus, in these cases, religion may also become dysfunctional.

3. Today, religion performs as it has always performed, an important function of providing

explanations of various phenomena to the individual. Religion provides a set of ready-
made answers to various ‘why’ questions, that is, those questions that science in its
existing state of knowledge cannot satisfactorily answer. Why religion is universal can be
answered by saying that religion provides answers to various questions that individuals
raise about their lives, and various accidental and unanticipated situations they face.

4. But we should not conclude by saying that religion is functional to all societies at all
points of time. Rather, it is most vulnerable to politicization. Various communities have
manipulated it to suppress other communities and to spread hatred between them.
Religion has also been used for seeking political support.

Q.5. Describe the changes in religion in your own words.

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Ans. 1. Religions is functional because it binds people in a moral community. It integrates
the society. It produces the feeling of we-ness, one-ness and solidarity. Later, sociologists
also pointed out that religion is an important instrument of social control. It provides a
blueprint of the society, for example, the case of caste system. Hinduism is the basis of
caste system.

2. Although this theory is still respected, sociologists also say that it is applicable to those
societies that have a single religion. It is here that religion can produce social integration.
But, it may not be the case in societies having two or more types of religion. In these
societies, religion may also create conflicts between the believers of different religions.
Thus, in these cases, religion may also become dysfunctional.

Changes in Religion:

1. There has been a reduction in the ritual performed to mark different phases of life, like
birth, marriage and death, etc.

2. The hold of religion on social life has become weak. This process is called
secularization and is occuring worldwide.

3. Religion has lost many of its collective functions. Therefore, to say that it contributes to
social integration may not be generally correct.

4. Today, a large number of societies have religious pluralism, which means a co-
existence of different religions.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write on Marxian view of labour.

Ans. Marxian View of Labour: In Marxian literature, labour in the capitalist system of
production is without any qualitative attributes. According to Karl Marx, ‘labour which
creates exchange-value and therefore commodities, is specifically ‘social labour’ and ‘the
division of labour is the economic expression of the social character of labour.”

Q.2. What does mixed economy mean?

Ans. Meaning of the mixed economy: The mixed economy is a combination of both the
capitalist and the socialist economies. In this system, some industries and business
enterprises are owned by the state and others are left free to the private ownership of the
people.

The enterprises owned by the state are known as public sector enterprises and those
which are owned by individual entrepreneurs or group of individuals or shareholders is
collectively called the private sector. There are some firms, which are jointly owned by the

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state and private shareholders. This is called a joint sector. After independence, our
country has been moving on the path of the system of mixed economy.

Q.3. What do you mean by contract?

Ans. An agreement between two or more persons is generally called a contract. The
partners of a contract promise to behave in a certain specified way for a certain specified
period of time in future towards achieving certain specific ends.

Q.4. What do you understand by the distributive system?

Ans. The distributive system means an allocation of rights and duties in respect of the
fruits of technology and labour.

Q.5. What is economy?

Ans. The economy refers to the system of production and distribution.

Q.6. What do you understand by the economic institutions?

Or

Define in simple words the economic institutions.

Ans. Social institutions concerned with the management, production and distribution of
human resources are referred to as economic institutions.

Q.7. Write the names of two most fundamental economic institutions.

Ans. 1. Property. and

2. Contract.

Q.8. Write four main characteristics of property.

Ans. 1. The property can be transferred.

2. It is not necessary that the owner of the property is also the user of it.

3. The property is a concrete external object.

4. The property incurs certain amount of power to the owner.

Q.9. Write four characteristics of the contractual relationship.

Ans. 1. The contractual relationship are impersonal.

2. The contractual relationship are limited the formal terms and conditions.

3. The contractual relationships are limited in terms of time, place and reference.

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4. Contractual relations are rational.

Q.10. Which countries are not truely democratic and way?

Ans. There are certain countries which claim to be democratic but their system of
government is authoritarian. The will of people is not honoured as is done in democratic
governments.

Causes: In these countries, those ruling the state deliberately use their power and
position to realize their own interests ignoring the interests of the common people.

Example: 1. Myanmar (previously called Burma). and

2. Singapore are examples of such countries.

Q.11. Write names of two countries having constitutional monarchies.

Ans. 1. Britain (UK or England). and

2. Japan.

Q.12. Write the names of those three countries having absolute monarchy.

Ans. 1. Saudi Arabia.

2. Jordan. and

3. Morocco.

Q.13. Write the names of those two countries which claim to be democratic but
their system of government is authoritarian.

Ans. (i) Myanmar (Burma).

(ii) Singapore.

Q.14. Write the names of the democratic countries of the world.

Ans. (i) India.

(ii) USA.

(iii) United Kingdom.

Q.15. Write names of two countries having the parliamentary system and one
country having the presidential system.

Ans. 1. India. and

2. Britain (both are having parliamentary democratic system.

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3. The United States of America (USA) is having the presidential democratic system.

Q.16. What do you understand by the term ‘Authority’?

Or

Define authority.

Ans. Authority: Word meaning of authority is power. Authority has legal power to
exercise influence. Authority is established by political rule within a community or society.
Max Weber defines the term authority in this way:

“Authority is an exercise of influence which is voluntarily accepted by the persons on

whom it is exercised.”

Q.17. Write three bases of legitimation of power.

Ans. 1. The traditional authority.

2. The charismatic authority. and

3. The legal rational authority.

Q.18. Define Cult.

Ans. Cult: In simple way we can define the term cult in the following way:

“Cult is the belief and practices of a particular group of religion to a god or gods. A small
flexible group whose religion is characterised by its individualism and esoteric belief. The
Kabir Panth, Sai Baba, Jai Gurudev are some of the present cults in our country.

Q.19. Write two main basis characteristic of religion.

Ans. 1. Religion is belief in the supernatural power.

2. Every religion has its special place of worship and has the concept of heaven and hell
and sacred and profane.

Q.20. Write one common thing among magic, religion and science.

Ans. The common thing among magic, religion and science is the quest of understanding
the reality of nature and the attempt to exercise a control over it.

Q.21. Write one point of the character and nature of the scientist which is not alike
with the belief of science.

Ans. 1. Scientists are not atheists necessarily.

2. They may also be believers, worshippers and of course sometimes dogmatic also.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

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Q.1. Discuss the nature of exchange system at different stages of economy.

Ans. The nature of Exchange System at Different Stages of Economy:

1. A system of exchange has always existed at every stage of economy. In the primitive
societies, people changed things of their utility. It was called the barter system. There was
no money nor was there any measure to determine the value of thing.

2. The modern economy is essentially a market economy in which exchange is a prime

institution. People now produce for the market and every commodity has a value in terms
of money and the currency is the medium of exchange.

3. Even agriculture is no longer a mere subsistence economy as it was during the pre-
industrial period. The agricultural production has value in market terms and the farmer
produces surpluses for the market with a profit motive.

4. The money is not only in the form of metal coins as in the earlier times but paper
money has become a more prominent of money (or currency). The coins are used only as
small changes.

5. At a very advanced stage of industrial economy where we have already reached now,
even money has become a secondary means of exchange. Most of business at a higher
level is transacted on credit. The economy is so advanced and transactions have become
so huge and complex that no amount of hard money would be able to meet the demand.
Moreover, the exchange on the basis of credit in very safe, quick and convenient.

Q.2. What are the characteristics of modern state?

Ans. The characteristics of modern state:

1. According to Max Weber, state is the most fundamental institutions of a political

system. The state means the institution which exercises the monopoly over the legitimate
use of power within a given territory.

2. State can use force to implement its policies. It has sovereignty.

3. There are sub-institutions of the state which are involved in the exercise of political
power.

4. The executive, the judiciary and the legislature are the instruments which co- operate
in the distribution of power.

5. The essential elements of the state are:

(i) a population.

(ii) a defined territory.

(iii) a government. and

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(iv) sovereignty.

6. All modern societies are nation-states. Giddens writes that ‘nation-states’ are the states
in which the great mass of population are citizens who regard themselves as a part of
single nation.

Q.3. Discuss the organization of religion in society.

Ans. Organisation of Religions in society:

1. There are different forms of communities of believers such us the church, the rest and
the cult. Church is a well-established organisation. It has a bureaucratic structure with a
hierarchy of office bearers from among the believers.

The Catholic and the Protestant are such Churches. No other religion is so highly
organised.

2. Hinduism has a organized body except that some vital temples of the country have the
body of persons entrusted with the responsibility of management of temples. Temples too
have priests and other employees to look after the maintenance of the temples and carry
out routine religious functions. The priests are usually selected only conventionally.

3. Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch have made an important distinction between churches
and sects. As compared to church sects are smaller in size. They are also not so well-
organised. They usually originate as a remonstration against the old established religion.
It is initiated by a few and gradually others join it.

4. The sect rejects the tenets of the conventional religion and attempts to convince people
about the weaknesses of the traditional religion. It motivates the people to follow the
teachings of the sect. Arya Samaj, Neo- Buddhism and Ram Krishna Mission are the
examples of sects of Hinduism.

5. Cult is yet another religious. organisation. It is formed around ideology and thinking of a
particular individual leader. The like-minded people follow him. A person may follow a cult
principle and adhere to any other The cult is still smaller and has a shorter life than sect.
Examples of cults in the West as given by Giddens are the groups of believers in
spiritualism, astrology or transcendental meditation. The Kabir Panth, Sai Baba, Jai
Gurudev are some of the present in India.

Q.4. What do you mean by sect?

Ans. Sect:

1. In short we can say that a religious group having some specific rituals etc. is called
sect.

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2. As compared to church sect is smaller in size. It generally originates as a
remonstration against the old established religion. It is initiated by a few and gradually
others join it.

3. The sect rejects the tenets of the conventional religion and attempts to convince people
about the weaknesses of the traditional religion.

4. It motivates people to follow the teaching of the sect.

Examples: Arya Samaj, Neo-Buddhism and Ram Krishan Mission are the examples of
sects of Hinduism.

Q.5. Write the names of the prominent religions of the world as well as the name of
those religions prevail out of them in India.

Ans. The prominent religions of the world are:

1. Christianity.

2. Islam.

3. Hinduism.

4. Buddhism.

5. Jainism.

6. Judaism.

7. Sikhism.

8. Zoroastrianism.

In India mainly the followers of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Neo-Buddhism,

Jainism and Zoroastrianism are found.

Q.6. Write a short note on the three religions originated in the Middle East.

Ans. 1. Judaism.

2. Christianity. and

3. Islam originate in the Middle East.

These religions are monotheistic and earlier two religions are messianic. They believe in
single-God and His Prophets.

Judaism is the religion of the Jews and the oldest of the three religions.

Christianity emerged after Judaism an spread as a prominent religion. Jesus, himself a

Jew, was initiator of Christianity.

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Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in the world, today. It originated from
the teachings of the prophet Mohammed in the Seventh Century.

Q.7. Write a short note on Intensive agriculture. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Intensive agriculture:

1. Intensive agriculture is also know as settled agriculture.

2. It is a system of food production where the fields are regularly cultivated.

3. Cultivators raise the fertility of soil by adding organic materials to it, such as dung from
animals and human.

4. Fields are irrigated. Besides the monsoon, the agriculturalists use irrigation from
streams and rivers.

5. Technology in intensive agriculture is far more complex. Ploughs are used rather than
digging-sticks and hoes.

6. Where mechanization has set in, tractors are used, and mechanical power has
replaced the animals traction power.

Intensive agriculture has also led to fairly settled, large village communities. This has
implications for the nature of interpersonal relations in an agricultural community. The
horticulturalists, by comparison, live in small groups and shift from one place to another
depending upon the piece of land they clear for cultivation.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 16 Social
Stratification
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-16

Social Stratification
Chapter: 16

MODULE 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.1

Answer the following questions in one sentence only:

(a) Define social inequality.

Ans. Some have more privileges and resources than others, as a result of which people
and group are ranked which creates inequality.

(b) What is stratification?

Ans. Division of society into strata or layers.

(c) Describe the notion of ‘primitive communism’.

Ans. Simple societies having a state of complete equality.

(d) Give the definition of the term prestige.

Ans. Prestige is associated with an individual who excels in some field, carries more
respect and may be richer than others.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.2

Find out which the following statements is True or False. Write ‘T’ after the
statement that is true, and ‘F’ after the statement that is false:

(a) According to Marx, there are two main classes in society.

Ans. True.

(b) For Marx, classes are defined in terms of the mental abilities of persons.

Ans. False.

(c) The means of production include technology, capital and resources.

Ans. True.

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(d) According to Marx, ownership of the means of production leads to control over
political power.

Ans. True.

(e) Classes existed in human society right from the beginning of humankind.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.3

Fill in the blanks with appropriate word given in brackets:

(a) Status is defined as ‘social ……………… . (position, action, behaviour)

Ans. Position.

(b) Role refers to ……………….. . (behaviour, situations, individual)

Ans. Behaviour.

(c) Statuses acquired by birth are called ………………. . ascribed, higher, different)

Ans. Ascribed.

(d) Achieved statuses are found more in ……………. Societies. (complex, simple,
joint)

Ans. Complex.

(e) The status of son is an example of ……………. status. (achieved, ascribed,

both)

Ans. Ascribed.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.4

Find out which of the following statements is True and which one is False. Write T
after the statement that you think is true, and ‘F’ after the statement that is false.

(a) Caste is an example of a status group.

Ans. True.

(b) Caste is basically an example of achieved. status.

Ans. False.

(c) Castes are found in all parts of the world.

Ans. False.

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(d) Castes and classes refer to the same social category.

Ans. False.

(e) Untouchability has been abolished in India.

Ans. True.

(f) Sanskritization is a process of upward mobility in caste system.

Ans. True.

(g) Castes are also found in many non-Hindu communities.

Ans. True.

(h) Kshatriyas are also known as the members of the ‘merchant caste’.

Ans. False.

(i) At the bottom of caste hierarchy are placed the members of the caste called
Sudra.

Ans. True.

(j) Caste is an open system of social stratification.

Ans. False.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Is social stratification universal? Discuss. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Universality of social Stratification:

1. Is social stratification universal? Sociologists point out that simple societies of hunters
and food gatherers usually do not have groups, which are ranked one above the other.
Difference of power, wealth and prestige do not exist at the level of groups. All clans are
equally placed. No ranking exists between them. All members of these communities have
equal access to resources. As a result, there are no rich or poor people among them.
Whatever inequality exists between them is at the level of sex and age.

2. Women (or men) may have more or less prestige in different societies. Elders may be
respected. The solutions they offer in matters of conflict may not be binding on the
individuals involved, yet they are respected and followed. From this we may conclude that
although social inequality may be found in all societies, social stratification may not be
universal.

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3. That why, sociologists today no more support the idea of ‘primitive communism’, where
is was believed there were simple societies marked by a state of complete equality
between the individual members. On closer observation, it was found that while these
societies lacked stratification, they still had inequality on the lines of gender and age.
They also had the concepts of ‘best hunters’, ‘best craftsmen’, ‘best magicians’, who
commanded more respect than the others.

4. All adult men knew the techniques of hunting, but some excelled over others. Thus,
they were the ones who enjoyed more prestige than the others. The point to be kept in
mind is that even in simple societies, an individual may carry more respect or may be
richer than others.

Example: For instance, the chief may be the richest man because he receives gifts from
the subjects. But prestige or wealth is not necessarily associated with a group. It may be
associated with an individual. From this, we may repeat our conclusion that stratification
is not universally found to the same extent and in the same sense. What is found,
however, is some form of social inequality.

Q.2. Describe in your own words what do you mean by ascribed and achieved
statues, with example?

Ans. Meaning of ascribed and achieved statues:

1. Sociologists speak of two types of statuses, respectively called and achieved. Ascribed
statuses are given to the individual because of the facts related to his/her birth. It is a
matter of accident that because of my birth in a Brahmin family. I happen to be Brahmin. I
did not choose the social position of a Brahmin. In the same way, because of my birth as
a female, I happen to occupy the position of a daughter, niece, granddaughter, and later
in life, of a wife, mother, aunt and grandmother, etc. The position I occupy by being born
in a family, a particular social category, or a particular sex category, are ascribed statuses.
They cannot be changed. Once an individual occupies a particular social position
because of birth, the other social positions that he would occupy over time, can be easily
predicted. If an individual is born a male, we may easily predict that he would be a son,
father, uncle, grandfather, and so on.

2. The other social position is called ‘achieved status’. In each society, certain positions
are left open to be filled in by competition. Individuals compete for certain social positions,
and these position for which there is competition are known as achieved statuses. If a
person gets through the Civil Services Examination and becomes a civil servant, then we
would say that he has achieved the status. In a simple society, social positions are
predominantly ascribed, but there are certain positions that are filled by competition. For
instance, the positions of the ‘best hunter’, the ‘best craftsman’, the ‘best gardner’, are the
examples of achieved statuses. By comparison, in a complex society, social positions are
largely achieved, but it does not imply that ascribed positions disappear. Rather, they
continue to be important in many situations. Moreover, ascribed positions often influence

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the achievement of a status. Being a male in many societies also brings several
privileges. A man may be more easily permitted to go for higher education than a woman.
Thus there are more chance of males achieving certain statuses than of females.

Q.3. What are the salient characteristics of caste?

Ans. The salient characteristics of caste: Some of the salient characteristics of caste
may be noted below. All these characteristics of caste are inter-related:

1. Caste system is based on the ideas of purity and pollution.

2. Besides occupation, each caste has its own style of living.

3. In a village, a person’s caste may be identified by looking at his dress and jewellery
house types, food habits and the manner of speaking.

4. It has been found that each caste has its own dialect, which may be distinguished from
the others.

5. Each caste follows the rules of endogamy, that is, its members marry within their own
caste, but they marry outside their village. Village exogamy, i.e. marrying out
accompanies caste endogamy.

6. Each caste has its own council, locally called caste panchayat, which takes up disputes
and other matters pertaining to the caste.

7. Each caste has its own complex of gods and goddesses, ritual-complex and folklore.

Q.4. How caste is different from class? Explain. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Differences between caste and class:

1. Caste is different from class. A class is defined in economic terms, whereas a caste is
understood as a hereditary unit, defined as a way of life. An individual is born in a class
but he always has a chance to improve upon it. By comparison, in theoretical terms, the
position of an individual in caste is fixed forever, unless his entire group tries particularly
hard to move up. That is why sociologists say that caste system is a ‘closed’ system. In
comparison, class is an ‘open’ system, because of the general possibility of individual
mobility.

2. The individual has not be depend upon his group to move up. He may work hard, try
newer avenues of improving upon his economic condition and move up from lower class
to middle class and so on.

3. Also we should remember that caste derives its legitimacy from religion, which is not
the case with class. Caste is based on the notions of purity and pollution, which assumes
that an individual is born in a caste according to the merits earned during his previous
incarnation. The Brahimins are ritually the purest and are at the top of the ritual hierarchy,

5/9
at the bottom of the hierarchy are the those who considered least pure in the ritual sense.
As one goes down the caste hierarchy, purity decreases while impurity increases and as
one goes up, there is an increase in purity and decrease in impurity.

4. According to some sociologists, one of the hallmarks of caste system has been the
practice of untouchability, which was legally abolished in 1955. Such a practice is not
found in any other system of stratification.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Where do social inequality is found?

Ans. Social inequality is universally found.

Q.2. Define social stratification.

Ans. Social stratification is defined as division of a society into layers that are ranked and
differ in terms of the distribution of privileges and resources.

Q.3. What is the area of deal of social stratification?

Ans. Social stratification deals with social inequality but not with all types of social
inequality.

Q.4. What is the position or relation of gender and age inequalities with the social
stratification?

Ans. Inequalities of gender and age are not the inequalities of social stratification.

Q.5. What is basic of division of society according to Karl Marx? (V. Imp.)

Ans. According to Karl Marx, the basic division of society was in terms of classes. He had
refused or mentioned mainly two social classes:

(i) Capitalists and classes of the people.

(ii) Labourers (or Haves and Have nots).

Q.6. What was correction made by sociologist Max Weber in Karl Marx’s notion of
social classes or social division?

Ans. Max Weber corrected Karl Marx’s notion by saying that besides class, status and
power were the other principles of stratification.

Q.7. Mention in brief any two features of caste system prevailed in India.

Ans. 1. Caste has its basis in Hinduism.

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2. Caste is an outstanding example of the status group.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. “Division of Labour is universally found in human societies.” Explain the

statement giving some examples.

Ans. The statement that division of labour is universally found in human societies. Even
those societies that lack specialization and complexity, like hunting and food-gathering
societies, do have jobs allocated to people on the a basis of sex and age. Women carry
out tasks that are different from those that men do. Similarly, jobs assigned to people of
different age-groups are also different. The tasks that different people perform in a society
are complementary. Because of the work people carry out, their life-styles acquire an
identity of their own. For instance, the house of a carpenter will have a workshop where
he does wood-work. The house of a weaver will have a loom.

Q.2. How will you prove that no society is completely homogenous? (M. Imp.)

Ans. Most of the sociologists believe and favour in this truth that no society in the world is
completely (or 100 percent) homogenous, where groups look alike, as do the individuals.
Rather what you find in a society is ‘difference’.

Example:

(i) Women’s work is different from that of men.

(ii) People of different age-groups of different works, and then, there are groups of people
where one is different from the other.

(iii) One clan is different from the other because of its association with a different totem.

(iv) One caste is different from the other because of its occupation.

Q.3. Differences between individuals and groups show only prevailing diversity and
not equality. How? Make clear.

Ans. 1. Difference between individuals and groups is a universal characteristic. It does not
imply that one group or individual is superior to the other, or it enjoys more privileges than
the other. In other words, difference does not imply ranking be inequality. It only shows
that diversity exists.

2. Our first point here is that we should distinguish the idea of difference from the idea of
inequality. By difference, we mean the existence of certain dissimilarities between the
objects or units under consideration. But these dissmilarities are complementary.

3. Men and women are different in their biological compositions, but it is their
complementariness that is the basis of reproduction. Weavers are different from
carpenters, but they are dependent upon each other for the goods they respectively

7/9
produce. Weavers buy wooden objects from carpenters while carpenters buy shawls or
mats from weavers.

4. By inequality, we imply a distribution of privileges and resources, as a consequence of

which some are more privileged or better placed than others. Or, in other words, some
have under their control more resources than others. What results is a ranking of people
and their groups.

Q.4. Describe significance of Caste in Contemporary India.

Ans. Significance of Caste in Contemporary India: In Contemporary India, class

system has become quite important. But we should not infer that caste has become
irrelevant. This is so for the following reasons.

1. Many studies show that caste is important in matters of marriage.

2. Caste also specifies the rituals people perform.

3. Associations are formed on the basis of caste.

4. The caste associations may establish banks, schools, colleges, rest houses and
hospitals, etc., in the name of their castes.

5. In the fields of politics, caste is significant factor in the mobilization votes. The
members of a caste may constitute what has come to be known as ‘vote-bank’.

Q.5. Answer the following three points:

(a) The system of caste has lost its purity. How?

(b) In some way caste system has promited unity among its members. How?

(c) Castes had been trying to more upwards. How?

Ans. (a) The above elucidation of caste, its nature and attributes is true only in an ideal
typical fashion. A of now, the system of caste has lost its purity under the influence of
humanitarian values and other forces of modernization. Urbanization and communication
have also broken down the rigour of inter-caste prejudices and antipathies.

(b) The unity of a caste results from the characteristics shared by members. It, however,
should not give the impression that each caste is autonomous. It is not isolated as may
be the case with tribal societies. Each caste depends upon the other caste because each
one of them specializes in a particular occupation. The unity in the village follows from
inter-caste dependence.

(c) It also seems that since the birth related factors determine caste, it cannot be
changed. But it is not really true. Right from the ancient times, there have been cases of
castes trying to move up in the hierarchy (the ranked order) of castes. This is the process

8/9
of upward mobility whereby lower castes try to change their styles of living in the direction
of upper castes. This process is known as Sanskritization.

9/9
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 17 Factors Of Social
Change
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-17

Factors Of Social Change

Chapter: 17

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.1

Q.1. Answer in True or False.

(a) With improved medical facilities and sanitary conditions, population increases.

Ans. True.

(b) Decline in birth rate would also lower the standard of living.

Ans. (b) False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.2

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word from the bracket:

(a) Traditional society was characterised by ……………… . (mechanised, manual)

Ans. Manual.

(b) Production in industrial society is for ……………….. . (profit, domestic

consumption)

Ans. Profit.

(c) Industrialisation has led to the development of ……………… market. (local,

world)

Ans. World.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.3

Q.1. Answer in 1-2 words:

(a) What was the name of the religion propagated by Akbar?

Ans. Din-I-Illahi.

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(b) What is the term used for transmission of customs and practices from one
society to another?

Ans. Diffusion.

(c) What are non-material aspects of culture?

Ans. Religion, Ideology, Beliefs.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.4

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word (figure) from the bracket:

(a) Sati was banned in ………………. .(1828, 1829)

Ans. 1829.

(b) Article ………………. of the Indian constitution abolished untouchability. (17,27)

Ans.17.

(c) Elections inculcate a sense of …………….. among the citizens. (complacence,

responsibility)

Ans. Responsibility.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.5

Q.1. Answer True or False:

(a) Bourgeois were the owners of the means of production.

Ans. True.

(b) Production relationships became more impersonal in the wake of industrial

revolution.

Ans. True.

(c) Following the industrial revolution, a strong middle class emerged in urban
centres.

Ans. True.

(d) Green Revolution first started in the states of Bihar and Orissa.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.6

Q.1. Answer in 1-2 sentences:

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(a) Define Education.

Ans. Definition of Education: Education is to awaken and develop in the child those
physical, intellectual and moral conditions which are required of him, both by society as a
whole and by the immediate social environment.

(b) What are the features of formal education?

Ans. Formal Education: Formal education is characterised by:

(i) regular and recognised schools.

(ii) definite and properly spelt out content.

(iii) definite rules and regulations.

(c) How does the school curriculum socialise children?

Ans. School Curriculum and Socialization of Children: Schools, through their

curriculum try to sensitise children to real world problems like war, poverty, AIDS and
unemployment.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Explain the impact of demography on social change.

Ans. 1. Meaning: By demographic factors, we mean the factors that determine the
numbers, composition, selection and the hereditary quality of successive generations.

II. Explanation of Demographic Factors of Social Charge:

(i) Change in Population (in number as well as in its composition):

(a) Changes in population, both in numbers and composition, have a far-reaching effect
on society. When population increases or decreases, size and composition of a
population changes.

(b) Change in the size of a population may bring about a change in the economic life of
the people, which may further bring about a change in various other aspects of human
like social, cultural and political.

(c) The swift and steady decline of both birth rate and death rate has led to tremendous
social transformation. With improved sanitary conditions and medical facilities. India has
experienced a dramatic increase in the sphere of population. This phenomenal increase
in population has, in turn, given rise to a variety of social problems like unemployment,
child labour, growth of slums, increased crime rate and social tensions.

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(d) Decline in death rate has led to increased population growth to a century ago.
Additionally, availability of better medical facilities has enabled them to be active till old
age. This has brought about a perceptible (visible) change in social attitudes and beliefs.

(ii) Population and Standard of living:

(a) When the growth of population threatens the standard of living, it inspires a change in
attitude. People are more open and accept the use of contraceptives, one child family
norm and in some cases couples decide to adopt a child.

(b) Had we witnessed a corresponding decline in the birth rate, it would have meant a
higher standard of living, the emancipation of women from child bearing drudgery, better
care for the young and perhaps a healthier society. Of course, then, fewer young people
would enter the workforce to support an ageing population.

(iii) Population and level of physical health of the people: There is also a close
relationship between the growth of population and the level of physical health and vitality
of the people. On the increase in the number of mouths to feed, there is chronic
malnutrition and other related diseases. These further lead to physical lethargy,
incompetence, apathy and lack of enterprise. All these affect the quality of the population
and the social structure and social institutions.

(iv) In Indian’s context Growth of Population and Problems: In the Indian context, we
notice that an increase in population has resulted in an increase in unemployment, in
poverty, in urbanisation, in the number of slums, and an increase in the burden on
infrastructural facilities. These, in turn, have resulted in the absence of adequate facilities,
rise in nuclear families and, over time, have altered social relationship in a perceptible
manner.

Q.2. How are the industrial societies different from simple societies? (M. Imp.)

Ans. Differences between Industrial Societies Simple Societies: Industrial societies

are very complex and distinctly different from the earlier simple societies. In such
societies, there is:

(i) Importance of capital instead of labour as against the norm in simple societies.

(ii) Rise of factorise as units of production instead of family.

(iii) Use of steam, electricity and atomic power instead of energy produced by human and
animal power.

(iv) Use of machines in place of human and animal labour.

(v) Production is for exchange in the market and for profits and not just for domestic
consumption.

(vi) Development of world market instead of local market. and

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(vii) improved means of transport and communication and a currency base economy.

Conclusion: Modern technology and man made conditions have changed not only the
system and quantity of production but also production relationships. Modern industries
relationships have given birth to companies, corporations, share market multinational
companies, banks and the union of industrial workers.

Q.3. Explain the role of diffusion as a means of social change.

Ans. I. Meaning of Diffusion: Social change occurs through cultural contact between
different societies. Diffusion is an important mechanism of social change. One society
adopts the cultural traits of another through prolonged contact as in travel, trade and
commerce as also through sudden events like war where new and hitherto secret
technologies reveal themselves.

II. The Role of diffusion as a means of Social Change:

(i) Cultural mores as well as new technology are borrowed and adopted when societies,
find that they fill a vacuum or answer a felt need. Borrowing of cultural traits from an
advanced society is commonly seen in developing countries and societies as they try to
become moder. Diffusion of cultural traits also takes place through personal contacts and
interaction between members of two or more cultures. This can be seen in the changes
that crept in Indian society due to sustained contacts with Greeks, Muslims and the
British. Indian music and architecture was greatly influenced by Islam.

(ii) New schools like khayal developed due to the influenced Persian music and new
instruments like tabla and sitar. In architecture, the Indo-Saracenic style appeared with
spacious interiors, massive domes, arches and minarets. Sufism was highly influenced by
the mysticism of Hindus, while the monotheistic ideas of Islam influenced Hindu society,
particularly some leaders of the Bhakti movement like Kabir.

(iii) Diffusion also takes place through mass media as it transmits and diffuses information
to a large number of people. It has accelerated the process of change by spreading the
elements of individual cultures to people far away and thus resulted in a form of cultural
modernisation. This synthesis results in a new form of culture, which has elements of
both the traditional and the modern. Folk songs and western music have combined to
create a new style of popular music.

(iv) It is, however, interesting to note that while cultural diffusion quickly changed the
material life of people, non-material aspects like religion, ideology and beliefs are slow to
a change.

(v) This phenomenon is known as “cultural Iag”. When non-material culture does not
adjust itself readily to the material changes, it results in a lag between the two. The
problem of adjustment in modern societies can be explained concept by this where the
material aspects of life change at a much quicker pace than the non-material aspects of

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culture. All societies need to manage this culture. Societies where the non-material
aspects of culture guide material changes towards peace and social harmony are likely to
see more progress than others.

Q.4. Highlight the role of elections in social change. (M. Imp.)

Ans. Role of Elections in Social Change: Besides law, the right to vote and the role of
elections are also important factors of social change. The right to vote stimulates interest
in public affairs and is an important means of imparting education to masses. The parties
and the leaders take this opportunity to educate the electorate on important political,
economic and social issues. Besides this, it inculcates a sense of self-respect and
responsibility among the citizens.

(i) Elections themselves throw up variety of issues, which highlight the problems, goals
and objectives concerning the socio-economic conditions of the village, state and the
country at large.

(ii) Elections are a form of political communication between the government and the
governed. They are a means by which the rulers become sensitive to the demands of the
people. This two way awareness and communication between the electorate and the
elected leads to social change.

Q.5. Discuss the socio-economic consequences of industrialisation. (Most Imp.)

Ans. Socio-Economic Consequences of Industrialisation: The industrial revolution

which started in Europe in the late 17th century slowly found its way across the globe.
The pace may have been varied in different parts of the world, but the end results were
quite similar. The following changes were noticeable and had a degree of permanence
attached to them:

(a) Economic Consequences:

(i) Production moved out of households to factories.

(ii) Capital acquired a greater role in the production process.

(iii) The occupational structure of the workforce changed from largely agrarian to an
increasingly larger industrial workforce.

(iv) People from all strata of society took to industrial activity.

(v) Women moved out of homes in large numbers and entered the workforce.

(vi) Barriers of religion, belief, etc., crumbled as the demand for labour increased.

(vii) Urbanisation took place at an accelerated pace.

(viii) It triggered changes in other spheres like mass transport and communication too,
thus radically altering the existing social structure.

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(b) Social Consequences: All these changes had a dramatic impact on social
relationships and brought about a lasting social change.

(i) Emancipation of women was a logical conclusion of this process. Within the family, the
role of women changed with their economic independence.

(ii) Similarly, production relationships changed from one amongst kinsmen to a largely
impersonal relationship between the “employer” and the “employee” where skills and not
loyalty became the prime criterion for employment.

(iii) Caste structure weakened, at least in urban centres and workers of different castes
and religions became increasingly comfortable working with each other. Interestingly, on
another plane, in the absence of close family network, state and caste associations grew
and the social change witnessed was the net outcome of these two opposing processes.

(iv) Urbanisation, in its wake, brought about other changes. Relationships became more
impersonal as transactions acquired commercial character. The provision of facilities like
hospitals, schools, smaller houses meant that the dependence on family decreased. This
was also triggered by the revolutionary changes in mass transport system, which enabled
people to move to far-flung places where employment opportunities existed.

(v) Finally, the large influx of wage earners and self-employed to urban centres gave rise
to a large and powerful middle class in society. This class not only impacted the existing
social relationships but also influenced political discourse favouring the ideas of
meritocracy and egalitarianism.

Q.6. How did the Revolution to social change in India? (V.Imp.)

Ans. The Green Revolution’s role in bringing social change in India:

(a) Back ground of Green Revolution: As population rise, consequently the demand for
food grew, India found itself depending upon food imports to feed its teeming millions.
The situation warranted a close look at increasing agricultural productivity and the answer
that finally helped India to become self-sufficient in food has been termed the “Green
Revolution”, which is a name given to the dramatic changes brought about in the field of
agriculture.

(b) Impact of the Green Revolution: We shall now examine the impact of the “Green
Revolution” on social relationships and analyse law the social change it brought about.

Green Revolution started in India in the late 1960s in selected regions of the country. The
focus at this stage was on what and the strategy adopted was to combine the use of
capital and technology to boots from yields. Thus credit, machines, high yield seeds,
irrigation and fertilisers become crucial inputs, almost is critical as the and itself. Large
forms were favoured as they lent themselves easily to mechanised farming. The results
were stunning as from yields surpassed expectations and the country soon moved from a
net importer of food grains to one which maintained a buffer stock.

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While the output was significantly higher than earlier, the outcome was not necessarily a
positive one for all states and for all sections of society at large.

(i) The increasing importance of large tracts of farmland and of capital gave a distinct
advantage to that section of society, which had access to them. Relationships, based on
land, gave way to an employer-employee relationship, commonly seen in industrial
activities.

(ii) Since land reforms had been unevenly implemented in various parts of the country, the
Green Revolution was confined to the selected states where it was initiated. This, in turn,
triggered large-scale seasonal migration from states like Orissa, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
to Punjab and Haryana-the cradle of the Green Revolution. In social terms, the karta of
these families in Orissa, Bihar and U.P. were now absent from their villages for a large
part of the year. This had a great impact on the family relationship.

(iii) Additionally, another significant outcome was a widening of inequality across states in
general and among the “landed” and the “landless” in particular. Finally, the middle castes
who had gained access to land in the wake of land reforms became the biggest
beneficiaries of these changes and slowly emerged as a dominant force in Indian politics.

Q.7. Discuss the role of education in bringing about social change. (Most Imp.)

Ans. The Role of education in bringing about social change: Education plays an
important role in social change. While, on the one hand, it is responsible for handing
down traditions, culture, knowledge and skills from one generation to another; on the
other, it acts as an agent of social change. New ideas and values are initiated by it and
become the goals for the young generation to pursue and achieve.

One of the sociologists has defined education as “the influence exercised by the adult
generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life’. Its objective is to awaken and
develop in the child those physical, intellectual and moral conditions, which are required
of him, both by society as a whole and by the immediate social environment.

Society thus achieves two goals through education:

(i) To socialise, shape and develop the individual according to the social needs. and

(ii) To fulfil society’s needs concerning human resources such as training for the
specialised skills in industry and technology of the modern economy.

II. Formal and Informal Education:

Before we explain the role of education as a factor of social change, it is important to

understand the two main types of education system-formal and informal.

Education which is imparted in a well-defined institutional setting, if formal and that which
an individual acquires in the course of his daily activities and interactions in the family and
in society at large is informal.

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Informal education dominates in societies, which are deficient in proper schools or where
a formal schooling system is as yet undeveloped. In tribal and agrarian societies this is
apparent. In such societies, children learn the language, traditional practices, fables, folk
songs, music and productive skills like cattle rearing and sowing etc., through observation
and interaction with their kinsmen.

Even in advanced societies, children receive informal education along with the formal
learning they undertake in schools. For example, manners, etiquette and social skills are
learnt by observations of behaviour of family members and those in the immediate
surrounding.

Formal education characterises modern education as we know it today. Its chief

components are

(i) Regular and recognised schools.

(ii) Definite and properly spelt out content. and

(iii) Definite rules and regulations.

We now focus on the role of education as a factor of social change. The impact of
education on different aspects of social life can be examined by studying the following:

(i) Socialisation and social control.

(ii) Development of human resources and stratification. and

(iii) Political education.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Mention only the names of two main categories, grouping various factors
responsible for social change.

Ans. Social change occurs due to various factors. Some of these factors are:

(a) endogenous (i.e. internal to the society concerned). and

(b) exogenous.

Q.2. Mention the names of cultural factors.

Ans. Names of cultural factors are main:

(i) Ideas.

(ii) Knowledge.

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(iii) Values.

(iv) Beliefs.

(v) Inventions. and

(vi) Exchange.

Q.3. Tell the relation between culture and inventions and discoveries.

Ans. Culture provides the bare for inventions and discoveries.

4. Fill in the blanks with suitable word / words or term / terms.

(i) ……………… change is a permanent features of all societies at all times.

Ans. Social.

(ii) …………….. factors, such as technological progress, demographic changes,

cultural diffusion, economic and education, alter structural relationships in a
society and bring about ……………… …………………. .

Ans. Various, social,change.

(iii) Changes in population, both in numbers and composition, have a far-reaching

effect on ……………….. …………………. and are a main …………………. of the social
change that we observe.

Ans. Social, Relationship, Cause.

(iv) ……………… changes society by changing our …………….. to which we, in turn
adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustments.

Ans. Technology.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 18 Processes Of
Social Change
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-18

Processes Of Social Change

Chapter: 18

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.1

Q.1. Fill in the blanks (choose the right words form the bracket):

1. When an object does not show movement, it is said to be ……………… (mobile,

static, flexible).

Ans. Static.

2. Social change is considered to be ……………… (radical, value-neutral, desirable).

Ans. Value-neutral.

3. Social change means modifications or variation in social …………….social

processes and social structure. (action, reaction, inter- actions).

Ans. Inter-actions.

4. Social change is a change in the institutional and normative ……………… of

society. (history, economy, structure).

Ans. Structure.

5. Society exists in a ……………… of dynamic influences. (environment, ideology,

universe).

Ans. Universe.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.2

Tick Mark True or False:

1. The rate of social change is same for all societies. (True/False).

Ans. False.

2. Social change is a universal process. (True/False)

Ans. True.

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3. Social change can take place in a short time and may take centuries to be notice.
(True/False)

Ans. True.

4. Social change may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable. (True/False)

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.3

Answer in one sentence:

Q.1. What is social change?

Ans. By social change is meant only such alternations that occur in structure and function
of society and in culture of society.

Q.2. Give two characteristics of social change?

Ans. 1. Social change is not uniform.

2. Duration of Social change varies or differs.

Q.3. What is meant by evolution?

Ans. Evolution is a process of progressive differentiation of forms, capabilities, endow-

ments, from simple of complex, over a period of time which is irreversible.

Q.4. How does revolution differ from counter-revolution?

Ans. Revolution is a sudden, abrupt, total change that takes place in a social system
lead-ing to the emergence of a new social order. Whereas counter-revolution is a
restoration of the old traditional systems that had prevailed before the revolution.

Q.5. Give two points of distinction between the term “progress” and
“development”.

Ans. Progress is a movement in the desired direction so as to reach a “final goal” which is
motivated by positive and rational considerations. Development is a strategy of planned
social change in a direction, which is considered desirable by the members of a society in
not just one area but all related areas.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.4

Write answer in one sentence:

Q.1. Give an example of cyclic pattern of social change.

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Ans. Trade advances, falls, business activity rises, booms, then slumps and then starts
afresh.

Q.2. What is fluctuating change?

Ans. When change turns to the opposite direction after leading towards progress i.e. it
seems to go up and down depending upon favourable or unfavourable circumstances, it
is called fluctuating change.

Q.3. Explain the cyclical theory of social change.

Ans. This theory is founded on the belief that Societies have predetermined life by cycle
of birth, growth, maturity and decline. Like waves in the ocean the great culture emerge,
rise to heights only to subside which otherwise rise in their turn.

Q.4. Explain the functional theory of social change.

Ans. Functional Theory – According to this theory, societies change but they also tend to
move towards equilibrium. Any disturbance in the system is easily accommodated within
the existing structure. The endogenous and exogenous sources of change take the
system from one stage to equilibrium to another stage.

Q.5. List the three theories used by social scientists to explain social change.

Ans. The three main theories used by social scientists to explain social change are:

(a) Evolutionary theory.

(b) Cyclical theory.

(c) Functional theory.

(d) Conflict theory.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. List the characteristics of social change.

Ans. List of the characteristics of social change is:

1. Social change is not uniform.

2. Social change is Deliberate.

3. Duration of change varies.

4. Social change is value neutral.

Q.2. Differentiate between the terms: evolution and revolution. (V. Imp.)

Ans. Differentiate between Evolution and Revolution.

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Evolution: The term evolution means more than just growth. Growth actually implies a
change in size or quality in a desired direction. Evolution basically involves a more
intrinsic change not only in size but also of structure. It is a process of growth increasing
complexity and differentiation of structure and functions of society. It also refers to
interdependence among differentiated parts. Thus we see that evolution is an expression
of continuity indicating a certain direction of change. It is unilinear indirection, i.e., from
simple to complex structure and from small to large whereas change may have many
directions. Biological evolution explains change from a simple stage to a complex one as
is seen in the case of a living organism. Many sociologists have compared society to a
biological organism, thus giving an explanation to social evolution. It is taken to be a
process leading to progressive differentiation with increasing capabilities and adaptation
to the environment. This can be understood clearly by looking at the way people build
their shelters.

Thus we may say that evolution is an irreversible process. The direction can not be
reversed from the complex stage to the simple stage.

Revolution: Revolution is a form of sudden and abrupt overthrow of the existing social
order and system. It is also characterized by a change that comes about in a short period
of time. The system that replaces the existing one is totally different and new. Like in the
case of the French Revolution the rule of the Emperor came to an end suddenly. The
hungry and poor masses attacked those in power, wiping them out totally. This was
replaced by the rule of the common man.

In the recent decades, Mahatma Gandhi was a true revolutionary. He successfully fought
against exploitation and overthrew the British rule.

Revolution basically aims at liberating people from an oppressive system. It removes the
prime cause of discontentment and thus puts an end to their social, cultural, political and
economic suffering. However, the movements that aim at restoration or reinforcement of
old, traditional, systems can be termed as counter-revolution. The emphasis on the study
of Vedas, for example, aimed at the restoration of traditional values. This was meant to
create a positive feeling towards social responsibilities and gender equality.

Q.3. Give at least six points of distinction between “progress” and “development”.

Ans. Distinction between”progress” and “development”:

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 Progress Development

1. Progress is a term that sees the present 1. The notion of development is s

in comparison to the past. It is a relativistic phenomenon. It refers to a change in the
notion. desire direction. It is a strategy of
planned social change in a direction that
is considered desirable by the members
of a society.

2. Progress refers not so much to social 2. Development is contextual and

change as to the direction which human relative in nature. So, the notion of
beings delib-rately give to that change. development may differ from society.
This is based on the socio-cultural
background, geographical and political
situation of the society.

3. It indicates the existence of some 3. It is composite concept. It includes

predetermined, ideal destination or goal. progress in various other fields like trade,
This means that a “final goal” has to be agriculture, industry, health, education
reached. So, a movement in the desired and so on.
direction has to be undertaken. This
movements takes place so as to reach the
final goal and can be termed progress.

4. The earliest criteria used to determine 4. Along with difference areas

progress were those related to technical development, the welfare, of weaker
advancement, like money economy and sections (poors, lahomers, peasants),
communication system. But it was found women, old people, sick people,
that this could not be the sole basis of handicaps, small children, unemployed
evaluating progress. and minorities (languages, religions,
sects, etc.) are some of the
considerations.

5. Progress in one area in fact related to 5. We way say that development is a

and dep-erdent on another area. This leads value loaded concept that takes into
us to recog-nize change as a complex account the socio-cultural and economic
phenomenon. More so, because every needs of a given society, region and
successive stage of human development people.
would be progress.

6. The growing complexity of any 6. Several policies are programmes are

organisation or elaborate division of labour launches, aimed at the development of
would show progress. So, progress cannot rural people, scheduled castes,
simply be treated as a movement from scheduled tribes,women, urban people,
simple to complex but one that also agricultural workers and industrial
involves several dimensions. workers etc.

Q.4. Elaborate on the most frequently found patterns of social change seen in
society.

Ans. Elaboration of the most frequently found patterns of social change seen in
society: It is seen that social change follows certain patterns. The widely recognized
patterns are as follows:

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1. Linear change: This type of change shows a straight-line progression from one stag to
another in a linear fashion.

Diagram – Steady growth from few houses to city (on the basis of numbers)

Society gradually moves to an even higher state of civilization in the direction of

improvement; thus it advances in a linear fashion. Also what will be invented tomorrow is
not only based on what exist today but on the origins of the past inventions. The growth of
development in communication such as telephone has followed a linear pattern. It has
growth from land-line to cordless telephones and has reached the stage of mobile
phones.

2. Cyclical change: Rapid change on a closer look turns out to be a repeating set of
activities that form a cyclical pattern like rhythms of nature, cycle of night and day,
seasons sowing-reaping-harvesting. Similarly, society has a predetermined life cycle.
After going through all the stages it returns to the original stage and the cycle begins a
fresh again.

3. Fluctuating Change etc.: When the order of change turns to the opposite direction
after leading towards progress, it is called fluctuating change. It other words, the tendency
of change in this phase is not consistent but seems to go up and down depending upon
favourable or unfavourable circumstances, as is seen in the case of agriculture.
Advancement in the field of agriculture gets retarded if there is insufficient monsoon in
one season and increases if there is normal monsoons in the next season.

Fig.

Q.5. Explain in about 125 words the conflict theory of social change.

Ans. The conflict theories of social change: There are three main general theories for
social change. These are:

1. Evolution Theory.

2. Cyclical Theory. and

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3. Functional Theory.

The last, but not the least is the fourth one. This theory is named as the conflict theory.
Here we will explain in about 125 words only the conflict theory (as derived by the
question).

Conflict Theory: According to this theory, every pattern of action, belief and interaction
tends to generate an opposing reaction. Thus this theory highlights the forces producing
instability using social disorganization. It sees unequal distribution of power and authority
as the fundamental source of conflict. The groups with power want to preserve the status
quo while other groups desire to change it. This conflict between these groups leads to
various changes in the structure of society although the nature and depth of conflict and
resultant change depends on numerous factors. Every social structure begins as a
“thesis” of its current state of existence but its own internal contradictions or antagonisms
prompt a challenge to its structure. This challenge is called the “antithesis”. This conflict
serolves itself into a “synthesis” of a wholly new social structure carrying some elements
from both “thesis” and the “antithesis”. However, this theory does not explain social
stability in societies.

Fig: The Mechanism of Socialization

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the names of two terms associated with social change.

Ans. 1. Evolution.

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2. Progress.

3. Revolution.

4. Development.

Q.2. Define the term “Progress”.

Ans. Progress refers not so much to social change as to the direction which human
beings deliberately give to that change. This indicates the existence of some
predetermined, ideal destination or goal. This means that a “final goal” has to be reached.
So, a movement in the desired direction has to be undertaken. This movement occurs so
as to reach the final goal and can be termed progress. In other words, it is change in a
certain direction, always towards some desired goals. It can be called a realization of
cherished values, which is desirable. It is seen that only relative comparisons can give a
fair idea of progress. Therefore, we can say that if social change takes places in a desired
direction, it is called progress.

Q.3. Write the meaning of the word/term evolution.

Ans. Evolution basically involves a more intrinsic change not only in size but also of
structure. Thus evolution is an expression of continuity indicating a certain direction of
change.

Q.4. What is Revolution? Briefly explain.

Ans. Revolution is a form of sudden and abrupt overthrow of the existing social order and
system. It is a change that comes about in a short period of time.

Revolution basically aims at liberating people from an oppressive system.

Q.5. Write the names of those patterns which are certain to be followed by social
change? (Most Imp.)

Ans. Social change follows certain patterns:

1. They are Linear change.

2. Cyclical change.

3. Fluctuating change.

Q.6. Mention names of four theories of social change. (Most Imp.)

Ans. The four main theories of social change:

1. Evolutionary Theory.

2. Cyclical Theory.

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3. Functional Theory.

4. Conflict.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is the meaning of “Social Change”? Explain and define it.

Ans. Meaning and Definition of “Social Change”:

1. The term social change comprises two words-social and change. It is imperative to
understand their meaning. The social change denotes as difference in anything be it
individual, group society or any material object over a period of time. terms social is
defined in two different ways. One, in term of society social structure and two in terms of
culture.

2. Some sociologist say that by social change is meant only such alterations, which occur
in social organizations, that is, in structure and functions of society. The other group of
sociologists define in terms of rise and fall of culture. Social change is a part of cultural
change which include science, technology and values of social organization.

3. In other words, social change is a term used to describe variation in any respect social
processes and social interactions. It can also be described as a mode the either modifies
or replaces the “old in the life of a people and in the functioning of a society.”

Q.2. “Human society exists in a universe of dynamic influences.” Explain.

Ans. 1. Human Society exists in a universe of dynamic influences. For instance, change
in material equipment and expansion of technology resulted is reshaping of ideologies
and values. This, in turn, effects institutional structures as they take on new components
thus altering their functioning.

2. The impact of modern social forces is evident in the change of family structure. Joint
family system has been a common pattern in India. The head of the family exercises
absolute powers over its members and distributes work among them. It is now fast being
replaced by the nuclear family wherein family ties and authority of the head are gradually
weakening.

3. This change is also illustrative of structural change. Such a change, in turn, brings
about change in the role of family members. This is indicative of functional change.

4. However, as a result of competitive economy and spread of education in India we

expected a total transition from the caste system to the class system. But it is found that
caste is not being replaced completely by class.

5. There is only a marginal change in the role of caste. For example, we find that
occupation has become caste free. There is freedom now to take up any occupation. This
is no longer decided by one’s position in the caste hierarchy. We find many upper-caste”

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people taking up jobs that were earlier meant for the lower castes.

Q.3. “Progress depends on two factors,” Explain the statement.

Ans. Progress depends on two factors, the nature of the end and the distance at which
we are from it. Progress is usually determined in terms of material advancement,
individual enhancement, greater control over human conditions of life, human happiness,
order and harmony at societal level. So, when we say that we are progressing we mean
that society is flourishing both materially and morally. It is not possible to speak of
progress without reference to standard. Standards, as we know, are eminently subjective.
This is so because different people may look differently at the same social changes. To
some, they may as progress and to some, a decadence. In the case of free mixing of
young boys and girls, some people may think of it as progressive, whereas to others, it
may seem as a fall in the morality. In other words, it difficult to find clear and definite
standards that would be acceptable to all. This, in turn, would lead to a difficulty in
formulating definite conceptions of progress that would apply to all times and to all
cultures. Since, it is not possible that inventions will stop as man has all the goods that he
needs, as man’s wants are unlimited; changes will continue in future also.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 19 Socialization As A
Progress Of Learning
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-19

Socialization As A Progress Of Learning

Chapter: 19

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.1

Q.1. Tick Mark the correct answer:

1. The process of socialization is a ………………. process.

(i) Temporary.

(ii) Short period.

(iii) Discontinuous.

(iv) Lifelong process.

Ans.(iv) Lifelong process.

2. The process of socialization is called the process of …………… in a society.

(i) Adjustment.

(ii) Assimilation.

(iii) Learning.

(iv) Growing.

Ans. (ii) Assimilation.

3. The process of socialization to maintain ……………….. .

(i) Emotional stability.

(ii) Common identity.

(iii) Self-identity.

(iv) Social order.

Ans. (iv) Social order.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.2

State true or false against each statement.

(i) The main aim of socialization is to make the child learn the established norms
and behaviour.

Ans. True.

(ii) Schools and educational institutions are not important agents of socialization.

Ans. False.

(iii) All our actions and behaviour are governed by different rules and regulations of
the society.

Ans. True.

(iv) Reward and punishment operate as important agents of socialization and social
control.

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.3

Q.1. The agents to socialization help in ………………. .

(i) Conformity.

(ii) Deviation.

(iii) Learning.

(iv) Communication.

Ans. (iii) Learning.

2. The process of socialization regulates the ………………… .

(i) Society.

(ii) Human behaviour.

(iii) Social control.

(iv) Cultural heritage.

Ans. (iv) Cultural heritage.

3. Can reward and punishment be considered as agents of socialization?

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(i) Yes.

(ii) No.

Ans. (i) Yes.

4. Name the three basic elements of socialization.

(i) Family.

(ii) School.

(iii) Community.

(iv) Communication.

(v) Social roles.

(vi) Culture.

Ans. (iv, v, vi) ( Communication, Social roles, Culture).

5. Most personality traits are acquired by the child during the age of:

(i) 1-3 Yrs.

(ii) 3-8 Yrs.

(iii) 9-14 Yrs.

(iv) 15-20 Yrs.

Ans. (ii) 3-8 Yrs.

6. The process of socialization helps in establishing his …………… identity.

(i) Group.

(ii) Self.

(iii) Community.

(iv) Social.

Ans. (ii) Self.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Explain the concept and meaning of socialization.

3/8
Ans. Concept and Meaning of Socialization: When a child is born it is merely an
organism a “jiva” and through the processes socialization, it becomes purusha or stri in
other words an individual. The culture that a family, community and society inculcates in
an individual makes him manushya (or human being). The child responds to the forces
around it, both human and physical objects. It can be called a process of growing up in a
society which child acquires through its growth in age and is also influenced by cultural
norms traditions, values and different cultural patterns of the group to which it belongs this
process, the child imbibes the cultural patterns, learns to perform its individual and social
roles. In this way, the child makes efforts to adjust himself to the social order.
Socialization is a comprehensive and endless process, which continues throughout the
life of an individual.

Q.2. Elucidate the relationship between assimilation, enculturation and

socialization. (Very Imp.)

Or

Answer the following both questions:

(i) Relationship between Assimilation and Socialization.

(ii) Relationship between Enculturation and Socialization.

Ans. (i) Relationship between Assimilation and Socialization: The process of learning
and instilling the values and socially approved ways of behaviour is known as
socialization.

Members of a society are required to behave in ways that are in accordance with the
values of the group. The process of assimilation of newcomers enables to achieve this
end. The new comers are not immigrants from other societies or subcultures of the same
society but are new born babies. The new born infant has certain needs like those for
food and warmth which his mother mainly satisfies. The child depends upon her and
“identifies oneself” with her emotionally. It is believed by some that the child is aware of
his mother even before he is aware of himself.

The mother and the child at first have a common identity. The mother is “internalised” by
the infant with the satisfaction of food and other bodily needs. In due course, the child
differentiates himself from his mother. He is then faced with the problem of integrating his
self and the mother into a social system. In this way, role system comes into existence.
Therefore, the child learns to differentiate himself from his mother.

Later, it is believed that the child repeats the process of assimilation with his father as
well. Thus, the child differentiates between father as a person from his mother and then
integrates father to the social system in a new enlarged way, which takes into account not
only father’s relationship to him, but to the mother also. In this way, the relationship
between socialization and assimilation is established.

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2. Relationship between Enculturation and Socialization: Enculturation refers to
learning of cultural patterns from one generation to the next. All the while, new patterns
are continuously added. Thus, enculturation ensures the processes of cultural continuity
along with change in the society. Enculturation could take place either consciously or
unconsciously or both ways. In this situation, the older generation invites or induces and
compels the members of succeeding generations to adopt their ways of thinking and
behaving. Thus, enculturation is based on the authority the older generations to ensure
that the younger generations do not adopt the cultural practices of other groups. In this
way, the elders take full care that the existing values are imbibed by the new comers so
that these values are further strengthened and continued.

Q.3. What are different agents of socialization?

Ans. Following are five main agents of socialization:

1. Family: (a) A child is born dependent and helpless. He has various biological and
psychological attributes. He has to depend on his parents for physical and mental needs.
The mother fulfills all these needs of the infant.

(b) The child is emotionally attached to his mother first and later to his father. He identifies
the relationship with his mother and father and grandparents and gradually learns to
differentiate among all.

(c) After the parents, the child comes close to his siblings, who sometimes take care,
fondle and express their love and affection towards him. In this way, he integrates his
siblings into a new and an enlarged social system.

(d) Thus, the child comes in contact with an increasing number of family members and
imitates their actions and behaviour patterns through different forms of responses such as
anger, screaming, smiles and through movements of arms, hands and legs, etc.

(e) These special gestures help him to associate and integrate himself with his family. The
child internalizes the knowledge about the members of the family. In this way, the child
starts his life with learning in presence of his/ her mother, father and other family
members. Gradually, this process of social relationships widens if he lives in an extended
family. Thus, the child acquires knowledge, behaviour, manners and internalizes all these
patterns and learns to adjust or conform to the norms of the family.

2. Neighbourhood: (a) The locality and village constitute the neighbourhood which a
child grows up. He is socialised in the physical and social environment of the
neighbourhood. He plays with elder siblings, other children of the locality/village and thus,
acquires knowledge about physical and social objects available in the neighbourhood. He
learns about the nature, characteristics and usefulness of these objects operating in his
neighbourhood. He tries to adjust himself in different situations and also with the
members of different castes, communities, religious and other occupational groups. In this
way, he learns to differentiate between different qualities possessed by different individual
members and also the communities which bind them.

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(b) During his interaction with both physical and social neighbourhood, he learns about
the various ways of making a living, different types of occupations and the role of physical
environment in providing facilities for adopt on of these occupations. He becomes familiar
with the process of interdependence in the locality/ village and the neighbourhood among
the different sections of the group. He also visualises the ways and means in which the
village solidarity is maintained. He also learns to act and behave in conformity to the
different groups to which he belongs and also to their norms and values. He acquires
insight into the behaviour of others and in this process, he develops an understanding of
his own self. Here, the process of socialization inculcates discipline, orderly behaviour,
and furnishes skills.

3. School / Institution: (a) Schools and educational institutions are important agents of
socialization. They provide learning situations and environment to the child which impart
discipline and inculcate certain qualities which enable him to develop his personality. This
way he learns to discover his own needs and needs of the group to which he belongs.
Thus, he learns to conform to the norms set by the school and other institutions.

(b) Education plays an important role in the development of the human behaviour. After
family, it is the class room, the peer group, and the teachers who exercise influence on a
child. Education gives moral, intellectual and social insight to the individual. It links one to
one’s heritage and sets a perspective before him.

(c) The norms rooted in these institutions provide standards of behaviour and are
regulatory in character. They condition our social action. Violation of the norms may lead
to social ridicule, boycott and even more severe punishment.

4. Society: We live in society. All our actions and behaviour are governed by different
rules and regulations. No one can act independently with complete disregard to society
and social patterns of life. The action and behaviour should commensurate with traditions,
customs and norms and values prescribed by the society. If individuals living in a society
follow the norms as are applicable and act strictly in accordance with that they are
rewarded, else they are punished for this deviant behaviour.

5. Reward and Punishment: (a) The process of socialization also involves reward and
punishment for the better performance and reinforcement of competitive sense in the
child. Reward and punishment operate as important agents of socialization. In their
operation, there is a basic difference and they serve different purposes. Man is a cultured
animal and communicates largely through symbols. If possible, human beings are likely to
use symbolic sanctions resorting to other types of sanction only if the symbolic approach
fails. Thus, pointing to the rod at first may serve a better purpose than using it; similarly,
an appreciative smile may at times serve purposes more than the reward.

(b) Punishment is used mostly as a principal form of social control and against those who
disturb the order. Reward and punishment both have a but variant and different.

Q.4. Explain the basic elements of Socialization with illustrations. (Most Imp.)

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Ans. Elements of Socialization:

(i) Communication is one of the basic elements of socialization. It is through the

communication skills that a child learns to communicate his feelings and emotions to
others. It is through the process of communication that learning occurs.

(ii) Role identification and role performance are the other elements of socialization.
Socialization enables the child to perform certain social roles effectively. Thus, it
influences the social behaviour of the child to perform his role in consonance with the
approved social norms and values laid down by the society.

(iii) Culture is the the an element of socialization, which is passed on from one generation
to the next. An organised society is built up by means of social organisation and is
transmitted from one generation to another by the process of learning. The values of a
society and the ways of doing and thinking that are considered right and proper are learnt
by the young child. Socialization constitutes these learning processes.

Q.5. Socialization plays an important role in personality development of an

individual. Discuss. (Most Imp.)

Ans. Role of Socialization in Personality Development of an Individual:

(i) It is a common belief that most of the personality traits are acquired by the child during
the age of 3 to 8 years. It is the most crucial period in the life of an individual as the
foundations for character and personality are laid down during this period. It has already
been discussed that the child internalizes the affection and love, emotions and sentiments
and the various roles played during his growth by the mother, father and siblings.

(ii) A role is set of socially expected behaviour and for every role, there is corresponding
status and set of rights and duties. The “experience” role centered round affection and
“instrumental” role organised around discipline and the provision of livelihood or earner of
bread are internalized by the child in his role performance.

(iii) In course of games, the boy plays the role of the head of the family having a job which
takes him to work in the morning and returns home in the evening as his father does.
Similarly, a girl performs the role of her mother.

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(iv) The number and nature of roles with which the growing child becomes familiar
increases further when he plays with his siblings and other family members and goes to
the school. His role is identified by his nature and the extent of his participation in the
family and the school including peer groups, teachers, headmasters, community
members, villagers, and so on. He comes across various practices and occupations of
the family and of others in the village and community.

(v) Due to his association with the occupation of his father, he learns about the different
stages of that particular occupation. He acquires different skills and basic ideologies and
principles related to that occupation. He assists his father and aims to become an
effective and efficient worker. In this way, he becomes a responsible member of the
family, community, society and nation while performing different roles expected of him at
different levels and situations.

(vi) Childhood socialization plays a prime role. If a child socializes, he will be able to
identify different roles expected of him and will also be instrumental in performing the
expected roles.

(vii) In the process of role taking, the person develops a concept of individual and
personal identity, ego and self learns to introspect. He establishes his own identity and
image, position and status as a member of the family, community and society.

(viii) It is evident from above that socialization provides learning opportunities to young
children which helps them to identify their cultural and social roles and ways to perform
these roles. The role performance by growing child reflects the human behaviour in
conformity to and in consonance with the approved norms of the group and society.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 20 Social Control
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-20

Social Control

Chapter: 20

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.1

Write answer in one sentence:

Q.1. Define social control.

Ans. Social Control is the way society con-trols individual behaviour, either through norms
and practices or through the state and its coercive power.

Q.2. What are the two ways in which individual control can be regulated?

Ans. (a) By adhering to established social and values. and

(b) By the use of force.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.2

Answer in True or False:

(a) Social control is essential to maintain the old social order. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(b) There is no need for social control in modern times. (True/False)

Ans. False.

(c) The purpose of social control is to regulate the interests of individual and the
group. (True/ False)

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.3

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the bracket:

(a) In primary groups relationship are ……………… (intimate, formal).

Ans. Intimate.

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(b) Formal means of social control are enforced by ……………… (clan, state,
family).

Ans. State.

(c) Informal social control is maintained by ……………….. (law, customs).

Ans. Customs.

(d) Positive sanctions include a ………………. (frown, smile).

Ans. Smile.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.4

Q.1. Answer in one sentence:

(a) What are folkways?

Ans. Folkways are norms individuals conform to in every society.

(b) What are mores?

Ans. Mores refer to moral conduct as different from the customary practices of folkways.

(c) Define customs.

Ans. Customs are the long established practices of people.

(d) Define religion.

Ans. Religion is the unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.5

Answer in one sentence.

(a) Why do we obey laws?

Ans. (i) Fear of punishment.

(ii) Rule conforming habit.

(b) Mention two sources of law.

Ans. (i) Customs.

(ii) Religion.

(iii) Legislation.

(c) What do you understand by the term government?

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Ans. Government comprises all agencies and functionaries through which the state
functions.

(d) Distinguish between laws and customs.

Ans. (i) Customs are specific to groups and clans while laws have a more general nature.

(ii) Customs are respected since they have the sanction of tradition and social approval of
the group while laws are obeyed since they have a coercive character.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.6

Q.1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Family plays a …………….. role in a child’s development.

Ans. Crucial.

(b) In cities, the socialisation function of the family is complemented by

……………….. institutions.

Ans. Secondary.

(c) In urban centers, an individual derives his social status primarily from his
………………… .

Ans. Achievements.

Answer in one sentence.

Q.2. What is public opinion?

Ans. Public opinion is the aggregate of views that individuals hold regarding matters that
affect the interests of community.

Q.3. What are the important agencies of public opinion?

Ans. Agencies of public opinion include newspapers, radio, television, motion pictures,
legislation, pamphlets and even the word of mouth.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What is social control? Why do we need social control? (Most Imp.)

Ans. I. Meaning of Social Control: For the smooth functioning of any society, it is
essential that its members conduct themselves in a manner that is acceptable to other
members of that society. Our behaviour in every day life is quite orderly and disciplined.
We normally do not wish to antagonise (oppose) people we interact with, we do try to
stick to various rules and to observe discipline in schools etc. These who do not obey
these norms of society are criticized or looked down upon.

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Social control is a general method of regulating the behaviour of individuals in a society
through accepted social norms. It is a way to channelize the behaviour of individuals in
society that they conform to the accepted code of conduct. Social control is defined as
“the way in which the entire social order coheres and maintains itself operates as a
whole, as a changing equilibrium”.

This SOCIAL CONTROL refers to the way society controls our behaviour, either through
norms and practices or through the state and its compelling force. The regulation of
behaviour in Society, whether of individuals or of groups is undertaken in two ways-

(a) By adhering to established norms and values of society. and

(b) By the used of force.

The term “social control” is generally used by Sociology to refer to this first kind of
regulation.

II. Need of Social Control: Need of Social Control has been recognised by all social
thinkers.

Individuals differ in their interests and capabilities. If each individual is allowed

unrestricted freedom to act and behave, it may lead to anarchy and disorder in the
society. The resultant conflicts, frequent and persistent, would be a constant drain on
society’s energy and efficiency.

As an analogy, we could consider traffic movement on roads in the absence of any traffic
rules and traffic signals, etc. It is easy to imagine the chaos that would rule the roads and
the unending traffic jams that would follow.

The situation in society would be no different if there was no accepted mode of behaviour.
Individuals, therefore, have to be made to coexist in a manner that benefits them as well
as the groups they comprise of social control becomes a necessity for the following
reasons:

(i) To maintain the old order – For continuity and uniformity of a social group, it is
important that the old social order is maintained. This function is fulfilled by the family. The
old members of the family initiate and socialise the young ones into their traditions, value
patterns and accepted forms of behaviour.

(ii) To regulate individual behaviour – Individuals vary in their ideas, interests, attitudes
and habits, etc. Even children of the same parents think and behave differently. Thus their
behaviour needs to be regulated in accordance with the established norms which would
lead to uniformity and solidarity of the group.

(iii) To check cultural maladjustment – Society is changing at a rapid pace. The

changes threaten to uproot the existing social system and replace it with a new system.
There is a need for greater social control in order to distinguish between good and bad
and to retain one’s sense of balance and judgement.

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Q.2. Distinguish between ‘informal’ and ‘formal’ means of social control.

Ans. Sociologists have classified the mechanisms of social control into:

(a) The informal means of social control and

(b) The formal means of social control.

Informal Means of Social Control

In primary groups, the relationships are close, direct and intimate. Social control is often
maintained by informal mechanisms, i.e, customs, traditions, folkways, mores and
religion. These are adopted means by informal groups.

Informal mechanisms of social control include established and accepted institutions

relating of socialization, education, family, marriage and religion etc.

It is executed through informal sanctions, which may be positive or negative. Positive

sanctions include smile, a nod of approval, rewards and promotion, etc. For instance,
Good performance in an examination may be rewarded with a bicycle or a watch by the
parents.

Negative sanctions include a frown, criticism, physical threats and punishments. The
unruly behaviour in school may result in detention or severe punishment is an example of
negative sanction.

Formal Means of Social Control:

The formal means of social control come from institutions like the state, law, education,
and those that have legitimate power. The apply coercion in case of deviance. For
instance, a person convicted of having stolen someone’s property may be sentenced to
imprisonment. In other words, these institutions exercise the legal power to control the
behaviour of the individual and the group. We shall now deal with the various forms of
informal and formal means of social control.

Q.3. How do folkways and mores help in social control? (Most Imp.)

Ans. 1. Folkways: Folkways are norms to which individuals conform. It is customary to

do so. Conformity to folkways is not enforced by law or an other agency of the society. It
is the informal acceptance of established practice in each group or society. Folkways are
manifested in matters of dress, for habits, observance of rituals, forms of worship and
method of greeting etc. For instance, the food habits in North and South India are
different and the habits persist even when the person has moved to a different location
from his earlier surroundings.

2. Mores: Mores refer to moral conduct as distinct from the custom practice of folkways.
They influence the value system of a society and are the form of social regulations which
aim to maintain social order. Mores to regulate the relationship between individuals in

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defined situations, e.g. between husband and wife, parents and children and siblings, etc.
They may also to general social relationships in terms of honesty, truthfulness, hardwork
a discipline, etc. Since mores are consciously designed and created with a view to
preserve them. Violations of these often entail penalties. They are perhaps the strongest
mechanisms of informal social control.

Q.4. Examine the role of religion in Social Control.(Very Imp).

Ans. Religion: Religion exercise a powerful influence its adherents. Emile Durkheim
defines religion as the unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things.
Those who have common beliefs and practices are united into one single moral
community through religion. Religion occupies a significant place in the life of an
individual and fulfills the spiritual, social and psychological needs of an individual.

Religion helps in the process of social control in the following ways:

(a) Every religion has the concept of sin and virtue. Since early childhood individuals are
exposed to these concepts and to the notions of good and bad. These become ingrained
in the individual’s personality and guide his decision making during his life.

(b) Religious conventions and practice determine marriage, mutual relations among
family members, property relations, rules of succession and inheritance, etc.

(c) Religious leaders regulate the behaviour of individuals by exhorting them to follow a
prescribed code of conduct.

(d) By organising community activities, prayer meetings and by celebrating religious

events and festivals, religious institutions too contribute to this process by bringing
believers together and strengthening the common belief systems thereby, regulating
individual behaviour.

Q.5. Distinguish between law and customs. (Most Imp.)

Ans. It may be noted that laws are different from customs in the following ways:

(i) Law has a coercive character. Therefore, it compels people to act in a particular way
Customs, on the other hand, are respected and practised because of the sanctity of
traditions and social approval associated with them.

(ii) Customs are specific to groups and clans while laws have a more general and
universal nature.

(iii) Breach of law entails punishment by the state while disregard of customs is frowned
upon by the society and only in an extreme case may result in ostracism.

(iv) Laws are a more recent phenomenon associated with the growth of the state and its
institutions. While customs existed in one form or another at all times and in all societies.

Q.6. Highlight the role of state in maintaining social control. (Imp.)

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Ans. The Role of State in maintaining social control:

(i) State has a vital role in administering social control. Sociologists have defined the state
as “an association designed primarily to maintain order and security, exercising universal
jurisdiction within territorial boundaries, by means of law backed by force and recognized
as having sovereign authority”.

(ii) State functions through the government. Modern nation states strive to be welfare
states, i.e., they seek to provide to the citizens a wide range of social services like
education, medical care, old age pension and unemployment allowance. These are
achieved by means of the co-operation of individuals and through collective efforts of the
media, the NGOs and other social institutions. For example, the pulse polio programmes
of the government are extensively supported by the use of television, posters, NGOs and
educational institutions, all of which try to educate the public on the advantages of the
government measures. In the above mentioned context, the state acts as an informal
agency of social control, eschewing coercion.

(iii) However, certain functions, like. maintenance of law and order, defence, foreign
relations and currency, require the state to intervene in a formal and sometimes in a
coercive manner.

(iv) India has a federal polity and government manifests itself at various levels-village,
block, district, state and at the national level. At all these levels, its functionaries can
enforce rules and laws. In modern societies, state has become increasingly important as
an agent of social control.

Q.7. How does education help social control?

Ans. Education as an agency or an agent helping in social control:

(i) Education has been an important agency of social control. It prepares the child for
social living and teaches him the values of discipline, cooperation. tolerance and
integration. Educational institutions at all levels, (i.e. school, college and university) impart
knowledge as well as ethics through formal structured courses as well as behavioural
inputs.

(ii) The different pace of the educational system in different societies, depends upon
changing social mores, level of development and social needs. Thus, in ancient Indian
society, the emphasis was on religious scriptures, philosophy and metaphysics. The focus
shifted as social development has resulted in an increased demand for knowledge in
other areas and managerial skills.

(iii) At schools, the ideas of democracy, secularism, equality and national goals are
communicated to students in addition to the emphasis on our shared history, culture,
heritage, norms and values. By inculcating the concepts of good moral behaviour,
morality, discipline and social etiquettes, the educational system serves its role as an
agent of formal social control.

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Q.8. What is the role of family and neighbourhood in social control? (Very Imp.)

Ans. I. The Role of family in social control:

(a) The family socialises the child into the norms, values, traditions and customs of the
group. Thus, family has a predominant role in shaping the personality of the child.

In villages, an individual gets his status from his family. The elders have a dominant role
in shaping the personality of the individual. This is manifested in the individual attitudes,
interests and lifestyle, etc. Marriages are mostly arranged by the elders and seen as an
alliance between families rather than between two individuals.

(b) In cities the family continues to play a predominant role in shaping an individual’s
personality. However, industrialisation, limited income and the paucity of space have
contributed to the prevalence to nuclear family. This is very different from what is
encountered in villages.

Hence, families tend to focus upon themselves. This results in an increased accent on
individualism as opposed to collectivism common in villages.

(c) The function of socialization that a family carries out is complemented by other
secondary institutions such a the classroom, playground, peer group and the media.
Unlike in a rural surrounding, the individual derives his social status partly from his family
but more importantly from his personal achievements.

(d) Parents and elders still largely arrange marriages in cities. However, the consent of
the boy and the girl is sought. Marriages outside caste and religion are also on increase.
Thus, we see that individual choice is becoming increasingly important.

(e) However, due to the absence of the strong family support on both sides, individual
disagreements are more likely to lead to separation and divorce as opposed to the rural
setting where the family network provides a readily available conflict resolution
mechanism.

II. Role of Neighbourhood in Social Control:

(a) Neighbourhood in villages comprises people normally belonging to the same kin group
or caste. Hence, relationships that exist are intimate and informal. Beyond the immediate
neighbourhood, the bonds are strong, as is evident from the fact that the son-in-law of a
family is regarded as the son-in-law of a much larger group, sometimes of the entire
village.

(b) In contrast, relationship between neighbours in the urban environment are

characterised formally. They are marked by intermittent interactions and hence are far
weaker than what is seen in the rural environment. In big cities, the ties of neighbourhood
are almost relegated to the backseat. This is hardly any interaction between neighbours.

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(c) Thus, the village neighbourhood is an enthusiastic participant in many daily activities
of a family. It thereby fulfills its role as a medium of social control. It ensures uniformity
and conformity and corrects deviant behaviour. For instance, in a village neighbours
would subject a son not looking after his aging parents to sharp disapproval and even
sarcasm.

(d) In cities, while not controlling individual behaviour so closely, individual actions that
affect community are monitored by the neighbours, e.g. a person throwing trash in the
open would be pulled up by his neighbours for spoiling the ambience of the
neighbourhood.

Q.9. Examine the role of public opinion in maintaining social control. (Very Imp.)

Ans. The Role of Public Opinion in Maintaining Social Control:

1. Public Opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate view that individuals hold
regarding matters that affect the interests of community.

2. Newspapers, radio, television, motion pictures, legislations, pamphlets and even the
word of mouth would public opinion.

3. Remote village communities, which do not have access to television and newspaper
rely on “gossip” for information about the happenings around them and to express their
opinion on these subjects. However, radio has increasingly become a important source to
obtain news about events in distant places. There are group readings of newspapers too.
Of late, television has also been introduced in the villages.

4. In independent India, the introduction of adult franchise, Panchayati Raj institutions and
planned development processes have all contributed to bringing villages in the
mainstream of Indian polity and economy.

5. In cities, the print and visual media play a dominant role in shaping public opinion. As
the audio visual medium is more powerful, television has slowly gained ascendance over
newspapers. However, newspapers continue to influence opinions among the educated
group.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 21 Social Deviance
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-21

Social Deviance

Chapter: 21

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.1

Q.1. Tick True and False for the following:

(i) Crime has social sanction. (True/False)

Ans. False.

(ii) Crime is anti-social behaviour. (True/ False)

Ans. True.

(iii) Crime is a means for the fulfillment of suppressed desire. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(iv) Crime results due to conflict between what society expects and what
individuals want. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(v) Criminals are not born, they are made. (True/False)

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.2

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the brackets:

(i) Truancy is such a behaviour which ……………… social sanction. (has / has not)

Ans. Has not.

(ii) Truants are involved in ……………… activities. (social/anti-social)

Ans. Anti-social.

(iii) Truancy is ……………… for education development. (harmless/harmful)

Ans. Harmful.

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(iv) Truancy …………….. the ground for vagrancy and delinquency. (builds
up/destroys)

Ans. Builds up.

(v) Truants ………………… school regularly. (attend/not attended)

Ans. Not attended.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.3

Q.1. Choose correct one from the following:

1. Vagrancy is related to

(a) Earning money.

(b) Attaining education.

(c) Enhancing position.

(d) Social disease.

Ans. (d) Social disease.

II. Vagrancy has

(a) Positive sanction.

(b) Support of administration.

(c) Favour of people.

(d) Negative sanction of society.

Ans. (d) Negative sanction of society.

III. Vagrants are involved in

(a) Upliftment of society.

(b) Development of education.

(c) Social reconstruction.

(d) Anti-social behaviour.

Ans. (d) Anti-social behaviour.

IV. Vagrants share

(a) Familial responsibility.

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(b) Social duties.

(c) Religious duties.

(d) Not responsibility in society.

Ans. (d) Not responsibility in society.

V. Vagrants survive on

(a) Child labour.

(b) Small work.

(c) Rag picking.

(d) Beggary and illegal tax collection.

Ans. (d) Beggary and illegal tax collection.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.4

Q.1. Tick Yes or No for the following:

(i) Juvenile delinquency is anti-social behaviour committed by children (Yes/No).

Ans. Yes.

(ii) From social view point juvenile delinquency is disobedience of norms and
values by children (Yes/No)

Ans. Yes.

(iii) From legal view point, juvenile delinquency is crime committed by children in
the eyes of law (Yes/No)

Ans. Yes.

(iv) Juvenile delinquents are rehabilitated and reformed (Yes/No)

Ans. Yes.

(v) No child is delinquent by birth (Yes/No)

Ans. Yes.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.5

Q. 1. Match the following:

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 A B

(a) Alcoholism is (a) personality, family and social disorganisation.

(b) Taking local bear is allowed (b) but the rich drink foreign made good quality of
liquor.

(c) Persons habituated of drinking (c) prevalent in almost every society.

liquor

(d) The poor drink low quality liquor (d) on social gathering, ceremonies and festivals.

(e) Alcoholism leads to (e) drunkenness

Ans.

A B

(a) Alcoholism is (c) prevalent in almost every society.

(b) Taking local bear is allowed (d) on social gathering, ceremonies and of
festivals.

(c) Persons habituated of drinking (e) drunkenness.

liquor

(d) The poor drink low quality liquor (b) but the rich drink foreign made good quality of
liquor.

(e) Alcoholism leads (a) personality, family and social disorganisation.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.6

Q.1. Match the following:

A B

(a) Drug application is (a) takes place on large scale in our

country.

(b) Tobacco, Ganja, Bhang, Charas and (b) are modern drugs.
Opium

(c) Heroine, Smack, Mendrex and L.S.D. (c) mental retard-ness.

(d) Smuggling of drugs (d) are traditional drugs.

(e) Drug addiction causes (e) habitual taking of drug.

Ans.

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 A B

(a) Drug application is (e) habitual taking of drug.

(b) Tobacco, Ganja, Bhang, Charas and (d) are traditional drugs.
opium

(c) Heroine, Smack, Mendrex and L.S.D. (b) are modern drugs.

(d) Smuggling of drugs (a) takes place on large scale in our

country.

(e) Drug addiction causes (c) mental retard-ness.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What is social deviance? (Most Imp.)

Ans. Social Deviance: The term social deviance includes those behaviours which do not
show conformity with norms and values of society. These behaviours are levelled as anti-
social and do not have social sanction.

Q.2. What do you mean by crime? Name five causes of crime. (Most Imp.)

Ans. I. Meaning: The behaviours which are not in accordance with norms, expectations
and values as well as law established by state are called crimes. These behaviours do
not have social sanction. They are labelled as anti-social.

II. Causes: Criminals are offenders of crime. Therefore, they are punished, crimes are
committed due to following causes:-

(i) Social causes.

(ii) Economic causes.

(iii) Political causes.

(iv) Religious causes.

(v) Natural. and

(vi) Psychological causes.

It is also related to population explosion, industrialisation and modernisation. In our

society, all castes do not enjoy equal status. At the time of division of property between
brothers, conflict develops between them. This may lead to crime. Unequal distribution of
resources is also related to criminal behaviour in society. There is criminalisation of
politics and politicisation of criminals and crimes. Communal riot is directly related to
different types of crime, like loot, dacoity, arson, murder and rape etc. Persons with
perverted personality fulfill their desire through crime. Abnormal individuals crime.

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Urbanisation, industrialisation and modernisation have given birth to loot, dacoity, murder
and sex crime. Study of pornographic books also prompts criminal behaviour. Corruption
in judicial and punishing agencies has increased the incidence of crime.

Q.3. What do you mean by truancy? Name five causes of truancy.

Ans. I. Meaning of Truancy: The behaviour which forces a child to leave school without
information to school and parents is called truancy. Truancy ultimately provides ground for
delinquency, gambling, alcoholism and drug addiction.

II. Causes of Truancy: Some major causes of truancy are poverty, low position in
society, poor family condition, unattractive looks, inferiority complex, quarrel with
classmates, bad association, improper behaviour of parents and teachers, inability of
understand and fear of examination etc.

Children of poor families think that they can not adjust with the children of rich families.
Such thinking develops inferiority complex and they start missing the school. Some
children fall in bad company. They leave school to see pictures, visit markets, and behave
like vagrants.

Q.4. What is Vagrancy? Name five causes of Vagrancy. (Very Imp.)

Ans. Meaning and causes of Vagrancy: Vagrancy is a social pathological behaviour

found in some children who wander here and there without any reason. They create
problems for other members of society by their anti-social behaviour.

In this behaviour, children wander here and there without any aim. They walk aimlessly
on roads. They pass vulgar remarks on passers-by, especially girls. They may abuse any
person without any reason. They can also come in conflict with any persons. They do not
have relations with their families. They do not have fear of being beaten, put in jail and
even death.

Causes:

(i) Wrong Nature: Vagrants do not share any responsibility for family, community and
society. Rather they create problems in the society by their abnormal behaviour. They are
a burden on society.

(ii) Habit of wandering: Vagrants are found in cinema hall, railway station, bus stand,
park, slum areas, market centres, school and college gates, vegetable market, crowdy
places, puja pandals, religious processións and political processions etc.

(iii) Lack of sources of Income: Vagrants do not have any direct source of income. They
survive on theft, dacoits, beggary, gambling, and prostitution, pick pocketing, and
extortion.

(iv) Vagrancy is attributed to family background, behaviour of parents, bad company,

caste system, low place in society and rude behaviour of kin, etc.

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Q.5. What is delinquency? Write its nature. Name five causes of delinquency.

Ans. I. Meaning: The crime committed by children is called juvenile delinquency. Juvenile
delinquency can be seen from social and legal view points. From the social viewpoints,
disrespect shown by a child towards norms, values, customs and traditions of the society
can be called juvenile delinquency. But from the legal view-point, breaking of laws
established by state by a child is called juvenile delinquency. Children involved in juvenile
delinquency are called. juvenile delinquents.

II. Nature: Juvenile delinquency is a social pathological behaviour in which a child

commits crime. It is a social disease which creates social disorganisation in the society.

Both crime and juvenile delinquency are anti-social behaviour. Both lead to social and
individual disturbance. There is a difference between the two concepts. Crime is
committed by adults whereas juvenile delinquency is committed by children. In our
country crime done by children in the age 7-17 years is called juvenile delinquency.
Juvenile delinquents are reformed and rehabilitated, whereas adult criminals are
punished.

III. Causes: 1. No child is delinquent by birth. But the behaviour of society makes him
delinquent. Ill-treatment by parents, step-parents, kin, neighbours and community
members makes a child delinquent. Poverty and lack of basic amenities also lead to
juvenile delinquency.

2. Denial of share in paternal property also makes a child delinquent. Misbehaviour of

class mates and teachers also cause juvenile delinquency. Physical deformity is also
responsible for the occurrence of juvenile delinquency. Industrialisation, urbanisation and
modernisation have enhanced the incidence of juvenile delinquency in our country.

Q.6. What is alcoholism? Name four evil effects of it.

Ans. I. Meaning of Alcoholism: Simple meaning of alcoholism is taking liquor as an

addict. Drinking is as old as civilization. There is hardly any country, community, or age in
which drinking does not prevail.

There are societies in which taking local beer is allowed, e.g., tribal societies. Tribals
prepare Haria (rice beer). Men, women and children share haria’ on festive and
ceremonial occasions. They also prepare Mahua liquor. In Hindu culture, men are allowed
to drink Bhang and Mahua liquor. Now-a-days, taking liquor on the occasion of marriage
ceremonies, parties gathering etc. has become a modern fashion. The poor drink toddy
and low quality liquor where as the rick drink foreign made good quality of wine like
whisky, rum and scotch. Drinking may be necessary for the people in cold regions. They
take liquor before dinner regularly. In army, foreign diplomacy, doctors, top lawyers,
industrialists and bureaucracy, taking liquor is accepted behaviour. Consumption of liquor
on festive ceremonies, festivals, marriage and party etc. is taken as symbol of status and
wealth.

7/8
II. Evil effects of Alcoholism:

(i) Alcoholism as social deviance does not have social sanction. It has negative sanctions
of society. It is taken as a bad habit which leads to personality disorganisation, family
disorganisation and social disorganisation.

(ii) When an individual becomes habituated to drinking liquor, he is called a drunkard. He

loses respect not only in his family but in the whole society.

(iii) He does not take care of his children. He beats his wife to get her ornaments. He sells
ornaments for drinking. They meet premature death.

(iv) They sell their land and property for it. They leave their children, wives and other
family members to their fate. Rather, they create problems of different kinds.

(v) Drunkards are also involved in theft, dacoity, loot, sex crime, manhandling, murder and
suicide.

Q.7. What is drug addiction? Name four evil effects of it.

Ans. I. Meaning of drug addiction: Habitual taking of drug is called drug addiction.
There are two types of drugs to which people of our country are addicted. These are-
traditional drug and modern drug. Tobacco, Ganja, Bhang, Charas and opium are
traditional drugs. Heroine morphemes, Hashish, Smack, mandrax and L.S.D. are modern
drugs.
II. Evil effects of drug addiction: Drug addiction is harmful in many ways. It makes a
person mentally weak. It also leads to premature death. It is responsible for personality,
family and social disorganisation. It also creates problems related to administration. There
has also been a close relation between drug addiction and crime. Drug addicted people
commit crimes like suicide, quarrel, sex crime and murder etc.

8/8
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 22 Society And
Environment
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-22

Society And Environment

Chapter: 22

MODULE 3: SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.1

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from brackets:

(i) The word environment is derived from ……………… word. [Latin, English,
French]

Ans. French.

(ii) Environment can be divided into …………….. types. [2, 4, 6, 7]

Ans. 2.

(iii) Physical environment contain ……………. [Biotic, abiotic, both the components]

Ans. Abiotic.

(iv) Biological components contains ………………. . [Biotic, abiotic, both the

components]

Ans. Biotic.

(v) The changing relationship between man and environment has been divided in
…………….. phases. [6, 8, 4, 5]

Ans. 4.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.2

Tick True (T) or False (F)

1. Biosphere is a life-supporting layer, which surrounds the earth. (T/F)

Ans. True.

2. The average thickness of the biosphere is about 50 km. (T/F)

Ans. False.

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3. Biosphere consists of territorial and aquatic biomes system. (T/F)

Ans. True.

4. Group of people living together on a certain territory form a community. (T/F)

Ans. True.

5. Environment is stable and dynamic. (T/F)

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 22.3

Tick True (T) or False (F)

1. Man has never interfered with environment. (T/F)

Ans. False.

2. Effects of environment on society are always positive. (T/F)

Ans. False.

3. Extreme events are not disastrous for human society. (T/F)

Ans. False.

4. Education must be broad based to create awareness. About environment effects.

(T/F)

Ans. True.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Write answer in about 100-250 words

Q.1. What is an environment?

Ans. An Environment: Environment is viewed in different ways and angles by different

groups of people and disciplines. It may be safely argued that environment is an
inseparable whole and is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and
cultural elements which are inter-linked individually as well as collectively in many ways.

Physical elements (space, landform, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals)
determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as its
limitations. Biological elements (plants, animals, microorganisms and man) constitute the
biosphere; cultural elements (economic, social and political) are essentially man-made
features, which go into the making of cultural milieu.

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The term ‘environment’ originates from the French word ‘environ’ or ‘environner’ meaning
‘around’, ’round-about’, ‘to surround’ or ‘to encompass’.

Q.2. Describe the stages of relationship between man and environment.

Ans. I. The stages of Relationship between man and environment: The changing
relationship of man with the environment from prehistoric to modern times can be divided
into the following four periods:

(a) Hunting and food gathering.

(b) Animal domestication and pastoralism.

(c) Plant domestication and agriculture.

II. A brief description of each stage is given below:

(a) Period of hunting and food gathering:

This period is related to the most primitive man when he bad been basically a part of
natural environment and was functionally as a ‘biological man’ or ‘physical man’ because
his basic requirements were limited to food and shelter. The natural environment satisfied
all his wants. The relationship between man and the environment was very friendly. Man
was leading a nomadic life. Then a stage came when he learnt to hunt animals. The
discovery of ‘fire’, which was accidental, taught man to cook animal flesh before eating.
So we can say that the discovery of fire and subsequently, invention of tools and weapons
made man capable of exploiting natural resources for his benefit.

(b) Period of Animal Domestication and Pastoralism: With the passage of time,
primitive man learnt to domesticate animals for his benefits. In the beginning, he might
have domesticated some milch/cattle and animals for meat and slowly his herd of
domesticated animals must have increased. Domestication of animals might have given
birth of group or community life among early people in order to protect their flock and
themselves from wild animals. They still stuck to nomadic way of life, as they had to move
from one place to other in search of water, food for themselves and fodder for animals.

(c) Period of Plant Domestication and Agriculture: Domestication of plants for food
became a hallmark in the development of human skills of taming and controlling the biotic
component of the natural environment system. Domestication of plants initiated primitive
type of agriculture and sedentary settled life of people who were nomads. Cultivation of
food crops resulted in the formation of social groups and organisations. Now man started
settling down in the river valleys due to availability of water and fertile land which came to
be known as ‘river-valley civilization’. From here onwards started the journey of man to
transform the natural environmental resources around him through improved farming
practices resulting in gradual increase in human population.

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(d) Period of Science, Technology and Industrialization: (i) The advancement of
industrial revolution in late nineteenth century and emergence of science and
development of sophisticated technology, embittered and friendly relationship between
man and his natural environment.

(ii) The impact of modern technology on natural environment is highly complex and
controversial. Highly advanced technologies and scientific techniques led to
indiscriminate exploitation of natural environment which have created most of the present
day environmental problems.

III. From the days of early primitive man till today, man has venerated nature in different
forms (trees, plants, animals, rivers, mountains etc.) Nature worship commands great
sancity in most of the communities.

Q.3. What is a biosphere? Name two subsystems of biosphere.

Ans. (i) The Biosphere: Biosphere is a life-supporting layer, which surrounds the earth
and makes plant and animal life possible without any protective device. It consists of all
the living organisms (the biotic component), energy (energy component) and physical
environment (abiotic component). There are continuous interactions between living
organisms and physical environment and also among the living organisms themselves.
The average thickness of the biosphere or life-supporting layer consists of air, water, soil
and rock is about 30 km.

(ii) Names of two sub-system of biosphere are:

(a) upper layer. and

(b) lower layer.

The upper limit of the biosphere is determined by the availability of oxygen, moisture,
temperature, and air pressure with increase in height in the atmosphere limits the upper
boundary of the biosphere. The lower limits of the biosphere are determined by the
availability of required amount of oxygen and light, which can sustain life. Thus, the depth
of the biosphere over the land is unto the depth of the deepest roots of the trees or the
depth unto which can live the borrowing organisms or the depth at which lie the parent
bedrocks. The biosphere extends unto greater depth in the oceans.

Q.4. What is a sociosphere?

Ans. Socio-Sphere: Man is social animal with the inbuilt instinct to be with his groups.
Since man is most communicative, his behavioural concerns relate to his fellow beings.
Thus man’s attitudes to life and value system are shaped by the size and quality of the
group to which he belongs.

Groups of people living together on a certain territory form a community. It comprises a

composition of species, a characteristic food network and energy flow pathway.
Communities thus form the living components of living components of ecosystem. Over

4/5
the time, species in each community carve out a special place for themselves.
Community is not stable but dynamic, changing regularly over time and space.

Q.5. Explain the effects of environment on human society.

Ans. Effects of Environment on Human Society:

(i) Effects of environment on human society has been emerging as a major challenge for
quite sometime. Development was for long associated with under exploitation of natural
resources. It was little realised that obsession with under exploitation may result in over-
exploitation.

(ii) We seemed to have believed that natural resources are inexhaustible. Environmental
process includes those physical processes, which operate on the surface of the earth
both internally and externally. Though man began to interfere with the natural processes
right from the beginning of sedentary life, it assumed greater in proportion after the
industrial revolution.

(iii) The impact of modern technology on environment is varied and highly complex as the
transformation or modification of our natural condition and process leads to a series of
changes in the biotic and abiotic components of natural environment process.

(iv) We have seen that man, equipped with modern technologies and advanced scientific
knowledge, has become an important factor in changing the environmental processes. It
has to be realized that disturbances in one of the elements of nature (i.e., air, water, land,
flora and fauna) gives rise to an imbalance in others. Natural processes or human factors
some times aggravate natural environmental process to cause disaster for human society
life (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, cyclones etc.)

(v) They result in heavy loss of life and property. Environmental hazards for human health
are as follows:

(i) Air pollution causes respiratory diseases.

(ii) Water pollution causes enteric diseases.

(iii) Solid waste pollution causes vector-borne diseases.

(iv) Toxic waste causes cancer and neurological disorders.

5/5
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 23 Indian Social
Thinkers
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-23

Indian Social Thinkers

Chapter: 23

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.1

Q.1. Fill in the blanks:

1. The beginnings of social thoughts in India may be traced to the ……………….

civilization.

Ans. Mohenjodaro.

2. The religious books of the Aryans are collectively known as the ……………….. .

Ans. Hinduism or Vedas (or the Vedic Literature).

3. The term yajna means ‘…………………’ .

Ans. Sacrifice.

4. The basic features of Hinduism flow from the works called the …………………. .

Ans. Upanishads.

5. The founder of Buddhism was born in a ………………. family.

Ans. Royal.

6. ……………… was born in Vaishali.

Ans. Vardhamana Mahavir.

7. The term ……………. is used for the twenty four teachers of Jainism.

Ans. Tirthankara.

8. The concept of non-violence in known as …………… .

Ans. Ahimsa.

9. ChaturVarna means the division of Hindu society into ……………….. .

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Ans. Four puranas.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.2

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word or words:

1. The Code of Manu is called ……………….. .

Ans. (i) Manu-smriti, Manava-dharmashastra, and Manu-smriti.

2. There are ……………… verses in Manu-smriti.

Ans. Jainism.

3. The last asrama is called …………………. .

Ans. Digambara, Svetambara.

4. The ………………. was entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that the
social system continued without problems.

Ans. Emperor Ashoka.

5. The earliest systematic treatise in the science of politics is written by

………………….. .

Ans. Saivism deals with the worship of Shiva.

6. The other names of Kautilya were ……………. and ………………. .

Ans. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Islam.

7. Kautilya was the chief architect of ………………. administration.

Ans. Parsis.

8. Arthashastra is divided into ……………… books.

Ans. End of seventh century, 712 A. D.

9. Because economy is an integral aspect of the state administration, therefore

some scholoars say that Arthashastra is a text in ………………. .

Ans. Ashoka.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.3

Q.1. Write the answer in one sentence:

(i) Name the six systems of philosophy that accepted the authority of Vedas.

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Ans. (a) Nyaya (न्याय).

(b) Vaisheshik (वैशेषिक).

(c) Mimsa (मीमांसा).

(d) Vedant (वेदान्त).

(e) Sankhya (सांख्य).

(f) Yoga (योग).

(ii) To which religion did Emperor Chandragupta Maurya lend his support?

Ans. Jainism.

(iii) Names the two sects of Jainism.

Ans. (a) Digambara.

(b) Svetambara.

(iv) Who was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya?

Ans. Emperor Ashoka.

(v) What do you understand by the term Saivism?

Ans. The workship and devotion of Shiva.

(vi) Name the emperor under whose patronage Buddhism flourished in India.

Ans. Ashoka.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.4

Q.1. Which of the following statements is true or false. Write T after the statement
that is true and F after the statement that is false.

1. Vaisnava teachers ignored caste distinctions.

Ans. True.

2. Ramananda’s disciples came from higher castes only.

Ans. False.

3. Dadu was from the priestly caste.

Ans. False.

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4. Guru Nanak is regarded as the founder of a religion that has come to be known
as Sikhism.

Ans. True.

5. Dharmadasa was a disciple of Swami Ramakrishna Paramhamsa.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.5

Answer each of the following question in one sentence:

1. What is the meaning of the term Buddha?

Ans. The meaning of the term Buddha is enlightened.

2. Whose teachings comprise the body of Buddhism?

Ans. Siddhartha Gautam’s teachings are comprised the body of Buddhism.

3. Give the principles of the Eightfold Path and Buddhist should follow.

Ans. The principles of the Eightfold Path that Buddhist should follow are:

(i) Right views.

(ii) Right attitude.

(iii) Right speech.

(iv) Right conduct.

(v) Right means of livelihood.

(vi) Right efforts or purpose.

(vii) Right mind control, and

(viii) Right meditation.

4. To which century did Kabir belong?

Ans. Fifteenth century.

5. Who was Kabir’s teacher?

Ans. Ramananda was Kabir’s teacher.

6. When was Guru Granth Sahib compiled?

Ans. Guru Granth Sahib was compiled in 1604.

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7. Who compiled Guru Granth Sahib?

Ans. Guru Arjun compiled Guru Granth Sahib.

8. In which town did Kabir die?

Ans. Kabir passed away in Magahav.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.6

Q. (✔) Tick mark the correct answer and (x) the wrong statement.

1. The worldly name of Swami Vivekananda was Narendranath Dutta.

Ans. (✔) correct.

2. Swami Vivekananda was a Brahmin by birth.

Ans. (x) wrong.

3. Swami Vivekananda did not accept an idea unless there was a proof for it.

Ans. (✔) correct.

4. Ramakrishna Paramhamsa gave the idea of muscular Hinduism’.

Ans. (x) wrong.

5. Keshub Chandra Sen founded the Theosophical Society.

Ans. (x) wrong.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Who was the founder of Buddhism? What are the four noble truths of
Buddhism? Describe it. (M. Imp.)

Ans. I. Gautam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism.

II. The four noble truths of Buddhism are:

(i) Life is suffering.

(ii) The cause of sufferings rests in desires (trishna, lobha), the emotions of attachment
(moha), and ignorance (avidya).

(iii) As the desires cause jealousy, anger, and hatred, thus yielding sorrow, their
elimination is a necessary condition for salvation.

(iv) Therefore, one should follow the path leading to the state of desirelessness, because
it is the only way to happiness (sukh), which is liberation.

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Q.2. Which religions came from outside? Describe them in your own words.

Ans. (i) Christianity.

(ii) Zoroastrianism. and

(iii) Islam, came from outside.

Christian communities were present in

India as early as second century A. D.

The followers of Zoroastrianism called Parsis were in India from the tenth century A.
D.

Islam entered from Arabia in eighth century in India.

Q.3. With which ideas does Manu-Smriti deal with? Discuss.

Ans. Manu’s work, the Code of Manu, as it is called in English, is known as Manu-smriti,
Manava-dharmashastra, and Manu-samhita. The present text possibly took its form
during the Brahmanic revival in the first century B.C.

Manu-smriti consists of 2,685 verses. It is divided into twelve books. The first book carries
an introductory section on creation. The second book gives the sources of law. It
describes the first of the four ‘vocations’ (asrama) of life, i.e., of the ‘celibate-student’
(brahamachari), and gives an account of his duties. The third and fourth books deal with
the second asrama, i.e. of the householder (grahasta), and the duties that should be
followed. The occupations of the householder are also detailed out here. The fifth book
describes the rules concerning women. The sixth book deals with the last two asrama,
namely of forest dwelling (vanaprastha) and renunciation (samnyasa). Books seven,
eight, and nine are concerned with the legal system, the sources of law, general political
rules, duties of kings, civil and criminal laws, and domestic laws. The tenth book pertains
to the origin, development, and rules of caste. It describes rules for the merchant caste
(Vaishya), the menial caste (Sudra), and mixed castes. The general laws of morality, the
nature of good and evil, gifts and sacrifice, and sins are the subject matter of the eleventh
book.

The last book comprising Manu-smriti takes up for discussion the future consequences of
good and bad actions, the nature of the soul, the concept of release from the cycle of
birth and death (called moksa), and the theory of re-birth.

Q.4. What does Kautalya’s Arthashastra tell? Describe in your own words. (V. Imp.)

Ans. (a) Arthashastra is divided into fifteen books. Books I to V deal with tantra. These
books deal with the discipline and training of the king, his duties, the exercise of coercive
authority (danda), bureaucratic set up, duties and responsibilities of the heads of various
departments, hierarchy of officials, revenue accounts, civil and criminal laws, suppression

6/9
of anti-social elements and payment of officials, etc. Books VI to XIV deal with drapa.
Characteristics of the state; foreign policy; dangers and calamities that may befall the
king; natural disasters, such as drought and flood, military campaigns and employment of
secret agencies against enemies, are the issues discussed in these books. The last book
of Arthashastra contains a glossary of the technical terms used in the science of politics.

(b) Arthashastra is concerned with politics (raja-niti), political philosophy (raja-dharma),

and the laws of punishment (danda-niti). But, an important observation is that
Arthashastra economic aspects as an integral part of the state and social relations.
Because of this, some experts say that Arthashastra is a text in political economy. One of
the principal duties of the king is to manage the wealth of the state. The word artha has
come to refer to economy and the financial aspects of the state.

(c) Commentators on Arthashastra also say that Kautilya gave almost unlimited powers to
the state. For him, each king should be considered as a potential world conqueror
(chakravarti). The government regulated the economic life of the country. All the important
industrial enterprises were the property of the state, which also owned mines, fisheries,
farms, forests, fields and shipyards etc. The state should work directly with the labour of
criminals and slaves. The enterprises could also be given to the contractors for running.
Police secret agents and spies infiltrated all walks of life. Punishment was the order of the
day. Punishment of criminals was rigorous.

Q.5. Why did Kabir become an ideal for lower classes? Discuss.

Ans. Because of his attacks on holy men, Kabir became an ideal of the downtrodden
people. He was regarded as a great mystic, whose ideas cut across different religious
groups and faiths. When Kabir was dying in a small town called Maghar (near Gorakhpur,
Uttar Pradesh), his Hindu and Muslim followers wanted to take his body for a funeral in
accordance with their religion. So, the story goes; Kabir retired in a tent and died, and his
body also disappeared. Instead, that place had a heap of flowers, which was divided into
two. The Muslims buried their share of flowers of Magahar, whereas the Hindus cremated
their share at Kabir Chaura Math in Banaras. Today, members of both communities
respect him as the messenger of truth, despite his views in favour of a universal religion.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the name of the oldest civilization of India (or of the Indian sub-
continent).

Ans. The Indus Valley Civilization.

Q.2. Write the estimates period of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ans. 3000-2000 B.C.

7/9
Q.3. Write the name of one famous city of the Indus Valley Civilization and its age
of building.

Ans. Mohenjo-daro, About five thousand years ago.

Q.4. Write the names of all four Vedas.

Ans. (i) Rigveda.

(ii) Yajurveda.

(iii) Samveda. and

(iv) Atharvaveda.

Q.5. Write the names of any five famous Indian thickness.

Ans. (i) Kautilya or Chanakya.

(ii) Manu.

(iii) Gautam Buddha.

(iv) Vardhman Mahavir.

(v) Vivekananda.

Q.6. Whose contributions have make to the Indian social thoughts?

Ans. The contributions that Manu, Chanakya, Buddha, Kabir and Vivekananda have
made to the Indian social thoughts.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write short paragraph to make clear the meaning of the concept “The age of
rethinking”.

Ans. The age of rethinking: The period that followed the early Upanishads saw the
emergence of belief in a personal god to be worshipped with devotion (bhakti). This view
was opposed to the one of an impersonal God (brahma) to be realized through meditation
and knowledge. This age also saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

Q.2. Who was Gautam Buddha? Write a few lines about him.

Ans. Gautam Buddha: He was the founder of Buddhism, was born in a royal family. He
lived for eighty years, dying in 487 B.C. He attained enlightenment (i.e., he became the
Buddha) at the age of thirty-five. During the years 532-487 B. C. he systematized the
fundamental principles of his thought, which came to be known as Buddhism.

8/9
Q.3. Who is usually regarded the founder of Jainism? Give a brief description about
him.

Ans. Vardhmana Mahavir, usually regarded as the founder of Jainism, was born in
Vaishali. He attained supreme knowledge at the age of forty-two. The effective period of
his religious life may be placed between 497 and 467 B.C. But Jainism claims to be much
older than this period. Jains believe that there were twenty-three ‘teachers’ (tirthankara)
before Mahavira, and Mahavira was the last tirthankara. Jains have a rich tradition of
tales woven around their twenty four tirthankaras.

Q.4. Write a short note on the “Resurgence of Brahmanism.

Ans. Resurgence of Brahmanism: Historians regard the fourth century AD. as an

important turning point in India. From that time, the Brahmanical religion (Hinduism)
gradually became dominant. Both Buddhism and Jainism declined. By the twelfth century
A.D., Buddhism had almost vanished from India, and Jainism was reduced to the position
of a local sect in western and southern India. With the decline of Buddhism and Jainism,
the Brahmanical religion gradually rose into prominence.

However, it was not homogeneous. It consisted of different sectarian groups, such as the
Saiva, Sakta, and Vaisnava. As we know, Saivism dealt with the worship of Shiva.
Saktism was concerned with the worship of the female counterpart of Shiva. Vaishnavism
was based on the cult of Vishnu and his incarnations.

Q.5. Write a short note on Sikhism.

Ans. Sikhism: The doctrine of one God was revived in the thoughts of Nanak (1469-
1539), who is regarded as the founder of what has later come to be known as Sikhism.
Nanak believed in the idea of one true God, without any name. He also believed that
there is no intermediate agency between God and his subjects (the people). It discredited
all rites and rituals as part of religion. There is no prophet. He put faith in one self-existent
creator, whose true nature can not be expressed in words. God can be comprehended
not by meditation but by faith and grace. Here, we trace the influence of the Bhakti cult on
his thoughts.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 24 Unity And
Diversity
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-24

July 15, 2023

Unity And Diversity

Chapter: 24

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24.1

Q.1. Answer in True or False

1. Indus Valley civilization is partly found in Bangladesh …………… .

Ans. False.

2. Highest number of Scheduled Caste is found in Uttar Pradesh ………………. .

Ans. True.

3. In India about 600 Scheduled Tribes are found …………… .

Ans. False.

4. Highest number of communities in India is found in Tamilnadu and Andhra

Pradesh ……………… .

Ans. True.

5. Indus Valley civilization script has already been read ………….. .

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24.2

Q.1. How many world religions are found in India?

Ans. Eight.

Q.2. Why Hindus are called a majority community?

Ans. 83% people in India are Hindu.

Q.3. How many languages are found in the eighth schedule of the constitution?

Ans. Eighteen.

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Q.4. How many Varnas are found in India?

Ans. Four.

Q.5. What is jajmani system?

Ans. Exchange of goods and services between various jatis.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24.3

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

1. The Indian rulers did not interfere in the …………… sphere (cultural, religious,
psychological).

Ans. Culture.

2. Ashoka conquered …………….. (Pataliputra, Kalinga, Vijay Nagar).

Ans. Kalinga.

3. The modern educational system in India has the impact of …………….. (Muslim,
British, French).

Ans. British.

4. The Chola, Chera and the Pandyas belong to ……………. part of India (South,
East, West, North).

Ans. South.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 24.4

Q.1. Match the following:

(i) Ajmer Sharif Lucknow

(ii) Imambara Orissa

(iii) Sindi Andhra Pradesh

(iv) Kanyakumari Rajasthan

(v) Puri Tamil Nadu

Ans. (i) Rajasthan.

(ii) Lucknow.

(iii) Andhra Pradesh.

(iv) Tamil Nadu.

2/7
(v) Orissa.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What is meant by unity in diversity?

Ans. Despite several diversities in term of religion, language, culture, caste, and
communities. India has maintained unity in the past, present as well as will continue to be
united in the future.

Q.2. Discuss the diversities found in India in terms of religion.

Ans. The Diversities found in India in terms of Religion:

(i) Religious diversities are found in India. There are eight major religious communities
found in India. Population Wise Hindus are found in majority i.e. about 83 per cent
followed by Muslims (11.8 per cent), Christians (2.6 per cent), Sikhs (2 per cent),
Buddhists (0.7 per cent), Jains (0.4 per cent), Zoroastrians (0.3 per cent) and Jews (0.1
per cent). Besides these eight religions, some tribal communities have their own religion.
They have their own deities and rituals. Out of the eight major religions, Hinduism,
Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism are indigenous religions, whereas Islam, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Jew came from outside India. All the eight religions are further
subdivided into different sects.

(ii) The Hindus worship a wide range of deities. Broadly, there are four types of
worshipers: Vaishnav (worshiper of Vishnu), Shaivite (worshiper of Shiva), Shakta
(worshiper of Shakti or mother Goddess in different attributes like Kali, Durga etc.) and
Smarta (worshiper of all the above three gods). Besides these, the cults of Gurus and
saints are widely prevalent among the Hindus (such as Shivanand, Chinmayanand,
Anandmayi etc.). Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj are also a part of Hinduism. In this
manner Hinduism provides a broad canvas for all types of believers.

(iii) Muslims are divided into two major groups i.e. Sunni and Shia, out of which Sunnis
are found in a majority in India.

(iv) are of two broad denominations: Catholics and Protestants; whereas Buddhism
has two divisions: Mahayana and Hinayana which are based on doctrinal differences.

(v) Jains are of two types: Digambara (unclothed) and Swetambara (white robed). Both
Buddhism and Jainism came into being as protest against and Brahminical supremacy
and the caste systems.

(vi) The Parsis and the Jews in India are very small communities. Parsis live mostly in
Maharashtra and Gujarat but have contributed largely into the industrial development of
the country (for instance Jamshedji Nasherbanji Tata, the founder of Tata Group of
Companies and the Godrej).

(vii) The Jews are mainly found in Maharashtra and Kerala.

3/7
(viii) Sikhism is based at Punjab. After partition, Sikhs have spread all over the country
and their generous tradition of Gurudwara and langar (free food to all) have become
panIndic today (Gurudwaras are found in almost all towns, cities and big villages
throughout India).

Q.3. Describe briefly the concept of melting pot.

Ans. After independence unity has been the main focus of the nation building process.
The idea of unity is attached to many concepts, out of which one of the “melting-pot.”

Melting pot indicates autonomous cultures jnktapoed in a particular area and have
autonomy but melt into a single national culture. In other words, they melt into a
composite whole in a “pot” that symbolizes the nation. It means different cultures sink
their differences and project a single identity, with a common language (this concept can
not be applied to the Indian situation where diversities persist.)

Q.4. Discuss the nature of co-existence of various communities with examples. (V.
Imp.)

Ans. Introduction India is a vast country, having a geographical area of 3287263 sq.km.
and a population of little more than one billion people. Based on the generous concept of
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the world is one family), we have a great cultural heritage. This
has accommodated and integrated many communities and their ways of life from time to
time.

(i) Human settlement in India had begun from early Stone Age and so far it has been the
homeland of many communities who have contributed to its rich cultural heritage. India
harboured a great civilization, popularly known as the Indus Valley Civilization, which
produced a continuum between rural and urban cultures. Further, India produced a
universally respected compendium (collection) of knowledge in the form of Vedas,
Upanishads and great epics. It provided a suitable atmosphere for a number of religion
and religious ideas to flourish, different languages to develop and diverse ideologies to
take root. India shelters many religions coming from outside its boundaries. All these,
over millennia, interacting with each other have produced a cultural fabric that is unique in
its characteristics and exclusively Indian in nature.

(ii) Diversity in India is found in terms of race, religion, language, caste and culture.
Sociologists say that Indian unity has been both politico-geographic and cultural in nature.
The diversities have remained, but simultaneously provided a mainstream culture. it is
estimated that there are 4635 communities found in India. Out of which 751 are
scheduled caste communities and 461 are scheduled tribe communities. The highest
number of Scheduled castes is found in Uttar Pradesh. Scheduled caste communities are
not found in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. Scheduled tribe communities are not found in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Goa and Pondicherry. There is tremendous diversity of communities in living
in all the states.

4/7
Q.5. How unity is maintained in India? (M. Imp.)

Ans. (i) Our society has been projected as a traditional society based on spiritualism,
giving less importance to materialistic growth. But this has been only the opinion of
others. Today things are changing fast and we are marching ahead towards a strong,
secular and modern nation. Undoubtedly the Hindu way of life with its tolerance and non-
violent attitude shaped the nation to its present form. There have been impact of many
external forces and religions like Islam, Christianity and Western society, but the Indian
way of life continues.

(ii) Today if we look at tradition, we find certain features are still continuing. They are
ritualized way of life, i.e. rituals are observed not in a rigid manner but in a flexible
manner. It is not only limited to the Hindu rituals but also extended to the rituals of other
communities. The secular doctrine can be found from the fact that all major rituals of all
religious have been declared as national holidays. Today Holi, Deepawali, Dussehra, Eid,
Eid-ul-zuha, Good Friday, Christmas Day, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Mahavir Jayanti and Budh
Poornima etc. are all occasions of celebrations for all of us. Even these can be compared
to Republic Day celebrations and Independence Day celebrations.

(iii) The point here is that any flexible and modern Indian is not bothered about the rigidity
in observance of ritual, but is more interested in enjoying it with the community.

(iv) Today India finds a place in the world in every aspect including dance, music, movies,
sports, philosophy and astrology etc. Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Odissi,
Manipuri, Mohini Attam, Kathak and many other folk dances like Bhangra and Garba, etc.
have become globalised phenomena.

(v) Yoga and transcendental meditation have a great appeal in the western countries. In
fact, Maharishi Yogi has built the first Vedic city in New York. Ayurveda, the science of life
and other types of herbal and aromatherapy has influence the world widely. Thus
retaining our Indianess we are marching ahead with a modern outlook.

(vi) Our modernity is not simply the imitation of the west but is an integration between the
indigenous tradition (like the emotional family bond, spiritualism, alternative medicine)
with the modern goal-oriented and rational outlook. As many as six Indians have received
Noble Prize. They are Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sir C. V. Raman, S. Chandrashekhar,
Mother Teresa, H. G. Khurana and Amartya Sen. Besides this, several Indians have won
Booker’s Prize and other International Awards.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Give one example from Indian history that efforts were made for promoting
unity in India. (V. Imp.)

5/7
Ans. The history shows that various kingdoms hae always promoted and maintained this
processes of unity by creating a rich architectural and cultural heritage.

Q.2. Give one example from contemporary India of unity in diversity.

Ans. Today our varieties of cultures and language maintain their identities within the all
India framework.

Q.3. “India is being recognized a promising country by the whole world.” Explain
the statement in one sentence.

Ans. The whole world has started recognizing the progress of India in various fields, not
by imitating the west but by retaining our Indianness.

Q.4. In which year India was divided? Write one of its major cause.

Ans. (i) 1947.

(ii) Communalism.

Q.5. Write the names of four Dhams.

Ans. (i) Badrinath in Uttara Khanda in north.

(ii) Dwarka is Gujarat in west.

(iii) Rameswaran in Tamil Nadu in south. and

(iv) Puri in Orissa in east.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. “In medieval times and later on Islam made its inroads into the Indian culture.”
Explain with examples.

Ans. (i) Later in the medieval times, Islam made inroads into the Indian culture. Bengal,
Lucknow and Hyderabad, besides many other places, provide testimony of integration of
Islamic cultures and traditions into the Indian culture.

(ii) Islam does not believe in idol workship. It is a monotheistic and non-hierarchical
religion. The impact of Islam on Hindu traditions has been analysed in three stages:

(a) During the Muslim rule.

(b) During the British rule upto 1930. and

(c) Between 1930-1947. In the first phase the Muslim rulers destroyed the Hindu temples
and tried to spread Islam and converted the Hindus. This was a period marked by conflict
and tension as well as some type of cultural adaptation. For e.g. Sufism influenced the

6/7
Hindus. Akbar’s Din-e-Ilahi was a mixture of many religions, which promoted national
integration.

(iii) During the British rule several reforms are found which largely influenced the Hindus.
Islam lost its liberal tendencies and gradually the Islamic tradition was highly polticized.

(iv) Ultimately in the third phase, i.e. during the fag end of freedom movement, sharp
divisions were drawn between the two religions, which gave rise to the birth of a separate
Islamic nation i.e. Pakistan.

Q.2. What was the impact of the British rule on Indian cultures during the modern
period of the Indian history? Discuss.

Ans. (i) In the modern period, British rule brought in the western culture into India.
Western institutions like banking system, administration, military organization and modern
medicine, etc. brought in several changes.

(ii) The western education system broadened the outlook particularly the rational and
secular spirits in the people. The western science and technology, transport and
communication influence the people to raise their style of life in terms of material
development.

(iii) A sense of entrepreneurship and development paved the way for India ot become an
industrialized nation. The democratic form of government, adult suffrage and human
rights, etc. gave India opportunities to face the challenges of the world.

(iv) In this manner through out ancient, medieval and modern times cultural unity was of
paramount importance.

Q.3. “Various religions have coexisted in India peacefully together for several
countries.” Prove the correctness of the statement with example.

Ans. (i) Various religions have coexisted in India peacefully for centuries together. Village
studies by prominent sociologists show that in village India the Muslims are a part of the
well-knit socio-economic system. The instance of Mool Dwarka can be cited here.
(ii) Example: In Mool Dwarka (in Gujarat), one of the four chief religious centres of
Hindus, five graves are found. The Muslim regard them as panch pirs (five saints) and
other green chadar (shawl) and the Hindus regard them as panch bir warriors) and offer
yellow chadar.

7/7
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 25 National
Integration: Concept And Challenge
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-25

National Integration: Concept And Challenge

Chapter: 25

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.1

Q.1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the bracket:

(i) A nation is a country with ……………. social and political structure (unified/un-
unified).

Ans. Unified.

(ii) The people of a nation have a ………….. belief of oneness

(common/uncommon).

Ans. Common.

(iii) National integration creates ……………. feeling (regional/national).

Ans. National.

(iv) National integration is a feeling of ……………. (unity within diversity/diversities

within unity).

Ans. unity within diversity.

(v) National integration is ……………. of communal out look by national out look
(taking up/giving up).

Ans. Giving up.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.2

Q.1. Write true or false for the following:

(i) Communalism means placing ones own community above the others.
(True/False)

Ans. True.

(ii) Muslims celebrate Id and observe Ramjan. (True/False)

1/6
Ans. True.

(iii) Easter is a festival of Christians. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(iv) In communal riots, we forget our national feelings and national identity.
(True/False)

Ans. True.

(v) We breed jealousy and hatred in communal riots. (True/False)

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.3

Q.1. Choose the correct one from the following:

(i) Lingual riots in Tamil Nadu had taken place in the year.

(a) 1963.

(b) 1964.

(c) 1965.

(d) None.

Ans. (b) 1964.

(ii) Lingual riots in Assam had occurred in the year.

(a) 1966.

(b) 1967.

(c) 1968.

(d) None.

Ans. (b) 1967.

(iii) The percentage of people speaking Hindi in our country is

(a) 41.0.

(b) 42.0.

(c) 42.9.

(d) None.

2/6
Ans. (b) 42.0.

(iv) Our Official Language is

(a) Urdu .

(b) Sanskrit.

(c) Hindi and English.

(d) None.

Ans. (c) Hindi and English.

(v) What de we breed in communal riots?

(a) Love.

(b) National loyalty.

(c) Hatred and Jealousy.

(d) None.

Ans. (c) Hatred and Jealousy.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.4

Answer each of the following question in one sentence.

Q.1. What is regionalism?

Ans. Regionalism is a strong feeling of unity among the people of a religion based on
language, culture and economic interests. It in encourageous the demand of regional
autonomy and creation of new states.

Q.2. How is regionalism a negative term?

Ans. It is a negative term because it promotes narrow feelings and encourages the
demand of regional autonomy and creation of new states (separate countries). This
demand is a great threat for national unity and integration.

Q.3. What does regionalism lay emphasis on?

Ans. I lays emphasis on regional language and regional autonomy.

Q.4. When were the three new states were created?

Ans. November 2000.

Q.5. In which state is the demand for the new Telangana state being raised?

3/6
Ans. Andhra Pradesh.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.5

Q. Match the following column A with B

A B

(i) National integration is (i) fuel to communalism.

(ii) Communalism, linguism and regionalism are (ii) the demand of autonomy.

(iii) Political and religious leaders add (iii) to their lingual identity.

(iv) Regionalism has sponsored (iv) negative terms.

(v) In linguism people attach more and more (v) feeling of unity within
importance diversity.

Ans.

A B

(i) National integration is (v) feeling of unity within diversity.

(ii) Communalism, linguism and regionalism are (iv) negative terms.

(iii) Political and religious leaders add (i) fuel to communalism.

(iv) Regionalism has sponsored (ii) the demand of regional

autonomy.

(v) In linguism people attach more and more (iii) to their lingual identity.
importance

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What do you mean by nation and national integration? (M. Imp.)

Ans. I. Meaning of Nation: Nation is a body of people sharing the sentiments of

belongingness.

II. Meaning of National Integration: National integration is feeling of oneness, which is

not imposed by any authority. Thought, feeling and action in this regard come from within.

Q.2. What is Communalism? Why is it a threat to National Integration? (M. Imp.)

Ans. I. Meaning: Communalism is placing ones own community above others’ even
above the nation.

II. Communalism as a threat to National Integration: It possesses a great Challenge to

national integration. It hunts the feelings of oneness and national identity.

4/6
In the wake of communal riots (e.g. 1946-47, at the time of partition of an counter, 1984
anti Sikhs riots, 1993 Mumbai Riots, 2002 Gujarat Riots etc.), we forget our national
identity and start behaving as fanatics. We breed hatred and jealously towards the people
of other religions. The people of religious group damage life and property of other
religions group. Both groups involved in communal forget their common national identity.
Just a feeling of hatred is there.

Q.3. What is linguism? In what way it is harmful to National Integration.

Ans. I. Meaning of Linguism: Linguism is excessive love and bias in favour of the
people who speak ones own language.

II. The way linguism is harmful to National Integration: (i) Like communalism, the term
linguism is used in a negative sense.

(ii) Linguism promotes narrow feelings among people and therefore it puts challenge to
national integration.

(iii) It hunts the feelings of oneness and national identity.

(iv) Whenever conflict occurs in our country over the relative status of language in a
province or in whole country, the parochial tendency destroys the feeling of national
integration. For example our country has witnessed linguale riots in Tamil Nadu in 1964
and in Assam 1967.

Q.4. What is regionalism? How is a challenge to National integration?

Ans. I. Meaning of Regionalism:

(i) Regionalism is a feeling of pride and loyalty that people belonging to a region have. It
is sometimes associated with a feeling of superiority of belonging to one region as
compared to those belonging to other regions.

(ii) Regionalism is a strong feeling of unity among the people of a region based on
language, culture and economic interests. It is encourageous the demand of regional
autonomy and creation of new states.

II. The way in which Regionalism poss a challenge to National Integration:

(i) Like communalism and linguism the narrow feelings of regionalism are also encourage
challenges to national unity and integration. Regionalism hunts the feelings of oneness
among the Indians and national identity among them.

(ii) Region is an area the inhabitants of which have a sense of unity on the basis of
language, culture and economic interests. Regionalism is regional loyalty in place of
national loyalty. Regionalism gives a negative feeling among the people of a region

5/6
towards the people of other regions. Regionalism encourages the demand of regional
autonomy. It also leads to the demand for the creation of new state. It favours the son of
soil theory.

Q.5. What promotes our National integration? (V. Imp.)

Ans. The following promote our National integration:

(i) A unified social and political structure.

(ii) The feeling of oneness among the people of the country. This feeling of oneness
should be built on the basis of common history, society, common values and culture.

(iii) The fealing of oneness is strengthened by economic and political interdependence.

The feeling of unity within diversity greatly promotes our national integration.

(iv) National identity is supreme. Cultural unity, Constitution, territorial continuity, common
economic problems, art, literature, national festivals, flag, national anthem and national
emblem etc. promote National Integration.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Why do you consider National integration as a positive brief?

Ans. I consider national integration as a positive belief because it helps in progress,

development and benefits of society and country.

Q.2. Write the names of three political things and symbols which make the whole
country one?

Ans. (i) Constitution of the country.

(ii) National Flag. and

(iii) National Anthem.

Q.3. Write the names of three phenomenons or narrow feelings which create
hinderances in the way of national integration.

Ans. (i) Regionalism.

(ii) Communalism. and

(iii) Linguism.

6/6
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 26 Indian Society:
Tribal, Rural And Urban
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-26

Indian Society: Tribal, Rural And Urban

Chapter: 26

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.1

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

(i) Tribal communities live mostly in …………… areas (hilly, urban, industrial).

Ans. Hilly.

(ii) Economy of the tribals is found at ………….. level (advanced, backward,

developing, primitive).

Ans. Backward.

(iii) Tribals have ……………. religion (their own, Hindu, Christian).

Ans. Their own.

(iv) Tribal society have ……………from of inequality (intensive, little, moderate).

Ans. Little.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.2

Write short answers:

(i) Name five major tribes of India.

Ans. (a) Gond.

(b) Bhil.

(c) Santhal.

(d) Mina.

(e) Oraon.

(ii) Name one major tribe who speaks the dravidian language.

1/9
Ans. Kond.

(iii) Where are the Onges found?

Ans. Andaman Island.

(iv) Name three tribes of Western region.

Ans. Mina, Rebari, Dang.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.3

Write short answers:

(i) What is the chief cause of land alienation among tribes?

Ans. Monentary economy is the chief cause of land alienation among tribes.

(ii) What is shifting cultivation?

Ans. Cultivating without plough in a terrace by clearing the plot is called shifting
cultivation.

(iii) Why the tribals have been interest in formal education?

Ans. The tribals have less interest in formal education because the syllabi and time is not
according to their culture and need.

(iv) What is the cause of bonded labour among the tribals?

Ans. Lack of money is the cause of bonded labour among the tribals.

INEXT QUESTIONS 26.4

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

(i) Rural areas are dominated by …………….. occupation (agricultural, industrial,

professional).

Ans. Agricultural.

(ii) Villages have …………… density of population (higher, lower, moderate).

Ans. Lower.

(iii) Village economy is ………….. (developed, less developed, primitive).

Ans. less developed.

(iv) Indian villages have ………….. system (caste, class, estate).

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Ans. Caste.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.5

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

(i) Urban societies have mostly ……………. occupation (agricultural, priestly, non-
agricultural).

Ans. Non -agricultural.

(ii) ……………. is the important feature of the urban societies (personal contact,
anonymity, kinship).

Ans. Anonymity.

(iii) Urban societies have …………….. economy (monetary, agricultural, barter).

Ans. Monetary.

(iv) In urban areas people have cultural …………… (homogeneity, heterogeneity,

pluralism).

Ans. Heterogeneity.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.6

Write short answers:

(i) What is the minimum population of a metro?

Ans. 10,00,000 (Ten Lacs).

(ii) Why some people in urban areas have mental problems?

Ans. Due to breaking down of primary group behaviour.

(iii) What is push factor of migration?

Ans. Poverty in villages pushes one to town in search of employment.

(iv) What is the cause of unemployment in urban areas?

Ans. Heavy population.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Why tribal societies are called simple societies? (V. Imp.)

3/9
Ans. Tribal societies are known as simple societies because their social relationships are
primarily based on family and kinship ties. Besides they do not have any rigid social
stratification.

Q.2. Describe the major tribal problems in India. (M. Imp.)

Ans. The Major Tribal Problems in India: There are several tribal problems, which are
as follows:

(i) Land alienation caused due to the introduction of monetary economy. For every
consumption need, the tribals needed money, but did not have any source of earning.
They mortgaged land or sold it off land. Besides, outsiders exploited them and grabbed
away their land. Further industrialisation also resulted into acquisition of land by the state.

(ii) Indebtedness cropped in case to lack of adequate sources of income. Private money-
leaders (like mahajan or sahukar) are readily available in tribal areas. They provided
personal loan on heavy rate of interest. The consumption patterns of the tribals include
regular consumption of liquor, bride price during marriage and fine for any deviant
behaviour. All these require money. Hence they go to the moneylender. In this manner
they are heavily in debt.

(iii) Bonded labour is a serious problem, which came in due to rampant poverty and lack
of stable income. In fact, land alienation, indebtedness; bonded labour and poverty are
interrelated problems.

(iv) Lack of money leads of taking loan from moneylender by mortgaging land. The tribal
community is unable to repay, hence serves as a bonded labourer.

(v) Shifting cultivation among tribal is a problem since it involves large-scale

deforestation. Shifting cultivation is known by various names such as Swidden (slash and
burn) cultivation, Jhum (in the North East Tribes), Khallu (among Maler of Bihar), and
Podu (among Khonds and Parajas of Orissa).

(vi) Illiteracy among tribals is a major hindrance towards their development. On account of
inaccessible habitat among tribals, education has not spread fast among them. The
school timings usually clash with the timings of economic and agricultural operations.

(vii) Problem of health and nutrition among the tribals has been found mainly due to lack
of proper medical and sanitary facilities and poverty. Their practice of indigenous
medicine and magical practices for treatments have been very good in the past. But today
things have changed considerably. Disease range between diarrhea, jaundice, small pox,
malaria, filaria to AIDS, heart ailments and hypertension etc. They require proper
treatment in well-equipped hospitals.

Q.3. What are the main criteria of urban area in India?

Ans. The main criteria of urban area in India:

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(i) Urban society includes the towns, cities and metros with a specificity of life.

(ii) An urban society can be defined as an area having higher density of population,
people engaging mostly in occupations other than agriculture and domestication of
animals having a distinct ecology and culture different from that of the large society’s
culture.

In India the urban area has the following characteristics:

(a) An area having some urban administrative unit like a Municipality, Metropolitan
Council, Notified Area Council or Cantonment Board, etc.

(b) An area having more than 10000 population.

(c) 75% of population engaging in non-agricultural occupation.

(d) Should have a density of 1000 persons per sq. mile.

(e) Having some urban amenities like an industrial area, a large housing settlement
having centre of entertainment and tourist importance or having some civic amenities.

Q.4. Describe briefly the changes that have taken place in rural society after
independence.

Ans. The changes which have taken place in India’s rural society after
independence (i.e. August 1947):

(i) After independence, the community development programme was started in 1952, It
meant an all round development of village communities. The involvement and
participation of community was the main aim.

(ii) Later on in 1959 Panchayati Raj (Local Self Govt.) was started. Both the programmes
are running successfully even today.

(iii) Integrated Rural Development Programme has replaced the Community Development
Programme in 1979.

(iv) The rural and urban societies have a continuous interaction among them. The villager
visits the urban areas and comes into contact with the urban people. Some urban culture
enters into the villages. Gradually some sense of heterogeneity becomes imminent in the
rural areas by urban influence.

(v) It is said that Indian cities have retained some of the rural characteristics. Primary food
and raw material are supplied by the villages to the towns, hence both have relationship
of an interdependence.

(vi) Thus it is termed as rural urban continuum (continuous interaction). Construction of

roads and transportation have brought about lot of social and economic changes e.g.
Caste System is weakening. Now, there is more mobility and it is becoming cash market

5/9
from barter system etc.

Q.5. Describe briefly urban society problems in India.

Ans. Urban Social Problems in India:

(i) Urban society has several social problems such as congestion of population, slums,
crime, and acute shortage of resources and facilities (such as water, electricity).

(ii) Certain problems emerge from anonymity in cities, where personal relation and
primary group have broken down. It causes tremendous mental pressure and tension.
That is way; psychological ailments are numerous in cities.

(iii) Because of large migration to cities unemployment is found in large number in the
urban areas. This happens due to push and pull factors. This cause a lot of frustration
among the people.

(iv) Push factor means that lack of employment in the villages pushes the villagers to the
towns in search of jobs. Pull factor means the relatives in the town invite their close
people and try to give them jobs. Besides, the entertainment aspect of urban life attracts
or pulls the people of the towns.

(v) The migrants in the cities do not have a respectable place to stay. They generally
settle down as clusters on the outskirts of the cities. These clusters grow into slums. Their
conditions deteriorate from bad to worse with the passage of time.

(vi) There is high incidence of crime in the cities. It is mainly found because of
unemployment, and frustration among the youth and also due to the large density of
population.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. In how many categories broadly the Indian society has been divided? Write
their means.

Ans. Broadly the Indian society has been divided into three categories.

Their names are:

(i) Tribal Society.

(ii) Rural Society. and

(iii) Urban Society.

Q.2. Write the names of three bases of the division of the broadly divisions of the
Indian Society.

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Ans. (i) On the basis of geographical surroundings.

(ii) On the basis of social characteristics. and

(ii) On the basis of cultural characteristics.

Q.3. Mention the broad features of rural societies of India.

Ans. (i) In India rural societies are village societies.

(ii) Rural societies are mainly based caste, attachment to the past. and

(iii) Rural societies are having agricultural economy.

Q.4. How many tribes are found in India? What is their population percentage?

Ans. There are about 461 tribes found in India distributed throughout the country. Their
population is about 8.1 crores according to the census 2001 of India (constituting to 8.1%
of total population).

Q.5. Explain the meaning of the Rural Society.

Ans. Rural society means society that lives in village, and is dependent on natural
environment. Rural economy rests predominantly on agriculture and allied activities.
These societies have a low density of population, intimate group relationships and have
oral traditions. Rural societies are rich in culture and tradition. However, from the
contemporary point of view, they are considered to be socio-economically less developed.
Therefore, several development activities have been undertaken in our country to
improve their socio-economic conditions.

Q.6. Make clear the meaning of the concept “Urban Society”. (Imp.)

Ans. Meaning of the concept: Urban society includes the towns, cities and metros with a
specific of life. An urban society can be defined as an area having higher density of
population, people engaging mostly in occupations other than agriculture and
domestication of animals, having a distinct ecology and culture different from that of the
large society’s culture.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Define a tribe. How it has been explained by the Anthropologists?

Ans. A tribe can be defined as a community living in hilly forest or well demarcated areas
having its own culture, religion, language, and strong ethnic identity. Anthropologists have
explained tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous in nature, with no
specialization of functions, ruled by tribal chiefs, hereditary or otherwise, united in
language or dialect, recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes, following tribal
traditions, beliefs and customs, conscious of their ethnic and territorial homogeneity.

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Q.2. Discuss the distribution of the tribal population of India, through a table
menting in a tabular form.

Ans. The tribal population of India’s distributions can be broadly divided into the following
five regions.

Region Major Tribes

North East, Sikkim and Naga, Mizo, Adi, Lepcha, Gaddi, Khasi, Garo, Jaintia, Raji,
Himalayas Bhotia, Tharu.

Western Seheria, Bhil, Girisia, Rebari, Dang, Mina, Worli.

Central Munda, Oraon, Santhal, Gond, Ho, Chenchu, Bhumij, Birhor,

Kondh, Saora, Poroja.

South Irula, Toda, Badaga, Paliyan, Cholanaicken.

Island Communities Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge Sentinnclose, Shompen,

Nicobarese.

Conclusion: Population-wise Gonds are found highest in number (about 8 lakhs),

followed by Bhils (about 7.5 lakhs), Santhal (about 5 lakhs), Mina (about 2.2 lakhs) and
Oraon (about 2 lakhs). The lowest number among them are the Jarawa (about 50),
Onges (about 100), Andamanese (about 150), and Arandan (about 250).

Q.3. Discuss briefly Linguistic classification among Tribes in India.

Ans. Linguistic Classification Among Tribes in India: Most of the tribal communities
speak non-Aryan language which are divided into four linguistic families: Austro-Asiatic,
Tibeto- Chinese, Dravidian and Indo-European.

Linguistic Family Major Tribal Languages

Austro-Asiatic Khasi, Nicobari, Santhali, Ho, Mundari

Tibeto-Chinese Bhotia, Lepcha, Abor, Miri, Dafla, Garo, Naga, Lushai

Dravidian Korwa, Badaga, Toda, Kota, Kui (by Kondh), Gondi, Maler, Oraon

Indo-European Hajong, Bhili.

Q.4. Mention major names of types of cities of India along with their nomenclature
along with the expected number or total of population.

Ans. Types of cities found in India:

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Nomenclature Population

1. Metro 10,00,000+

2. Class I City 1,00,000+

3. Class II Town 50,000+

4. Class III Town 20,000+

5. Class IV Town 10,000+

9/9
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 27 Caste System In
India
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-27

Caste System In India

Chapter: 27

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.1

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the brackets:

(i) Pucca food is prepared in ………….. ( leaves, water, ghee).

Ans. Ghee.

(ii) The occupation of Brahmins is …………….. (leatherwork, priesthood, business).

Ans. Priesthood.

(iii) Untouchables are today identified as ……………… (OBC, Savarana, Dalits).

Ans. Dalits.

(iv) Membership of caste is …………….. (hereditary, achieved, transferred).

Ans. Hereditary.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.2

Q.1. Match the following:

(i) Pan-Indic Jati

(ii) Achieved status Class

(iii) Untouchables Varna

(iv) Four Thousand Groups Dalit

Ans.

1/5
 (i) Pan-Indic Varna

(ii) Achieved status Class

(iii) Untouchables Dalit

(iv) Four Thousand Groups Jati

INTEXT QUESTIONS 27.3

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word from the brackets:

(i) Sanskritisation means ……………. caste becoming high caste (lower, middle,
upper).

Ans. Lower.

(ii) Westernisation means adapting to ……………. values (Japanese, Western,

Indian).

Ans. Western.

(iii) Modernisation means having a …………… outlook (traditional, conservative,

rational).

Ans. Rational.

(iv) A dominant caste has a …………….. population (large, small, very small).

Ans. Large.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What are the differences between Varna and Jati?

Ans. Difference Between Varna and Jati:

(i) The first mention of Varna is found in Rig-Veda, i.e. in the Vedic ear around 1500 BC.
Varna means colour. Initially there were no untouchables. The Varna system was
relatively not rigid during the Vedic era (1500 BC-1000 BC). During the later Vedic ear, i.e.
around 1000 BC there has been a mention of “Asat Shudra” (untouchable community).
Thus untouchability started around 1000 BC. Around 2nd century BC to 1st century AD,
because of diversified occupations, several occupational groups emerged and came to be
known by different Jatis. Thus Varna Vyavastha is the textual model or book view of
Indian social system, i.e. it is found today only in texts. Whereas, Jati is the contextual
view or field view of Indian social system, i.e. we find Jatis in reality today and not Varnas.

(ii) There are only four Varnas whereas, there are about 4000 Jatis. In each region about
200 Jatis are found. The Varna had a pan-Indic hierarchy, i.e. Brahmins are on the top,
Kshtriyas are at the second position, Vaishyas are at the third position and Shudras are

2/5
found in the bottom of the hierarchy. This hierarchy was uniform throughout India but in
Jati a uniform hierarchy throughout India is not found.

(iii) In the changing situation, in some areas Brahmins are on the top, in some other areas
Thakurs (Rajput) are at the top. Today even the Dalits are found on the top in some
areas. Thus secular criteria (economic and political) are found in the Jati system. On the
other hand in Varna vyavastha ritual criteria (religious) is found. In Varna vyavastha
initially untouchable are not found.

(iv) They are placed outside the Varna vyavastha, whereas, in the Jati vyavastha
untouchables are an integral part of the system. In Varna vyavastha a person’s status
was not changeable, whereas, in the Jati vyavastha one can change one’s status with
improved socio- economic condition. Thus one should not take Varna and Jati
synonymously.

Q.2. Discuss briefly differences between caste and class.

Ans. Differences Between Caste and Class:

(i) While a caste is hereditary, a class is non-hereditary in nature. A class system allows
both exogamy and endogamy, permits mobility either up or down the system, and also
allows an individual to remain in the status to which he was born. Thus a class is primarily
based on socio-economic criteria. There are three major classes found: Upper, Middle,
and Lower. Each class is divided into two sub-divisions. They are upper-upper, and lower
upper; upper-middle and lower-middle; and upper-lower and lower-lower.

(ii) A class is more open than the caste in the sense that mobility is allowed in the class
system. It is not allowed that openly in the caste system.

(iii) Further, caste system is based on ritual criterion whereas, class is based on secular
criterion. Ritual criterion means it is based on religious myths, secular means non-
religious criterion like economic, political and social criterion. However, in changing
circumstances caste is also adapting to secular criteria.

(iv) Consciousness is found in the class but not necessarily in the caste. However, today
castes are also changing into classes in urban areas particularly in terms of economic
criterion.

Q.3. What is Sanskritization?

Ans. Meaning of Sanskritization:

(i) It is a process by which any low caste could adapt to the behaviour pattern, style of life,
and culture of high caste and claim membership in that high caste. But they have to leave
their unclean occupation and other impure habits like meat eating and taking liquor, etc.
The untouchables were not allowed to sanskritize their status. Thus only middle castes
could sanskritize themselves.

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(ii) For sanskritization, a caste must have three conditions: (a) it should have a
touchable status.

(b) it should have better economic condition.

(c) it should make a claim to membership into a high caste, by propagating some story or
myth.

(iii) It is a group process and not an individual process. It is a lengthy process and not an
overnight process. It does not lead to any structural change, only leads to positional
change. It means a particular low caste changes its position into a high caste in a
particular area, whereas the caste structure does not change.

(iv) Through this process a few lower caste in different parts of country have changed
their status into higher castes.

Q.4. Discuss the features of a dominant caste.

Ans. Features of a Dominant Caste: In the 20th century, the phenomena of dominant
caste has emerged. It means some caste becomes economically and politically dominant
and virtually rules over other castes in the region. A caste can become dominant by
having the features like:

(a) large land holdings in the area (good economic position).

(b) politically dominant (becoming a vote bank).

(c) having large population.

(d) high ritual status.

(e) English medium education.

(f) having a tradition in agriculture (not tillers but landlords). and

(g) having a tradition of violence (for dominance muscle power is essential).

However, today it is not limited to the high caste only but has been found among the
lower castes also.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Explain in brief the origin of the term “Caste”.

Ans. The word caste has its origin from the Spanish word ‘Casta’ meaning ‘race’ or ‘a
group heredity quality.’

The term was applied to people of India by the Portuguese to denote ‘Joti’.

4/5
Q.2. How has the word ‘Caste’ creates confusion in India?

Ans. The word has created confusion in the sense that it is used to denote both Varna
and Jati. As you must have known, people saying that there are four castes – Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. In fact these four are not castes but are Varnas. What we find
today are not Varnas but Jatis. There are four Varnas and about 4000 Jatis.

The word “Jati” is used for all castes, sub-castes etc. Now-a-days there is a demand to
make our society as casteless. However, in the changing situation caste has shaped to
many new features like having formal organisations, becoming less rigit and having a link
with politics.

Q.3. Give a definition of term (word) “Caste.”

Ans. Definition of Caste: Caste can be defined as hereditary endogamous group, having
a common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in
matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous
community.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Discuss how has the westernisation brought changes in caste system in our
country.

Ans. Caste System of Indian and Westernisation: It indicates adapting to western style
of living, language, dress pattern, and behaviour pattern. In India largely the British
influence has been found. The features of westernisation are:

(a) Rational outlook (scientific and goal oriented outlook).

(b) Interest in material progress.

(c) Reliance on modern communication process and mass media.

(d) English medium education.

(e) high social mobility, etc.

The higher castes were first to westernise themselves. Later on, the lower castes also
adapted to this process. It has largely influenced the rigidity of caste system and changed
it into a flexible system, particularly in the urban areas.

5/5
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 28 Major Religious
Communities In India
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-28

Major Religious Communities In India

Chapter: 28

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.1

Answer the following questions:

Q.1. What is the approximate population of Hindus in India?

Ans. 83% (eighty three per cent).

2. Where are the Hindus found in the world?

Ans. The Hindus are found in India, Nepal, and also in several other countries of Asia,
Africa, the Caribbean Islands, Fiji, USA and United Kingdom.

Q.3. To which civilization can the roots of Hinduism be traced?

Ans. Indus valley civilization.

Q.4. Name the religion of per-Islamic iran.

Ans. Zoroastrianism.

Q.5. Where are the followers of Zoroastrianism found in india?

Ans. Maharashtra and Gujarat.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.2

Q.1. Which of the following statements is true or false? Write T after the statement
that is true and after the statement that is false.

(a) Harshvardhana and the Pala emperors provided a lot of patronage to Buddhism.

Ans. True.

(b) Some scholars regard Buddhism as peace loving and defenseless.

Ans. True.

(c) Twenty percent population of India is of Buddhists.

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Ans. False.

(d) Jains believe in twenty-four tirthankara.

Ans. True.

(e) Tibetan refugees in India follow Jainism.

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.3

Fill in the blanks:

(a) Christianity is a ……………… faith.

Ans. Monotheistic.

(b) The followers of Judaism are called ………………. .

Ans. Jews.

(c) The Jews of Maharashtra are divided into ……………. and ……………… .

Ans. White Jews and Black Jews.

(d) ……………. is seen as the chosen one of God.

Ans. Jesus.

(e) In …………….., Portuguese occupied Goa.

Ans. Christianity.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.4

Answer the following questions:

1. What percentage of India’s population follows Islam?

Ans. 13% (Thirteen percent).

2. What is the meaning of the term Islam?

Ans. “To surrender to God’s law and thus to be a integral whole.”

3. Are Muslims a part of the jajmani system in Indian villages?

Ans. Yes they are.

4. What is the meaning of the term Sikh?

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Ans. It means disciple.

5. How many gurus do Sikhs reconize?

Ans. Ten Gurus.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Answer each of the following question in above 100-200 words:

Q.1. Give reasons for the decline of Buddhism. (Most Imp.)

Ans. Reasons responsible for the decline of Buddhism:

(i) Adaptation of Tantric practices: At one time it was believed that Buddhism adopted
the Tantric practices. It started degenerating it. Some people or followers of this religion
criticised this and gave up Buddhism.

(ii) Peace Loving Monasteries: Buddhist Monasteries were peace loving and
defenceless. The monasteries were the strong holds of Buddhism. The horde of Muslim
invaders (or warriors) that invaded India destroyed the monasteries, leading to a
crumbling of Buddhism.

(iii) Beginning of the Hindusization of Buddhism: Many of the Buddhist ideas and
practices were absorbed into Hinduism. Not only that Hinduism adopted Buddhist
practices and ideology, Buddhism also adopted certain Hindu practice, thus began the
practices of the Hinduization of Buddhism.

(iv) Decline of Royal patronage: When royal patronage declined there was a
subsequent declines of Buddhist monasteries.

(v) Selfishness of Monks: Buddhist monks were more interested in their own personal
salvation than converting people to their faith.

Q.2. What is the central belief of Islam? Give an account of the five ‘pillars’ of Islam.
(Very Imp.)

Ans. The Central belief of Islam: The following three basic concepts of Islam are:

(i) The oneness of God (al-Akhirah), The idea of Islam is summed up in the idea of “There
no deity, but God.’ It affirms God to be one and only one.

(ii) God of Quran is transcendent, powerful and merciful. There are five constituents of the
Islamic faith (iman), namely belief in God, in ccongels, in revealed books, in God’s
messengers, and in the last day, when everything will come to an end.

(iii) For Muslims a five-fold practical doctrine was formulated. These five aspects
constitute the ‘pillars’ of Islam. They are:

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(a) Bearing witness in public at leas once lifetime that “There is no God but God and
Muhammad is His prophet’ Islam’s fundamental ideas are the oneness of God and the
finality of the Prophet.

(b) Praying five times a day (before sunrise, early afternoon, late afternoon, retiring),
while facing the Kaaba at Mecca.

(c) Paying welfare tax (Zakat for poor).

(d) Fasting during Ramajan (the ninth month of the Islamic lunar year) with no eating
drinking, smoking or sexual intercourse from down until sunset.

(e) Performing the annual pilgrimage to Ka’bah once in one’s adult lifetime provided one
can afford the journey and has provision for one’s family.

Q.3. What is the central belief of Jainism? (Most Imp.)

Ans. (i) The central doctrine of Jainism is of, non-harming’ and ‘non-violence (ahimsa
अहिंसा) and of vegetarianism.

(ii) The basic idea of Jainism is that the acts carried out by an individual are important for
salvations. The status one acquires by birth (ascribed status) is unimportant.

(iii) Jains share a common belief in the concept of ‘three jewels’ (triratna (त्रीरन्त), which
are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. If one follows these jewels’, then one
will be able to attain liberation from the world.

Q.4. Name the sects in which the Jains are divided.

Ans. (i) Digambara. and

(ii) Svetambara.

Q.5. What are the properties of god according to Sikhs? Describe the idea of the
community kitchen?

Ans. (i) According to Guru Nanak Devji God is the father, lover, master, and the great
given of all gifts.

(ii) God is formless (nirankara) and without quality (nirguna निर्गुण).

(iii) God many be known by different names, such as Rab, Rahim, Govinda, Murari, and
Hari. Nanak first called God Aumkara (Hindi), but later referred to Him as Sat Kartar
(Hindi) (the true creator), or the Sat Nam (Hindi) (the term name). In Sikhism, the symbol
of God is Om.

Idea of the Community Kitchen: Guru Nanak established free community kitchen
(langar) at which all his believers, irrespective of their caste, ate together. This institution
of langar (Hindi) is central to Sikhism.

4/12
SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the names of two broad groups in which the Indian religions may be
divided.

Ans. Broadly speaking Indian religions may be divided into two categories, first, those
which are of local origin, and second, those which are introduced from other parts of the
world.

Q.2. Which Indian religions are placed under India’s original or internal organised
religion in first categories?

Ans. (i) Hindurism.

(ii) Buddhism.

(iii) Jainism. and

(iv) Sikhism.

Q.3. Which religions are placed under second category in India?

Ans. (i) Zoroastrianism.

(ii) Judaism.

(iii) Christianity. and

(iv) Islam.

Q.4. Make a short list of sacred books of the Hindus.

Ans. (i) Four Vedes:

(a) Rig Veda.

(b) Sama Veda.

(c) Yajur Veda. and

(d) Atharva Veda.

(ii) Upanishads.

(iii) The two Epics:

(a) The Ramayana,

(b) The Mahabharata along with.

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(c) Srimad Bhagavad Gita,

(D) Dharmashatra.

(e) Puranas.

(f) Darsanas.

(g) Agamas. and

(h) Tantaras, etc.

Q.5. Why is it said that Hinduism may be understood as a way of life?

Ans. Hinduism is intimately connected with Hindu society with the result that it is difficult
to say where one ends and the other begins. Because of this, some authors say that
Hinduism may be understood as a way of life.

Q.6. What is the position of Hinduism as a religion in world?

Ans. Hinduism is one of the most ancient religions of the world. Its roots can be traced
back to the Indus Valley Civilization, around 3000 B. C. Archaeologists points out that the
worship of Shiva and the mother goddess (shakti) came into existence in the pre-Aryan
period (3000-2000 B.C.). Having such a long history, it is obvious that Hinduism has
developed over a period of time and is bound to show a far greater diversity in its
thoughts and practices that any other religion.

Q.7. Briefly make clear the statement that contradictory beliefs are contained in
Hinduism.

Ans. The doctrines of Hinduism are not contained in any one sacred book. Hinduism does
not have a single historical founder. Hindus worship innumerable gods and goddesses.
But at the same time, they also have the concept of one God from whom everything
emerges and in whom everything dissolves. At one end, if Hinduism is polytheistic (i.e.,
consists of many gods and goddesses), at the other, it is monotheistic (i.e., has the
concept of one God). It is interesting that one need not believe in the existence of god in
order to be a Hindu. Contradictory beliefs are contained in Hinduism.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is position of caste system in Hindu society, as described or referred in

sacred books of Hinduism?

Ans. (i) The social basis of Hinduism is found in caste system, which according to Rig
Veda has a divine origin. The four social categories, called Varna, emerged from the body
of the purusa, the first being who was sacrificed in a ritual. Social categories that at one
time were regarded as untouchable were not part of this scheme. This model of caste
with four varnas is known as the chaturvarna system.

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However, in reality, there are not four but innumerable castes that are endogamous, i.e.,
marry within. They are known as jatis. Each of them has a monopoly over an occupation
and claims to fall in one or the other varna. When Hindu sacred and legal texts speak of
caste, it is mostly varna that they have in view and very rarely jati. The concepts of purity
and pollution are central to Hinduism, and thus caste system, although the strictness with
which they are observed differs from one caste society to another.

Q.2. Explain certain concepts to Hinduism in about 100 words.

Ans. Certain concepts central to Hinduism are dharma, karma, and moksa. Word. The
word dharma means ‘duty’, and each individual is advised to live according to the duty
laid down for one’s caste, sex and age. The net balance of good and bad deeds in
previous births is called karma. It determines whether one will be born a human or
animal, or will be released forever from the cycle of birth and death. The permanent
release from the world is called mksa (meaning ‘salvation”), which should be the aim of
every Hindu. But one should think of one’s salvation after having accomplished one’s
household duties as successfully as possible.

Q.3. “Hinduism has under gone several mention worthy changes.” Explain in about
100 words.

Ans. Change is the law of nature Hinduism cannot be exception to this universal truth. It
is a fact that in the course of its history Hinduism has undergone many changes.

(a) Certain Hindu institutions, such as untouchability, Sati (i.e., a women following her
husband to death) human sacrifice, female infanticide (i.e., killing of female children),
where severly criticised by the British.

(b) One of the great reformers of the nineteenth century was Raja Ram Mohan Ray, who
founded a religious society called Brahmo Samaj in 1828. He said a return to Vedic
Hinduism would provide an end to many unjust practices that had developed in Hinduism.

(c) Dayananda Saraswati, who founded Aryal Samaj in 1875, also worked for a revival of
Vedic Hinduism.

(d) Other charges have came in Hinduism because of secularization, the ideology of
equality, and rationality.

Q.4. Write a short note a caste system and Jainism.

Ans. Jains are divided into numerous castes. Some scholars estimate that there are
certainly not less than sixty castes among Jains. Many Jains are tradespersons, but some
are in other occupations as well, such as cultivation and service. Jains in South India
divide themselves in four groups, headed by those who are temple priests. This priestly
caste is like the Brahmin caste among Hindus, with the main exception that even these
highest among Jains will interdine with all other Jains of their region. Among Hindus,
members of different castes do not have inter-dining relations. Jains have also adopted

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the characteristics of the area where they have chosen to reside. For instance, in Gujarat,
some Jain castes have taken up the system of hypergamy (anuloma), i.e., taking women
from lower castes in marriage rather than giving theirs.

Q.5. Discuss in short Jainism and reform movements.

Ans. Many reform movements have arisen in the long history of Jainism. They have
insisted to revive true Jain traditions and to marry within (i.e., remain endogamous). Jains
have long inter-married with counterpart Hindu castes, but these reformers say that inter-
marriages be arranged among Jain castes rather than with Hindus. The worship of certain
Hindu deities, which has been taken up by some Jain groups, should be abandoned.
These movement have been successful in some parts of India.

Q.6. Describe briefly Christian missionaries and caste system.

Or

Altitude of Christianity towards caste system.

Ans. Christian missionaries were generally against the traditional social order, i.e. caste
system. However, they were not able to provide feasible alternatives. Converts were
made mainly from lower castes, but even after they had embraced Christianity, their
social ranking did not charge. Higher castes treated them in the same way as they had
treated them earlier. Not only were the lower castes converted to Christianity in certain
parts, missionary activities were also active in tribal areas, especially of the north-eastern
part of India. As a result, qualitative changes have come in the lifestyles of people who
had embraced Christianity. The level of education is higher among them. Christian
missions also provided legal help to tribals whose land had been forcibly taken away by
outsiders. Many tribal languages in the northeastern part found a script in Roman
because of the efforts of the missionaries. In other words, Christianity has been a source
of long-lasting changes in India.

Q.7. “Discuss” Judaism in India.

Ans. Judaism in India:

(i) The followers of Judaism are known as Jews. The ancient Indian settlements of Jews
are in Cochin and Maharashtra. Both the settlements are small in number having a
combined population of not more than twenty thousand individuals.

(ii) The Jews of Cochin have firmly maintained their religious identity for at least a
millennium. It was around 1020 A. D. that the King of Cochin gave the Jews the right to
live and enjoy privileges, such as the right to ride elephants and to go with a state
umbrella, etc. Later, the Jews came to be divided into two groups – the White Jews, who
were generally lighter in their skin colour and traced their kinship to the original migrants,
and the Black Jews, who were dark skinned. There existed no relationship of marriage or
eating food together between these two groups.

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(iii) By comparison to the Jews of Cochin, those in Maharashtra are large in number.
Thoday, these Jews are known as Bene Israel, i.e., the Sons of Israel. They live in several
Konkani-speaking villages as oil-pressers. Since oil-pressing is not a prestigious
occupation, they do not rank high in their villages. As they do not work on Saturdays, they
are also known as Saturday Oilmen. They observe Jewish festivals. There is also
evidence that they have tried to improve upon their status by purifying their diet and
prohibiting the re-marriage of widows. Like those in Cochin, these Jews are also divided
into White Jews, those who claim pure Jewish ancestry, and Black Jews, who are of
mixed origin. The White Jews place themselves above the Black. Some scholars say that
these two groups are like the two castes.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write an essay on Zoroastrianism in India.

Or

Discuss the following points or aspects related with Zoroastrianism.

(a) A brief history with Zoroastrianism.

(b) Mazdaism or Ahura Mazda.

(c) The place of earth and Fire in Zoroastrianism.

(d) Disposal of dead by the Passis.

(e) Arrival of Zorastrianism and present position of Parsis in India.

Ans. Zoroastrianism (or Parsi Religion in India):

(a) A brief history of Zoroastrianism: With a history of almost three thousand years,
Zoroastrianism is one of the most ancient living religions. It is the most important and best
known religion of ancient, or pre-Islamic, Iran. The roots of Zoroastrianism can be located
in an Eastern Iranian, tribal, and basically pastoral society. The religion originated around
1000 B. C. and further under the first Iranian empire.

Zoroastrianism takes its name from that of its founder, Zarathushtra (or Zoroaster), who
probably lived around the beginning of the first millennium B. C. The story narrated about
his birth in the Zoroastrian texts is that when the world had fallen into the hands of evil
people, Mother Earth appeared before the Almighty in the shape of a cow. She requested
the Lord to save her from the evil that had spread. Then, the Lord said he would send
down a hero named Zarathushtra who would rescue her. Soon after, the story goes, in the
city of Rae, in Iran, a son was born to Prince Pourushaspa. He was named Spitama, who
later became Zarathushtra. Because the Prince suspected that tyrant chiefs might kill the
child, he sent him to his mother’s father’s house, where the grew up. Spitama began to
preach at the age of fifteen, and his preaching constitutes the central body of
Zoroastrianism.

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(b) Mazdaism or Ahura Mazda: Another name of Zoroastrianism is Mazdaism. It is
derived from the name of Mazda (Wise’) or Ahura Mazda (Wise God’), who is regarded in
Zoroastrianism as the Creator of the whole universe. Zoroastrians believe that there is but
one God. They say: Everything emanates from Ahura Mazda and merges back to Him at
the end.’ Ahura Mazda is formless. The characteristics of the Lord and the teachings of
Zarathushtra are contained in texts called gathas.

(c) The Place of Earth and Fire in Zoroastrianism: The earth has a significant place in
Zoroastrianism. She is regarded as the mother who sustains all human beings. During
life, the Zoroastrian is in her charge, and after death, he returns to her. Fire (atar) is an
outward symbol of Zoroastrians. Zarathushtra taught the Iranians to worship fire as the
purest and holiest of God’s creation. This is the reason why Zoroastrians do not burn their
dead, because contact with the dead and decaying body would pollute the holy fire.

(d) Disposal of the dead by the Parsis: The followers of Zoroastrianism (or by the
Parsis) is note worthy. They neither bury the corpse nor throw it in water. So, they build
walled-in-platforms of masonry, open to the sky. Known as the Towers of Silence
(dakhamas), it is in here that the corpse is exposed, which the birds eat away. The bones
crumble by the action of sun, rain and wind. The bone-dust is deposited into the large pit
in the centre of the tower, where all, people of different classes, at last mingle together in
the bosom of Mother Earth.

(e) Arrival of Zoroastrianism and present position of Parsis in India: The followers of
Zorastrianism, called Parsis, came to India about the eighth century A. D. They constitute
a small community in India, having a population of around one lakh individuals, settled
mostly in the western part. Some of their families have attained great industrial success,
like that of the Tatas. Most aspects of the Parsi culture, apart from their religious rites, are
like that of the other trading communities of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Since the mid-
nineteenth century, Parsis have been the leaders of India’s modernization. Other
modernizing groups in their region and elsewhere in the country emulate their example.

Q.2. Write an essay on “Buddhism in India.

Or

Discuss position, development and its position in Nepal as well efforts by some
great personalities to revive Buddhism.

Ans. (i) Introduction-Buddhism during ancient period of the Indian history:

Buddhism acquired a dominant position India under the rule of Emperor Ashoka (273-236
B. C.). As a consequence of the missionary propaganda, Buddhism spread all over India.
Ashoka sent his son and daughter to propagate the teachings of Buddha in different parts
of India. Buddhism also embraced several communities outside India, thus becoming a
world religion. By the twelfth century A. D., Buddhism was on its way out from India. In
northern India, Harshavardhana and the Pala emperors provided a lot of patronage of
Buddhism. But the other royal families were staunch adherents of the Brahmanical sects.

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(ii) Other sects, religions and Buddhism: At one time, it was believed that once
Buddhism had adopted the Tantric practices, it started degenerating. Today, this
explanation is not held. The other reason given was that Buddhist communities were
peace loving and defenceless. The monasteries were the strongholds of Buddhism. The
hordes of Muslim warriors that invaded India destroyed the monasteries, leading to a
crumbling of Buddhism. Another explanation is that Hinduism offered a colossal
challenges to Buddhism. Many of the Buddhist ideas and practices were absorbed into
Hinduism. Not only that Hinduism adopted Buddhist practices and ideology, Buddhism
also adopted certain Hindu practices, thus began the process of the Hinduization of
Buddhism.

(iii) Decline of Buddhism due to internal causes: Besides these, there were some
internal causes that led to its decline. Buddhism was dependent upon monasteries that
did not have broad popular support but relied exclusively on royal patronage. So, when
royal support declined, there was a subsequent decline of monasteries. Further, Buddhist
monks were more interested in their own salvation, rather than converting people of their
faith.

(iv) Buddhism in Nepal and other parts of Asia: Today, Himalayan Buddhism of direct
Indian ancestry remains only in Nepal, where it is fused with Hinduism. Its priests are
called Vajracharya, who are Tantric priests, and they are married persons. Because of
this, this kind of Buddhism is also known as Vajracharya Buddhism. Buddhism of Tibetan
origin survives in Ladakh, Sikkim, Bhutan, and also Nepal. It also survives with Tibetan
refugees in India, whose settlements are in different parts.

(v) Buddhism and efforts of Mahabodhi Society: Certain focused attempts have also
been made to revive Buddhism in the subcontinent. A Sinhalese monk, Anagarika
Dharmapala, founded in 1891, a society for the revival of Buddhism. The society was
called the Mahabodhi society, and one of its aims was to work towards Buddhist
education. It also took the repair of Bodhgaya Temple.

(vi) Dr. Ambedkar and Buddhism: Conversion to Buddhism on a mass scale took place
after Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the architect of the Constitution of India, embraced Buddhism
on 14 October, 1956 in Nagpur (Maharashtra). Along with him, thousands of men of
community. called Mahars, the community to which Dr. Ambedkar belonged, were also
converted to Buddhism. A community of leather-workers in Agra, called Jatavas,
embraced Buddhism a little later. These Buddhists are often known as Neo-Buddhists (or
Nav Buddhists). For some inspired Buddhists, Dr. Ambedkar is ‘Bodhisattva Ambedkar’.
In contemporary India, Buddhists of all types constitute around 8.0 per cent of the total
population.

Q.3. Discuss history principles, position etc. of Jainism in India.

Or

Write an essay on “Jainism”.

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Ans. Jainism in India:

(i) The Jains in India are a relatively small section, about one half of one per cent of
India’s population. They are spread in all parts of India, but their main concentration is in
the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Founded by
Vardhamana Mahavira, who lived from 540 to 468 B. C., Jainism has exercised a
significant influence on India, and the world’s history.

(ii) In ancient India, both Buddhism and Brahmanism absorbed the central doctrines of
Jainism of ‘non-harming’ and ‘non-violence’ (ahimsa) and of vegetarianism. As a
consequence, both of them became the primary principles of Indian culture. During the
medieval period, Jain practices and doctrines also affected the major Hindus sects. In
modern India, Jains have played a remarkable role in commercial and political life.
Through its indirect effect on Mohands Karamchand Gandhi, Jainism has given the
principle of ‘non-violence’ to the world. Hence, though the followers of Jainism are fewer
in number, their impact has been tremendous.

(iii) Jains have practiced their faith for more than twenty-five centuries. They have also
produced a large scriptural literature. One of the deeds of religious merit for Jain monks is
to copy and preserve their manuscripts, and this is one of the reasons of a large number
of scriptures that they have. The basic idea of Jainism is that the acts carried out by an
individual are important for his salvation. The status one acquires by birth (ascribed
status) ‘is unimportant. Jains share a common belief in the concept of ‘three-jewels’
(triratna), which are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. If one follows these
jewels’, then one will be able to attain liberation from the world.

(iv) Jains are the members of the four-fold organization (samgha), composed of monks
and nuns, laymen and laywomen. The monks and nuns observe stricter discipline, but
laymen and laywomen try their best to live according to the rules laid down in their
scriptures, Jains must abstain from injuring life, making false speech, taking what is not
given, leading an impure life, and taking food and drink at night. They also do not eat root
vegetables such as potatoes, onions, garlic, or those that have a multiplicity of seeds.

(v) Although Jains are divided into two groups, namely Digambara and Svetambara, most
of the doctrines are common to them. The basic difference between them is that the
Digambara male saints (muri) are ‘skyclad’, meaning they remain naked, whereas the
Svetambara monks (both men and women) wear white robes. This division of Jains came
into existence in 79 A. D.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 29 Major Social
Problems Of India
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-29

Major Social Problems Of India

Chapter: 29

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.1

Choose correct one from following:

(i) As per 2001 preliminary census report,literacy rate in our country is:

(a) 62%.

(b) 64%.

(c) 66%.

(d) 65%.

Ans. (d) 65%.

(ii) Female literacy rate in our country as per 2001 census report, is:

(a) 50%.

(b) 52%.

(c) 56%.

(d) 54%.

Ans. (d) 54%.

(iii) Which state of our country has highest literacy?

(a) Tamil Nudu.

(b) Karnataka.

(c) Andhra Pradesh

(d) Kerala.

Ans. (d) Kerala.

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(iv) Which state of our country has lowest literacy?

(a) Uttar Pradesh.

(b) Madhya Pradesh.

(c) Rajasthan.

(d) Bihar.

Ans. (c) Rajasthan.

(v) The number of illiterate children in the age group of 6-14 years in our country is:

(a) 3 crores.

(b) 4 crores.

(c) 5 crores.

(d) 6 crores.

Ans. (b) 4 crores.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.2

Tick True or False for following statements:

(i) Population explosion is increase in population at alarming rate (True/False).

Ans. True.

(ii) In population explosion, there is rapid fall of birth rate and death rate
(True/False).

Ans. False.

(iii) Population explosion is transitory. phenomenon (True / False).

Ans. True.

(iv) The growth rate of population of our country is 2.0 percent (True/False).

Ans. True.

(v) India is second most populous country of the world (True/False).

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.3

Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the brackets:

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(i) Corruption is making wealth through ……………… Acts (legal/illegal).

Ans. illegal.

(ii) Corruption is prevalent in …………… corners of our country (few/every).

Ans. every.

(ii) In our country corruption ……………… prevalent at high places (is/is not)

Ans. is.

(iv) In our country educational institutions are ……………. from corruption (free/not
free).

Ans. not free.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 29.4

Q.1. Match the column ‘A’ with ‘B’

A B

(i) From the view point of income, poverty is (a) poverty has political cause, too.

(ii) From human point of view poverty is (b) is 43.5 percent.

(iii) Percentage of people below poverty (c) in sufficient income to meet both ends
line is in our country meals of a day.

(iv) Adult illiteracy rate in our country (d) denial of longevity, knowledge and
decent standard of living.

(v) Besides social, economic religious, (e) is 43.0.

natural and physical causes

Ans.

A B

(i) From the view point of income, poverty is (c) in sufficient income to meet both ends
meals of a day.

(ii) From human point of view poverty is (d) denial of longevity, knowledge and
decent standard of living.

(iii) Percentage of people below poverty (e) is 43.0.

line is in our country

(iv) Adult illiteracy rate in our country (b) is 43.5 percent.

(v) Besides social, economic religious, (a) poverty has political cause, too.
natural and physical causes

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TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What is literacy? Literacy rate of which state is the highest?

Ans. Ability to read and write is called literacy.

Literacy rate of Kerala state is the highest.

Q.2. What is meant by population explosion?

Ans. Rapid increase in population is called population explosion.

Q.3. Name five socio-economic problems related to population explosion.

Ans. (i) Unemployment.

(ii) Lack of shelter.

(iii) Poverty.

(iv) Landlesnes.

(v) Low standard of living.

Q.4. What do you mean by corruption? Name its five types.

Ans. Corruption is making and raising position through illegal and immoral acts. It is
individual behaviour related to gain in cash and kind. Corruption is prevalent in every part
of our country. It exists in social, economic, political, religious, administrative, commercial,
and professional fields.

Types of Corruption:

(a) Practice of nepotism.

(b) Favouritism.

(c) Dowry.

(d) Dishonesty.

(e) Immorality.

(f) Foeticide.

(g) Payment of illegal gratification for getting work done in office.

(h) Making money from misuse of office and power to contest election.

(i) Giving tickets to criminals.

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(j) Taking bribe and commission for getting the fund sanctioned.

(k) Looting public money with the trader.

Q.5. What is poverty? How it is different from human poverty?

Ans. (a) Poverty: From the economic point of view, poverty is inability to have such
income from which expenditure on both meals of a day is not met.

(b) Human Poverty: From the human point of view, poverty is denial of longevity,
knowledge and decent standard of living; Poverty has social, economic, political,
religious, natural, physical and educational causes.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. How many people of an country are illiterate?

Ans. Nearly 35 percent people of our country are illiterate.

Q.2. Write one benefit of literacy.

Ans. Literacy enables an individual to differentiate between right and wrong.

Q.3. Write can names of major social problems of India.

Ans. (i) Illiteracy.

(ii) Population exploitation.

(iii) Corruption.

(iv) Poverty.

Q.4. Write the meaning of literacy and differentiate it from illiteracy in one sentence.

Ans. Literacy is ability to read write and understand any language and illiteracy is inability
to do so.

Q.5. Mention the names of causes responsible for poverty in India.

Ans. (i) Social expenses.

(ii) Unemployment.

(iii) Unequal distribution of land.

(iv) Slums of urban areas.

(v) Religious, natural and physical causes.

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(vi) Illiteracy.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Discuss benefits of in a paragraph.

Ans. Literacy, on the other hand, makes one to road and write and even a blind can read
and understand. It leads to proper thoughts and action.

Literacy takes everyone on the road of education and development, acquire superior skill
on for a better life. The pre-literate or non-literate people suffer from lack of awareness of
rights and duties, ignorance of healthy practices and benefit of sanitation and they cling to
superstition. Such a person is unable to grasp be skills for development or act as model
and guide to younger generation. There better many avenues which literacy and
education open in one’s life. One can learn more about scientific skills and perform his job
in a better way. He can also opt for new jobs and enhance the quality of life of his family.

Q.2. Discuss briefly Socio-Economic problems of Population Explosion.

Ans. Socio-Economic Problems of Population Explosion:

(i) Population explosion gives birth to a number of socio-economic problems such as lack
of shelter, landlessness, poverty, illiteracy, low standard of living, unemployment,
malnutrition, under nourishment, ill health insufficient infrastructure over growing
migration and crimes.

(ii) Large families have created problems of housing and home-stead land. It creates the
situation of landlessness due to division of land in each generation among brothers.
Landlessness results in poverty. Poverty increases illiteracy because poor families send
their children to work instead of sending them to schools. It comes in the way of proper
nutrition and nourishment of family members.

(iii) In fact, quality of life is adversely affected by population explosion. It also brings
health problems. Frequent births affect the health of mother and children. It also affects
feeding and nourishment processes. Rapid increase in population creates situation of
unemployment and low wages. It also leads to crimes.

Q.3. Discuss meaning and definition of corruption.

Ans. (i) Meaning of Corruption: Simple meaning of corruption is an act of characterless-

ness, moral degradation and unlawful practices. In other words, it means earning money
and positions by hook or crook, without earing for duties and responsibilities towards
people, society and nation.

(ii) Definition of Corruption: Corruption is an act by someone who is ready to do

dishonest and illegal things in return of money or for something else they want, or behave
in a way what is considered morally wrong.

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Q.4. Discuss position of corruption in India.

Ans. Corruption, in our country is all pervasive and omnipresent. India is largest
democracy of the world. It is the second populous country of the world. India had
cherished honesty, morality and also high values from time immemorial. With passage of
time and fast socio- economic changes in the country, corruption has effected all walks of
life.

All of us have often observed directly or indirectly that a number of public servants,
politician’s government servants, bureaucrats, industrialists, traders, etc. have been sent
to jail on corruption charges. But these punitive steps have not been able to put a check
to this social evil. People still compromise with principles. It has taken away our social
virtues and has means us selfish and inhuman. It has, almost, become a way of life.

Q.5. Briefly describe causes of corruption.

Ans. Causes of Corruption: A number of causes are associated with the prevalence of
corruption in our society. Some of them are-to make illegal things legal on the basis of
bribe or commission, to acquire more and more wealth and consumer goods, high
aspirations from jobs, to enhance status in the society, to pay dowry, to meet expenditure
on technical and higher education of children, to erect modern and beautiful house, to get
required number for constituting and running the government, to collect money for fighting
election, etc.

Q.6. Write some of characteristics to explain the of “Poverty”.

Ans. Major Characteristics of Poverty:

(i) Poverty is an universal problem. It is a condition of an individual in which his income is

so low that he is unable to feed or provide shelter for himself and his family members.
Those who do not have such income are called poor.

(ii) Poverty is also an inability to earn sufficient income to arrange two square meals a day
for himself as well as family members. A sizable section of the population of our country
fails to earn such income. So, they are considered to live below poverty line.

(iii) Urban poverty is the result of migration of rural people to urban areas for work and
wages. They live in slum areas in unhygienic condition. Rampant unemployment is also
responsible for urban poverty.

(iv) On the basis of human factor, poverty can not be measured only on economic terms.
It should also be measured terms of deprivation. So, human poverty can be measured on
the basis of three elements of human life-longevity, knowledge and decent standard of
living. In this sense, human poverty is denial of tolerable life.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write an essay on the Literacy situation in India.

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Ans. Literacy Situation in India:

(i) As per report of 2001, 65 percent persons of our country are literate. It means that 35
percent citizens are still illiterate. The male literacy is 76 percent against 54 percent
famous literacy.

(ii) The present literacy situation in our country as under:

Year Persons Male Female

1951 16.67 24.90 7.90

2001 65.38 75.85 54.16

(iii) As per 1991 census report among States and Union Territories, Kerala occupies top
position with more than 90% literates, while the State of Bihar occupies lowest position in
literacy with only 38% literates. Literacy among STs is 29% (4% males and 18% females).

(iv) Nearly one-third of world’s illiterates reside in our country. Altogether, there are 19
crores of children in the age group 6-14 years in which 4 crore (25%) have not seen the
face of school. Nearly 50% children leave school after enrolment. Child of STs and SCs
are worst victims in this regard. Only 29% children of SCs and STs are enrolled in school.

Q.2. Mention some causes of illiteracy, discuss the educational policies and
programmes adopted from the government from time to time.

Ans. 1. Poverty, high population growth, lack of awareness and improper implementation
of educational development programme are responsible for illiteracy.

2. First education policy in our country was formulated in 1960 and second in 1986, and
the third in 1991. In 1992, a new National Education Policy was formulated and
introduced for all children upto 14 years of age. Besides, non-formal education
programme was also initiated in 1979-80. In 1994, District Primary Education programme
was implemented.

3. In 1995, Mid-day Meal programme was introduced to check incidence of dropouts. In

2001, Education has been brought under fundamental right of children as per 93nd
constitution amendment.

4. The central government has launched Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan with the help of parents,
social workers, administrators and parents.

5. The role of NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) in spreading education and
reaching the unreached, have received massive support from the deprived sections of the
population.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 30 Problems Of
Scheduled Castes And Scheduled Tribes
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-30

Problems Of Scheduled Castes And Scheduled Tribes

Chapter: 30

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INTEXT QUESTIONS 30.1

(i) Deprivation is …………….. rights and freedom the poor and dependents
(providing/snatching away).

Ans. Snatching away.

(ii) Scheduled Castes performed …………… occupations (clean/unclean).

Ans. Unclean.

(iii) Scheduled Castes had to suffer from a number of disabilities due to

……………….. (touchability/untouchability).

Ans. Untouchability.

(iv) Food cooked by Scheduled Castes was …………… by higher castes (accepted
/not accepted).

Ans. Not accepted.

(v) Scheduled Castes used water of ………….. wells and pond (common/private).

Ans. Private.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 30.2

Write true false for following:

(i) Scheduled Tribes are mostly found in plain areas. (True/False)

Ans. False.

(ii) The largest concentration of STs population is in Central Indian region.

(True/False)

Ans. True.

(iii) Hunting and gathering was economic activities of tribals. (True/False)

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Ans. True.

(iv) Low land is called Don. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(v) Tribals have to face the problems of land alienation and displacement.
(True/False)

Ans. True.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Define social problems. Gives examples. (100 words).

Ans. I. Definition of Social Problems: Social problems are defined as a situation that
has attracted the attention of a majority of people in any community and requires
immediate attention of the administration and wider community for speedy solution.

Social problems thus are a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways
considered undesirable, and about which it is felt that something can be done through
collective social action.

In our society scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes (OBCs),
women and children constitute deprived sections. They are denied their due rights and
freedom. It should be noted that a situation becomes a problem only after people become
aware of it.

II. Examples of Social Problems:

(i) Untouchability.

(ii) Bonded Labour.

(iii) Problem of poverty, backwardness among SCs/STs/OBCs.

(iv) Problem of poor health and Nutrition.

(v) Lack of Education among weaker and backward sections of Indian society.

(vi) Problems of Identity among Scheduled Tribes.

Q.2. Explain Deprivation. (100 words)

Ans. Explanation of Deprivation: Sociologists generally use the phrase or term “social
problems.” Our society is divided into a number of sections based on caste, age and sex.
Some sections of the Indian society have been resourceless and powerless in
comparison to other dominant sections. But when they fail to adjust themselves to the
changing times, the result is social disorganization leading to social problems. Thus a
discriminatory and in human behaviour (e.g. based on caste or feeling of low or upper

2/14
caste or feeling of advanced and backwardness, or based on gender or sex-male and
female, and based on age children, youth and old people etc.) appears in society. This
gives rise to social problems in the form of deprivation.

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes are included in
deprived sections of the Indian society.

(a) Scheduled Castes (SCs) are those castes which were placed at the bottom in the
traditional caste system. Usually they used to perform clean occupation. So they were
treated as polluted or impure. The concept of pollution attached to them had made them
untouchable. They had to suffer from the following types of disabilities:

(i) No physical contact with the people of so called upper castes.

(ii) Ban on the use of common wells and tarks.

(iii) Prohibited from entering the Temple.

(iv) Did not receive service from other occupational caste.

(v) Non-acceptance of cooked food.

The Scheduled castes were deprived of their economic rights. So that remaining poor and
dependent upon others. They have to face the following problems:

(a) Material Deprivation.

(b) Landlessness.

(c) Educational Backwardness.

(d) Low level government jobs, posts and services.

(e) Indebtedness and Bonded labour.

Q.3. Define untouchability. Enumerate five disabilities related to it. (200 words)

Ans. Untouchability:

(i) Those caster which were placed at the bottom (in social structure in the traditional
caste system are called schedulated castes.

(ii) Usually the people of scheduled castes used to perform unclean occupation. (e.g. to
cary night soil and dead animals, cleaning urinals and cattle shed, washing dirty clothes,
and performing certain duties at places of cremation etc.). So, they were treated as
polluted or impure.

(iii) The concept of pollution attached to them had made them untouchable. Various
names appear for them in literature dealing with Scheduled Castes-Shudras, Das,
Chandal, Melezhha, Untouchables and Harijans. (शुद्र, दास, चांडाल, मलेच्छ, अछू त एवं हरिजन).

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(iv) There are more than 700 scheduled castes in our country. The schedulated castes
now identify themselves as Dalit.

(v) We can understand the problem of untouchability (pollution) under the following
description:

Before 26th January 1950 the problem of untouchability (or pollution) was one of the most
kmaughly social problems related with the Dalits.

The Scheduled Castes had to perform such unclean occupation such as carrying night
soil and dead animals, cleaning urinals and cattle shed, washing clothes and performing
certain duties at places of cremation. These occupations were treated as polluted or
impure. So, people performing these occupations were ‘treated as untouchables. On
account of the practice of untouchability traditionally the Scheduled Castes had to suffer
from the following types of disabilities.

1. No physical contact: The persons belonging to untouchable Scheduled Castes did

not participate in village meeting and worship. They lived in a separate hamlet. Their
children did not attend school and play with children of higher castes. They had to play
drum to pass through villages streets.

2. Ban on the use of common wells and tanks: The members belonging to Scheduled
Castes were not allowed to use common village wells and tanks for fetching water. They
had separate wells and ponds or depend on the courtsey of some are to pour water in
their kitchens.

3. Prohibited from entering the Temple: The Scheduled Caste persons were not
allowed to enter the temple for offering worship. They were not supposed to hear religious
discourses, offer prayer, and study religious texts.

4. Did not receive service from other occupational castes: Priests, artisan castes,
dhobi (washer man) and dom (death ritual performer) did not render their services to the
persons of untouchable castes Scheduled Castes.

5. Non-acceptance of cooked food: The food cooked by so called (Shudras) Scheduled

Castes was not accepted by higher castes. Water from the hands of Scheduled Castes
was also not acceptable.

6. Status incongruence and dependence proneness: Persistence of stigma of

untouchability and the Constitutional status of scheduled castes were not congruent.
They were dependent upon others for livelihood and survival.

Q.4. Who are Scheduled Castes? Name five problems related to their poverty.

Ans. I. The Scheduled Castes: On the recommendation of the Government of

Independent India, the President in October 1950 included a number of castes as
‘Scheduled Castes’ in the constitution Indian Under Art. 34 (SC) and 342 (ST). With this,
they enjoy benefit of development and welfare schemes. There are more than 700

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schedule castes in our country. Chamar, Dusadh, Dom, Pasi, Mehtar, Balai, Adi-dravid
etc. are numerically dominant Scheduled Castes. The schedules castes now identify
themselves as Dalit. It is the change of social norms in independent India that has
elevated them to the posts of Chief Minister of States like Bihar and U.P., and the
President of India. SCS constitute nearly 15% of total population of the country. Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, show a maximum
concentration of Sca. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar each have a scheduled
casts population exceeding ten millions. The state of Punjab has 29.6 percent and the
state of Himachal Pradesh has 21.2 percent SC population. In fact Indo-Gangetic plain
alone has 51 percent of total SC population in the country. The mountainous regions of
U.P., HP., all north-eastern States, Karnataka and Maharashtra have low concentration od
Schedule Castes. SCs have been given reservations in educational institutions, jobs,
state assemblies and the Parliament.

II. Problem related to Poverty of the Scheduled Castes:

The Scheduled Castes were deprived of their economic rights. So they remained poor
and dependent upon others. The problems associated with the poverty of Scheduled
Castes are as follows:

1. Material Deprivation: The Scheduled Castes were not allowed to have house, land,
animals, ornaments, etc. So they were deprived of material possessions.

2. Landlessness: The Scheduled Castes did not own land for the purpose of residence
and agriculture. They lived in huts erected on the land of the master and worked as
agricultural labour as good as a bounded labour.

3. Educational Backwardness: Due to deprivation and poor socio-economic condition,

the Scheduled Castes did not attend school and remained backward educationally. After
independence, schools have been thrown open for them.

But it has not been possible to enroll all children of SC in schools.

4. Employment and Government Service: After independence, some of them have

been employed in government jobs like sweepers, watchman, peon, etc. Now, some of
them have received higher eduction and are well placed. But majority of them survive as
agricultural labourers, where they are exploited in the payment of wages.

5. Indebtedness and Bonded Labour: A majority of families of Scheduled Caste are not
in a position to take two meals daily. So they have to take loans for the purpose of
consumption. Banks do not give them loan for it. They have to take loan from their
employers at a high rate of interest. Because of their indebtedness, their inability to pay
the capital with interest, they end up becoming bonded labourers. They lose freedom of
all kind and receive nominal wages.

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6. Health and Nutrition: The house of a SCs may not have window, urinal, latrine and
drain. They live with cattle in the same room. They discharge urine and night soil on the
street. They throw cow dung, ash and domestic waste in the street. They do not have
pucca wells and hand pumps for drinking water. They live in unhygienic conditions.
Because of poverty, they are often victims of malnutrition and undernourishment.

7. Atrocities: The Scheduled Castes have to face problem of atrocities. Their houses are
burnt; their animals, goat and chicken are snatched away, women are subjected to
humiliation. They are beaten mercilessly. They are also murdered and killed in groups.
These are the forms of atrocities to which they are subjected to when they dare to resist
and demand their social, economic or political rights.

Q.5. Who are Scheduled Tribes? List their five important problems.

Ans. Meaning of the term the Scheduled Tribes:

(i) Scheduled Tribes are those communities who are outside the caste system of our
society. They live in hills, forest and coastal and desert areas, and even on islands. They
have their own culture and social organization. They also had their own political system.
In course of time, some of them have adopted Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. Tribal art,
dance and craft still have an intrinsic value polygamy and both monogamy are prevalent
polyandry, for example, Toda and Khasa of Jaunsar Bawar.

(ii) A large number of tribal societies are patrilineal, but matriliny is also prevalent among
few tribes like Khasi, Jaintia and Garo. The traditional economy of tribals is characterized
by gathering, hunting, fishing, shifting cultivation and agriculture. They have their weekly
markets called haat. Previously, they practiced barter, but now money has become
medium of exchange. The traditional economy of tribals is for subsistence, not for profit.

(iii) There are around 461 Scheduled Tribes in our country. Among them, 75 most
backward communities have been identified as Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs).
Identification of PTGs has been made on the basis of low population, low literacy and pre-
agricultural technology. STs represent approximately 8 percent population in our country.

(iv) Most of the Scheduled Tribes today are followers of tribal religion, Hinduism,
Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. The adoption of other religious faiths has forced them
to give up tribal customs, traditions, festivals, art, dance, etc. A number of tribal cultural
traits have become extinct or are in disuse, for example, the institution of Akhra and youth
dormitory. The marriage of tribal girls with non-tribal boys is also taking place.

(v) Entry of outsiders in to tribal areas and division of tribals in to different religious group
has resulted in the identity problems. Culture contact, industrialization and urbanisation
have also resulted in loss of tribal ways of life. They are also demanding autonomy of the
region in which they live and employment of local people in employment and jobs.

II. List of Problems of the Scheduled Tribes:

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(i) Problems Related to Forest: It has brought the question of existence before a
number of tribes living in forest based economy.

(ii) Problem of Agriculture.

(iii) Land Alienation.

(iv) Indebtedness and Bonded labour.

(v) Problem of Health and Nutrition.

(vi) Lack of communication in remote areas of the Scheduled Tribes.

(vii) Migration, undertaken by some people of the Scheduled Tribes and adverse effects
of it on the lives of the Scheduled Tribes.

(viii) Lack of education among the Scheduled Tribes.

(ix) Displacement of tribals. and

(x) Problems of protection or maintaining identify of the Scheduled Tribes.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What do you understand by the word/term “Tribe”?

Ans. Tribe: A social group distinguished from a caste that consists of families and
lineages (or clans) based on shared ties of kinship, ethnicity, common history or territorial,
political organisation.

Q.2. Who are Untouchable castes? Make clear.

Ans. Untouchable castes: The people at the bottom of the social scale and suffering
from social exclusion. It’s because of a social practice within the caste system thereby
members of the lowest castes are considered to be ritually impure to such an extent that
they cause pollution by mere touch.

Q.3. Explain the word “Varna” in about one sentence.

Ans. Varna: A nation-wide version of the caste system dividing society into four
hierarchically ordered Varnas or caste groups viz. Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaishya and
Shudra.

Q.4. What was the contribution of Mahatma Gandhi towards upliftment of lower
castes?

Ans. (i) He declared them as Harijan (i.e. people of god).

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(ii) Advocated abolition of untouchability.

(iii) He declared caste as a social evil and colonial conspiracy to divide Indians.

(iu) He worked for abolition of caste distinctions.

Q.5. Discuss the meaning of the term/ word untouchability in about 2-3 lines.

Ans. Untouchability: A social practice within the caste system whereby members of the
lowest castes are considered to be mutually impure to such an extent that they cause
pollution by mere touch. Untouchable castes are at the bottom of the social
scale/structure/ stratification and are excluded from most social institutions.

Q.6. Mention the present position of caste system?

Ans. The link between caste and occupation is declining rapidly. There hardly any ritual-
religious prohibitions are we see on change in occupation. The correlation between caste
and economic status has also today as one can find rich and poor people in every caste.

Q.7. What are the three main dimensions of untouchability?

Ans. (i) Exclusion,.

(ii) Humiliation and subordination. and

(iii) Exploitation.

Q.8. Who are untouchables?

Ans. These are people kept outside the caste hierarchy consisting of Brahman, Ksatriya,
Vaisya and Sudra. Owing to wrong committed by their ancestor in the past they were
declared untouchable since than, the enigma or label of humiliation was stuck to their
foreheads. These are outcast still living in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka etc. states.

Q.9. How are untouchables differ than other lower castes?

Ans. It is that of extreme type of social exclusion, the untouchables endure with. For
instance, they were prohibited from sharing drinking water sources or participating in
collective religious worship, social ceremonies and festivals.

Q.10. What were the publically visible acts of self-humiliation or show himself as
inferior to the untouchables compelled to perform?

Ans. They had to take-off caps, carry footwear in the hand, standing with bowed head, not
wearing clean or bright clothes.

Q.11. For whom the specific etymology once used for untouchables till its abolition
is used today?

Ans. It is used today while addressing criminals and miscreants in the form of abuses.

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Q.12. What name did Mahatma Gandhi give to untouchables?

Ans. It was Harijan (children of God).

Q.13. Which term is still used while referring to so-called untouchables groups?

Ans. It is dalit (viz. downtrodden) and conveys the sense of an oppressed person.

Q.14. Whether Dr. Ambedkar had used the term “Dalit” while representing the
interests of these groups?

Ans. No, neither he coined this term not used but it was implied in his philosophy and the
movement for empowerment of these groups. Plausible to mention here that he had
raised the stand for minority in Second Round Table Conference and caused Mahatma
Gandhi’s hunger strike.

Q.15. What do you know about the Dalit Panthers?

Ans. It was a radical organisation by Dalit groups which had rioted in Mumbai in the early
1970s. This term was used by them in order to assert their identity as part of their
struggle for rights and dignity.

Q.16. Who had first recognised schedules for listing the castes and tribes as
deserving special treatment?

Ans. That schedule was drawn or list was made by the British Indian Government in 1935
and enforced it through amendment in the Government of India Act, 1919 (After
amendment, Act of 1935).

Q.17. When were OBCs added to the schedule of another groups deserving special
treatment?

Ans. This addition was made in early 1990s in pursuance with the recommendation of
Mandal Commission.

Q.18. What are “reservations”?

Ans. These denote state’s initiative to compensate for past and present caste
discrimination. These include reservation of seats in state and central Legislatures,
government jobs and educational institutions.

Q.19. What is the parameter for determination of reserved seats for SC and ST?

Ans. It is equal to the percentage share of SC and ST in the total population of India. For
example, as per census of 2001, percentage share of scheduled caste were recorded as
16.20% and that of scheduled tribe 8.20% in the total population (1,028,610) of India.

Q.20. What parameter has been ascertained for reservation of seats in favour of
OBCS?

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Ans. In direct recruitment on all-India basis by open competition, it is 27% while it is
25.84% if recruitment is done on the basis otherwise than open competition. There is no
reservation for OBCs in case of promotion.

Q.21. Which articles of constitution of India define as to who would be the SC and
ST with respect of any State or Union Territory?

Ans. These are Articles 341 and 342.

Q.22. Which are left only states where tribal communities are exclusively settled?

Ans. These are North-Eastern states comprising Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram
and Arunachal Pradesh.

Q.23. Why are the economic and social conditions of tribals in North-Eastern states
worse than non-tribal concentration states like Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh etc?

Ans. These regions are treasure of mineral resources hence, British Indian Government
and Indian Union government (viz. government of India) had reserved most forest tracts
for their own use i.e., for mining purposes. Moreover, lumbering at commercial level is still
carrying on. In these circumstances, their livelihood through food and shifting agriculture
has jeopardised considerably.

Q.24. Which options for survival the tribal communities have chosen in the state of
reservation of forest tracts by government of India of North-Eastern states?

Ans. They are forced to either use the forest illegally or migrate in search of wage labour.
In the former attempts, they are being harassed and prosecuted as thieves and
encroachers. In both ways, it has been difficult for them to survive any long.

Q.25. What impact the economic liberalisation policies since 1990s have on tribal
communities in North-eastern state?

Ans. The MNCs and corporate firms are now in full liberty to acquire large areas of land
by ‘displacing adivasis.

Q.26. When was the term Adivasis coined and for what purpose?

Ans. It was coined in the decade of 1930 as part of the struggle against the intrusion by
the colonial government and outside settlers as also moneylenders. It is meant by original
inhabitants.

Q.27. What ridiculous connotation can be drawn for the term “Adivasi” appears in
the modern intrusion upon their natural habitat?

Ans. These are the people destined for experiences of the loss of forest, the alienation of
land and repeated displacement since independence.

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Q.28. Mention some of the features related with the Problems of the Scheduled
Tribes related to forest.

Ans. Problems Related to Forest: In the forests, STs lived, enjoyed hunting, gathering
and shifting cultivation and artefacts made from forest-material. But forest policies and
regulations have snatched away traditional rights of STs over forest. Due to this,
economic activities of tribals like food gathering, hunting, shifting cultivation and cottage
industry have been affected adversely. It has brought the question of existence before a
number of tribes living in forest based economy.

Q.29. What can be stated as the most important achievement so far of Adivasi
movements during post-independence India?

Ans. It is the attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chattisgarh, the former was in
Bihar and the latter was in Madhya Pradesh till 2000 CE.

Q.30. Why did Adivasis block the highway at Kalinganagar in Orissa on 2 January,
2006?

Ans. It was protest against their farmlands taken over by a steel company.

Q.31. Why did the police opened fire and killed a dozen Adivasis?

Ans. The state government in her plan to set up industries in Adivasi areas had no other
options but ot acquire their farmlands at any costs. Some land had been sold by the state
to a steel company and it had now become necessary to displace adivasis from that piece
of land.

Q.32. What atrocities were practiced upon adivasis in their protest against take
over of their farmland by the state government?

Ans. The police did not spared even women and the genitals of men killed in encounter.
Perhaps, that was done for the trade in human organs.

Q.33. What was the intention of government in the name of welfare of Adivasi
people after taking over their farmlands?

Ans. It was to give local residents, a petty amount as compensation against their sudden
displacement or eviction under compulsory acquisition order and a small proportion of
people displaced shall get jobs in industry proposed while all others are compelled to
survive by engaging them as wage labourers. It is worth mention that 75% of tribals
displaced are still waiting their rehabilitation.

Q.34. How many tribal people so far since independence of India have been
displaced from their farmlands?

Ans. It has been estimated that 30 million people i.e. more than the entire population of
Canada so far displaced under compulsory land acquisition policy of the government.

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Q.35. Mention the name of places in India where tribal people are in protest against
government’s liberalisation policy has compulsory acquisition of forest lands in
line with Kalinganagar in Orissa?

Ans. These are forests nearby the river Narmada, Singur, Tehri, Hirakund, Koel Karo,
Suvarnarekha, Nagarhole, Plachimada etc.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Explain the meaning of the term deprived groups.

Ans. Deprived groups: Historically in every society, there are certain groups who are
weak and deprived from socio-political economic or educational points of view. As far as
in Indian context, we can say that in Indian society, the scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes, the other backward classes and women, particularly people from these groups are
regarded weak or deprived groups.

Q.2. How is tribe different from caste?

Ans. Contrast between the composition of the caste and the tribe:

(a) A tribe theoretically is a territorial group while a caste is a socio-cultural group. When
a tribe loses its territorial character, it takes the form of a caste.

(b) Each tribe has its own distinct language than the other but it is not the case with a
caste. A tribe never imposes restrictions on its members regarding the choice of
occupation but a caste usually promotes hereditary occupations and the principle of brith.

(c) Caste and tribe emphasise and perpetuate collective identities in strikingly similar
ways. A caste or tribe may change its name and also its mode of livelihood and still
retains its collective identity.

(d) The tribes have segmentary, egalitarian system and are not mutually interdependent
like the castes which show a system of stratification and organic solidarity.

Q.3. What evidence would you offer against the view that “tribes are primitive
communities living isolated lives untouched by civilisation?

Ans. Evidences Substantiating tribes as primitive communities:

(i) They have not written rules/canons on religion.

(ii) They are neither Hindus nor peasants.

(iii) They have not a state or political form of the normal kind.

(iv) They are engaged in primary activities like fishing, food gathering, hunting, shifting,
agriculture etc.

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(v) They have no motion of purity and pollution which is central to the caste system.

(vi) They live in inaccessible forests and rugged mountainous regions.

Q.4. How can you say that in the decades immediately after independence, the
state did not make sufficient effort to deal with inequality between upper castes
and lower castes in economic and educational terms?

Ans. It is because:

(i) The state was unwilling to push through radical reforms to remove economic inequality
between upper and lower castes.

(ii) Except option of reservation for the SC and ST the state put on the same platform for
government jobs one side the educated upper caste people and uneducated or ill
educated lower castes on the other. It did no help to lower caste people.

Q.5. Which type of biased treatment given to SC and ST in development activity of

state and the growth of private industry?

Ans. (i) Modern industry did not accept reservation rules for SC and ST.

(ii) Caste practices were abandoned in cities and ideas of individualism and meritocracy
were preferred while people from lower castes have no earlier grip or debut to urbanised
living manners.

(iii) In all textile mills and jute mills only upper caste people were given recruitment.

(iv) Middle recruited people of their own caste and religion.

(v) Endogamy has remained sustained ab initio as we see even today, most marriages
take place within caste boundaries and even inter-caste marriages, are solemnise only
between upper castes (i.e. Brahmins, Kshtriya and Vaisya).

Q.6. How can you say that Dalits are now in protest against the social hierarchy?

Ans. It is evident from the extract of an article published in Tehelka on 18th February
2006 in which Basharat had mentioned that the youth of Gohana, a town in Haryana had
killed in a scuffle, a Jat youth and the entire Jat community had looted and burnt all
houses in retaliation as it was reported by Vinod Kumar, presently a Senior Assistant in
an insurance company and an inhabitant of that town. They have resettled there-writes
Basharat. He again refers to an event when another fellow Sudesh Katara, an Assistant
Engineer had gone to attend marriage party of one of his friend but humiliated when
some people recognised his being from a dalit family. He appears enthusiast enough to
organise a strong protest against such exclusion still prevailing in all over Haryana.

Q.7. Why are government’s policies of National Development and economic growth
proving more painful for the tribal communities in North-Eastern states?

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Ans. In the name of these policies, government has acquired forest areas (i.e. habitat) of
tribal communities. A number of mining operations are being conducted there in order to
get raw material for industries and more power generation. Tribal people are being
displaced without any appropriate compensation and rehabilitation. Thus, these polities
are subjugating tribal people and alienating the resources upon which they depended.

Q.8. Discuss “Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955. (Most Imp.)

Ans. Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955:

(i) Article 17 of the Constitution of India declares abolition of untouchability. An Act

untouchability (offences Act 1955) was also promulgated declaring untouchability an
offence.

(ii) This Act has banned the practice of untouchability in the matters of employment,
drinking water supply, offering worships, services in tea shop and hotels, journey by bus
or train, use of public places, meeting of Gram Panchayat, refusing to sell goods or
rendering services and admission in hospital.

(iii) The Act has made the practice of untouchability punishable in the form of fine and
punishment.

(iv) The untouchability (offences) Amendment and Miscellaneous Act 1976 has enhanced
the punishment. For first time offence, minimum and maximum imprisonment are one
month and six months respectively. The minimum and maximum fines are Rs. 100 and
500 respectively. For second time offence the fine is of Rs. 200 to 500 and imprisonment
of six months. For third and subsequent offences, imprisonment is of one year and fine of
Rs. 200 to 10,000. But in spite of such prohibitive measures, is still being practised. In
rural areas, it is still a social reality. In urban areas too, it is prevalent, at least at the
mental level.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 31 Problems Of Other
Deprived Sections
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-31

Problems Of Other Deprived Sections

Chapter: 31

MODULE 4: INDIAN SOCIETY

INEXT QUESTIONS 31.1

Match the following A with B.

A B

(a) Girl children have to (a) implemented in 1976.

(b) Girl children in poor families (b) are called child labour.

(c) Street children are (c) suffer from discriminatory

behaviour.

(d) Persons earning wages below the age of (d) are also sold getting money.
14 years.

(e) Child labour (pro-hibition and Regulation) (e) run away, orphans and trapped
Act was children.

Ans.

A B

(a) Girl children have to (a) suffer from discriminatory

behaviour.

(b) Girl children in poor families (b) are also sold getting money.

(c) Street children are (c) run away, orphans and trapped
children.

(d) Persons earning wages below the age of (d) are called child labour.
14 years.

(e) Child labour (pro-hibition and Regulation) (e) implemented in 1976.

Act was

INTEXT QUESTIONS 31.2

Tick True or False for the following:

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(i) Daughters enjoy the inheritance and succession rights in patrilineal family.
(True/False)

Ans. False.

(ii) Domestic violence on women is above caste. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(iii) Giving and taking dowry is punishable offence as per anti dowry Act 1976.
(True/False)

Ans. True.

(iv) Women labourers are exploited in mode of payment. (True/False)

Ans. True.

(v) Majority of women are aware of Act related to prohibition of their exploitation
and deprivation of rights. (True/False)

Ans. False.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 31.3

Fill in the blanks with suitable words from brackets:

(i) O.B.Cs occupy ……………. position in caste system. (middle/lower).

Ans. Middle.

(ii) O.B.Cs of Annexure-I are …………….. developed economically and

educationally. (less/more)

Ans. Less.

(iii) Mandal Commission was instituted in ……………. (1979/1989).

Ans. 1979.

(iv) Mandal Commission’s report was implemented in …………….. (1990/1993).

Ans. 1993.

(v) Majority of O.B.Cs of Annexure-I are ………………. (Zamindars/Marginal and

small farmers).

Ans. Marginal and Small farmers.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

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Q.1. Who are the O.B.Cs? Write about Annexure-I and Annexure-II (200 words).

Ans. Meaning of other Backward Classes:

(i) In caste system of India all castes do not occupy equal position. There are many
castes whose position (or the status) in the caste system was in the middle, i.e. in
between higher castes and lower castes.

(ii) Most of castes had to perform traditional occupations. They used to render service to
other castes under Jajmani system. They were known as agricultural, trading or artisan
castes.

(iii) All castes whose position in the caste system was below the upper castes but above
the lower castes, have been termed, politically and constitutionally, the other Backward
Classes following the report of the Mandal Commission:

Annexure-I: A good number of extremely backward economically and educationally

backward castes of Annexure-I are fully dependent upon higher castes for their livelihood
especially in rural areas. They work as casual labour. They also render services under
jajmani system.

Annexure-II: No doubt, a good number of O.B.Cs of Annexure-II own sufficient land. But
it is also true that a majority of O.B.Cs of Annexure-I are marginal and small farmers.
They do not have sufficient land for cultivation. They take land from higher castes for
share-cropping. As share croppers they have to renew tenancy each year.

Q.2. Name five types of gender discriminations prevalent in our society? (200
words)

Ans. Five Types of Gender Discrimed prevail in our society are:

(i) Girls are deprived of educational opportunities: Being girl, she is deprived of
education opportunities. The girls may not be enrolled in school. Rather, they are
engaged and trained in household works, particularly in rural areas. They do not go to
school and compromise with their fate as an assistant to mother in the house of father.
After marriage, they perform their duty as house wife in the house of husband.

(ii) Early age marriage: According to a belief prevalent in some sectors, based on myth
of our society, the marriage of a daughter must be held before puberty. This belief
encouraged child marriage. Child marriage also deprived girls of their educational rights.
Child marriage resulted into motherhood at an early age. It created several health
problems including early motherhood and maternal mortality.

(iii) Least Chances for higher education: Another belief prevalent in rural India is that
the education of girls creates complexity in the settlement of marriage. As such good
number of parents get their daughter married soon after matriculation.

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(iv) Low paid jobs and services: The girls of the poor families have not only to perform
work in the house, but they have also to earn wages as maid servant and child labours.
They are exploited physically as well as economically by their master, contractors,
agents, etc.

The girl children are also sold in poor families of our society. For the poor families, girls
are a source of income. Affluent people purchase girls for working as maid servant, kept
and in some cases also as marriage partners.

(v) Childhood is away from full of pleasure, sufferers of negligence, abuse,

exploitation and operation: It is generally said that the period of childhood is full of
pleasure. But for the girl children in rural India, it is a period of neglect, abuse, exploitation
and oppression. No one looks after the health of a girl. Only when the problem becomes
acute, she is taken to a doctor or hospital.

Conclusion: Thus we observe deprivation and discrimination of a girl child in food,

education and health care.

Q.3. What is dowry? Why it is an evil social practice? (200 words).

Ans. (i) Dowry: We have heard the term dowry at the time of marriage in your family or
neighbourhood. Dowry is payment in cash and kind to the family of bridegroom by father
of bride at the time of marriage. The payment of dowry was prevalent in upper castes
previously. But now-a-days, the demand and payment of dowry have entered almost in
every section of the society in one form the other. Modern education has played
significant role in increasing the rate of dowry. The more the educated the boy, higher is
the demand of dowry. Involvement of women in the demand of dowry is most unfortunate.

(ii) Dowry as an evil social practice:

(a) Giving dowry on own’s will is different from taking dowry by force. Each family has a
budget for the marriage of a daughter. Every family has a wish to send its daughter to a
family so that she could live happily. But when the demand of dowry exceeds its budget, it
feels helpless. Another inhuman behaviour is demand of dowry even after marriage.

(b) In our country 4215 dowry deaths were reported in 1989. They hae increased to 6699
in 1999. It is very unfortunate that seven thousand married women have to meet dowry
deaths each year in our country.

(c) Our Government is fully aware of this unlawful and inhuman behaviour prevalent in
our society. The Government has made Dowry Prohibition Act, 1976. According to this
Act, giving and taking dowry have been made punishable in the form of fine and
punishment.

(d) When the Act came into force, some dowry givers and takers were punished. But
dowry was not eradicated. In recent years, temptations for wealth and consumer goods
have made the demand and payment of dowry more complicated, exploitative and

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oppressive.

Q.4. What is domestic violence? What are causes of domestic violence prevalent in
our society? (200 words).

Ans. I. Meaning of Domestic Violence: When man and woman are bound together as
husband and wife to reproduce children, they lay the foundation of a family. But it is very
unfortunate that majority of women have to face the situation of domestic violence.
Domestic violence takes place in the form of torture, beating, poisoning, burning,
drowning and rape. It is not that domestic violence is prevalent only in rural areas, but it is
also prevalent in urban areas. It is found not only in S.Cs, S.Ts and O.B. Cs. but also in
the upper castes. So, the incidence of domestic violence on women is above caste
religion and region. According to Human Development Report 1995, two-third of the
married women has to face domestic violence. The UNICEF Report 2002 puts the
number of domestic violence more than that India has witnessed a 278 percent increase
in domestic violence from 1989 to 1999.

II. Causes of Domestic Violence are:

(i) Wrong and negative attitude of male member.

(ii) Bitter relation between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law due to poverty, dowry etc.

(iii) Under or lack of education and awareness among women.

(iv) Alcohol and use of drugs.

(v) In our society, domestic violence on women has existed since time immemorial. But in
recent years there has been tremendous increase in domestic violence due to the
temptation towards consumer goods. This has added fuel to the incidence of domestic
violence.

(vi) In order to protect women from the incidence of domestic violence, there is a need to
formulate effective Act. Our Government has prepared, protection from the Domestic
Violence Bill (2001). But this Bill is being opposed by the women organizations due to
weaknesses in the Bill.

Q.5. Name four problems of girl children (200 words).

Ans. Name of four problems of girl children are:

(i) Discriminatory behaviour in society.

(ii) Deprivation of educational opportunities.

(iii) Dowry and Domestic Violence.

(iv) Illiteracy and malnutrition.

5/8
(v) Physical and sexual abuses or oppressions.

Q.6. Who are street children? What are their problems?

Ans. I. Street Children: Some children of poor families come to towns and cities in
search of work.They do some small work like polish, as helpers garages, newspaper
hawker, etc. They also find out such work where their is not need of any capital, for
example rag picking and begging. These children have to face to problem of
accommodation. They cannot hire house or rooms in big cities due to high rent. As a
result, these children have to spend day and night in the street. So, they are known as
street children or rag-pickers. Specially during the night, they use public places like
railway station, bus stand, garden and park etc. for their stay. According to an estimate,
five lakh children live on the street in the cities of Bangalore, Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Kanpur and Madras.

These street children do not have any guardian to guide or control them. They are free to
do anything. As result, they fail victims of intoxicants like Biri, Cigarettes, tobacco, Ganja,
Bhang, liquor etc. Intoxicants spoil their health and life. These children also fall victim of
sexual exploitation. The street children come in contact with the criminals of the They are
trained in picking pockets and stealing goods from the public and crowded places. The
street children when caught in connection with crime, are sent to jail. In jali, they come in
contact with veteran criminals. In this way, they also become criminals in late life.

II. Problems of Street Children: From the above account, we come to understand about
the following points related to the street children:

(a) These children are run away or trapped children.

(b) They are orphans or separated from the families.

(c) These are victims of poverty, illiteracy and malnutrition.

(d) These children are also victims of physical and sexual oppressions.

(e) Their made of working is disorganized and episodic.

(f) They generally perform unskilled labour.

(g) These children make encroachment on government land and are uprooted time to
time.

(h) In bad company, these children start taking liquor and drugs which spoil their health
and life.

(i) They are also involved in crimes and are sent to jail.

Q.7. Who are child labourers?

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Ans. Child labour: You might have seen children earning wages at an age when they are
expected to attend school. They belong to age group of 5-14 years. They generally come
from families below poverty line. Their parents do not have sufficient means or income to
feed and cloth them, so their parents send them to earn wages, in place of sending them
to school. They are known as child labours.

The employment areas of these child labour are hotels, domestic servants, carpet
industry, dye industry, bangle industry, lac industry, foot-bread industry, leaf plate industry,
papad industry, flour industry, biri industry, mines, firework industry and car garage
ceramic industry etc.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is the position of O.B.Cs?

Ans. O.B.Cs occupied a middle position in caste system. They were mostly tenant
cultivators and dependent on higher castes. But to day, they have emerged powerful
politically. O.B.Cs of Annexure-I are less developed educationally and economically, so
the benefit of reservation is taken away by O.B.Cs of Annexure-II.

Q.2. Briefly write the position of women comparing with the males.

Ans. Women constitute nearly half of the population of our society. But in spite of their
numerical strength, they are dependent upon men. This dependency leads to their
deprivation of rights and freedom. They are subjected to gender discrimination, domestic
violence, dowry death, and exploitation.

Q.3. What is the importance and position of children for or in our society?

Ans. Children are backbone of society and childhood is regarded as most joyful stage of
life. But poverty has forced a good number of children to survive as street children and
child labour. They do not go to school and struggle hard for their survival.

Q.4. Why do the child labourers are liked by their masters?

Ans. Child labourers are profitable for the masters because they work peacefully and for
more hours per day. Child labourers are paid low wages. They are not paid as per Child
Labour Act.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the causes behind the persistence of child labour in India? What
problems are faced by child labours?

Ans. I. Cause of Child-Labour: Poverty, illiteracy, absence of earning member in family,

exploitation and opression by land owners, inhuman treatment by parents, temptation to
earn more money and buy consumer goods, low payment to parents, no regular work to

7/8
parents, landlessness etc. are the main reasons behind the persistence of child labour.

II. Problems of Child Labour: The child labour has to face a number of health problems
because they have to render labour in unhygienic condition. They are found to be
suffering from asthma. T. B., respiratory track infection, burning, arthritis, eye disease, ear
disease, skin disease siliconsis, neurological problems and sexual diseases. They have
also to face the situation of accident and death. The child labour are abused physically by
the owners, contractors and agents. They do not resist because they are afraid to lose
employment. Frequent sexual abuses make them abnormal.

Q.2. Women in different roles in families and their role in India’s culture.

Ans. In most of the families we see such kin as mother, sister and grandmother. After
marriage you would have such kin as wife and daughter. These kin are women on the
basis of sex status. In every society, women constitute nearly the population. It is also
true with our society. In our country, male-female ratio as per 1991 census is 929. It
means that sex ratio is not balanced. It is unfortunate that women are deniet equality with
men and are deprived of their rights and freedom.

Women are the custodian of our family traditions and culture. Mothers are the first teacher
in the family. In our literature, we find, them as incarnation of Lakshmi, the Goddess of
wealth. But in practice, we find them deprived of the right of inheritance and possession
of any kind of property. We hear and wherever women are worshipped, the gods and
goddesses reside. But in practice, we find that women are subjected to torture and
violence.

Q.3. Write a paragraph on “Gender Discrimination in our country.

Ans. Gender Discrimination: Sex is a natural thing. For the continuation of family,
linkage, inheritance succession and community the importance of both sexes is equal.
But it is unfortunate that sex has been a basis of discrimination in our society. A majority
of communities in our country, excepting some tribal groups, are patrilineal. In patrilineal
society, lineage, clan, inheritance and succession are patrilateral. In this type of family,
son continues family name from on generation to the next. Girl is treated as other’s
property (Paraya Dhan).

Due to different value associated with both sexes, gender discrimination is in our society.
The most unfortunate scene is involvement of women in the discriminatory behaviour
against women. Generally birth of son is celebrated. When a woman becomes widow,
she does not have that prestige as she had earlier. But when a man becomes widower,
he does not lose anything.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 32 Status Of Women
In Society: A Socio-Historical Perspective
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-32

Status Of Women In Society: A Socio-Historical Perspective

Chapter: 32

OPTIONAL MODULE 1: STATUS OF WOMEN

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 32.1

Answer the following Questions in One Sentence:

Q.1. Which period of the Vedic age is known as the early Vedic period?

Ans. Rig Vedic Period.

Q.2. Name the two the great epics.

Ans. The Ramayana and Mahabharta are two great epics of our country.

Q.3. What imposed blindness on Draupadi?

Ans. Her loyalty to Dhrishrashtra.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 32.2

State whether the following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’.

1. The Dharmashastras prescribed codes of conduct. (True/False)

Ans. True.

2. Yagnavalkya said that a woman does not deserve freedom at any point of time in
her life. (True/False)

Ans. False.

3. Buddhism did not permit women to participate in religious discourses.

(True/False)

Ans. False.

4. During the late-Vedic period women’s status began to decline. (True/False)

Ans. True.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 32.3

Choose the correct Answer:

1. In which year did the British government pass the Sati Prohibition Act?

(a) 1829.

(b) 1830.

(c) 1856.

(d) 1880.

Ans. (a) 1829.

2. What is the name of the reformer whose name is associated with the Child
Marriage Restriant Act of 1929?

(a) Harbilas Sarda.

(b) Dayananda Saraswathi.

(c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

(d) Raja Rammohan Roy.

Ans. (a) Harbilas Sarda.

3. Who among the following said ‘Swaraj without social reform was not a
meaningful proposition?

(a) Gandhiji.

(b) Lokmanya Tilak.

(c) G. K. Gokhale.

(d) Sardar Patel.

Ans. (a) Gandhiji.

4. Who started the first school for Dalit girls in Maharashtra?

(a) Maharshi Karve.

(b) Joyti Ba Phule.

(c) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.

(d) Pandita Rama Bhi.

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Ans. (b) Jyoti Ba Phule.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 32.4

Choose the Correct Answer:

1. The Hindu Marriage Act of …………….. created a provision for divorce.

(a) 1956.

(b) 1955.

(c) 1976.

(d) 1961.

Ans. (b) 1955.

2. What is the sex ratio in India as per 2001 census?

(a) 927.

(b) 933.

(c) 960.

(d) 929.

Ans. (b) 933.

3. The female literacy rate according to the Census of 2001 is ……………… %.

(a) 54.16.

(b) 56.37.

(c) 53.45.

(d) 52.11.

Ans. (a) 54.16.

4. The only state in India, where there are more women than men is …………….. .

(a) Goa.

(b) Kerala.

(c) Sikkim.

(d) Tamil Nadu.

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Ans. (b) Kerala.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Answer the following questions in 200- 300 words.

Q.1. Explain the status of women during the early Vedic period.

Ans. The Status of Women during the early Vedic (or Rig Vedic) Period: The earliest
known source of information available about ancient India is the Rig Veda. The period
between 1500-1000 B.C. is identified as the early Vedic or the Rig Vedic period. Though
we can not clearly state that this age was characterized by total equality between men
and women, it is evident from available data sources that many liberal attitudes and
practices pertaining to women existed during this period. Women took part in religious
and social activities and they had some freedom to choose their partner in marriage.
Marriage was not compulsory for women. The daughter was not considered a liability or
an unwelcome guest in her parental household. Girls would also be initiated into Vedic
studies.

The Rig Vedic Aryans were patriarchal. The position of a husband was considered
superior to that of his wife. Polygyny was permissible. A widow was permitted to marry as
is demonstrated by the prevalent practice of a widow marrying the younger brother of her
deceased husband. In short, it can be said that to an extent women in the early Vedic
Period lived in a liberal social atmosphere.

Q.2. What were the factors responsible for the decline in the status of women
during the period of the Dharmashastras?

Ans. The factors responsible for the decline in the status of women during the
period of the Dharmashastras:

(i) During the age of Dharmashastras codes of conduct, which served as the base for
prescribing behaviour norms also for women were evolved. These belong to a large body
of secular literature, compiled in 500-200 B. C. This period saw the exclusion (leaving
out) of women from both economic and religious sphere. Since education was virtually
denied to women they had to be dependent on men for their survival and maintenance.

(ii) The concept that women were inferior to men gained ground and women were pushed
to a state of utter despair and ignorance. This period was also characterized by
consolidation of religious customs and caste system assuming rigid proportions.

(iii) The Dharmashastras prescribed codes of conduct, which regulated not only family life
but also life in society at large. They also prescribed punishments for violation of these
codes of conduct. The two most important authoritative law codes of this period were
Manu Smriti and Yagnavalkya Smriti.

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(iv) Manu Smriti upheld the view that a woman did not deserve freedom at any point of
time in her life (Na Stree Swatantram Arhati). Manu’s view was that ‘a woman, in her
childhood is dependent on her father, in her youth on her husband, and in her old age on
her son.’ This view of Manu was not just a theoretical idea but also a practice followed in
foto bby the society of that period. The same Manu also said that ‘where women are
respected, there the Gods delight’. This is a statement, which is in clear contradiction of
his pronouncements about women not deserving any freedom.

(v) Yagnavalkya laid down that parents who did not get their daughters married before
they attained the age of puberty would be committing an unpardonable sin. The
Dharmashastras planted the impression that an unmarried woman could never attain
salvation from these worldly obligations if she remained single. As a result, marriage
came to be considered an unavoidable ritual for a woman.

(vi) While girls had to be married at a very tender age no such restrictions were imposed
on men. The husband was even given the right to enforce the obedience of his wife by
resorting to physical punishment.

(vii) During the period of Dharmashastra, child marriage was encouraged and widow
marriage looked down upon. The birth of a girl came to be considered an ill omen and
many parents went to the extreme extent of killing their female infants. The practice of
Sati became quite wide spread because of the ill treatment meted out to widows.

(viii) It was during the period of the Dharmashastras that the status of women completely
deteriorated. Women led a life of total subjugation (subordination) and had virtually lost all
hopes of emancipation (freedom). This situation more or less continued until the 19th
century when the social reform movements launched a struggle to improve the conditions
of women.

Q.3. Explain the main features of the social reform movements during the British
period.

Ans. The main features of the Social reform movements during the British period:

(i) The British set in motion an era of social reform when they imposed a ban on the
inhuman practice of sati (the practice of self or forced immolation of a widow on the
funeral pyre of her husband) in the year 1829. The famous social reformer Raja
Rammohan Roy’s fight against sati received a positive response from the then Governor
General Lord William Bentick who took the lead in enacting the Sati Prohibition Act.
Religious fundamentalists and traditionalists put up a stiff resistance to this Act by
claiming that the British government had meddled with a custom sanctioned by religion.
But the voices of reason prevailed and the British government refused to withdraw the
Act. However, a distinction was made between voluntary sati and forced sati. Also, the
passage of this Act did not put an end to the practice of sati.

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(ii) Because of the ban on widow marriage and lack of opportunities for education, women
who were rescued from the practice of sati had to undergo a great deal of suffering. Many
widows preferred to die, because life held no meaning for them.

(iii) It was this plight of the young and tortured widows that moved West Bengal’s great
reformer Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, who led the movement for lifting the ban on widow
marriage. Due to his efforts the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 was passed. Though
there was no significant increase in the number of widow marriages, the passage of this
Act paved the way for ending a longstanding oppressive custom. Social approval of
widow marriage was also not forthcoming immediately. Vidyasagar had to often bear the
wrath (anger) of hostile fundamentalists, who did not even hesitate to hurl physical
assaults on him for his role in lifting the ban on widow marriage. But the great scholar and
a truly progressive human being, that he was, Vidyasagar went ahead with his
progressive reforms. The role of Vidyasagar in promoting the cause of women’s
education also deserves special mention.

(iv) The social reform movement, which started in West Bengal, spread to other parts of
India too. Jyoti Ba Phule the great reformer from Maharashtra dedicated his life for the
cause of women. He started a school for girls in 1848 and in 1852 established the first
school for Dalit girls. He also supported widow marriage and started a home for protecting
the children of widows. Women’s education got a fillip (boost) in Maharashtra from
Maharshi Karve who was a pioneer in establishing educational institutions for girls and
women. This period saw immense philanthropic (humanitarian) activity by many Indians
in different parts of the country.

(v) There were also a number of other progressive pieces of ligislation during the British
period, prominent among these being the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929. Many of
the woes of women were rooted in child marriage. Leave alone child marriage, there were
even infant marriages. The Act of 1929 fixed the minimum age at marriage for girls as 14
years and for boys as 18 years. Harbildas Sarda took the initiative in leading the
campaign for increasing the age at marriage and in recognition of his role the Act also
came to be known as the Sarda Act. Today the minimum age at marriage for a women is
18 and for a man, 21 years. These changes were brought about by the Child Marriage
Restraint (Amendment) Act, which was passed in 1976.

(vi) The pre-independence era of the twentieth century was also remarkable for one more
reason. The large-scale participation of women in the freedom movement both as visible
and invisible freedom fighters was a standing testimony not only to their courage but also
their capacities Gandhiji, under whose leadership women participated in the nationalist
movement opposed such practices as child marriage and dowry. ‘Swaraj without social
reform was not a meaningful proposition’ was Gandhiji’s view.

(vii) The British period saw the rise of social reform movements which took up the issue of
gender inequality, primarily by passing laws that removed barriers to women’s
emancipation. Though wide spread changes did not take place, the stage was definitely
set for launching a struggle for creation of a gender just society (a society in, which laws

6/8
give equal treatment to men and women. In cases relating to women courts must give
judgements in such a way that the interests of women are protected). Independence
brought new hopes and led to the creation of departments and launching of schemes,
meant exclusively for improvement in the status of women.

Q.4. Discuss the impact of legislation on women’s status in independent India.

Ans. The Impact of Legislation on women’s status in Independent India: After India
got her independence the Constitution of India laid the foundation for creating a social
order where men and women are treated as equals. While Article 14 of the Constitution
conferred equal rights and opportunities on men and women 15 (1) prohibited
discrimination against any citizen on grounds of sex. The Constitution, through Article

15 (3) also laid down that the state can make special provision for women. According to
Article 16 (2) no citizen shall be discriminated against in respect of any employment in
office under the state.

A number of laws were also implemented for liberating women from oppressive social
customs and protecting their rights. Prominent of these laws are as follows:

(i) The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (This Act made monogamy compulsory and created a
provision for divorce. It has prescribed the minimum age at marriage as 15 years for a girl
and 18 years for a man).

(ii) The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (This Act confers property rights on women; but the
provisions of the Act applied only to self-earned property and equal share is not
guaranteed for women in ancestral property).

(iii) The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and the subsequent amendments of 1984 and 1986
(As you will read in the lesson: Some Problems of Women).

(iv) The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (This Act grants maternity leave with full pay for 135
days to women who have completed 80 working days in a given job and prohibits the
dismissal for discharge of a women during the leave period. This Act extends to factories,
mines, plantations, shops and establishments where 10 or more persons are employed.

(v) The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (This Act provides for payment of equal wages for
men and women for equal work).

(vi) The Indecent Representation of Women [Prohibition] Act, 1986 (This Act. prohibits
indecent presentation of women in advertisements and media campaigns and makes it a
punishable offence).

Besides the Acts referred to above, there are also many legislations such as Hindu
Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956, The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act of 1956
amended in 1986, The Family Courts Act of 1984 and The National Commission for
Women Act of 1990 have been passed after the country became independent.

7/8
Constitutional provisions and a series of laws have actually paved the way for bringing
about major changes in the lives of women. Though women have been enfranchised,
their age-long social subordination continues to prevail in many forms. In the 55 years
following India’s independence, the position of women on different indicators of
development such as education or life expectancy has improved considerably, but there
are still gaps in such areas of access to health care or work participation.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Prove giving some proofs that women enjoyed relatively higher status in early
Vedic period.

Ans. During the early Vedic period women enjoyed a relatively higher status. They could
receive education and choose their marital partners. Evil practices such, as sati, child
marriage or ban on widow marriage did not exist.

Q.2. What was the attitude of the British for social reforms in India? Mention their
negative attitude in one sentence.

Ans. Though the British came to India in the beginning of the 17th century, they started
taking initiative for introducing social reforms only in the 19th century.

Q.3. Mention in one sentence of free India for women status after January 1950.

Ans. After India became independent, the Constitution of India conferred equal rights on
women and men with a view to abolish gender discrimination.

Q.4. Mention any two points mentioned under “the Directive Principles of State
Policy for women status. (Very Imp.)

Ans. The Directive Principles of State Policy prescribed that:

(i) Men and women equally have the right to adequate means of livelihood.

(ii) There is equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

(iii) The health and strength of women workers cannot be abused.

(iv) Provision should be made for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity. (Note: write any two).

8/8
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 33 Gender
Discrimination And Gender Equality
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-33

Gender Discrimination And Gender Equality

Chapter: 33

OPTIONAL MODULE 1: STATUS OF WOMEN

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.1

Answer in one Sentence:

Q.1. What is gender?

Ans. Different images given by society to men and women is gender.

Q.2. What is Sex?

Ans. Biological differences between men and women.

Q.3. What is gender discrimination?

Ans. Treating men and women differently.

Q.4. Which article in the Constitution of India prohibits gender discrimination?

Ans. Article 15(1).

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.2

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Distribution of work roles based on a person’s sex is known as ………………. .

Ans. Gender division of labour.

2. Families, which depend only on the earnings of women are called ……………… .

Ans. Female Headed Households.

3. The National Policy of education of ……………. laid down that gender

discrimination should be eliminated by education.

Ans. 1986.

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4. Lessons, which convey the meaning that man’s place is outside and a woman’s
place inside the home are examples of …………….. .

Ans. Gender bias.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.3

State whether “True’ or ‘False’:

1. Majority of the women in India are employed in the organized sector of the
economy. (True/False)

Ans. False.

2. Women working both outside and inside the house suffer from a ‘double
burden’. (True/False)

Ans. True.

3. All over the world, there are more women than men in politics. (True/False)

Ans. False.

4. Feminists reject the idea that women’s biological make up determines their
abilities. (True/False)

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 33.4

Fill in the Blanks:

1. A …………… questions and protest gender discrimination.

Ans. Feminist.

2. Housework is generally considered ……………… .

Ans. Unproductive.

3. A family where the father has power and authority is called ………………. .

Ans. Patriarchal family.

4. A society which treats women and men as equals, is referred to as a

……………….. society.

Ans. Gender equal.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

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Answer the following questions in 200-300 words:

Q.1. Distinguish between sex and gender with the help of suitable examples.

Ans. I. Gender: The world or dictionary meaning of the word (or term) “Gender” is being
male of female’.

Another of the term gender is that it is applied when classifying nouns as masculine,
feminine or neuter. But the two above mentioned usages of the term gender are too
simplistic. The word gender cannot be used to refer to biological differences between
males and females. That difference is best described by using the word sex. In other
words, the term sex refers to the biological characteristics by which human beings are
classified as male and female. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the social, cultural
and psychological characteristics by which human behaviour is categorized as
‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’. The term gender is used in sociology to refer to differences
society posits in categorising human beings as masculine and feminine. Is there then a
difference between the words male and female and masculine and feminine.

Definition of the word gender: Gender is not determined by an individual’s biological

characteristics, but by how society looks at the roles of men and women. In other words,
gender is socially constructed.

Sex: Sex is determined by differences in biological characteristics. The following

examples will help you to understand the differences between gender and sex:

Example 1: It is not a man who gives birth to a child but a women. This is because a
woman has the organ uterus or the womb, in which a baby develops before birth. Since a
man does not possess this organ, he can not give birth to a baby. This act of a woman
giving birth to a baby and a man not being able to do that can be explained by the
differential biological characteristics, which moles and females possess. This difference
can be understood by using the word sex.

Example 2: A boy falls down while playing with his friends in the school ground. He is
hurt badly and starts crying. Instead of giving him first aid, his friends start teasing him by
saying ‘Aye! Look at him crying as if he is a girl. Go and get him a frock and bangles so
that he can wear those and be a girl’. Why should a boy not cry? When there is physical
or mental pain, human beings tend to give an expression to this pain by crying. It is more
of a human reaction than a male or a female reaction.

If a girl or a woman cries, it is accepted as perfectly normal thing for her to do but if a boy
or a man cries, it is considered unnatural behaviour. A man not crying or a woman crying
has nothing to do with their differences in their biological characteristics. This is the way
society has come to allocate (assign/distribute) roles to them. Characteristics such as
courage, strength, and independence are attributed to boys. Girls are supposed to be
timid, weak and dependent. Such socially (attributed) masculine or feminine
characteristics can by understood by using the term gender.

3/9
Q.2. What is gender discrimination? Discuss its causes.

Ans. I. Meaning of Gender Discrimination: Sex is determined by biological

characteristics, and gender is socially constructed (it is the creation of society).

The denial of opportunities in society to a woman, not because she is not eligibility only
by virtue of the fact that she is female is known as gender discrimination.

In theory, there is no gender discrimination in India because the Constitution of India Vide
Article 15 (1) prohibits it.

Gender discrimination exists in all social institutions, prominent examples being family,
religion, education, economy and polity.

Example: All children in the age group 6-11 years must be in primary school, but why do
we find more boys than girls in schools? Is not education as important for a girl, as it is for
a boy? Why should a girl be kept away from school and forced to work at home, while her
brothers attend school regularly? Why should only a girl child do all the housework and
her brothers be spared from this burden? It is this differential treatment (act/practice of
treating men and women differently) of males and females in our society, which is called
gender discrimination. A girl or woman is denied an opportunity not because she is
incapable or incompetent but because she is a female. In talking about status of women it
is gender discrimination that is borne in mind.

II. Causes of Gender Discrimination:

(i) Wrong attitude of the employees about female workers or employees or officers due to
demand of more leave (maternity leave or on biological requirements etc.).

(ii) Preference to a male child by a family or head of the family (generally in India males
are head of the family).

(iii) Better or more chances of educations, skill training for males than the females.

(iv) Religion has had a profound impact on human behaviour Religions. has a long past
and religions texts have been mostly composed by men. Since women were not allowed
to receive education for a long-time, they could not read what was actually written in the
religions texts. Therefore, these books have generally been used to discriminate against
women.

(v) Negative role played by education or educational institutions in favour of men and
against the women. In many ways, education still upholds gender discrimination.

(vi) In political institutions equal representation is not given to women. Only a few female
dominate and even they do not like to increase the number of women in parliament or
state assemblies due to one or other reasons.

Q.3. Define feminism and state its objectives. (M. Imp.)

4/9
Ans. I. Definition of Feminism: Feminism is both a concept and practice (Feminists do
not just preach equality between men and women but also try to promote its
achievement). Broadly defined, it is a state of awareness that women are oppressed and
exploited in all social institutions. Feminism does not just stop at recognizing that there is
oppression of women. It believes in raising consciousness and initiating action for
bringing about change. They raise questions and resort to protests when women’s rights
and self-respect are hurt.

II. Objectives of Feminism:

(i) Feminism rejects the notion (idea) that biological differences between men and women
should form the basis for treating them differently. They trace the roots of gender
discrimination to the social inequalities that are inbuilt in human societies. Feminists use
terms like patriarchy, male domination, female subordination and women’s oppression to
explain gender discrimination, which operates in our society. Patriarchy as the word itself
findicates, is a system where the father or the patriarch has the control. This control gives
him power over other members of the family and creates a belief that men have unlimited
power over women.

(ii) The classification of women’s role as reproductive and men’s roles as productive has
created a situation where the man came to be recognized as the person contributing to
household survival. Even though child bearing and child rearing are very important for the
survival and continuation of a society, these roles are always sidelined. This is done by
giving women’s labour in these tasks very minimal social and economic value.

(iii) Besides reproductive work, women also run the household. Tasks such as cooking,
cleaning, shopping, care of the sick and guest care involve a great deal of physical and
mental labour. Just because this labour is unpaid and invisible it is not socially
recognized. Feminists argue that this distinction between work as productive and
unproductive must cease to exist and women’s contribution, paid or unpaid must be
recognized as work. The feminist slogan All women are workers is a clear indication of
the need to recognize and respect housework as something as important as other types
of work.

(iv) Feminists reject the idea of women as the weaker sex and raise the slogan woman’s
biology is not her destiny (just because a person is born a female she need not be forced
to play not prevented from playing a particular role).

(v) According to feminists gender related prejudices (narrow-mindedness/intolerance) and

practices are deep rooted in all social institutions. Gender division of responsibilities,
which was initially an arrangement worked out for convenience turned into an oppressive
tool over a period of time. It is true that during certain periods of their life such as
pregnancy, childbirth and child rearing women are temporarily away from active
participation in public life. Over a period of time, this temporary separation was virtually
converted to an exclusion from public life and women came to be relegated to a
secondary position.

5/9
(vi) Women play two work-roles (both as home-makers and paid workers outside the
home) in contrast to men who play a single work-role. Such women work for longer hours,
yet social attitudes towards them are essentially biased. Women are treated primarily as
‘wives’ and ‘mothers’ and not as ‘workers’ or ‘producers’.

(vii) Conclusion: In brief, we can say that Feminism is an ideology that believes in the
equality of men and women. Feminists are aware of the fact that women are oppressed
and exploited in all social institutions and fight this discrimination. The goal of feminism is
to establish a gender equal society.

Q.4. What is gender equality? With suitable examples show how it can be achieved
in the family.

Ans. I. Meaning of Gender Equality: Gender equality refers to a situation or condition in

which men and women receive equal treatment in all social institutions. In a gender equal
society women and men have the freedom to exercise their choices and treat each other
with respect. Neither is a woman discriminated nor a male preferred. In a gender equal
social order, both men and women are liberated from oppressive social expectations and
can live and function in a manner, which satisfies themselves and not others.

Gender equality is achieved when obstacles to the liberation of women are removed and
women and men share responsibilities not only in the family but society at large.

II. Examples to achieve gender equality in the family:

(i) Sons and daughters should be treated equal in the family by parents and all male
members of the family.

(ii) Equal division of labour male and female child should be given at home.

(iii) Equal opportunity to take education and academic training males and females.

(iv) All religion texts should re-emphasis (or should be rewritten or re-explained in a
rational and democratic manner) gender equality.

(v) All families should grant equal economic protections to male and female members.

(vi) All economic institutions should pay equal wages or pay to their male and female
members. That will also help in increasing the status of women in families.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What has been done by the Constitution of India to prohibit gender
discrimination?

Ans. Gender discrimination is prohibited by the Constitution of India.

6/9
Gender discrimination was prohibited by the Constitution of India vide Article 15 (1) when
it declared The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them’.

Q.2. Explain the meaning of gender-equal society is also a gender-just society. (V.
Imp.)

Ans. In a gender equal social set up both men and women are respected for what they
can do, and not treated with disrespect for what they cannot do. A male doing housework
is as acceptable as a woman doing it. Violence, either in the form of physical abuse or
mental torture cannot be tolerated in a gender equal society. In other words a gender-
equal society is also a gender-just society. By gender justice, we mean a condition, where
men and women are given respect and equal access to oppportunities from the time they
are born, and get opportunities because of their competence and not because they are
male or female. In the ultimate analysis, gender equality is achieved when women live
with dignity and exercise freedom of choice to control their lives both within and outside
the household.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write an example to prove that under garb of one excuse or the other gender
discrimination is done by the employers in India.

Ans. On ground even after independence we find gender discrimination in the largest
democratic country of the world. An example is given below to show gender
discrimination to provide job opportunity.

(a) Seema and Sameer are applicants for a job in an engineering firm. Both have passed
their engineering examination with distinction. In fact, Seema stood first in her University.
She performed very well in the interview. But, it was Sameer and not Seema who was
given the job. Seema was really upset about this and went and questioned the manager
of the firm. ‘Did I not do well’, she asked. The manager’s reply was like this-Yes, you did
well. In fact your performance was better than that of Sameer.

(b) We preferred him because he is a male. You might leave the job when you get
married, and even if you remain here, you will ask for maternity leave, when you have
children. We cannot afford to loose you or sanction leave’. Seema did not get this job only
because she is a woman. It was not her ability that mattered, but the imagined fear of the
employer that she may either leave the job or seek leave, which actually took away her
chance. If Seema did not have the required qualification, she need not have been given
the job, but even though she was the most suitable candidate, she was denied this
opportunity. This is a clear case of gender discrimination.

Q.2. How has religion profound impult on increasing “Gender Discrimination” in

India? Explain briefly.

Ans. Religion and Gender Discrimination:

7/9
(i) All over the world, religion has had a profound impact on human behaviour. Religion
has a long past and religious texts have been mostly composed by men. Since women
were not allowed to receive education for a long-time, they could not ready what was
actually written in the religious texts. So these have often been used to discriminate
against women.

(ii) There is little wonder that many values and practices, which suppress women, claim to
have religious sanction. Many a time religion double standards, in that in one breath it
says that women should be treated with the highest respect, and in another it upholds
such practices as humiliation of widows, child marriage or sati. We have earlier read
about one instance of this in Manusmriti.

(iii) In many religious rituals women and men are not accorded equal status. A widow or a
single woman is not allowed to perform certain rituals. A woman derives her status from
her husband and, in his absence she loses that status.

(iv) Since religion has a large following, its influence in formulating social attitudes relating
to men and women is very strong.

Q.3. Discuss in brief the Gender equality and Political Institutions in India.

Ans. Political Institutions and Gender Equality in India:

(i) In all societies there is an arrangement for formation and implementation of law and
order. In simple societies agencies of social control were largely informal, for example,
customs or norms. A council of elders ensured that members of a community followed the
norms laid down by that community. As societies became more complex and formal, the
state took over the responsibility of governance and institutions such as assemblies and
Parliament replaced informal institutions. But whether it was the informal system of
political governance or the formal system, the representation of women has always been
very low.

(ii) Democracy for most women means casting their votes in elections and not
participating as people’s representatives. Politics is still considered as unsuitable for
women because they have no experience of handling power.

(iii) It is surprising that in the Indian society which has had a few brave women rulers also,
women still continue to be considered unfit for important political positions. Since men
have held power in all institutions, they are not really prepared to accept the idea of
sharing power with women. This phenomenon is not typical of Indian society, but is
noticeable all over the world.

(iv) The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India gave 1/3rd representation
to women in rural and urban local self-government (Panchayats, Municipalities and
Corporations) and paved the way for nearly a million women entering the political
decision making process.

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(v) However, the Women’s Reservation Bill which proposes to give 1/3rd reservation to
women in the Parliament and state assemblies is still waiting to be cleared by the
legislature. Though women have proved their abilities in managing political
responsibilities, it is unfortunate that the bill is still awaiting clearance.

9/9
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 34 Problems Of
Women
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-34

Problems Of Women
Chapter: 34

OPTIONAL MODULE 1: STATUS OF WOMEN

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.1

Fill in the blanks:

1. The Act of banning Sex Selection Tests was passed in India in the year
…………….. .

Ans. 1994.

2. The act of killing a female child before it is born is called …………….. .

Ans. Female foeticide.

3. The number of female children per 1,000 male children in the age group 0-6 years
is called ………………. .

Ans. Child sex ratio.

4. The constant decline in the number of females in the country’s population is

explained by using the term …………… .

Ans. Missing millions.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.2

Choose the Correct Answer:

1. When a wife is beaten by her husband in her household it is best known as:

(a) Sexual abuse.

(b) Domestic Violence.

(c) Crime against a woman.

(d) Marital Conflict.

1/9
Ans. (b) Domestic Violence.

2. The Domestic Violence Bill is waiting to be cleared by:

(a) Parliament.

(b) National Human Rights Commission.

(c) National Commission for Women.

(d) Department of Women and Child Development.

Ans. (a) Parliament.

3. Domestic violence accounts for ……………. % of the crimes against women.

(a) 45.

(b) 43.

(c) 30.

(d) 59.

Ans. (c) 30.

4. Which among the following is the most effective way of condemning domestic
violence?

(a) Family Quarrel.

(b) Police Torture.

(c) Breaking ties with the family.

(d) Neighbourbood action.

Ans. (d) Neighbourbood action.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.3

State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. The Dowry Prohibition Act was first passed in the year 1962. (True/False)

Ans. False.

2. The 1986 Amendment to the Dowry Prohibition Act made any unnatural death of
a woman within seven years of marriage punishable by law. (True/False)

Ans. True.

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3. Dowry can be equated with a gift. (True/False)

Ans. False.

4. As per the provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act, those who give dowry are
also liable for punishment. (True/False)

Ans. True.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 34.4

Answer the following questions in one sentence:

1. What was the first rape law passed in India?

Ans. The first rape law was passed in 1860 in India.

2. What is custodial rape?

Ans. Rape in police custody is called custodial rape.

3. Name the case, which was responsible for the judgement relating to Sexual
Harassment at Work Place?

Ans. Vishaka Vs The State of Rajasthan.

4. When was the Widow Remarriage Act passed?

Ans. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Answer the following questions in 200-300 words:

1. Define female foeticide and female infanticide and explain their causes.

Ans. I. Meaning of female foeticide: The killing of female foetuses is known as female.
foeticide.

II. Causes of female foeticide:

(i) Use of medical tests: Every year thousands and thousands of female infants are
killed while they are still in mother’s womb. By using medical tests such as scanning it is
possible to detect the sex of the unborn foetus. With the help of doctors any paramedical
staff, some parents resort to the inhuman practices of aborting female foetuses.

(ii) Financial Burden: Unwise parents justify killing of female babies even before their
birth by saying that a daughter would bring an enormous amount of financial burden in
future, as they have to pay dowry to get married and, hence they would rather not allow

3/9
her to be born. This expenditure is in addition to the gift or cash, they are expected to
hand over to the son-in-law in the form of dowry.

(iii) Poverty of the parents is another cause of it.

III. Meaning of female Infanticide: There is a widely prevalent belief in our society that
female infanticide was an inhuman practice, which was in existence only in ancient times.
But the merciless killings of newly born female infants taking place in different parts of the
country have shown us that female infanticide is not a forgotton incident of a by gone age,
but very much a present reality. While several thousands of female infants are killed even
before they are born, thousands and thousands of others are murdered immediately after
their birth. This practice is more common among poor households, because, for killing a
financial resources are required, but a newborn infant can be killed by stuffing poisonous
food grains, through strangulation or suffocation. Media has reported on the wide-spread
prevalence of female infanticide in some regions of Tamilnadu, Bihar and Rajasthan. Yet,
to this day the practice has not been checked. There are police outposts in most of the
regions, but they have done precious little to check its occurrence. Has any parent been
punished for an act, which is nothing short of murder?

IV. Causes of female Infanticide:

(i) Proverty and other socio-economic reasons: If parents have to reach a stage,
where they can kill an urban foetus or a newborn child, what could be the reason? Is it
poverty alone or are there other reasons? In our society, which is male dominated, for
centuries, preference has been given to male children because there is a belief that a son
not only carries the family’s name forward but will also provide the security and shelter
needed by his parents in their old age.

(ii) Patriocal system and patrilineal families and economic consideration: Since a
majority of Indian families are patrilocal (a system of residence where a woman, upon
marriage moves to her husband’s house) and patrilineal (a system of inheritance where
property is transferred in the male line) many families are reluctant to spend money on a
daughter’s future development. Their argument is that resources spent on a daughter’s
upbringing actually bring no returns in terms of economic rewards. So economic
consideration carry an important weight in decisions to kill female foetuses or infants.

(iii) To check division of agricultural land holdings: You will be surprised to know that
even in many rich families female foetuses or infants are killed because they do not want
the property to be taken out of the family in the form of dowry. This is especially true of
families with large and holdings.

(iv) Wrong attitudes of the people: A female is always viewed as lesser than a male.
Her status is lower. She is seen as a daughter, wife or mother of a male rather than an
individual with an independent identity of her own. These kinds of attitudes form a low
value synodrome around the female sex, which works towards perpetuating such
practices as female infanticide.

4/9
Q.2. What is domestic violence? Give some examples and show it can be checked.

Ans. I. What is Domestic Violence: Violence against women can occur either within their
households or outside. Family is considered the safest place for its members, but this
illusion has been proved wrong by the experiences of women who face the threat of
violence in their own homes. The term ‘domestic violence’ refers to destructive acts which
cause physical injury or harm to a woman in her household. The term domestic violence
is generally used to refer to physical abuse, but it should also include deprivatins, which
members of a family may experience, through not necessarily physical abuse. Look at
this example, and you will understand, what I am trying to convey. A daughter who is not
sent to school and forcibly confined to domestic work or denied nutritious food, while sons
receive the best of food, best of education and all other facilities for development. In the
above insance, there may be no physical abuse involved, but the fact that a girl child is
prevented from enjoying the rights conferred on her is also a form of violence.

II. Some examples of Domestic Violence and efforts or steps to check it:

(a) It is shocking but true that about 30 per cent of the crimes against women are
committed within the household. Domestic violence includes such acts as wife battering,
subjecting daughters to physical abuse, harassment for dowry, which may result in dowry
death and forcibly confining women to the house. Domestic violence is surrounded by a
culture of silence because, what goes on inside. The home is generally considered
‘private’.

(b) Even when women are being assaulted or tortured in their homes, the
neighbourhood’s attitude is generally one of disinterestedness or, non-interference in
someone else’s personal life. On many occasions, even the police treat causes of
domestic violence as personal quarrels and fail or even refuse to take action. It is only
when continued victimization results in murder, suicide or grievous physical injury that
society wakes up. But by then the damage is already done.

(c) Look at this case of Asha, who was being subjected to physical harassment every day
by her parents-in-law, husband and his sisters. The cause for this ill treatment was dowry
demand. The neighbours were fully aware of what was happening to Asha, but they did
not interfere or inform the police. One night, Asha was set on fire and it was only when
her screams was heard that the neighbourhood choose to act. By the time the police and
Asha’s parents came on the scene. Asha had sustained burns all over her body and lay
unconscious. They had arrived too late. Asha’s parents were inconsolable. They felt
extremely guilty that whenever their daughter pleaded with them to take her away from
this oppressive family atmosphere, they had convinced her that a wife’s place was in her
husband’s home and that matters would settle soon. The case of Asha is not an isolated
incident. Scores of women have fallen a prey to domestic violence and yet, physical and
mental abuse of women in their conjugal/marital families continues unchecked.

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(d) In most families men and women do not enjoy the same amount of power. This is the
single most important cause of domestic violence. Even when women, who are
economically self-sufficient are not free to take independent decisions, one can imagine
the situations of women who are dependent on their husbands. It is socially acceptable
that within the household, the male is the master and the woman, the subordinate partner.
Often, social pressures force women to tolerate abuse in order to safeguard family
honour. It is also true that support services for women, such as shelter homes, or security
centres are very few and hence women find it difficult to escape from an oppressive
family atmosphere. With little support either from within or outside their family circles
domestic violence remains a major threat to women.

III. Suggestion to check or reduce domestic violence:

1. First and foremost, cases of domestic abuse must be treated as crimes against women
and not as a ‘personal matter’ between the residents of the household.

2. Women must learn to bring the existence of violence to the notice of their parents,
friends, women’s organizations and the police.

3. Tolerating violence in the name of safeguarding family honour will not help matters, but
will only aggravate the situation.

4. The law enforcing agencies must play an activities’ role in countering cases of
domestic violence.

5. Section 498-A of the Indian Penal Code was introduced with the intention of preventing
harassment of married women for dowry.

6. However, provisions under the Act can be applied in situations of domestic violence
and marital cruelty as well.

7. There is no specific law to deal with domestic violence. The Domestic Violence
Prevention Bill is still waiting to be cleared by the Parliament.

8. What is needed is the will to apply the provisions of the existing law to cases of
domestic violence and punish the guilty.

Q.3. Explain the provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 and the
amendments of 1984 and 1986.

Ans. I. The Provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961: Realizing the menace of
dowry, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act in the year 1961. The
Act had defined dowry as ‘property given in consideration of marriage and as a condition
of the marriage taking place.’ Both giving and receiving dowry were considered offences
under the Act, but it was a non-cognizable (an offence, which cannot be punished under
the provisions of the law) and bailable (an offence for, which a suspect can be given bail)
offence, which carried a maximum punishment of six months and/or a fine of Rupees five
thousand.

6/9
II. Amendments of 1984 and 1986: As a consequences of further pressure mounted by
the women’s movement the Dowry Prohibition Act was amended in 1984, and the words’
as consideration of marriage’ were replaced by the words ‘in connection with marriage’.
The punishment was increased to a minimum period of five years and a fine of up to
Rupees ten thousand, or the value of the dowry, which ever was more. The one-year
limitation, which was imposed by the 1961 Act for filing a complaint, was removed and it
was now made possible for the girl’s parents, relatives or a social work institution to file a
complaint on her behalf. Another clause in the Act of 1961 that prior sanction of the
government was necessary for prosecuting a husband, who had demanded dowry also
dropped by the 1984 Amendment.

The Act was again amended in the year 1986. The amendment which was aimed at
making the Act even more stringent increased the penalty to Rupees 15,000 and shifted
the burden of proof to the accused. The amendment also made any unnatural death of a
women within seven years of marriage punishable under section 304 of the Indian Penal
Code.

Q.4. Mention the main features of the rape law.

Ans. The main features of the Rape Law:

(i) The increasing incidence of rape is sending shockwaves throughout the country. But
how do you combat rape? The first rape law in India was passed in the year 1860. For
123 years, that is, till 1983 the law remained unchanged. The law against rape was
heavily biased against women. Until it was amended in 1983, it was left to the victim
herself to prove ‘beyond all reasonable doubt’ that she had not consented to sexual
intercourse. The only proof, which was accepted by the court, was one of serious physical
injury. In the Mathura rape case, the policemen who were responsible were acquitted, but
this judgement brought forth widespread protests and demand for changes in the rape
law. The 1983 amendment was a response to these protests and two significant changes
were brought forth in the rape law. These were:

(a) The inclusion of custodial rape as an offense. and

(b) Awarding a minimum of 7 years imprisonment for offenders, and for persons found
guilty of custodial rape, gang rape, rape of pregnant women and girls below 12 years of
age, and a minimum of 10 years imprisonment.

(ii) In a landmark judgement delivered in 1983 the court also held that additional
corroboration of a rape victim’s testimony was not required. The court added that, in the
circumstances prevailing in Indian society, refusal to act on the testimony of the victim
was adding insult to injury. The Indian Evidence (amendment) Bill 2002 amending the
original Act of 1872 deleted two clauses, which show that the victim of rape or attempted
rape is of generally immeral character.

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(iii) The 1983 amendment, no doubt brought elements of judicial activism [judiciary
playing the role of an activist who will bring to a victim, the justice, which she actually
deserves] into the rape law, but even today, a large number of rape cases go either
unreported or unpunished.

(iv) The strong social stigma attached to rape and the tendency to fix responsibility on the
woman for a rape incident hold many women back from lodging complaints or pursuing
the case. A progressive judiciary as well as police force can go a long way in not only
punishing tenders, but also checking the incidence of rape in our society. The public on
their part must also come forward to condemn inhuman acts such as rape.

(v) Rape poses a serious challenge to women’s empowerment. The fear or threat of rape
keeps many girls and women from aspiring for or achieving social mobility. Parents may
also use this as a convenient tool for discouraging their daughters from the pursuit of
higher goals in life. The quest for gender equality can not make any headway, if sexual
abuse of women continues unchecked.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the major causes for a reduction in India’s female population?

Ans. Have you ever thought about the fact that female foeticide and infanticide are among
the major causes for a reduction in this country’s female popultion? Child sex ratios
(children in the age group 0-6 years) have declined so sharply during the last 10 years
that today there are only 927 girls per 1000 boys, as against 945 per 1000 in 1991. If this
menace is not stopped, in the years to come, millions of girls will disappear from our
midst.

Q.2. Define the word/term “Problem”.

Ans. A problem can be defined as a condition, which is a source of trouble, discomfort or

inconvenience for a person. It is also a situation which comes in the way of a person
exercising his or her choices in life and enjoying the rights conferred on him or her by the
Constitution or law.

Q.3. What is Dowry? Briefly write its meaning.

Ans. What is Dowry: Dowry refers to the gifts given in cash or kind to the bridegroom or/
and his family by the parents of a girl during her marriage. Dowry is most often a demand
placed by a man or his family as a precondition to the marriage. The amount or the type
of dowry to be given is mostly decided at the time of fixing a marriage. Most families
consider marriage the ultimate goal of a woman’s life. They are ready to go to any extent
to get their daughter married off, even if it comes to selling their hard earned and along
with it, their self-respect.

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Q.4. Mention the main types of misbehaviour or sexual harassment in the work
place.

Ans. A group of honourable judges of the apex court of India has identified the following
five types of behaviour in the work place as cases of sexual harassment.

(i) Physical contact or advancing in such a manner as to suggest sexual contact.

(ii) Coercion or request for sexual favours.

(iii) Use of sexist language.

(iv) Displaying literature.

(v) Any physical or oral act, which includes unwanted sexual elements.

Q.5. What major direction is given to the employer to check the sexual harassment
at working place? Briefly write.

Ans. The Supreme Court also directed all employers, be it in the ‘organized sector or un-
organized sector to appoint a committee against sexual harassment at work place. It is
binding on this committee to enquire into complaints registered and also to initiate action
against those responsible for acts fo sexual harassment.

6. What was attitude of Indian society towards widowhood before 1855?

Ans. In the traditional social system, widowhood was considered a curse and widows did
not enjoy any status either in the family or at large. A widow was considered impure, and
a dark spot on the family honour. Widows lived in virtual physical and social isolation and
since they had no right of ‘remarriage’, their future was virtually doomed.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 35 Women’s
Empowerment And Emancipation
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-35

Women’s Empowerment And Emancipation

Chapter: 35

OPTIONAL MODULE 1: STATUS OF WOMEN

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 35.1

Fill in the blanks:

1. The year …………… was known as the Year of Women’s Empowerment.

Ans. 2001.

2. Freedom from oppression is known as …………….. .

Ans. Emancipation.

3. When a woman has the freedom to take decisions and make choices she is
identified as an …………….. .

Ans. Empowered woman.

4. An empowered woman builds an ……………….. society.

Ans. Enlightened.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 35.2

Answer in brief:

1. In which year was the most recent incident of sati reported?

Ans. 2002.

2. What is women’s movement?

Ans. Struggle for women’s liberation.

3. When was the Widow Remarriage Act passed?

Ans. 1856.

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4. What was the minimum age at marriage prescribed for a boy and a girl by the
Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929?

Ans. 14 years for a girl and 18 for a boy.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 35.3

Answer in one word:

1. When was the First Five-Year Plan started?

Ans. 1951.

2. Name the approach adopted by the First to Fifth Five Year Plan with reference to
women.

Ans. Welfare.

3. Name the Organization set up in the year 1990 to safeguard the rights of women.

Ans. National Commission on Women.

4. During which plan period were the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments
passed?

Ans. VIII Plan.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 35.4

Q.1. Match the following:

A B

1. Women’s Networking of Self-Help Groups.

Empowerment Year

2. Swayam Siddha 2001.

3. Swadhar Setting apart 30% of the funds for women’s development in

different sectors.

4. Beginning of Tenth Programme for women in difficult situations.

Plan

5. Women’s Component 2002.

Plan

Ans.

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 A B

1. Women’s 2001.
Empowerment Year

2. Swayam Siddha Networking of Self-Help Groups.

3. Swadhar Programme for women in difficult situations.

4. Beginning of Tenth 2002.

Plan

5. Women’s Component Setting apart 30% of the funds for women’s development in
Plan different sectors.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 35.5

State whether the statements are “True’ or ‘False’:

1. The International Women’s Decade was observed between 1975-1985.

(True/False)

Ans. True.

2. Autonomous women’s groups do not interact with the police nor are they a part
of the government. (True/False)

Ans. False.

3. Women’s movement is meant only for urban women. (True/False)

Ans. False.

4. Women’s empowerment is an ongoing process. (True/False)

Ans. True.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Answer the following questions in 200-300 words.

Q.1. What are the main achievements of the social reform movements of the 19th
century in emancipating women?

Ans. The Main achievements of the Social Reform Movements of the 19th century in
emancipating women:

(i) Education: Most of the social reformers of the 19th century strongly advocated
women’s education, for they saw education as the single most important tool for liberating
women.

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(a) The opening of schools, particularly meant for girls was a major step in efforts at
emancipating women.

(b) When women got an opportunity to move out of their homes and also an exposure to
the world at large, they were lifted out of ignorance. Though conservative parents did not
really accept the idea of sending their daughters to school easily, the fact that efforts
began to be made for providing education to girls, was itself a major step in the direction
of women’s emancipation.

(ii) Laws were passed against so many social evils related directly with the
women’s emancipation: On the eve of British conquest of India, the position of women
was very humiliating. Social evils such as female infanticide, sati, child marriage,
restrictions on female education, polygyny and ban on widow marriage flourished. In the
name of religion, women were kept away from all efforts to seek empowerment. For more
than two hundred years after they set foot in India, the British did not interfere with the
religious and social life of the people they governed because of their policy of non-
interference. But as their position in India was strengthened (became strong), the British
started responding positively to the efforts of enlightened Indian social reformers who had
launched a struggle to emancipate women from the clutches of evil social practices and
customs.

(a) Ban on Sati: The period between 1829 and 1947 saw the enactment of many laws,
which aimed at emancipating women from the clutches of oppressive social customs.
Indian social reformers had to work against heavy odds and stiff social opposition. A
change-resistant (opposing change) society did not accept the ban on Sati or the legal
sanction for widow marriage so very easily. Though sati was legally banned in 1829,
incidents of sati continued and even as late as 2002 cases of sati were still being
reported. If an inhuman practice like sati could exist even in the 21st century, when so
much progress has been made in the fields of science and technology, you can well
imagine how difficult it must have been to fight for women’s emancipation over one
hundred and seventy years ago.

(b) Legalisation of Widow-re-marriage: Lifting the ban on widow remarriage was

another major step in the struggle for the emancipation of women. While the ban on sati
was somewhat effective, the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 could not be effectively
implemented because of social opposition. But the freedom, which the law gave widows
to marry was definitely an achievement in the struggle for women’s emancipation. With a
ban imposed on sati and the ban on widow marriage removed, an environment for
liberating women was created.

(c) Ban on Child marriage: One of the greatest obstacles to women’s emancipation was
child marriage. The enactment of the Child Marriage Restraint Act in 1992 prescribed the
minimum age at marriage for a girl as 14 and a male as 18 years. Though 14 years is by
no means the right age for a girl to be married, this Act at least took the bold step to put
an end to the evil custom of infant marriages. When girl children did not have to be

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married off at an early age, they could go to school which is a very effective instrument of
emancipation. The 1992 Act was the single most significant piece of legislation that
sought to emancipate women in the pre- independence era.

Q.2. Critically examine the role of Five Year Plan in women’s empowerment.

Ans. Role of Five Year Plans in women’s emancipation:

(i) The state initiatives came mainly through the Five Year Plans. Till date, nine Five Plans
have been completed and the tenth Five Year Plan has commenced on April 1, 2002.

(ii) The first five plans adopted what was called the welfare approach in dealing with
women’s issues and problems. This approach treated women as mere targets of welfare
programmes and not as participants in the development process.

(iii) From the Sixth Plan onwards the shift took place from welfare to development.
Women were considered as key participants in the development programmes.

(iv) Towards the end of the Sixth Plan the Department of Women and Child development
was set up.

(v) During the Seventh and Eighth Five year plans three major documents and two major
commissions relating to women’s development were created.

(vi) During the Ninth Plan the shift took place from development to empowerment
approach. The year 2001 was declared as the Year of Women’s Empowerment and a
number of programmes were started during this year. Special mention may be made of
Swayamsiddha and Swadhar. Women’s Self-Help Groups, which are a real source of
empowerment of women, are doing great work in a large number of India’s villages in
building capacities of women.

Q.3. Explain the role of autonomous women’s groups in the women’s movement.

Ans. 1. All over India, a number of autonomous women’s groups have been working to
fight oppression of women. These groups do not receive financial support from the
government, but generally mobilize their own human and financial resources to fight for
the cause of women.

2. After independence, it took nearly 25 years for the emergence of women’s groups and
organizations, which took up women’s issues from a feminist viewpoint. The observance
of the International Women’s decade between 1975-1985 led to the starting of courses on
women’s studies in many universities and colleges as well as action programmes
organized by women’s groups to sensitize the society to women’s issues.

3. A number of women’s groups emerged in different parts of the country to raise basic
questions about gender inequality and initiate action to counter these inequalities. These
groups, known as autonomous (independent) women’s groups did not have a connection

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with any political party. These autonomous women’s groups did not believe in simply
submitting representations or sending delegations to meet political leaders and request
for action.

4. On the contrary, they created a forum for women to meet and discuss issues that were
affecting them and chalk out strategies to tackle all forms of oppression in society.
Though educated middle class women took the initiative in forming and managing these
groups, they took up the problems of working class women, tribal women, peasant
women and dalit women. Yet another unique feature of the autonomous women’s
movement was the participation of women from all castes and classes. The autonomous
women’s groups also joined hands with other progressive movements, such as student
movements, tribal movements, environment movements, anti-price rise movements or
movements for equal wages.

Q.4. Show how Self Help Groups can empower rural women.

Ans. Self Help Groups can empower rural women by following ways:

(i) By opening education part-time centres, girls, schools and encourage parents to send
their female to wards the school.

(ii) By opening Bal-Agenwari for working women’s children to look after them (their
childrens in their working hours.)

(iii) By opening training centres to provide them training in tailoring, knitting, embroidery-
works, carpet-making, basket-making, candle-making, Agarbatti manufacturing.

(iv) By taking interest in fighting oppression, injustice and discrimination against women in
all social institutions. The groups do not compromise their principles for any political,
social or economic policies or programmes, which bring indignity to women.

(v) By starting financial help cooperative societies, giving them loans on very low rate of
interest, proving them free legal advice and help in the time of need.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. In which the world women’s Empowerment-was celebrated in the beginning of

the 21st century?

Ans. 2001.

Q.2. Write the names of mass-media through which we get informations, steps
being taken or should be taken for emancipation and empowerment of the women.

Ans. (i) Newspapers, magazines, books, pamphlets etc.

(ii) Radio, Television, Films etc.

6/10
Q.3. Fill in the blanks, choosing correct word/figure given with in brackets:

(a) For the past ……………. years many laws have been passed to free women from
the clutches of oppressive social wrong customs and ill-practices. (175/62).

Ans. 175.

(b) Women can experience liberation only when they live in an environment, which
………………. them to enjoy the rights conferred on them. (enables/hinder).

Ans. Enables.

(c) An …………….. women is one who has the freedom to take decisions in matters
relating to her life. She is also free from ……………… in her family and all other
social institutions. (empowered / started, / Violence/peace).

Ans. Empowered, Violence.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What do you mean by the term “Women’s Empowerment”?

Ans. What is women’s Empowerment: We all know that the Constitution of India has
conferred equal rights on women and men. We are also aware of the fact that
discrimination on the grounds of gender is prohibited by the Constitution. For the last 175
years, several laws have been passed to liberate women from the clutches of customs
and practices which have been oppressing them for centuries. Yet, we see that many
women face discrimination from birth to death. I aws are not doubt very important to
emancipate women from oppression, but it is equally important to create an environment
in which equality can be enjoyed equally by all women. It is the creation of this
environment which is the goal of empowerment.

Q.2. Who can be called an empowered woman? Mention any (four relevant points).

Or

Who is an empowered women?

Ans. Who is an empowered women?

An empowered woman is one who:

1. Has the freedom to make choices and take decisions in matters relating to her life as
well as society at large.

2. Is not a victim of violence either in her family or any other social institutional setting.

3. Can live her life in such a way that her self-respect and dignity are protected.

4. Has access (equal chance) to opportunities in all spheres of activity.

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5. Is in a position to make use of the laws formulated for safeguarding her honour and
rights.

Q.3. “Mere provision of opportunities for women is not enough. They must here the
freedom to make use of these opportunities.” Explain briefly the statement by
giving a suitable example.

Ans. Mere provision of opportunities for women is not enough. They must have the
freedom to make use of these opportunities.

Example: Let me give you an example. Six-year-old Leena lives in a village. She wants
to go to the village primary school like her friends, but her family wants to send her to
work as a domestic help in the neighbouring city. Being a citizen of India, Leena has as
much right as any other girl in the country to go to school, but due to poverty and family
pressure she is forced to give up her ambition. Leena is not empowered to make use of
her rights. So empowerment is a condition when women/girls have the freedom to enjoy a
right in practice and not just in theory.

Q.4. What is emancipation of women? Discuss briefly by giving two examples.

Ans. Meaning of Emancipation: The term emancipation refers to a condition of release

from any form of oppression or bondage (oppression/control). The removal of hurdles or
constraints for achievement of one’s goals in life can also be called emancipation.
Emancipation can be achieved through legal or social action. Many a time social action
leads to legal action.

Example 1: With the passage of the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856, the legal hurdles to
widow marriage were removed. Until this period, even if a widow wished to be married,
she was not permitted to do so. Today, if a widow wishes to marry she cannot be legally
prevented from doing so either by her family or social group. This is an example of legal
action leading to emancipation.

Example 2: Mathura, a tribal girl, was raped in a police station. The policemen who were
responsible for this act were not punished for this offence because until then, rape in
police custody was not included in the list of offences considered rape. But protests by
women’s groups and the pressure built on the government to consider rape committed in
the pressure built on the government to consider rape committed in police stations also
as a punishable offence resulted in the inclusion of custodial rape as an act of rape, when
the rape law was amended.

Q.5. How you can justify that the social reform movement had their roots western
world? But they actually developed within our own counter?

Ans. (i) The social reform movements of the 19th century, the efforts made in the early
part of the 20th century and also the 19th century women’s movement in Europe and
North America laid the foundation for the emergence of a strong women’s movement in
India.

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(ii) The freedom struggle brought many women out of their homes and the new found
awakening created the right atmosphere for fighting for their rights Liberation from
colonial rule and freedom from oppressive social customs were the twin goals of the
struggles for women’s emancipation. Initially the movement for women’s equality was
spearheaded by men, but during the later years the leadership passed on to women.

(iii) Between 1880 and 1930, a number of women’s organizations sprang up all over the
country. By the time India won her freedom, the stage was set for launching the women’s
movement on a firm footing.

Q.6. What is the women’s movement? Briefly discuss.

Ans. What is the women’s movement?

(i) Women’s movement refers to the struggles launched by individuals and groups for
liberating women from the clutches (control) of social evils and for establishing equality
between men and women. Women’s movement is also referred to as the Women’s
Liberation Movement. The ideology of the Women’s movement is that women have equal
rights and opportunities available in society. Women’s movement believes in activism or
action directed at ensuring that women get their rightful place in society.

(ii) The women’s movement fights against oppression of women in all social institutions. It
also acts as a pressure group (a group whose voices and actions influence public policy
and public opinion) and urges the state to enact laws, which give women their due share
in the economic and political affairs of the country.The ultimate goal of the women’s
movement is to create an environment in which women’s self-dignity is safeguarded both
in private and public sphere.

Q.7. Discuss in about 7 to 8 lines or in a paragraph to point out the women’s

empowerment-efforts in Independent India.

Ans. Women’s Empowerment-Efforts in Independent India: The ongoing efforts to

empower the women of India are made by the state, voluntary organizations and
women’s groups. Voluntary women’s groups are also known as autonomous women’s
groups. The common element in efforts being made both by the state and autonomous
women’s groups is the recognition of the fact that there is gender discrimination in our
society and that special emphasis must be placed on eliminating it. If the Constitutional
guarantee of equal opportunities and prohibition of discrimination has to become a reality
(put into practice), there has to be a constant effort to identify and remove gender
inequalities. The approaches and strategies of the state and voluntary efforts, however,
are different. So, it is important to study the two separately.

Women’s Empowerment Through Voluntary Actions:

(i) The women’s movement in India has been a strong force in the struggle for
empowerment of women. Prior to independence, organizations such All India Women’s
Conference, Bharat Stri Mandal, Women’s Indian Association. National Council of

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Women in India came into existence. These organizations no doubt raised issues of
women’s inequality, but their thought and action were not radical enough to question.
patriarchy.

(ii) However, they organized campaigns against child marriage, purdah and demanded
voting rights for women. These organizations were founded and managed mostly by
women of middle or upper classes. By 1940 when the freedom struggle was at its height,
the All India Women’s Congress has raised this question. ‘Today our men are clamouring
for political rights at the hands of an alien government. Have they conceded to their
wives, their own sisters, their daughters, ‘flesh to their flesh, blood’ of their blood, social
equality and economic justice’.

(iii) The sentiment echoed in this question is that political freedom does not necessarily
bring to women freedom from oppression. Though the pre-independence women’s
movement could not organize the masses, it had definitely set the stage for a strong
women’s movement to emerge in India after the country gained independence.

10/10
NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 36 Culture: Concept
And Characteristics
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-36

Culture: Concept And Characteristics

Chapter: 36

OPTIONAL MODULE 2: CULTURE

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 36.1

Q.1. Match Column ‘A’ and ‘B’:

A B

1. Culture refers to 1. Both material and non-

material aspects.

2. House, a plough, a cycle, etc., are examples of 2. a way of life.

3. Knowledge, beliefs, arts, moral law and custom, 3. material culture.

etc., are examples of

4. Every culture has 4. non-material of culture.

Ans.

A B

1. Culture refers to 1. Both material and non-

material aspects.

2. House, a plough, a cycle, etc., are examples of 3. material culture.

3. Knowledge, beliefs, arts, moral law and custom, 4. non-material of culture.

etc., are examples of

4. Every culture has 2. a way of life.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 36.2

Put a tick (√) for the right one and (×) for the wrong one:

1. Culture is not universal.

Ans. (×).

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2. Culture is space bound.

Ans. (×).

3. Each culture is similar to others.

Ans. (×).

4. Universality of culture is an integral part of human existence.

Ans. (√).

INTEXT QUESTIONS 36.3

Choose the right word and fill in the blanks with appropriate words:

(a) Culture is ……………….. .

Ans. The total way of life shared by a group of people.

(b) Culture is space and ……………….. .

Ans. Universal.

(c) Changes in culture come ………………. .

Ans. With time and space dimensions.

(d) Culture is ever ……………….. .

Ans. Changing.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 36.4

Write ‘T’ for true and correct the false one:

(i) Culture is genetically inherited.

Ans. ‘T’ (True and correct).

(ii) Culture is a learned behaviour.

Ans. ‘T’ (True and correct).

(iii) Learning of one’s culture to become a member of the society is called

enculturation.

Ans. ‘T’ (True and correct).

(iv) Culture is unique to all human species.

Ans. ‘T’ (True and correct).

2/6
TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What do you mean by:

(a) Enculturation.

Ans: Enculturation: It is a process of learning one’s own culture, to be a member of the

society.

(b) Culture.

Ans. Culture: It is a way of life common to a group of people. It includes both material
(such as a house, a plough, a cycle etc.) and non-material (such as knowledge, beliefs,
acts, moral law and custom, etc.) aspects.

Q.2. Define culture and discuss two important characteristics of culture. (M. Imp.)

Ans. I. Definition of Culture: Culture is an integral part of our existence. Yet, it is

different from people to people. We can understand culture better with the following
example: whenever we meet a relation of ours or a friend, we greet him with folded hands
(namaskar). We offer respect to our elders by touching their feet. This is typical of Indian
culture. Shaking hands, hugging and kissing are different ways of greeting friends and
relatives in the western world.

Now let us define culture. A widely accepted and easily understood definition is: “Culture
is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

II. Characteristics of Culture: The most common and important characteristics of

culture. They are:

1. Culture is universal.

2. Culture is stable, yet it is also dynamic.

3. Culture is a learned behaviour.

1. Culture is universal: An Oriya family was residing in Bangalore. Once, when they
were having their dinner consisting of chapati and dalma, their neighbour, a Telegu
speaking woman entered. She was rather surprised to see the Oriyas eating chapati and
not rice, which in fact was essential to her own dinner. Thinking that perhaps the Oriyas
had run out of rice, she offered to provide them the required amount. To her request, the
Oriyas said that it was not the case of running out of rice, but they were accustomed to
eating chapati at night. This example shows that while food is universal, what people eat,
how they prepare and serve it, varies from one community to another. Culture is both
universal and particular.

2. Culture is stable yet it is also dynamic:

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(a) A culture is also time bound. It changes over time. In other words, it is in a continuous
state of flux. Culture can be compared to a flowing river. As the river flows down, the
water at a given spot along the river gets replaced by the second incoming flow. However,
the river remains as ever so. So is culture. The contents change, are modified, get
replaced, but the river of culture flows. It is process of continuous change and continuity
makes culture dynamic. Change in the culture comes so steadily and stealthily that we
never suspect it until we project the present on the past.

(b) Let us take the example of our own photograph. A present photograph of this year and
another photograph taken few years back will definitely give an idea of change in culture
either in hair style or in dress pattern. We can mark here how styles of clothing and hair
have changed over years. In our daily life we can see many such changes. Years back, in
our society, girls’ education was not encouraged while early marriage was mostly
encouraged. Girls were staying at home, learning household activities till they were
engaged and got married. Over years, we see girls have come out of the four walls of the
house not only for formal education, but also for higher education.

3. Culture is a learned behaviour:

(a) When you greet others you fold your hands. But, have you seen a new born baby
folding its hands to greet others? In other words, we can say that we have learnt to greet
with namaskar because we have seen others doing in the same manner or we have been
told by our elders to do so. But does any body tell a crow to build its own nest? Even
tailorbirds weave their own nests. These birds have not learnt the technique of nest-
building from other birds. They have inherited the quality from their parents.

(b) Human beings do not inherit any socio-cultural parental quality. They have to learn it
from their family members, members of the group and the society they live in. Thus
culture is a learned behaviour and not genetically inherited nor is it an instinctive
behaviour. It is acquired by human beings from the society in which they are brought up.
Consequently, culture is unique to the human species. Learning of one generation is
passed down to the succeeding generation through a process called “enculturation”.

Q.3. Write a brief note on the concept of culture.

Ans. Concept of Culture:

Culture: As said earlier, culture is the way of life that is common to a group of people.
Now let us look at culture in its time-spece jacket.

Time bound: Wearing of warm clothes in winter and carrying an umbrella in rainy season
are examples of behavioural change over a short period of time i.e. approximately a year.
Over long periods of time, patterns of behaviour change due to factors entering as
contents of culture. For examples, about 200 years back, there were no railway facilities a
hundred years ago there were no aeroplane. Twenty-five years back people were not

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exposed to computers as they are today. All these innovations have influenced the way of
life to such as extent that life without them is almost unthinkable. That is how time is a
determining factor in the cultural makeup of a people.

Space bound: We all greet our friends when we meet them after a lapse of time.
However, the way in which we greet varies from culture to culture and place to place. The
Indians greet with folded hands, the Englishmen greet by shaking hands, and the
inhabitants of Tikopia, a small Polynesian island, greet by approaching each other with
raised fists, which to an outsider appears as a prelude to fight. This is how the human
behaviour varies from place to place.

Culture has two broad components: One is material and the other is non-material. The
material part includes everything that is made, fashioned or transformed by human beings
in society i.e. it is tangible, like ploughs, sickles, digging sticks

Food, dress, ornaments, Symbols, attitudes, houses and automobiles, etc.ideas, beliefs,
song, dance and music etc. musical instruments, etc. If we look closely, we find that even
people who have agriculture as their main occupation do not use similar agricultural
implements. In hilly areas, hoes are used instead of ploughs. Here we see that the
environment plays a vital role in conditioning the culture of a society. Thus, it may be said
that the material expression of man’s interaction with environment is culture. Environment
is not the same every where. It varies from place to place. Hence, culture from place to
place can also change along with the change of environment.

Let us now more to the non-material aspects of culture. Non-material culture includes
symbols, ideas that shape the lives of human beings in relation to one another. The most
important of these are attitudes, beliefs, values and norms. For example, the beliefs affect
the rituals. Muslims observe fasting for one month (known as Ramzan month). During this
period, they take food once a day, that is only after seeing moon in the evening. On the
last day of Ramzan, fasting breaks with a particular type of sweet dish along with other
sweets which are also distributed among near and dear ones. Similarly, food-related
beliefs and taboos (restrictions) govern our food habits and food consumption at different
phases and occasions of life. For example, among the Oriyas, there is restriction on
taking non-vegetarian food during the month of ‘Kartik’. It is believed that avoiding non-
vegetarian food during this month prevents different diseases and helps leading a normal
healthy life. A restriction on food during navratri among north Indians is another example
of nonmaterial culture.

Not entering the kitchen with slippers on observing forty days rest after childbirth, are
other examples of non-material aspects of culture. Some of these practices have been
found to have scientific basis also. For example, use of turmeric in almost every ritual and

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food preparation is said to be associated with its antiseptic quality. This is common nearly
among all communities in India.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 37 Indian Cultural
Heritage
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-37

Indian Cultural Heritage

Chapter: 37

OPTIONAL MODULE 2: CULTURE

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 37.1

Q.1. Match column ‘A’ with column ‘B’:

A B

1. Adarang and Sadarang Odissi.

2. Raghunath Panigrahi and Sanjukta Panigrahi Kathakali.

3. Rukmini Devi Veena.

4. Madame Simak Bharatnatyam.

Ans.

A B

1. Adarang and Sadarang Veena.

2. Raghunath Panigrahi and Sanjukta Panigrahi Odissi.

3. Rukmini Devi Bharatnatyam.

4. Madame Simak Kathakali.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 37.2

Write the name of the places where the following are situated:

(a) Sun Temple.

Ans. Konak.

(b) Victoria Memorial.

Ans. Kolkata.

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(c) Hawa Mahal.

Ans. Jaipur.

(d) Taj Mahal.

Ans. Agra.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 37.3

Fill in the Blanks:

(a) ………………. was a noted mathematician of ancient India.

Ans. Baudhayana.

(b) ……………… is the author of the two scientific works named as “Aryabhatta”
and “Surya Siddhanta”.

Ans. Aryabhatta.

(c) …………….. received the Nobel Prize for Physics.

Ans. C. V. Raman.

(d) Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore was founded by ………………… .

Ans. Tata.

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Write briefly the meaning of Indian Cultural Heritage. (Most Imp.)

Ans. The Meaning of Indian Cultural Heritage: India’s cultural heritage is not only one
of the most ancient, but it is also one of the most extensive and varied.

Throughout its history, people of diverse cultures have either temporarily come into
contact with India or have permanently settled here in to evolve a distinctive Indian
Culture. As a matter of fact, Indian Culture presents a synthesis of several ways of life.
Over several generations, material components and intellectual give India its unique
identity as a nation visible in many aspects of our culture like food, dress, ornaments,
architecture, sculpture language, literature, science, technology, dance and music, art and
painting, values and practices etc. The achievements in all these areas of activity that
have come down to us defying the ravages of time, are termed as our heritage. In the
following section, we shall discuss some of them.

Q.2. Discuss any two aspects of our culture to know the Indian cultural Heritage.

Ans. Aspects of Indian Culture to know Cultural Heritage:

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(i) Sculpture: The Mathura and Sarnath schools, paid special attention to the physical
charm of the statues and to the dignity of their poses. Statues of Vishnu, Shiva, Budda
and other gods and goddess were sculptured in minute details. All the statues found
inside the temples of Orissa (Puri, Konark, Bhubaneswar etc.) are characterized by a
highly developed sense of rhythm and beauty.

Modern India have maintained the sculpture of ancient and medieval India but there is no
significant mark of advancement in sculpture in contemporary India.

(ii) Architecture: Ancient India was as rich in the domain of sculpture and architecture as
in the field of art and literature. The Vishnu temple at Deogarh, the Sun temple at Konark,
the famous temple of Lord Jagannath at Puri are admired as gems of ancient Indian
architecture, Khajurajo temples in Bundelkhand built of buff-coloured sandstones are still
standing as loud witness to the outstanding architecture of ancient India. The Jain Dilwara
temples of Mount Abu exhibit sculptural decoration of most marvellous richness and
delicacy. The temples of Orissa have special place in the field of Indian architecture. The
Orissan temples are characterized by the absence of pillars in the halls, an adorned
interior and a lavishly adorned exterior. Among the finest of these are Lingaraj temple.
Mukteswara temple and Rajarani temple at Bhubaneswar besides the Sun temple of
Konark and the Jagannath temple of Puri. The strong and magnificent forts of Chittorgarh,
Gawalior, the grand fort of Jodhpur the Hawa Mahal, and Amar Palace of Jaipur, the
palaces of Jaipur, Udaipur and Gawalior, and the towns like Jaisalmer, Kota and Udaipur
are some of the examples of architectural skill of India.

With the advent of Mughals, Indian architecture entered a new phase in which the rugged
and simple work of the earlier Sultans of Delhi is softened and beautified by Persian
influence. Architecture under the Mughals attainted a very high peak. Mughal architecture
reveals a happy blending of Persian and Indian style. The Gol Gumbaz at Fatepur Sikri,
the Taj Mahal in Agra, the Red- Fort, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas and the Jama Masjid
represent this style. The Mughals were famous for gardens. As per the Persian style, the
gardens were to be geometrical in design containing, artificial lakes, channels, tanks, and
water-falls, which were freely provided. Another important innovation was the making of
terraces at different levels.

During the British rule, the western architectural styles became popular and spread all
over the country. In the beginning of 20th century, two distinct schools emerged in Indian
architecture:

(a) Revivalist school which aimed at the revival of indigenous architecture. and

(b) The progressive and modern school which inclined toward the western models. The
latter had been more popular.

The constructions of Victoria Memorial in Kolkata and at New Delhi were designed by
Engineers. In Spite of expansion of western architecture, many Indian Princes and
Nawabs constructed a few structures in traditional Indian design. The modern magnificent
buildings at Udaipur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Mysore and other places are the best specimens of

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the art of Indian master-builders. The bathing Ghats of Haridwara, Ujjain, Varanasi and
Maheshwar, the temples at Mathura, the Jain temple of glass at Indoor and the Birla
temple at Delhi and the Vishnu temple at Nagda in Madhya Pradesh are those which
were least influenced by the western ideas. They are the brilliant examples of Indian
architecture set in modern times.

Q.3. Write notes on:

(a) Norms and Values.

Ans: Norms and Values:

(i) Every culture contains a large number of guidelines which direct individual and groups
conduct themselves in particular situations. A norm is a specific guide and action which
defines acceptable and appropriate behaviours and particular situations.

(ii) Values, on the other hand provide more general guidelines. A value is a belief that
something is good and desirable. It defines what is important, worthwhile, and worth
striving for.

(iii) Many norms can be seen as reflections of values. A variety of norms can be seen as
expressions of a single value.

(iv) Certain norms and values are essential for the operation of human society.

(v) A great deal of attention was directed by the thinkers of ancient India to provide
specific guidelines to individuals to conduct their inter-personal relationship in specific
situations.

(vi) The values and practices of ancient India were of great importance. These practices
could be easily seen in institutions like marriage and rituals and languages. For example
the Grhuya Sutras, lay down that the following rituals are essential for the marriage
ceremony: Kanyadana, Agnisthapana, Homa, Panigrahana, Lajja Homa, Agni Pranayama
and Saptapadi. These rituals form an integral part of the traditional marriage ceremony.

(vii) In addition to these, Lokachara or the customs prevailing in the community are
observed. In case there is any doubt about these, old-women are normally consulted.
This too has been the practice all along.

(b) Art and Painting.

Ans. Art and Painting:

(i) The paintings of ancient India are master-pieces of all times. The fresco-paintings on
the walls and ceilings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves and those at Bagh in Gwaliar in the
style of Ajanta still attract admiration. The most important compositions are the
procession of elephants and a dancer with women musicians. The Madhubani paintings

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of Madhubani of Bihar and Patta Painting of Orissa are some good examples of ancient
art and painting. The Rajput paintings are sensitive, delicate and serene. They show
close association with religion.

(ii) During the Mughals, fine art rose to a standard of considerable excellence. Being
lovers of fine art, the mughal kings patronised new styles and techniques where one can
notice a happy mingling of Persian and Indian elements. This synthesis has left a deep
impression on painting, architecture, embroidery, jewellery and metal work of the age.

(iii) Painting made remarkable progress during the time of Akbar. His personal interest in
painting, generous aesthetic temperament, sympathetic attitude towards foreign artists,
his religious tolerance and active association with Hindus are noticeable in the paintings
of his times. The best work of painting were undertaken when Akbar was staying at his
new capital Fatepur Sikri. All artistic creations of this period breathe an air of luxury.

Q.4. Write about contributions of Indian Scientist in brief. (Most Imp.)

Ans. Contribution of Indian Scientist:

(i) In ancient India, the study of the Veda in addition to subjects like astronomy, geometry,
and arithmetic medicine and surgery (Ayurveda), agriculture military science
(Dhanurvidya) etc. were also studied with considerable interest. Sacrifices had to be
performed as the sine-qua-non of the vedic way of life on an altar of prescribed size and
shape. This requirement gave rise to the science of geometry. The priests formulated
rules for constructing squares equal in area to oblongs and oblongs to squares; and,
methods for making triangles equal to squares and oblongs and circles equal to squares;
etc.

(ii) Baudhayana, was the Mathematician. Virddha Garga, Lagdha Aryabhatta the
astronomers, have had a lasting impact on science in India. Aryabhatta authored two
great scientific works “Aryabhatiya” and “Surya- Siddhanta”. He was first to enunciate that
the earth is round and revolves round the sun. He also explained the movements of the
stars and analysed the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses. Moreover, Aryabhattiya
deals with algebra, geometry, arithmetic and trigonometry. It also throws light on the
numbers. The concept of zero has been his everlasting contribution to science and
mathematics.

(iii) Varahamihira was another great scientist of this age. He was the author of the famous
book “Brihat Samhita deals with astronomy, botany, geography and many other subjects.
But its main subject is astronomy, a work still considered to be an authority.

(iv) Besides astronomy and mathematics, the science of medicine also flourished in the
Gupta period, Vriddha-Vagbhatta was perhaps the greatest physician of this age. The
system of medicine that he adopted and propagated was the same as that of Charaka
and is considered an authority on the ancient system of medicine. Dhanavantari was
another great medical authority in the science of Ayurveda system of medicine.

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(v) Brahmagupta was another famous mathematician of this period. He is credited with
the discovery of the use of the zero and the profounder of the decimal system. These two
discoveries revolutionised mathematics.

(vi) Though India achieved remarkable progress in the field of science in ancient times, it
received a setback in the medieval age. But the contact with the West and the Indian
Renaissance made Indians realize that development of science, scientific inventions and
discoveries were responsible for unprecedented progress and material prosperity of the
west. Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose made discoveries on plant-life in 1897 and startled the
world by his demonstration in short waves wireless.

(vii) In 1902, Prafulla Chandra Ray wrote the history of Hindu Chemistry, which
acquainted the West with our progress in the field of Chemistry. In 1911 the Indian
Institute of Science was founded by Tata at Bangalore for all research work in physics,
chemistry etc. In 1914, Indian Science Congress was started to promote the study and
research in science, to acquaint people with the progress of science to create interest in
science and establish close contacts among the scientists. It has been doing admirable
work in the filed of science. As a result of this, Indians made remarkable progress in
various branches of science and gained international fame.

(viii) In 1918, Srinivas Ramanujam startled the world by his talents in Mathematics,
discoveries of Jagdish Chandra Bose in Botany, contributions of C.V. Raman to Physics
in 1930 have all brought them international reputation and acclaim. In recognition of his
researches, Raman received the Nobel Prize for Physics (1930). He established the
Raman Institute of Science at Bangalore to promote the study of Physics. To further the
cause of science the Academy of Science was founded at Allahabad in 1930. As a result
of these institutions and researcher therein, science gained popularity. In colleges and
universities it became a subject of higher studies.

(ix) After the political liberation, the Government of India had a separate department to
encourage scientific inventions and constituted an advisory body for it. Gradually, interest
in the scientific inventions and discoveries increased and the people and the Government
both moved in this direction rapidly. Consequently, a large number of technical scientific
institutions were established. Among these, the National Physical Laboratory at Delhi,
National Chemical Laboratory at Pune, National Metallurgical Laboratory at Jamshedpur,
Fuel Research Institute at Jharia Coalfields, Central Glass and Ceramic Research
Institute, Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics at Calcutta, are well known. Besides
these, Geological Survey of India, established in 1916, and Botanical Survey of India are
doing praiseworthy work in their own fields. All these institutions have trained scientists
and keep on making valuable contributors to various branches of science.

(x) Also, we have famous nuclear scientists like Dr. Raja Ramanna who is known as the
father of India’s nuclear science. Our space scientists, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and Kalpana
Chawla have made commendable contributions in their field. (We are proud to have Dr. A.
P. J. Abdul Kalam as the president of our country while recently we have not lost Kalpana
Chawla, the first Indian Woman who went to space).

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SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write the names of various aspects of culture.

Ans. (i) Literature.

(ii) Architecture.

(iii) Sculpture.

(iv) Art and Painting.

(v) Music and Dance. and

(vi) Science and technology are six important aspects the culture.

Q.2. Why has the Indian Culture become very wide and assimilative?

Ans. Indian culture, has absorbed various ingredients of the Aryan. Dravidian, Persian,
Greek, Chinese, Muslim and various other cultures, and has become very wide and
assimilative.

Q.3. India of today, requires what type of culture? Mention in one to two sentences.

Ans. Today, we need such a human culture which may not only unity the ancient and
modern Indian culture but also have synthesis of the East and the West. India is the only
country where the East and West can interact happily and synthesize early.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Answer the following questions: (each one of them in about one sentences:

(a) Has India achieved a new synthesis in cultural field?

Ans: We have to achieve a new synthesis in which the cultural heritage of our ancient
land will be reconciled and enriched.

(b) What is more dangerous in the field of cultural heritage?

Ans: Nothing is more advantageous and more credible than a rich heritage. But nothing is
more dangerous for a nation that to sit-back and live on that heritage alone.

(c) What is importance of cultural heritage for a nation?

Ans. A nation cannot progress if it merely imitates its ancestors; what builds a nation is
creative, and vital activity.

Q.2. What is place of own rituals for Indian society? Give example also.

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Ans. I. All human societies have their own rituals which are considered important by their
members. In Indian society, the emphasis on rituals seems to be a bit high. There are
numerous practices connected with rites de passage, festivals, pilgrimages besides the
daily worship of gods and goddesses.

II. Example For example millions of people from all corners of India congregate on
specific occasions such as Kumba on a specific place like Haridwar and Allahabad
without any invitation or announcement. The values/beliefs attached to this practice is the
same as these were years back. The religious practices and values associated with
Indian culture are constantly striving towards “Samanvaya” i.e., reconciliation and
concord. Cultural practices have been modified from time to time, but different
environments, diversified racial contribution have not basically affected the continuity of
Indian culture associated with its values and practices.

Q.3. Discuss the meaning of Cultural Heritage in about five to six sentences.

Ans. Meaning of Cultural Heritage: A nation is recognised through its achievements –

past and present. The past achievements, which survive the onslaught of time pass into
the realm of heritage. Thus heritage is that item of culture which is inherited by the
posterity collectively. The Sun temple of Konark, the pyramids of Egypt, the Kumbha
Mela, many rituals and beliefs associated with day-to-day life and the Vedas are some
examples of Cultural Heritage. We the people of India, are the successors of rich cultural
heritage, created and left for us by our ancestors in different walks of life.

Q.4. “The Mughals were great patrons of literature.” Explain it in brief.

Ans. Down in the recent history, the Mughals were great patrons of literature and gave a
considerable impetus to its development in different branches. Not only emperors but the
ladies of the royal households from Humanyan’s mother to Zebunnisa, the famous
daughter of Aurangjeb, were patrons of art and literatures. Babar and Jahangir wrote their
own memoirs. Many thinkers and scholars flourished and wrote interesting and important
works under the patronage of Akbar. At Akbar’s court gathered a galaxy of poets and men
of literature. Abul-fazl, was Akbar’s “friend philosopher and guide” has written “Deen-i-
Akbari”. The scholar Prince, Dara translated the principal Upanishads into Persian”.
There had been drastic changes towards the latter half of the 19th century commencing
from the time when India came in contact with the west.

Q.5. Discuss the development of Literature in Modern India.

Ans. Literature in Modern India:

(i) Great Indians, such as Raja Rama Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda Sarswati, Iswar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekanand and Mahatma Gandhi and many others turned
their attention to a critical examination of Indian social practices, such as Brahminical
rituals, caste rigidity, of the widows and women and came out with ideas to week the
Indian Culture its dead wood. These led to great social and religious awakening and
produced literature in different regional Indian languages.

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(ii) Many Sanskrit works have been translated into English and other Indian languages.
Widespread English Education has also introduced new ideology and western thought
into the literature of regional languages. Various branches of literature-novel, story,
drama, essay, and poetry-were enriched. With the advent of 20th century, national
awakening and freedom struggle introduced the sentiment of patriotism into Indian
literature. Today we see in our literatures, an attitude of realism and an enlarged global
vision.

(iii) National spirit and patriotism deeply impressed the evolution of modern literature and
consequently some of the best works were composed in this period. Rabindea Nath
Tagore, Subramanyam Bharati, Dinkar, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawarharlal Nehru, to name
only a few, belong to a galaxy of powerful writers whose works have already entered the
realm of heritage was the pioneer in this field.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 38 Cultural Pluralism
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-38

Cultural Pluralism

Chapter: 38

OPTIONAL MODULE 2: CULTURE

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 38.1

Fill in the blanks:

(a) Pluralism means ………………… .

Ans. Many.

(b) The best example of cultural pluralism is …………….. .

Ans. India.

(c) Cultural pluralism has been termed by Pandit Nehru in his “Discovery in India”
as ……………….. .

Ans. Unity in Diversity.

(d) India has been divided into …………….. states and …………… union territories.

Ans. 28 states and 7 union territories.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 38.2

Write answer in one sentence:

What do you mean by

(a) Ethnocentrism.

Ans. (a) Ethnocentrism is the tendency of judging other cultures through one’s own scale.

(b) Monogamy.

Ans; (b) Cultural relativism is an ethical position in which all cultures are taken as equal,
each being a separate unit within its own integrity.

(c) Cross-cousin marriage.

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Ans: (c) The example of cross cousin and parallel cousin can be given.

For example: Mr. Chaman and Mrs. Meena are brother and sister. Mr. Charan has a son
of 21 years and his sister has a daughter of 18 years. They can marry. This is called
cross-cousin marriage.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 38.3

Write T for true and F for false:

(a) When values regulating social life do not keep pace with changes in areas like
technology, it is called cultural lag.

Ans. T (True).

(b) There are accepted international norms to regulate the use of nuclear weapons.

Ans. F (False).

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. What do you understand by cultural pluralism? Give a suitable example. (Very
Imp.)

Ans. As regards cultural pluralism we understand that it is a system where different

culture groups co-exist and interact without losing their respective autonomy and identity
as long as they are not detrimental to the national unity and general welfare of the nation.

Example: India has cultural pluralism we find here people having pure eastern culture.
There are families having pure western culture. These followers of different relizions and
sets. They are having different food, dress, customs etc.

In most of the southern states of India people are having Davadion culture, having
different food and diet habits, different languages and dialects and different cultural
works.

Q.2. What is ethnocentrism and how does it differ from cultural relativism? Discuss
with examples.

Ans. (i). The meaning of ethnocentrism, which tends to put down other people’s way of
doing things as bizarre or inferior.

(ii) Cultural relativism is an ethical position in which all cultures are taken as equal, each
being a separate unit within its own integrity, that should not be compared to other
cultures in terms of how it measures up to their standards.

(iii) Example of ethnocentrism: Human beings live in groups. Each group has its own
way of life that we broadly term as culture. Members of a group arrive at the way they
conduct themselves through a continuous process of trial and error culminating in beliefs,

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values, mores and folk ways. Thus, each culture functions in the context of its own
experience and environment. Consequently an individual looks upon his/her own culture
as better than any other, and tries to judge other cultures through the standards of his
own culture. This tendency of judging other cultures through one’s own scale is broadly
termed as “ethnocentrism”. Ethnocentrism is perpetuated directly or indirectly, consciously
or unconsciously through a process which tends to put down other people’s way of doing
as bizarre or inferior. For example, cultures in which cross-cousin marriage is a norm,
tends to look down upon the cultural practice in which a cross cousin is equated with a
sister and vice versa.

(iv) Example of Cultural Relativism: Each culture has a history of its own, culture
cannot be compared on a scale of excellence in which the ranks are set according to the
standards of one particular group. Throughout our study of other cultures, we should
attempt to overcome as much of our ethnocentrism as possible. We should try to become
more objective about cultural differences, to be tolerant of other people. This attitude is
known as cultural relativism.

Q.3. Explain cultural relativism in your own words.

Ans. It is based on the idea that all values are relative and that there are no absolute
standards that are valid in all cultural settings. For example, Muslims approve polygyny
which is taboo among many Hindu groups. Khasi, communities in northeast India are
matrilineal whereas the Naga are patrilineal. Many South Indian communities prefer
marriage with a cross-cousin, whereas in eastern India a cross cousin is equated with a
sister. Muslim prefer marriage even with a parallel cousin. These practices are acceptable
in terms of values in the context of their occurrence. In other words, the east Indian
practice of equating a cross cousin with the sister does not hold good to judge the South
Indian practice. Thus, a specific practice is related to a specific culture. This is what we
mean by cultural relativism.

Chart of cross cousins.

A is B,’ husband

C is D,’ husband

B is C,’ sister

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E and F are A is B,’ children.

G and H are C is and D’s children

E and F are cross cousins of G and H

One of the most fruitful discussions of cultural relativism is in the area of values and
morals. We tend to be much more defensive about our moral behaviour than about other
aspects of our culture because it is so strongly ingrained in us from early childhood. Our
morals and values are also based on the cultural and physical environment in which we
grow up and cannot be separated from it. In the context of cultural relativism:
“Judgements are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each individual
in terms of his own enculturation. This holds true for all phases of culture Evaluations are
relative to the cultural background out of which they arise”.

Q.4. Explain culture lag with an example.

Ans. Cultural Lag: The term culture lag refers to a situation when ideas, values, and
norms and beliefs used to regulate social life do not keep pace with changes in the
technology of society. For example, development of nuclear weapons by a number of
nations without an acceptable international system of norms and values of regulate,
control and use. In this case, a change in technology is yet to develop norms for its use.
This is to say a change in values lags behind a change in the technological field.

At this moment of time, a large scale debate is going on the ethics of human cloning to
produce a human individual outside the natural process of reproductive mechanism. A
human individual is linked to every other individual of his/her group in a network of
relationship defined by the culture of which he/she is a part. How a cloned human being
would fit into this culturally defined network or social relationship is yet to develop. This is,
a clear case of cultural lag where developments in medical technology have outstripped
the social field.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Who is called cross-cousin?

Ans. Cross-cousin are the children whose parents are related as brother and sister.

Q.2. What do you mean by the term “cloning”?

Ans. To create a genetic duplicate of an individual or an organism through a sexual

reproduction is called cloning.

Q.3. Fill in the blanks:

(a) ……………… cousins are children whose parents are related either as brothers
or as sisters.

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Ans. Parallel.

(b) ……………… is a form of marriage when one man marries one women at a time.

Ans. Monogamy.

(c) When marriage takes place between one man and more than one women it is
…………….. .

Ans. Polygamy.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is our duty while we study different cultures or compare them?

Ans. 1. While studying different cultures and describing and comparing other cultures, we
should and must remain neutral and should not make any judgement about the merits of
one culture over another. Cultural relativism is an ethical position in which all cultures are
taken as equal, each being a separate unit with its own integrity that should not be
compared to our own

culture in terms of hos it measures up to our standards.

2. The history of each culture is distinct. Became so (that way) as a result of its own
development. And, it therefore, can not be ranked against another culture with a different
history. Each culture has changed over time, some more, some less in certain areas and
some in response to pressures that the other did not face.

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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 39 Impact Of Media
and Culture
devlibrary.in/nios-class-12-sociology-chapter-39

Impact Of Media and Culture

Chapter: 39

OPTIONAL MODULE 2: CULTURE

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

INTEXT QUESTIONS 39.1

Q.1. What do you understand by the following terms? Write each in one sentence.

(a) Mass Communication.

Ans. (a) Mass Communication is the way of delivering information, ideas, attitudes to a
diversified audience through the use of media developed for that purpose.

(b) Intra Personal Communication.

Ans. (b) If the communication is internal to an individual, it’s called intra-personal

communication.

(c) Personal Communication.

Ans. (c) If the act or process concerns two or more persons in a face to face relationship,
it is interpersonal communication.

(d) Mass Media.

Ans. (d) It is that technological means of sending information, ideas, opinions etc. from
the mass communicator to an audience which consist of newspapers, magazines and
books (print medium, radio and television the electronic medium) and motion pictures.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 39.2

Match Column A with B:

A B

(a) Radio audio-visual.

(b) Newspaper audio.

(c) Film print medium.

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Ans.

A B

(a) Radio audio.

(b) Newspaper print medium.

(c) Film audio-visual.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 39.3

Write answer in one sentence:

(a) What is diffusion?

Ans. Diffusion describes the spread of a cultural trait from the point of origin of it without
an area and into the neighbouring regions and or to the neighbouring countries.

(b) Write briefly two items of culture.

Ans. (i) Food.

(ii) Dress.

(c) Name two brands of aeriated drinks you mostly see in television advertisement.

Ans. (i) Pepsi,

(ii) Cocacola.

(d) Give an example of religious practice that is spread through film and television.

Ans. Santoshimaa.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 39.4

Write T for true and F for false:

1. Television programmes are informative and educative.

Ans. True (T).

2. Simple entertainment is the main purpose of television.

Ans. False (F).

3. Television has both positive and negative impact.

Ans. True (T).

4. Through television we can know what is going on in and around the world.

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Ans. True (T).

TERMINAL EXERCISES

Q.1. Define mass media and describe its different forms.

Ans. I. Mass media, is the technological means of sending information, ideas, opinions
etc. from the mass communicator to an audience.

II. Forms: The media therefore consist of newspapers, magazines and books (which
collectively called the print medium), radio and television (the electronic medium) and
motion pictures.

Q.2. Write a brief note on the role of mass media in diffusion of culture.

Ans. (i) The most important role played by mass media is in diffusion of culture.

(ii) The work and beliefs of religious groups and a hundred others pertaining to the way
human beings behave are constantly reported and discussed in the press, in books and
on television and radio programmes.

(iii) The methods of presentation of information and other contents vary widely.

(iv) Media are the means for bringing different cultures together.

(v) National and local media play significant roles in the development of cultural unity.

Q.3. The impact of television both positive and negative. Explain and elucidate.

Ans. (i) TV has both positive and negative impact. But the positive impact always
overweighs the negative impact.

(ii) The fact is that the impact can be bad or good depends upon what we watch and why
we watch.

(iii) Modern men have built multi faceted mechanism for delivering their messages.

(iv) Mass communication is the way of delivering information, ideas, attitudes to a

diversified audience through the use of media developed for that purpose.

Q.4. Write short notes:

(a) Print medium.

Ans: Print Media: The oldest media are those of the printed word and picture, which
carry their message through the sense of sight. These are the newspapers, magazines,
books, pamphlets and direct mail circulars. These may be collectively called the print
medium. In newspaper, the focus is upon the community, the nation and sometimes even
the world of large. Magazines provide background information, entertainment, express

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opinions and display advertisements. Books offer a longer range and more detailed
examination of subjects as well as entertainment. Pamphlets and direct mail pieces bring
the views of commercial and civic organisation.

(b) Electronic medium.

Ans. Electronic Media: Means of communication runs with the help of electricity (or other
source of energy) are called electronic media. For example Radio, Television and motion
pictures are good examples of electronic, media.

Radio is the mass communication medium aimed at the sense of sound. Radio offers
entertainment, news and opinions, discussions and advertising messages and can bring
direct coverage of public events into the listener’s home. This is an electronic medium.

Television and motion pictures are appealing to visual and auditory senses. Television
programmes are educative, informative and also offer wide range of entertainment and
advertising messages. Films may inform and persuade as well as entertain. This also
comes under electronic medium.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Make clear the meaning of the following words / terms, as short as possible:

(a) Diffusion.

Ans: Diffusion means act of diffusion or spread out.

(b) Campaign.

Ans: Campaign means to gain publicity.

(c) Revelry.

Ans. Revelry means merry making.

Q.2. What is the purpose of mass media? Write briefly.

Ans. Simple entertainment is not the sole purpose of mass media. Reporting the news
and offering interpretation and opinions based on news are the two main functions of
mass media. The functions of news, opinions and entertainment are closely related in
mass media and the various media are heavily dependent upon each other.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Discuss in brief important agencies of communication, which are adjuncts of

the mass media?

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Ans. There are important agencies of communication, which are adjuncts of the mass
media. There are:

1. The press associations collect the distribute news to the newspapers, television
channels radio stations and news magazines.

2. The syndicates offer background news and pictures, commentary and entertainment
features to newspapers, television and radio and magazines.

3. The advertising agencies, serve their business clients on the one hand and the mass
media on the other.

4. The advertising departments of companies and institutions play merchandising roles

and the public relations departments, serve in disseminating image-eq building
information.

5. The public relations counseling firms and publicity organisations offer information on
behalf of their clients.

6. Research and groups help gauge the impact of the message and guide mass media for
more effective paths.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Explaining the meaning and definition of mass media. What is importance of
communication in contemporary society?

Ans. I. Meaning and definition of mass media: Communication is the art of transmitting
information, ideas and attitudes from one point or person to another. Each of us
communicates with another individual by directing a message to one or more of his
senses-sight, sound touch taste speech or smell. When we smile, we communicate a
desire for friendliness; the tone in which we say ‘good morning’ can indicate feelings all
the way from hostility to warm pleasure, and the words we choose in speaking or writing
convey a message we want to put across to other person. The more effectively we select
and deliver those words, the better is our communication with him or her.

Let us now define mass media. The mass media is defined as the technological means of
sending information, ideas, opinions etc. through the mass communication device to a
diverse audience. In one sense, words and pictures are the media by which thought and
feelings are communicated but medium need not be restricted to this meaning. Medium
means something intermediates, a middle state, something that intervenes. For example-
money is a medium of exchange between a buyer and seller. Stone is a medium for
sculptors’ recreation. A medium of communication can by any such item for transmission
or transference of thought and feeling. Thus we can say, communication is an act or
process involving transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills etc., by the use of
verbal or non-verbal or non-verbal (words, pictures, figures, graphs, gestures, facial
expression etc.).

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II. Communication and Contemporary Society: Contemporary society is far too
complex to function only through direct communication between one individual and
another. Our important messages to be effective must reach many people at a time. For
example a housewife who is angry at the frequent load shedding of electricity may talk to
half a dozen neighbours about organising a boycott. But if the editor of a local newspaper
publishes a letter she writes, she communicates her idea to hundreds of women in a short
time. We can take another example of a politician contesting for election, he spends much
of his campaign time visiting people personally, holding meetings in the hope of winning
their votes. Now, he hires time on television and radio, buys space in the newspapers,
trying to deliver his message to thousands of voters simultaneously. This is mass
communication-delivering information, ideas, attitudes to a sizeable and diversified
audience. through the use of the media developed for that purpose.

The communication process: Communicator (C) places his message in selected

channel to reach audience (A).

Mass communication for a given message of one moment in time is illustrated

here: Source (S) has his message reported by communicator (C) in channel controlled by
editor (E) some adudience members (A) receive the message directly, others indirectly,
but some are inattentive; feedback interactions may occur along the communication
route.

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