Journal of Human Kinetics volume 98/2025, x–x DOI: 10.

5114/jhk/204371 1
Section III – Sports and Physical Activity

Priming Exercises and Their Potential Impact on Speed and

Power Performance: A Narrative Review

by
Lucas A. Pereira 1,2, Piotr Zmijewski 3, Artur Golas 4, Krzysztof Kotula 4,
Michael R. McGuigan 5, Irineu Loturco 1,2,6,*

Improving the competitive level of elite athletes is always a considerable challenge for coaches, regardless of the
sport discipline or a training phase. From this perspective, researchers and sport scientists continuously seek more
effective training methods, capable of inducing acute changes or long-term adaptations in athletes with diverse training
backgrounds. Recently, priming exercises have emerged as a promising approach to enhance athletic performance over
short periods of time, either before sport-specific training sessions or official competitions. By incorporating different
priming protocols into their regular practices—including sets of traditional resistance exercises, ballistic exercises or
sprint drills—athletes have consistently achieved significant improvements in their speed and power qualities within
time intervals ranging from 2 h to 48 h. This narrative review summarizes and examines the main studies on this topic,
while providing practitioners with theoretical perspectives, practical insights, and guidelines for implementing efficient
priming protocols in their training routines. In conclusion, priming interventions generally produce positive outcomes,
irrespective of the exercise type and athletes’ backgrounds, and may facilitate the transfer of these benefits to certain sport-
specific tasks.
Keywords: resistance training; athletes; muscle strength; athletic performance; sprint velocity

Introduction season period, and even the athletes’ competitive

level (e.g., regional or world-class sprinters and
Elite athletes are known for their exceptional professional rugby players) (Freitas et al., 2021;
physical and competitive performance (Cormie et Gabbett, 2005; Loturco et al., 2023a; Pecci et al.,
al., 2011; Loturco et al., 2023a; Mckay et al., 2022). 2023). Given this, the use of pre-conditioning
In this context, practitioners are constantly seeking strategies has been raised as an important
more effective training strategies to enhance their alternative approach to acutely improve
broad spectrum of physical abilities. However, performance, particularly in the phases leading up
recent studies have revealed only slight—or even to competitions.
non-existent—variations in the physical qualities In this regard, various protocols of post-
of elite athletes throughout the annual training activation performance enhancement (PAPE)
season (Freitas et al., 2021; Gabbett, 2005; Loturco (Boullosa, 2021; Garbisu-Hualde and Santos-
et al., 2024a; Pecci et al., 2023), specifically in Concejero, 2021; Seitz and Haff, 2016) and priming
strength-, speed-, and power-related abilities. exercises (e.g., short-duration, high-intensity
Somewhat surprisingly, this phenomenon appears exercises performed 2 h to 48 h before a
to be independent of the training method, the competition or the key training session to enhance

1 NAR—Nucleus of High Performance in Sport, São Paulo, Brazil.

2 Department of Human Movement Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
3 Department of Biomedical Sciences, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.

4 Institute of Sport Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Katowice, Poland.

5 Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.

6 UCAM Research Center for High Performance Sport, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain.

* Correspondence: irineu.loturco@terra.com.br
6 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

physical performance) (Harrison et al., 2019; and safer to implement during pre-competitive
Mason et al., 2020; Valcarce-Merayo and Latella, periods, compared to PAPE strategies, as positive
2023) have been utilized by athletes across effects have been observed following the
different sports and competitive levels (Harrison et application of light-loaded ballistic exercises
al., 2020). Although PAPE and priming exercises performed up to 24 h pre-competition (Loturco et
can be applied for the same purpose and may be al., 2025b, 2025c). In elite sports, characterized by
regarded as similar stimuli, important differences congested schedules, restricted time for strength,
exist between these methods and their respective speed, and power training, and logistical
procedures (Valcarce-Merayo and Latella, 2023). constraints related to long journeys and complex
While PAPE can serve as a complimentary task recovery methods, these findings are especially
implemented during traditional warm-up routines relevant. Unlike certain PAPE strategies used with
to acutely improve subsequent performance for 3 highly trained subjects (Garbisu-Hualde and
min to 10 min (Boullosa, 2021), priming exercises Santos-Concejero, 2021; Seitz and Haff, 2016),
are commonly prescribed over a longer period priming sets do not necessarily require heavy loads
before the target activity (e.g., up to 48 h before a and can be implemented even in facilities with
competition) (Harrison et al., 2019, 2020). limited infrastructure and equipment, such as
Importantly, although PAPE is a well-established hotel gyms. Additionally, light-loaded exercises
strategy (Boullosa, 2021; Garbisu-Hualde and induce low levels of perceived exertion (Loturco et
Santos-Concejero, 2021; Loturco et al., 2024b), some al., 2024c, 2025c) and, consequently, minimal
uncertainty persists regarding its effectiveness, residual fatigue, improving the confidence of
which may be even more critical in high- practitioners in applying this strategy close to
performance environments (Garbisu-Hualde and competitions.
Santos-Concejero, 2021; Seitz and Haff, 2016). For Given the importance of priming strategies
example, a recent meta-analysis found no and their potential application in real-world
significant PAPE effects on the sprint performance training contexts, it is essential to critically analyze
of competitive sprinters after analyzing the acute and discuss the actual effectiveness of this
responses to distinct conditioning activities (CAs) contemporary training approach in elite athletes.
(Loturco et al., 2024b). Additionally, studies that The current narrative review aimed to provide a
demonstrated the effectiveness of PAPE comprehensive overview and examine the findings
approaches revealed a very limited application in of previous research that investigated the effects of
real sport settings, as these methods often require priming protocols on the strength, speed, and
multiple sets of high-intensity exercises (i.e., squats power abilities of athletes across different sports.
performed with loads exceeding 80% of one- To align with this objective, this review included
repetition maximum [1RM]) (Garbisu-Hualde and studies that met the following criteria: 1) athletes
Santos-Concejero, 2021; Seitz and Haff, 2016). from various sports, regardless of the competitive
Therefore, practitioners might be reluctant to level and the training background; 2) studies
incorporate this strategy into warm-up routines implementing CAs with a time interval between
prior to actual competitions. the priming exercise and the target measurement
In contrast, the less studied concept of ranging from at least 2 h to a maximum of 48 h; and
priming activities (e.g., also named “delayed 3) resistance-based priming exercises, including
potentiation”) has shown promising and traditional and ballistic lower- and upper-body
consistent results, specifically in increasing speed exercises, as well as plyometric and sprint drills.
and power production, when applied to athletes This narrative review was structured into distinct
from diverse sports and training backgrounds sub-sections to provide a detailed examination of
(Harrison et al., 2019; Mason et al., 2020). A the physiological and neuromuscular mechanisms
previous survey study revealed that among 69 underlying priming responses, the multiple
practitioners, 51% regularly prescribed priming protocols utilized, the optimal time window for
exercises, and 84% believed that resistance-based achieving the most pronounced effects, and
priming sessions were beneficial for physical and practical considerations for implementing this
technical performance (Harrison et al., 2020). From strategy prior to competition or sport-specific
a practical standpoint, priming exercises are easier training sessions.

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by Lucas A. Pereira et al. 7

Physiological Mechanisms Related to of 1RM. These results suggest that priming

Priming Effects strategies can induce substantial changes in certain
neuromuscular capabilities, particularly when
The physiological mechanisms primarily resistance training sessions with a relatively low
associated with or capable of explaining the volume of strength-power exercises are
positive effects of priming exercises are not yet implemented. However, due to the limited number
fully understood. In fact, most of the hypotheses of studies assessing multiple variables related to
proposed in this regard have emerged from studies neuromuscular function, further research on this
involving PAPE and chronic training interventions topic is clearly needed (Donghi et al., 2021; Pratt,
(Boullosa, 2021; Harrison et al., 2019; Mason et al., 2023; Tsoukos et al., 2018).
2020; Pratt, 2023). For example, it is expected that Variations in hormonal responses are
increases in muscle temperature, stiffness, and another potential factor regularly associated with
sensitivity to calcium ions—factors commonly priming effects, especially fluctuations in
associated with PAPE responses—are also testosterone and cortisol levels. These hormones
expected to contribute to priming responses are often linked to athletic performance and are
(Boullosa, 2021; Harrison et al., 2019; Mason et al., frequently measured to evaluate changes (i.e.,
2020; Pratt, 2023). Similarly, following resistance increases or decreases) following different priming
training interventions, increases in motor unit protocols (Cook et al., 2014; Donghi et al., 2021;
firing frequency, recruitment, and synchronization Harrison et al., 2021; Russell et al., 2016). For
are consistently observed and could also be example, Cook et al. (2014) analyzed the effects of
relevant in the context of delayed potentiation two priming activities on salivary testosterone
(Boullosa, 2021; Harrison et al., 2019; Mason et al., levels in semi-professional rugby players: one
2020; Pratt, 2023). Previous research has examined involving 5 x 40-m sprints and another comprising
neuromuscular responses after applying priming 12 repetitions of bench press and squat exercises in
exercise protocols, using indirect markers of neural an incremental testing protocol. That study
changes to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of revealed that priming exercises attenuated the
this approach (Donghi et al., 2021; Pratt, 2023; diurnal decline in testosterone concentration (i.e.,
Tsoukos et al., 2018). In this sense, Donghi et al. contrasting morning vs. afternoon periods)
(2021) and Pratt (2023) investigated the effects of compared to a control condition. However,
priming sessions on the percentage change in baseline hormonal levels were higher in the
voluntary activation—an indirect measure of priming protocol compared to the control
motor unit recruitment—and on the rate of torque condition. Russell et al. (2016) reported a similar
development (RTD), which is indirectly related to effect in professional rugby players after
motor unit recruitment, discharge rates, and completing either 5 sets of the bench press at 75%
stiffness. Pratt (2023) observed significant 1RM or 6 x 40-m sprints with a 180o directional
improvements in voluntary activation and RTD change. The diurnal reductions in salivary
compared to a control condition 6 h after testosterone levels were less pronounced after the
prescribing a priming session consisting of 2 sets of priming sessions compared to the control
2 repetitions of half squats (HSs) performed at 87% condition. Moreover, in the study by Donghi et al.
of 1RM for 16 physically active men. In contrast, (2021), the within-day decrease in blood
Donghi et al. (2021) did not detect any meaningful testosterone was “possibly” attenuated (i.e.,
changes in either voluntary activation or RTD 5.5 h analyzed via magnitude-based inferences method)
after applying two distinct priming protocols: one in the repeated sprint priming session compared to
involving repeated sprint running and the other the control, whereas the priming protocol did not
combining HSs, ladder drills, and 20-m sprints in alter cortisol responses relative to the control
young soccer players. Additionally, Tsoukos et al. condition. Finally, Harrison et al. (2021) did not
(2018) showed significant increases in the rate of observe priming effects from back squats executed
force development (a variable similar to the RTD) under lighter (65% 1RM) or heavier (> 67% 1RM)
in 17 well-trained power and team-sport athletes loading conditions on salivary testosterone and
24 h after completing a short training session cortisol concentrations when compared to the
incorporating 5 sets of 4 jump squats (JSs) at 40% control. Considering that testosterone levels may

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license.
8 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

be affected by the circadian rhythm, these effects Wang et al. (2024) compared the effects of
tend to be more pronounced for a few hours after two distinct priming sessions involving 3 sets of 3
completing the priming protocol (e.g., up to 6 h). repetitions of the back squat performed at 85%
However, it remains unknown how these 1RM, with or without a 30-s rest interval between
hormonal variations could influence priming over repetitions, in highly trained male national-level
longer time periods (e.g., ≥ 24 h) (Harrison et al., collegiate athletes (i.e., basketball, volleyball, track
2019). and field athletes). Significant increases in
countermovement jump (CMJ) height, 20-m
Priming Exercise Protocols sprinting speed, and T-Test time were observed 6
Multiple priming exercise protocols have h after the priming session, with greater
been implemented in subjects with different improvements under the cluster condition (e.g.,
training backgrounds (Harrison et al., 2019; Mason with a 30-s rest interval). Nutt et al. (2022) reported
et al., 2020; Valcarce-Merayo and Latella, 2023). In positive effects on CMJ and “run-two test” (i.e.,
the following sections, we present the effects of 35.36-m sprint) performance in cricketers 5.5 h
various resistance priming sessions on the after a priming session. The protocol involved 6
neuromuscular abilities of athletes from different sets of deadlifts executed in a progressive loading
sports. To facilitate the understanding of priming manner, ranging from 50% to 85% 1RM.
effects, the sections are divided into protocols Furthermore, Saez De Villarreal et al. (2007)
involving traditional and ballistic resistance examined various protocols involving HSs at 80%
exercises, as well as maximal sprinting speed drills. and 85% 1RM, as well as a progressive loading
The time between the priming session and the scheme at 80%, 90%, and 95% 1RM, in trained
target activity ranges from 2 h to 48 h (Mason et al., volleyball players. Significant and comparable
2017; Tsoukos et al., 2018). Figure 1 provides a improvements in drop jump (DJ) height were
general presentation of the priming protocols used detected 6 h after both types of priming sessions.
in the different studies testing traditional and In contrast, in the same study by Saez De
ballistic exercises, and sprint drills. Villarreal et al. (2007), a priming session with
lighter loads (30% 1RM) did not elicit any
Traditional Resistance Exercises significant positive or negative effects. However, it
Due to their popularity and effectiveness in is worth noting that traditional exercises
improving physical performance both acutely (i.e., performed under very light loading conditions
immediate effects) and chronically (i.e., after usually exhibit a very aggressive braking phase at
training interventions), traditional exercises are the end of the concentric portion (Cormie et al.,
frequently employed by practitioners during 2011; Loturco et al., 2023c, 2025a), which may
resistance training sessions and in studies compromise the potential positive (priming)
examining priming effects (Harrison et al., 2019; effects—a mechanical aspect that will be better
Loturco et al., 2024b, 2024d). The most commonly explored in the topic below—of ballistic exercises.
tested exercises are the squat and its variations Similarly, Mason et al. (2017) found no priming
(e.g., back squats and HSs), performed with effects 2 h after a resistance training session that
varying loading intensities, sets, and repetitions. In included “banded back squats” (e.g., an additional
general, priming sessions involving squat exercises 46.8 kg of tension applied to an Olympic barbell)
with low volume (e.g., ≤ 6 sets of ≤ 4 repetitions) and bench press exercise in state-level rugby
and heavy loads (≥ 80% 1RM) (Cook et al., 2014; players. In a study of Division I collegiate women’s
Raastad and Hallén, 2000; Saez De Villarreal et al., basketball players, Woolstenhulme et al. (2004) did
2007; Wang et al., 2024) or progressive loading not observe significant effects on CMJ performance
strategies covering a wide range of loads (i.e., from 6 h after a priming session consisting of multiple
30% to 95% 1RM) (Cook et al., 2014) (Table 1) have traditional exercises (i.e., Olympic weightlifting
been shown to significantly improve sprint and derivatives, back squats, and bench presses)
power performance in competitive athletes (Cook performed in 3 or 4 sets with loads ranging from 5
et al., 2014; Saez De Villarreal et al., 2007; Wang et RM to 12 RM.
al., 2024). Two studies have examined delayed
potentiation effects using upper body exercises as

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by Lucas A. Pereira et al. 9

priming strategies (Cook et al., 2014; Russell et al., particularly under light-load conditions, where
2016). Cook et al. (2014) investigated the effects of athletes must apply a force opposing the
4 sets of 3 repetitions of bench press and squat movement (i.e., during the braking phase) to
exercises with loads ranging from 50% to 100% decelerate and stop the lift at the end of the
3RM (i.e., using either half of the load or the total concentric phase (Loturco et al., 2023c; Sanchez-
load that allowed the completion of 3 RM) in semi- Medina et al., 2010). These distinct mechanical
professional rugby union players. Significant differences provide a significant advantage to
improvements in CMJ peak power, 40-m sprint ballistic exercises compared to traditional
performance, and 3RM strength in both bench exercises, as continuous acceleration is a
press and squat exercises were detected 6 h after fundamental requirement in most sport-specific
the priming session. Finally, Russell et al. (2016) tasks, such as jumping, sprinting, kicking, and
demonstrated a positive effect in the first two punching (Cormie et al., 2011; Loturco et al., 2021,
sprints (p = 0.003 and p = 0.01 for the first and 2023). For these reasons, ballistic exercises are
second sprint, respectively) of a repeated sprint frequently reported as one of the most commonly
test in professional rugby players 5 h after prescribed exercises for elite athletes across
completing a priming session that included 5 sets various sport disciplines (Cormie et al., 2011;
of 10 repetitions of the bench press at 75% 1RM. Loturco et al., 2023d, 2024d, 2025c). Indeed, several
Interestingly, those authors suggested that the studies consistently confirm the effectiveness of
effect of an upper-body exercise on sprint ballistic exercises (e.g., loaded and unloaded JSs) in
performance might be attributed to changes in enhancing multiple physical qualities (e.g., vertical
hormonal responses induced by the resistance jump performance, sprinting ability, and
training session when compared to a control maximum strength) in elite athletes (Cormie et al.,
condition. 2011; Loturco et al., 2024d, 2025c).
A summary of studies analyzing the effects Regarding their use as priming activities,
of priming sessions using traditional resistance ballistic exercises have been widely implemented
exercises is presented in Table 1. In general, when with team-sport athletes (Loturco et al., 2024d,
incorporating resistance exercises into priming 2025b, 2025c), whereas only one study has
strategies, short sessions comprising one or two examined their effects in well-trained swimmers
exercises performed under moderate-to-heavy (Zaras et al., 2022). In general, the protocols
loading conditions (i.e., from 50% to ≈85% 1RM) included no more than 6 sets per exercise and a
with a low volume of sets and repetitions are maximum of 3 exercises per session (Table 2). For
recommended. Moreover, the time interval example, Loturco et al. (2025c) demonstrated
between the priming session and the performance similarly significant effects of two priming exercise
test ranged from 2 h to 6 h, with the greatest effects protocols in which elite female rugby seven players
observed for intervals of 4 h and 6 h. performed 6 sets of 6 JSs at 40% or 80% HS 1RM.
CMJ height and 40-m linear sprint speed improved
Ballistic Exercises after 6 h, while the change of direction speed
Ballistic exercises involve movements in increased both 6 and 24 h post-priming protocol
which the body (e.g., unloaded or loaded jumps) or under both conditions. Importantly, after the
an implement (e.g., a medicine ball) is projected, lighter loading condition (i.e., 40% 1RM), players
irrespective of the movement direction (i.e., reported lower levels of perceived exertion
vertical or horizontal). The primary mechanical compared to the heavier loading condition (i.e.,
characteristic of these exercises is that, during 80% 1RM), which may be considered a highly
ballistic movements, individuals accelerate their relevant aspect in high-performance sports, where
bodies (or the implement) and apply force fatigue is a constant factor (Loturco et al., 2024c,
continuously throughout the entire concentric 2025c). Tsoukos et al. (2018) demonstrated a
phase until the point of the projection (or take-off) positive effect 24 h after performing 5 sets of 4 JSs
(Cormie et al., 2011; Loturco et al., 2023c, 2024d; executed at 40% HS 1RM on CMJ and DJ
Sanchez-Medina et al., 2010). This specific attribute performance in well-trained male power and team-
(i.e., a movement that is entirely accelerative) sport athletes. Notably, the improvements in CMJ
contrasts with traditional exercises (e.g., a HS), height persisted up to 48 h. In addition, Saez De

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10 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

Villarreal et al. (2007) observed positive priming athletes. A summary of studies analyzing the
effects 6 h after completing a protocol consisting of effects of priming protocols using ballistic
3 sets of 5 CMJs performed under an optimal exercises is presented in Table 2. By examining the
loading condition (i.e., the load that maximized table, it becomes evident that priming sessions
power output). However, no significant effects consisting of multiple sets of ballistic exercises
were observed following 3 sets of 5 DJs executed with light loads (i.e., ≤ 40% HS 1RM) are highly
from the optimal drop height (i.e., the height effective in optimizing athletic and sport-specific
associated with the best reactive strength index). performance, while minimizing acute (and
Similarly, Loturco et al. (2025b) reported more potentially accumulated) fatigue, which is
pronounced priming effects on CMJ height and 30- typically induced by heavy loading protocols (i.e.,
m sprint speed at 6 h, as well as on 10- and 30-m ≥ 80% 1RM) (Loturco et al., 2024c, 2025c). In
sprint speed and JS bar velocity at 30% and 100% contrast, priming sessions involving unloaded
of body mass (BM) 24 h after a ballistic session jumps did not result in meaningful performance
comprising 6 sets of 6 JSs at 40% HS 1RM in male improvements. This suggests that the mechanical
rugby union players. Conversely, in another stimuli provided by such exercises may be
protocol involving 6 sets of 6 DJs from the optimal insufficient to elicit significant changes in strength,
height, improvements were only detected in JS bar speed, and power performance. Further research
velocity for both 30% and 100% BM at 24 h (Loturco may be warranted to investigate priming protocols
et al., 2025b). Lastly, Panteli et al. (2024) identified incorporating multiple types of unloaded and
priming effects in T-Test performance, but not in demanding jumps, such as hurdle jumps or
CMJ height and 10- and 20-m sprint speed 24 h multiple bounding, to induce greater
after a session including JSs and jump shrugs with neuromuscular responses. Finally, it is worth
a 15-kg barbell and DJs performed from a 30-cm noting that in all studies, the time interval between
box height. priming sessions and performance tests ranged
The aforementioned results reinforce the from 6 h to 48 h, with the most pronounced effects
effectiveness of ballistic exercises, not only as observed at the 6th h and the 24th h. Coaches should
performance-enhancing strategies, but also as a take these guidelines into account when designing
form of priming exercise for improving the their priming training strategies.
neuromuscular performance of competitive

Figure 1. Overview of average data on exercise types, training protocols, exercise intensity, and the interval
between priming interventions and performance tests across the analyzed studies.

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by Lucas A. Pereira et al. 11

Table 1. Summary of studies on the effects of priming sessions with traditional resistance exercises.

Reference Subjects Priming protocol Interval Outcomes

18 semi-professional BP and Squat 3 × 50% (of 3RM), 3 × ↑ 3RM BP; ↑ 3RM squat; ↑ 40-m
Cook et al., 2014 6h
rugby union players 80%, 3 × 90%, and 3 × 100% sprint performance; ↑ CMJ PPO
# possibly ↑ CMJ height; possibly ↑ 20-
Control
12 young soccer m + 20-m sprint performance
Donghi et al.,
players ≈ 5.5 h
2021
4 x 12 HS, 6 speed ladder drills, 20-m possibly ↑ CMJ height; likely ↑ 20-m +
sprints 20-m sprint performance

Ekstrand et al., Back squat performed to failure and ↑ backward overhead shot throw;
14 throwers 4-6 h
2013 power clean ↔ VJ PP

↔ PV, PF, PP in 20-kg bench throw

Control
and CMJ
13 state-level rugby
Mason et al., 2017 2h
players
4 x 3 banded back squat; 4 x 3 banded ↔ PV, PF, PP in 20-kg bench throw
bench press and CMJ

1 x 4 trap bar deadlift at 50%, 70%, ↑ CMJ height; ↑ ‘run-two’ test

Nutt et al., 2022 16 cricketers 5.5 h
and 80% RM; 3 x 4 at 85% RM (35.36-m sprint)

3 x 3 RM squat and front squat and 3

8 powerlifters, 1 ↓ SJ height
x 6 RM knee extension
Raastad and javelin-thrower and 1
3 x 3 (70% 3 RM) squat and front 3-33 h
Hallén, 2000 speed-skater,
squat and 3 x 6 (70% 6 RM) knee ↑ SJ height
extension

Russell et al., 15 professional rugby ↑ RSA best time; ↔ CMJ height and
5 x 10 bench press at 75% RM 5h
2016 players RSA total time

↔ CMJ height, DJ height, and CMJ

Control
height with optimal load
2 x 4 reps at 80% 1RM HS; 2 x 3 at ↑ DJ height; ↔ CMJ height, and
12 trained volleyball 85% 1RM HS CMJ height with optimal load
Saez de Villarreal
players 2 x 4 reps at 80% 1RM HS; 2 x 2 at 6h
et al., 2007 ↑ DJ height; ↔ CMJ height and CMJ
90% 1RM HS;
height with optimal load
2 x 1 at 95% 1RM HS
↔ CMJ height, DJ height, and CMJ
3 x 5 reps at 30% 1RM HS
height with optimal load
16 male highly 3 x 3 back squats at 85% RM (no rest ↑ CMJ height, 20-m sprint and T-Test
trained national level between repetitions; TS) performance
collegiate athletes
Wang et al., 2024 6h ↑ CMJ height, 20-m sprint and T-Test
(basketball, 3 x 3 back squat at 85% RM (30-s
performance. *Higher increases than
volleyball, track interval between repetitions; CS)
under the TS condition
and field)

Woolstenhulme 18 division I women 7 exercises performed in 3–6 sets at

6h ↔ CMJ height
et al., 2004 basketball players loads ranging from a 5 to 12 RM

Note: BP: bench press; RM: repetition maximum; HS: half squat; TS: traditional set; CS: cluster set; CMJ:
countermovement jump; PPO: peak power output; VJ: vertical jump: PP: peak power; PV: peak velocity; PF: peak force;
SJ: squat jump; RSA: repeated sprint ability test; DJ: drop jump. ↑ significant increase; ↔ no significant change; ↓
significant decrease; #analyzed via magnitude-based inference method

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12 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

Table 2. Summary of studies on the effects of priming sessions with ballistic exercises.

Reference Subjects Priming protocol Interval Outcomes

↑ CMJ height and 30-m sprint performance

6 x 6 JS at 40% RM at 6 h; ↑ 10- and 30-m sprint performance,
20 male rugby union 6 h and and JS PV at 24 h
Loturco et al., 2025b
players 24 h
6 x 6 DJ best RSI ↑ JS PV at 24 h

↑ CMJ height, 40-m sprint, and COD

6 x 6 JS at 40% RM performance at 6 h; ↑ COD performance
and JS PV at 24 h
20 female rugby
6 h and
Loturco et al., 2025c seven players
24 h
↑ CMJ height, 40-m sprint, and COD
6 x 6 JS at 80% RM performance at 6 h; ↑ COD performance at
24 h

14 well-trained soccer Ballistic power: 4 x 8 JS; 4 x 8 ↑ T-Test performance; ↔ CMJ, 10- and 20-
Panteli et al., 2023 24 h
players jump shrugs; 3 x 6 DJ 30-cm m sprint.

3 x 5 jumps with optimal ↑ DJ height and CMJ height with optimal

12 trained volleyball
Saez de Villarreal et loaded CMJ load; ↔ CMJ height
players 6h
al., 2007
↔ CMJ height, DJ height, and CMJ height
3 x 5 DJ from optimal height
with optimal load

17 well-trained male ↑ CMJ height at 24 h and 48 h; ↑ DJ RSI

24 h and
Tsoukos et al., 2018 power and team sport 5 x 4 JS at 40% RM and RFD at 24 h; ↔ LP MIF at 24 h and 48
48 h
athletes h; ↔ DJ RSI and RFD at 48 h;

3 x 8 slam balls; 3 x 8 CMJ; 3 x

13 well-trained
Zaras et al., 2022 12 stretch cords upper body 24 h ↑ 50-m crawl performance; ↔ CMJ height
adolescent swimmers
swimming
Note: JS: jump squat; RM: repetition maximum; DJ: drop jump; RSI: reactive strength index; CMJ: countermovement
jump; COD: change of direction; PV: peak velocity; RFD: rate of force development; LP: leg press; MIF: maximum
isometric force; ↑ significant increase; ↔ no significant change

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by Lucas A. Pereira et al. 13

Table 3. Summary of studies on the effects of priming sessions with sprint drills.

Reference Subjects Priming protocol Interval Outcomes

Cook et al., 18 semi-professional

5 x 40-m sprints 6h ↑ 40-m sprint performance
2014 rugby union players

# possibly ↑ CMJ height; possibly ↑ 20

Control
12 young soccer m + 20-m sprint performance
Donghi et al.,
players ≈5.5 h
2021
Repeated sprint running: 6 x 40 m possibly ↑ 20 m + 20-m sprint

↓ 20- and 30-m sprint performance;

RST: 4 x 40 m with 10% BM
↔ 50-m sprint performance

Kotula et al., 10 female sprinters ↔ 20-m sprint performance; ↑ 30-

AST: 4 x 40 m with 105% Vmax 48 h
2023 and 50-m sprint performance

COMB: 2 x 40 m with 10% BM; 2 x 40 ↔ 20-m sprint performance; ↑ 30-

m with 105% Vmax and 50-m sprint performance

Panteli et al., 14 well-trained Repeated sprint: 2 x 4 x 15 m; 2 x 4 ↑ T-Test performance; ↔ CMJ, 10-

24 h
2023 soccer players DJs (30-cm box height) + 10-m sprint and 20-m sprint

↔ CMJ height and 20-m sprint

Control
performance
Pino-Mulero 16 young semi-
24 h
et al., 2025 professional football
↑ CMJ height and 20-m sprint
2 x 2 15-m sled push with 100% BM
performance

↑ CMJ height; ↔ RSA best and total

6 x 6-s cycle ergometer sprints
times
Russell et al., 15 professional rugby
5h
2016 players
↑ CMJ height and RSA best time; ↔
6 x 40-m sprints with 180o COD
RSA total time

Zaras et al., 13 well-trained 4 x 50-m crawl swim starting from ↑ 50-m crawl performance; ↔ CMJ
24 h
2022 adolescent swimmers blocks height

Note: RST: resisted sprint training; AST: assisted sprint training; COMB: combined; BM: body mass; Vmax: maximal
velocity; DJ: drop jump; COD: change of direction; CMJ: countermovement jump; RSA: repeated sprint ability test. ↑
significant increase; ↔ no significant change; ↓ significant decrease; #analyzed via magnitude-based inference method

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license.
14 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

Table 4. Most effective priming protocols to improve vertical jump, linear speed, and change of direction
performance in competitive athletes (based on the analyzed studies).
Priming Strategy VJ Linear sprint COD

Loading condition
Light loads (≤ 40% 1RM) * * *
Multiple loads ++ + +
Heavy loads (≥ 80% 1RM) ++ ++ +

Number of exercises
Traditional resistance
1 +++ +++ +++
exercises
2 ? + *
≥3 * * *

Time interval
2–6 h + ++ ++
≥ 24 h ? * *

Loading condition
Unloaded (plyometrics) ? * *
Light loads (≤ 40% 1RM) +++ ++ ++
Heavy loads (≥ 80% 1RM) + + +

Number of exercises
Ballistic exercises 1 +++ ++ ++
2 * * *
≥3 * ? +

Time interval
4–6 h ++ ++ ++
≥ 24 h ++ ? +++

Loading condition
Unresisted * +++ ?
Resisted ++ ? *
Assisted * + *

Number of exercises
Sprint drills 1 ? ++ ?
2 * ? +
≥3 * * *

Time interval
5–6 h ? ++ *
≥ 24 h ? ++ +
VJ: vertical jump; COD: change of direction; 1RM: one-repetition maximum. “+” level of evidence related to distinct
priming strategies, the higher the number, the higher the evidence; “?” means conflicting results; * means lack of
evidence

Journal of Human Kinetics, volume 98, July 2025 http://www.johk.pl

by Lucas A. Pereira et al. 15

Maximal Sprints session comprising 6 sets of 40-m sprints with a

180o directional change at the midway point (i.e.,
The utilization of maximal sprints is a 20-m).
common strategy in studies investigating the Although priming studies involving
effects of priming interventions on competitive maximal sprints are less numerous than those
athletes. Notably, maximal-speed sprinting is the focusing on other approaches (e.g., traditional
primary method employed by Olympic sprint and resistance and ballistic exercises), the findings to
jump coaches for speed development, who also date support the use of the different sprint forms
incorporate maximal sprint drills into their warm- (i.e., unresisted, assisted, and resisted sprints) as
up routines (Kotuła et al., 2023; Loturco et al., effective priming strategies. However, the marked
2023b, 2024b). Moreover, resisted and assisted differences among the sprinting protocols preclude
sprints are widely used methods among more robust conclusions regarding these
practitioners from different sports in this context strategies. Table 3 presents a summary of the
(i.e., as CAs, during warm-up routines). In priming interventions utilizing sprint drills. Based
addition to their widespread use, maximal sprint on a general overview, sprint-based priming
efforts have been shown to elicit positive exercises should involve no more than 6 sets of
performance responses when incorporated into short sprints (e.g., ≤ 40-m). When using resisted or
priming protocols (Cook et al., 2014; Kotuła et al., assisted sprints, light loading conditions that
2023; Loturco et al., 2024b; Pino-Mulero et al., minimize disruptions in sprinting technique
2025). (Loturco et al., 2023b; Zabaloy et al., 2023) —
Priming protocols based on maximal sprint whether by reducing or increasing sprint speed
efforts typically involve short sprint distances and (i.e., 10% BM for resisted sprints or 105% of
cycle ergometer sprints (i.e., ≈6-s or ≤ 40-m) maximum sprinting speed for assisted sprints)—
performed under unresisted conditions or with the may be preferred. The adherence to these variables
use of assisted or resisted sprints. For example, can help practitioners across various sports in
Cook et al. (2014) demonstrated that a priming selecting the most effective positive (resisted
session consisting of 5 x 40-m sprints in semi- sprints) or negative (assisted sprints) loading
professional rugby union players improved 40-m ranges for their athletes.
sprint performance 6 h after the protocol. Similarly,
Kotuła et al. (2023) examined the effects of three Practical Implications and Future
distinct priming sessions in female sprinters: 1) 4 x Directions
40-m resisted sprints with a load equivalent to 10%
BM, 2) 4 x 40-m assisted sprints at 105% of The application of priming exercises in real-
maximum sprint speed, and 3) a combined sprint sport environments is highly recommended for
session comprising 2 x 40-m sprints for each coaches, especially before sport-specific training
assisted and resisted sprint condition. As a result, sessions, matches or competitions. However,
30- and 50-m sprint speed increased significantly determining the most effective priming methods
48 h after the assisted and combined priming remains challenging due to the high variability of
sessions but not following the resisted condition. stimuli and approaches used in priming studies.
Pino-Mulero et al. (2025) observed significant Despite this limitation, priming exercises can be
improvements in CMJ height and 20-m sprint viewed positively, as numerous strategies
performance 24 h after a priming session in which involving traditional resistance, ballistic, and
under-18 semi-professional soccer players sprinting exercises have been shown to effectively
performed two sets of 2 x 15-m sled pushes with a enhance subsequent speed-power performance. In
load equivalent to 100% BM. Finally, Russell et al. this context, practitioners can select the most
(2016) reported positive performance appropriate exercises and methods from the
enhancements in CMJ height 5 h after a priming options presented here, based on their experience,
session consisting of 6 sets of 6-s cycle ergometer personal preferences, and, most importantly, the
sprints with a resistance of 7.5% BM in professional specific characteristics of their sports and
rugby players. Additionally, in the same study, competitions. For example, during away
enhancements in CMJ height and the best time of a competitions or matches where training facilities
repeated sprint test were observed 5 h after a may be limited, coaches can implement ballistic

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license.
16 Priming exercises and their potential impact on speed and power performance

exercises with light loads, elastic bands or even prevents us from drawing more robust conclusions
short sprint drills as priming stimuli. When in this regard. Future research should investigate
adequate facilities are available, traditional the effectiveness of priming sessions that
strength-power exercises can be utilized within the incorporate multiple and more complex
volume and loading ranges provided in this study. intervention protocols (e.g., combining
As a general recommendation, priming protocols plyometrics with maximal sprint drills or pairing
should include one exercise type (a maximum of traditional resistance exercises using moderate to
two for traditional resistance exercises), with a heavy loads with ballistic movements performed
total volume of 3–4 sets for resistance exercises at lighter loads) to determine the extent to which
(e.g., squats), 5–6 sets for ballistics (e.g., jump these mixed approaches can optimize—or
squats), and 2–6 sprints over distances ≤ 40-m potentially compromise—the physical
(Table 4). It should be noted that these guidelines performance of elite athletes. These studies may
are specifically related to improvements in speed- also be designed to further elucidate how priming
power qualities. The limited number of studies, exercises elicit responses such as neuromuscular
along with the variability in the methods and and metabolic changes, with a particular focus on
exercises used to assess maximum strength, the types of exercises used to induce these specific
effects.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: L.A.P. and I.L.; validation: L.A.P. and I.L.; formal analysis: L.A.P.
and I.L.; investigation: L.A.P. and I.L.; resources: L.A.P. and I.L.; data curation: L.A.P. and I.L.; writing—
original draft preparation: L.A.P. and I.L.; writing—review & editing L.A.P., P.Z., M.R.M. and I.L.;
visualization: LA.P., P.Z., A.G., K.K., M.R.M. and I.L.; supervision: I.L.; project administration: L.A.P. and I.L.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
ORCID iD:
Lucas A. Pereira: 0000-0003-1079-2446
Piotr Zmijewski: 0000-0002-5570-9573
Artur Golas: 0000-0002-6656-6993
Michael R. McGuigan: 0000-0002-1251-7838
Irineu Loturco: 0000-0003-1309-2568
Funding Information: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Received: 26 March 2025
Accepted: 25 April 2025

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