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The Power of Dance: Health and Healing

Article in Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) · February 1995
DOI: 10.1089/acm.1995.1.323 · Source: PubMed

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THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE
Volume 1, Number 4,1995. pp. 323-331
Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

COMMENTARY

The Power of Dance: Health and Heahng

JUDITH LYNNE HANNA, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

Dance involves the culturally mediated body, emotion, and mind. So do illness and pain.
Dance may promote wellness by strengthening the immune system through muscular action
and physiological processes. Dance conditions an individual to moderate, eliminate, or avoid
tension, chronic fatigue, and other disabling conditions that result from the effects of stress.
Dance may help the healing process as a person gains a sense of control through (1) posses-
sion by the spiritual in dance, (2) mastery of movement, (3) escape or diversion from stress
and pain through a change in emotion, states of consciousness, and/or physical capability,
and (4) confronting stressors to work through ways of handling their effects.

INTRODUCTION use dance in alternative and complementary

medicine so that we do more research and learn

T hrough my own dancing, and learning

about dance in our culture and other cul-
tures, I have discovered the power of dance in
more,
An introductory comment about dance is
called for. I use the word dance to refer to hu-
preventive medicine and the healing process, man behavior composed of, from the dancer's
My personal odyssey began when a pediatri- perspective, purposeful, intentionally rhythmi-
cian diagnosed my case as pes planus and said cal, and culturally patterned sequences of non-
dancing would make my feet strong. So I stud- verbal body movements other than ordinary
ied different kinds of dance and my feet im- motor activities. (See appended movement
proved. Well, only slightly. Dance does have data categories.) The movement is frequently
its limitations. Dance, however, has helped me, accompanied by music, and it may have an act-
as it seems to help many people worldwide, to ing quality such as pantomime and role-play-
prevent or reduce the debilitating effects of in- ing and be performed alone or with others,
jury, disease, and stress. Dance usually involves sight, sound, touch.
As an anthropologist, I explore the potential smell, and kinesthetic feeling. Thus dance may
of dance through historical time and across ge- provide a person with a captivating multisen-
ographic space. In this article, I suggest some sory experience. The intricate combination of
possibilities about the relation between dance movement, rhythm, and music involves simul-
and good health and healing. I hope my re- taneous right and left brain usage in the com-
marks will create an enhanced interest in the plex process of self-expression. Dance may pro-
University of Maryland, 8520 Thornden Terrace, Bethesda, Maryland 20817.

323
324 HANNA

vide a more complete mode of self-expression dance itself may cause injury and induce pai>i.
than speech or writing. But dance also may be helpful in recovering
Let me next turn to stress, because it often from some injuries, and it may reduce or even
leads to or results from illness. Stress refers to eliminate pain.
the perception of threat or physical or psycho- To discuss the potential for dance in pro-
logical harm that pushes a person toward the moting health and managing illness, I draw
limits of his or her adaptive capacity. Of course, upon the limited relevant literature that ap-
what is stressful to one person may not be pears in the American Journal of Dance Therapy;
stressful to another. Perceptions vary both in- books on dance therapy and medical anthro-
dividually and as the result of group culture, pology; and articles in dance, psychology, an-
It is important to distinguish between chronic thropology, and such journals as Brain Injury
imresolved stress and brief acute stress. and Arthritis Care. All of my own books (see
Two kinds of stress have been described: bibliography), which synthesize many psy-
Eustress has positive results in catalyzing adap- chobiological dimensions of dance, might be
tive, productive, creative efforts to solve prob- added to the list of relevant work,
lems and motivate persons to high peaks of Although there are few properly controlled
performance. Distress overworks and exhausts studies that demonstrate specific relations be-
the body's defenses against harmful effects of tween dance and healing, there are clinical case
stress, such as weakening the body's immune studies and theoretically inspired speculations,
system and burdening heart and blood vessels. And there are documented bodily processes in-
People under prolonged stress may suffer a volved in human dancing that help us to un-
changed sense of self that increases the proba- derstand the dynamics of how dance as preven-
bility of accidents and of certain diseases. These tative medicine and dance as healing may work,
problems, in turn, may well increase the prob-
ability of pain. And pain itself can be a power-
ful stressor. Thus there is often a bidirectional DANCE
causal pattern.
I use the concept of pain to refer to a noxious Dance involves the body, emotion, and mind,
sensation occurring in varying degrees of all three of these culturally mediated, not only
severity as a consequence of injury, disease, or biologically based. Our perceptions and use of
emotional disorder. As we know, individual body, emotion, and mind are influenced by cul-
human differences and group culture shape the ture. Pain also involves the intertwining of
experience of pain. This variation is well doc- body, emotion, mind, and culture,
umented by David Morris in his book. The The body dimension of dance refers to its dis-
Culture of Pain (1991), and in a book-length col- charging energy through muscular-skeletal re-
lection of studies entitled Pain as Human sponses to stimuli received by the brain.
Experience (Good et al, 1992). The emotional dimension of dance refers to the
Since early history (and perhaps prehistory), subjectively experienced state of feeling in en-
dance has been one of the means people have gaging in or eniipathically observing dancing,
used to cope with the effects of stress and ill- Researchers generally agree that emotions
ness. Dance activities, both in our society and combine a physiological response with a coe-
in cultures different in many ways from our nitive evaluation. Dancers may also symbolize
own, suggest possibilities for further use of emotions without experiencing them,
dance as a means of healing. By a healing inter- The cognitive dimension of dance refers to the
vention, I refer to a process that has a positive mental activities involved such as memory, im-
benefit for experienced stress and/or pain, agery, perception and attention, evaluation
(Positive is compared with a hypothetical al- and reasoning and decision making. A key
ternative; it does not necessarily mean im- point is that dance is more than just movement
provement.) Of course, like any physical activ- and conveys events, ideas, and feelings like a
ity, dance may have positive and negative "language text in motion," some dance being
consequences. For instance, the activity of more like poetry than prose.
POWER OF DANCE 325
The cultural dimension of dance refers to the The reasons for dancing include to gain plea-
cumulative values, beliefs, norms, and rules of sure, to relieve stress, to master skills, to re-
dance shared by a group and learned through spond to social pressure, to participate in a
communication. Health practitioners need to group emotional experience, and to benefit
be aware of cultural differences and to be flex- from dance therapy. Some dance has healing
ible in their work in order to accommodate consequences, some dance is intended to heal,
diverse groups. For example, among the and, of course, there is an overlap.
Vietnamese, a smile communicates not only Self-help may take place through dance in
happiness and assent, but also the sentiments common settings, such as homes, clubs, halls,
of anger, embarrassment, stoicism, and rejec- and studio classes, as well as performances on
tion. To look directly at a person with whom stage. Dance has had sufficient success in heal-
one is speaking is a sign of disrespect and rude- ing that an entire profession with certified
ness. A touch on the head is offensive (Brower, dance therapists has arisen to take advantage
1983). of the potential therapeutic result. Some art and
Since every body is composed of universal music therapists, psychologists, psychiatrists,
features, most members of the medical and counselors, social workers, and physical thera-
therapeutic professions erroneously assume pists may integrate dance into their work,
that the body is experienced in a universal Of course, dancing may be a kind of pre-
maimer by everyone. Because time, space, and ventive medicine—an "inoculation"—^by con-
energy are universals in human life, many pro- ditioning an individual to be able to moderate,
fessionals mistakenly believe all people experi- eliminate or avoid tension, chronic fatigue, and
ence them the same way. other disabling results from the effects of stress.
In considering dance, health, and healing, it Exercise is associated with the prevention of
is helpful to bear in mind that there are differ- such illnesses as heart disease, obesity, non-in-
ent kinds of dance, degrees of involvement in sulin-dependent diabetes, hypertension, and
dance, and reasons for dancing. osteoporosis (Mackinnon, 1992).
Kinds of dance range from codified ballet. Dancing, moreover, has transcendental po-
modern dance, and dance folk forms to self-ex- tential. It can lead to altered states of con-
pressive improvisation. Sometimes different sciousness and an extraordinary metaphysi-
forms of dance are combined. The Unks be- cal-physical experience. Association with
tween dance, health, and healing may well vary deities, spirits, and supernatural essences re-
according to kind of dance, level of difficulty, fleets the religious dimension of dance. Self-ex-
characteristics of the person involved, and tension and exploration through dance reflect
whether in group dancing there are positive in- a secular dimension. Dance can lead to feelings
terpersonal d3mamics that provide what may of identification or inclusion in a culture or
essentially be a support group. The musical ac- group, which strongly reduces stress and alien-
companiment and acting through movement ation.
may also be therapeutic.
Regarding degree of involvement in dance,
professional and preprofessional dancers, and DANCE, CONTROL, AND HEALING
others who dance several times a week may,
when painfully injured and prevented from The literature on dance and healing suggests
dancing, suffer additional pain from being that through dance, with its physical, emo-
"titrated," experiencing dance withdrawal tional, cognitive, and cultural dimensions, a
symptoms. This means that the dancer is ac- person may gain a sense of control related to
customed to physiological changes that occur stress and pain. (Needless to say,^4ancing does
from the exercise of dance, and like stopping not always lead to a sense of greater control,
drinking caffeine, experiences withdrawal For instance, a dancer's past experiences, his or
symptoms such as nervousness, headache, and her current instructor, and the difficulty of
depression. The occasional dancer generally dance could cause a loss of control.)
does not have such an ^5^erience. Arthur Kleinman, psychiatrist and medical
326 HANNA

anthropologist at Harvard University, makes 1992; Marshall, 1962), Tumbuka of Malawi

an important point relevant to gaining a sense (Friedson, 1992), and Korean women (Kendall,
of control through dance. He says that there is 1985).
a crucial distinction between a medical condi- Richard Katz, a Harvard University-trained
tion and a person's experience of that condi- clinical psychologist with anthropological ex-
tion. Although a portion of pain comes from perience, says the healing dance of the
the medical situation, the rest comes from a Jul'hoansi people, formerly called !Kung
sense of helplessness and fear. Reports on Bushmen, involves the entire community. The
dance and healing suggest that dance for some dance generates the supernatural potency from
people may provide a feeling of control that which the healers derive their power to cure,
minimizes the sense of helplessness and fear re- The dance is generally the same whatever song
lated to pain as well as promote motor func- is being sung,
tioning. Religious belief and practice are obviously
There are at least four ways of getting a sense relevant to healing through possession in our
of control through dance that may enhance heal- society.
ing. These are (1) possession by the spiritual 2. A second way that dance can help indi-
manifested in dance, (2) mastery of movement, viduals gain a sense of control toward healing
(3) escape or diversion from stress and pain, is through mastery of dance movement. Mastery
and (4) confronting stressors to work through of the preparatory physical exercises, move-
ways of handling their effects. ment sequences, and the dances themselves not
1. With respect to possession by a deity or only may aid body functioning but also in-
spirit that proceeds to speak or act using the crease a dancer's awareness of the body's nat-
possessed's body, some cultures, e.g., in Africa, ural responses. In western dance classes and
the Caribbean, Middle East, Brazil, and Korea, therapy, there are usually warmups with
recognize that a person's poor physical condi- stretching for different parts of the body,
tion and related fear and helplessness may also Dancing may give a person a sense of being in
be associated with difficult social relationships, charge of the body and its actions, physical
which the person feels helpless to remedy by health, and appearance. The sense of self-mas-
him or herself. These cultures have healers, tery contributes to a positive self-perception,
such as medicine men and women, sometimes body image, self-esteem, and self-confidence,
called shamans. The sick person or healer. Among the Ubakala Igbo of Nigeria, youth per-
through learned behavior, may become pos- formance in dancing is advertisement for mar-
sessed by a spirit or deity that manifests itself riage: a person's qualities are believed to be re-
in specific dances identified with the supernat- vealed in dancing.
ural. Diagnosis and treatment of the sick per- 3. In addition to gaining a sense of control
son may then require following the supernat- toward healing through possession dance and
Ural's directive for healing. Sometimes dancing mastery of movement, a third way is escape or
performed by the healer or sick person exor- diversion from stress and pain through dance-in-
cises the spirit or deity that caused a debilitat- duced changes in emotion, state of conscious-
ing condition. Supernatural sanction is given to ness, and physical capability; distraction from
the healer's treatment through physical activ- pain through the discomfort of dance excess;
ity, medicine, and mediation of social conflict and distraction through fantasy.
that contributed to a person's poor health and As an activity in itself, dancing may cause a
sense of helplessness and fear. performer to experience emotional changes or
The book Dance and Stress (Hanna, 1988) de- even altered states of consciousness. The phys-
scribes cases of possession reported by anthro- ical exercise of dance increases the circulation
pologists and medical researchers. Other dis- of blood carrying oxygen to the muscles and
cussions include the Zar cult of Ethiopia, the brain as well as altering the level of certain
Egypt/ Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Sudan brain chemicals. Dancing can in this way dis-
(Messing, 1949; Boddy, 1988; Guindy and sipate muscular and emotional tension and in-
Schmais, 1994); !Kung Bushmen (Katz, 1982, duce a sense of well-being and release. Chronic
POWER OF DANCE 327

pain patients may learn to refocus awareness ceptance in the program included approval
from painful to pleasurable body functions, from the applicant's primary physician, no
Recent research findings indicate that when surgeries more recently than 6 months prior to
one consciously assumes the facial expressions starting the program, and ability to ambulate
and bodily postures of an emotional state, i.e., with or without assistive devices. The aerobic
happiness or confidence, one can actually ex- portion of the program used a character/folk
perience a change in one's perceived mood, to- dance format. Participants explored dance rou-
ward that which is being expressed physically, tines based on slow and fast walking without
The therapeutic implications are obvious. jumping or running. Variations in patterns and
Dancing may induce the release of endor- planes of movement, use of different body
phins to produce analgesia and euphoria. The leads, and imagery created complex move-
Dogon of Mali describe their rapid gona dance ments intended to enhance posture, balance,
movement as a relief, like vomiting. and coordination. The instructor encouraged
Also, dancing in communal settings often participants to test movements that took into
builds up a spirit of elation that is infectious. A account their own disease-related limitations,
strong emotion, such as joy, may block pain We have here an example of a promising pro-
and thereby provide an escape or diversion gram that should be more systematically eval-
from it (Morris, 1991). uated.
Because dance movement may improve Another potential way of escape or diversion
muscle tone, flexibility, coordination, and bal- from some kinds of physical pain is the physi-
ance, it may be helpful in recovery from some cal discomfort of excessive dance such as muscle
injuries and reducing or even completely es- soreness. According to psychiatrist Henry
caping some pain. Kaminer, "Just the awareness of one's own
Berrol (1990) reports successfully using body, stimulated by the kinesthetic experience,
dance therapy for head injury patients. Her can be very beneficial for people who tend to-
goal is to help a patient deal with helplessness ward stress-induced dissociative states, or for
and fear by enabling ambulation; performing people who have pathologically distorted
of movement tasks with an enlarged repertoire sense of self or of body image" (personal com-
of movement dynamics, tempo, and range; im- munication, June 26,1995).
proving posture, balance, gait, and improving Dance also allows individuals to escape
gross motor coordination; enhancing ability to stress and pain by moving in a fantasy world,
motor plan; increasing reaction time and abil- A dancer can be a prince or princess, an ani-
ity; enhancing body image; and heightening mal, a ladies' man or siren. (Linda Valleroy ex-
proprioceptive awareness. plains the concept in Hanna, 1988: p. 145.)
In a study of 43 patients with rheumatoid Dangers of a danced fantasy include anes-
arthritis (Perlman et al., 1990) who participated thetizing an individual from the responsibility
in a 16-week dance-based aerobic exercise pro- of daily life, giving a sense of power that en-
gram that met twice weekly for 2 hours, physi- ables the person to endure a sense of power-
cian-assessed articular pain and swelling de- lessness as opposed to trying to overcome it,
creased significantly, as did the 50-foot walk offering escape from the task of attempting to
time, pain, and depression. Moreover, program change an often difficult and ugly world, and
leaders observed that "the program seemed to creating isolation from other kinds of social in-
stimulate in participants a renewed sense of teraction.
possibilities, a belief that perhaps they could, 4. In addition to possession dance, mastery
after all, find ways to pursue personally im- of movement, and escape or diversion from
portant goals they either had set aside or given stress and pain through dance, a fourth way of
up on because of the presumed Umitations of gaining a sense of control is cortfronting stres-
their arthritis" (p. 34). The program developed sors by projecting them in dance to work
in response to repeated questions from patients through ways of handling them. With its lan-
about whether or not participation in dance- guage-like quality, dance movement exercises
based aerobics classes was safe. Criteria for ac- or full dances can represent past, current, and
328 HANNA

anticipated events, ideas, and feelings that spread both on local and intercontinental lev-
evoke helplessness, anger, or fear (Harma, els. Indeed, the British were forced to alter their
1987). colonial administration.
Because dance representations of ideas are Through the dance, young girls try to cope
pretend and without the impact of real life, with the tension of maturing, marrying, living
dance participants can play with them at a dis- among strangers, being fertile, and giving
tance and, consequently, make them less birth. In the Nkwa Edere dance, shoulder shim-
threatening. Holding up problems for scrutiny mying and side-to-side pelvis swinging high-
through dance may allow their evaluation and Ught breast development and other pubescent
possible resolution by dancers and spectators, body changes. There are also dances for the
as well as catharsis, that is, the recollection and death of an aged man or woman that remind
release of past repressed distressful emotions participants of the coming of their own deaths
such as anger and fear. and help them cope with the dislocated parts
Renowned African-American dancer Pearl of the fabric of social relations caused by a
Primus described dance as "the scream which death.
eases for awhile the terrible frustration com- Another example of confronting psychology
mon to all human beings who because of race, ical stressors by projecting them in dance is
creed or color are 'invisible.' Dance is the fist," Stuart Pimsler bringing together his dance
she said, "with which I will fight the schem- company and health-care providers who felt
ing ignorance of prejudice. It is the veiled con- the desire to express, as a community, the con-
tempt I feel for those who patronize with stant loss they experience in the course of their
false smiles, handouts, empty promises, insin- work (Dance USA Journal, Winter 93,11).
cere compliments" [quoted in Dance magazine Bill T. Jones, a charismatic dancer/choreog-
1968;42(ll):56-60.]. rapher, lost his partner, Arnie Zane, to AIDS.
Ubakala dance can be conceptualized as a After the death, several of Jones's new dances
form of group psychotherapy to prevent com- confronted the pain of AIDS; he even had one
munication disorders and demoralization and of his compan/s dancers, who had AIDS, par-
remedy problems. Ubakala women and youth ticipate in a dance, even though pain prevented
are excluded from the village-wide political de- him from standing on his own. Company mem-
cision making about affairs of state. However, bers reported that the dances enabled them to
they "lobby" for their interests through the better manage the AIDS situation of pain and
dance. The Ubakala allow a special kind of li- anguish of loss.
cense in the dance that protects the individual Anna Halprin, renowned dancer and choreo-
and group from libel. And everyone is expected grapher, organized and facilitated a week-long
to attend the periodic market when the dancers workshop called "Circle the Earth: Dancing with
perform (see Hanna, 1988:74-78). Life on the Line" for individuals confronting
Through the dance, alternative social AIDS, their caregivers, and supporters. Over a
arrangements can be played with, unpopular hundred participants, few of whom had any
programs undermined, and new ones gener- dance training, explored through movement
ated. Dancers may convey contrary ways of act- "personal and collective myths about life and
ing and thinJcing, perhaps ultimately unwork- death." Halprin and 15-20 HIV-infected partic-
able or with disastrous consequences, or ipants then created an ongoing performance-ori-
normative ways with positive impact. ented group for the men to try to confront their
More than letting off steam, dance is a venue sense of helplessness and fear of the biological
to guard against the misuse of power and pro- and social disease for themselves, those they
duce social change without violence. A politi- love, and those they lost or are about to lose
cal form of coercion in a shame-oriented soci- (Wilson, 1991). The video, called "Positive
ety, unheeded dance communication led to the Motion" (Wilson, 1991), records the first public
famous 1929 "women's war." Women went on dance performance, "Carry Me Home." It con-
a rampage, prisoners were released, and peo- notes the ambiguity of defeat and dependence
pie were killed. The repercussions were wide- versus triumph and camaraderie. The individu-
POWER OF DANCE 329

als rediscovered the body, alienated from one- covery of the joy of moving in a creative sense
self and others by both a vims and politic, and is the greatest reward for their hard efforts. For
they experienced community as healing. geriatric residents, she tries to facilitate a sense
Permit me to talk about specific western of self-worth within each participant despite
dance therapy activity and its potential for the necessary compromises in mobility, focus,
health and healing. Dance therapy, as other sightedness, comprehension, and ability to ver-
therapies, is a process of acquiring insight, ex- balize.
periencing catharsis, and discarding personal A typical geriatric session involves gentle
misconceptions. Dance therapy, however, uses stretching and deep breathing, arms move up-
movement and verbal interventions to achieve ward, downward, out to the sides, forward,
these goals. Dance therapy acknowledges the back, and in circles. Every part of the body
fusion of mind and body and the expressive moves—hips are wiggled, knees are lifted, legs
and communicative primacy of nonverbal are carefully stretched. She uses a beachball.
body movement in revealing aspects of a per- The group joins in unison clapping, even if only
son's mental and emotional state and range of one hand can be used. Music in a variety of
adaptive behaviors. Dance therapy often in- moods lends energy, stimulates, and calms,
corporates music, acting, and role-playing The group moves in a circle, pairs up, and mir-
through movement, and multiple participants rors each other's movements,
to create positive group dynamics. It's noteworthy that in 1993 the federal gov-
Dance therapy may be an integral compo- ernment's administration on aging supported
nent of a broad treatment program, or it may research on dance therapy and aging,
be a primary intervention. Dance therapists ob-
serve a person's movements for diagnostic pur-
poses, treatment goals, and assessment of CONCLUSION
change over time as a result of therapy.
Practitioners read a patient's/client's posture. What I have tried to suggest in this article is
gesture, face, and use of space (such as distance the potential of dance in health and healing,
between people, synchrony with others, man- Considerable research is obviously needed,
ner of touch, and eye gaze). Dance in the healing process appears to involve
Dance therapy does not use a standard dance the possibility of a person gaining a sense of
form or movement technique. Any form, from control in at least these four ways: (1) posses-
African folk to European waltz, may be drawn sion dance, (2) mastery of movement, (3) es-
upon. Improvisation is common. Much of cape or diversion from stress and pain through
dance therapy is movement or predance-type a change in emotion, states of consciousness,
experiences based on the patient's/client's own and/or physical capability, and (4) confronting
improvised movement to allow the person to stressors to work through ways of handling
experience themes and intensify or release feel- their effects,
ings. A key question is, why is dance more effec-
Therapists may treat patients/clients in tive than other forms of exercise as therapy in
hospitals, long-term institutions, community pain management? An answer is that dance
health centers, nursing homes, private practice seems to have unique multisensory, emotional,
offices, clinics, and the patienf s/clienf s home, cognitive, and somatic characteristics.
Let me give an example of dance therapy in As with any healing intervention, dancing
nursing home groups, which is a vehicle for may be counterindicated. It is important for a
persons to gain a sense of control through var- dance instructor and therapist to be aware of a
ious means mentioned earlier: The sick try to client's needs, capabilities, and culture for
escape the limitations of their pain and the re- dance as therapy to have a good potential for
strictions it causes. Exercise, expression, cathar- success. Health care approaches may not suc-
sis, group recognition, and acceptance are im- ceed because practitioners do not understand
portant goals in dance therapist Schoenfeld's how individual patients, as well as the cultures
sessions (1986). She observed that the redis- to which they belong, view the cause of a prob-
330 HAN^ ^

lem and the treatment. Given our cultural di- Tumbuka healing. Chicago: Universily^ of Chicago
versity, dance therapy should be seen in the Press 1996.
Guindy' HE, Schmais, C. The Zar: An ancient dance of
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pates in dance, when, where, and how, and Hanna, JL. African dance: Some implications for dance
what movements are preferred, prescribed, therapy. Am J Dance Ther 1978;2(1):3-15.
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dance should be viewed as a potentially pow- inance, defiance, and desire. Chicago: University of
erful yet underused and underresearched Chicago Press, 1988a.
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The paper draws upon material presented at Now 1990b;12(l):27-28, 30, 32, 34, 36.
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Professor of Dance, New York University, and and Dance, 1988.
President, American Dance Therapy Associa- Marshall, L. !Kung bushman religious beliefs. Africa
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Public Relations Committee, American Dance cult of Ethiopia. In: Opler MK, ed. Culture and mental
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M.D., P. A., New Jersey Medical College, on ear- Messing, SD. Group therapy and social status in the Zar
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demonstrates the use of the dance therapy form Pain as human experience: An anthropological per-
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