DENNIS OSADEBAY UNIVERSITY, ASABA DELTA STATE.
FACULTY OF COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT OF CYBER SECURITY
DOU-CYB122/DOU-IFT122
INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
Topic: Introduction to Critical Thinking
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the class the students should be able to:
1. Describe the term thinking and discuss the subject critical thinking.
2. State the various characteristics (features) of critical thinkers
3. Analyze the critical thinking standards
4. Enumerate importance of critical thinking.
5. State the steps or processes in critical thinking.
Overview of Critical thinking
Thinking is a natural process and we cannot avoid it but we can definitely
change our way of thinking. It is our brain which processes our thoughts
when we look at any situation, object, data, person etc. Thinking
involves the entire process of learning, remembering, and organizing
mentally to understand the information better and recall it later. Thinking
about issues involves all sorts of skills – and most of us could improve on
them. Thinking can also be said to be an opinion or judgment. We have a set
of preinstalled assumptions, reasons, logics and biases which construct our
thoughts and we can definitely change or control them to build an effective
thinking skill which is called critical thinking.
Critical thinking
The most exemplary philosopher for critical thinking was Socrates. Others
includes Rene Descrates, John Dewey, Watson Glaser, Robert Ennis, etc.
Critical Thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding
the logical connection in a situation by analyzing the information,
evaluating arguments to make informed decisions and arrive at considered
judgment. It entails requiring evidence and considering an issue from
multiple perspectives.
In this sense critical thinking means thinking clearly and intelligently with a
pattern that requires people to be reflective, and pay attention to decision
making which guides their beliefs and actions. More precisely, critical
thinking is a metacognitive skill. What this means is that it is a higher-
order cognitive skill that involves thinking about thinking and intellectual
dispositions needed to effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments
and truth claims; to discover and avoid personal preconceptions and biases;
to formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions.
Simply put, critical thinking is a metacognitive skill also known as higher-
order cognitive skill that involves thinking about thinking observes an issue,
then analyzes and evaluates it in order to form an objective judgment.
Critical thinking skills
Critical thinking skills are sometimes referred to as ‘higher order skills’ to
differentiate them from ‘simpler’ (i.e., lower order) skills, such as rote
memorization or routinization. Critical thinking skills allows individuals to
understand and address situations based on all available facts and
information. A critical thinker must use certain skills to accomplish critical
thinking, such as observing an issue from multiple angles, analyzing data to
find connections, developing a solution based on evidence, implementing
the plan, and evaluating the outcome. Some critical thinking skills are:
i. Observation:
Observational skills are the starting point for critical thinking, as they
are individuals who capable of understanding why something might
be a problem. People who are observant can quickly sense and
identify a new problem. They may even be able to predict when a
problem might occur before it happens based on their experiences.
ii. Open-mindedness: Embracing diverse perspectives, considering
alternative viewpoints, and adjusting beliefs in response to new
information. Being open-minded when having a conversation or
participating in a group activity is crucial to success.
iii. Emotional ability: Emotional ability includes curiosity, skepticism,
and humility.
Curiosity is the desire to acquire new information and explore
alternative views.
Skepticism is the willingness to question views and require
evidence rather than blindly believing them, and
Humility is the willingness to admit that one may be mistaken
or acknowledging limitation in one’s knowledge and
understanding. Therefore, being open to learning from others
and revising one's beliefs in light of new evidence.
iv. Analytical Skills: Once a problem has been identified, analytical
skills become essential. Breaking down complex issues into
manageable parts to better understand its structure, relationship and
underlying assumptions, arguments and evidence. This also often
includes gathering unbiased research, asking relevant questions
about the data to ensure its accurate and assessing the findings
objectively.
v. Problem-solving
After you’ve identified and analyzed a problem and chosen a solution,
the final step is to execute your solution. Problem-solving often
requires critical thinking to implement the best solution and
understand whether or not the solution is working as it relates to the
goal.
vi. Inference: Inference is a skill that involves drawing conclusions
about the given information and may require you to possess technical
or industry-specific knowledge or experience. When you make an
inference, which means you are developing answers based on limited
information.
vii. Communication
Communication skills are important when it comes to explaining and
discussing issues and their possible solutions with colleagues and
other stakeholders. Communication skills are abilities used when
giving and receiving different kinds of information. They involve
listening, speaking, observing and empathizing information in a clear,
effective and efficient way.
Process of Critical thinking
There are essential critical thinking steps anyone can follow that will improve their
critical thinking. They include:
Step 1: Identify the Problem or Question
The first step in critical thinking is to identify the problem or question that
needs to be addressed. This may involve breaking down a complex issue
into smaller parts or simply clarifying a question. It is important to define
the problem or question clearly so that you can focus your thinking and
research.
Step 2: Gather Information and Evidence
Once you have identified the problem or question, the next step is to gather
information and evidence. This may involve researching online, talking to
experts, or reading articles and books. It is important to evaluate the quality
of the sources you use, considering their credibility and reliability.
Step 3: Evaluate the Information and Evidence
Once you have gathered information and evidence, the next step is to
evaluate it. This involves assessing the relevance, credibility, and accuracy
of the sources you have used. You should consider the biases of the authors
or sources and look for evidence that supports different viewpoints.
Step 4: Consider Different Perspectives
After you have evaluated the information and evidence, the next step is to
consider different perspectives. This involves examining the arguments and
reasoning of those who disagree with you and considering how your own
biases and assumptions might be affecting your thinking. It is important to
approach different viewpoints with an open mind and a willingness to
consider evidence that contradicts your own beliefs.
Step 5: Draw a Conclusion
The final step in critical thinking is to draw a conclusion. This involves
synthesizing the information and evidence you have gathered and
evaluating it in light of the different perspectives you have considered. Your
conclusion should be based on logic and evidence, rather than emotions or
personal biases. It is important to be willing to revise your conclusion if new
information comes to light.
Critical Thinking Standards
These are conditions that critical thinking should meet to be considered as
normal and acceptable. Critical thinking is disciplined thinking governed by
clear intellectual standards. Among the most important of these intellectual
standards are clarity, accuracy, relevance, consistency, logical
correctness, breadth, fairness, and depth.
Clarity
Depth Accuracy
Critical
Fairness Thinking Relevance
Standards
Breadth Consistency
Logical
correctness
Critical Thinking Standards
1. CLARITY
Before we can effectively evaluate a person’s argument or claim, we need to
understand clearly what he or she is saying to avoid confusion or ambiguity.
Unfortunately, that can be difficult because people often fail to express
themselves clearly. Some factors that led to this lack of clarity is: laziness,
carelessness, or a lack of skill. At other times it results from a misguided
effort to appear clever, learned, or profound.
Understanding a problem can be achieved only if we value and pursue
clarity of thought to the extent that he or she can elaborate, illustrate, and
exemplify it.
2. Accuracy
Free from errors, mistakes or distortions; which is said to be true, and
correct. A statement can be clear but nor accurate. As a critical thinker
your thought and actions must be accurate and timely.
Questions that focus on accuracy in thinking include:
How could I check that to see if it is true?
How could I verify these alleged facts?
Can I trust the accuracy of these data given the source from which
they come?
3. Relevance
When reasoning through an issue, one should concentrate on the most
important information (relevant to the issue) and take into account the most
important ideas or concepts. Anyone who has ever sat through a boring
school assembly or watched a mud-slinging political debate can appreciate
the importance of staying focused on relevant ideas and information. A
favorite debaters’ trick is to try to distract an audience’s attention by
raising an irrelevant issue. Questions that focus on relevance include:
What is the most relevant information needed to address this issue?
How is that fact important in context?
Could you explain the connection between your question and the
question we are addressing?
How does this idea relate to this other idea or to the issue at hand?
4. Consistency
There are two kinds of inconsistency that we should avoid. One is logical
inconsistency, which involves saying or believing inconsistent things (i.e.,
things that cannot both or all be true) about a particular matter. The other
is practical inconsistency, which involves saying one thing and doing
another.
5. Logical Correctness
To think logically is to reason correctly—that is, to draw well-founded
conclusions from the beliefs we hold and the parts make sense together, no
contradictions; in keeping with the principles of sound judgment and
reasonability. That is when the combination of thoughts is mutually
supporting and makes sense in combination, the thinking is logical.
Questions that focus on logic include:
• Does all this fit together logically?
• Does this really make sense?
6. Depth
Depth implies thoroughness in thinking through the many variables in the
situation, context, idea, or question. A statement can be clear, accurate,
precise, and relevant, but superficial (i.e., lack depth). In most contexts, we
rightly prefer deep and complete thinking to shallow and superficial
thinking. However, thinking is better when it is deep rather than shallow,
thorough rather than superficial. Depth in thinking give detailed reasons on
the situation.
7. Fairness
Finally, critical thinking demands that our thinking be fair—that is, open-
minded, impartial, and free of distorting biases and preconceptions.
Fairness implies the treating of all relevant viewpoints alike without
reference to one’s own feelings or interests. That can be very difficult to
achieve. It is probably unrealistic to suppose that our thinking could ever be
completely free of biases and preconceptions; to some extent we all
perceive reality in ways that are powerfully shaped by our individual life
experiences and cultural backgrounds. But as difficult as it may be to
achieve, basic fair-mindedness is clearly an essential attribute of a critical
thinker.
8. Breadth:
Encompassing multiple viewpoints, comprehensive in view, wide ranging
and broadminded in perspective. A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate,
precise, relevant, and deep but lack breadth (as in an argument from either
the conservative or liberal standpoints which details the complexities in an
issue, but only recognizes insights from one perspective).
Thinking can be more or less broad-minded (or narrow-minded), and
breadth of thinking requires the thinker to reason insightfully within more
than one point of view or frame of reference. Questions that focus on
breadth in thinking include:
• What points of view are relevant to this issue?
• What relevant points of view have I ignored thus far?
Importance of Critical thinking
i. Critical thinking is essential for effective problem-solving and decision-
making in all areas of life which is used to enhance work processes and
improve social institutions.
ii. Critical thinking enhances creativity, communication skills, and academic
performance.
iii. Critical thinking is crucial for self-reflection and a tool for self-evaluation
which fosters independence of thought and skepticism towards unverified
claims.
iv. Helps in understanding and interpreting complex issues.
v. Critical thinking helps us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and
strengthen arguments.
PERCEPTION AND REALITY
Introduction
Perception and reality are two related but distinct concepts. Perception refers to the way we
interpret and understand the world around us, while reality refers to the actual state of affairs. In
this lecture, we will explore the concept of perception and reality, and how they relate to critical
thinking. Perception is the process by which we interpret and organize sensory information from
the world around us.
Difference between Perception and Reality: Perception and reality are not always the same.
Our perception of reality can be influenced by various factors, including biases, assumptions, and
expectations.
a) Biases: Preconceived notions or attitudes that can affect our perception. For example, if
we have a bias against a particular group of people, we may perceive them in a negative
light.
b) Assumptions: Assumptions can lead to inaccurate perceptions if they are not based on
evidence. For example, assuming that someone is dishonest based on their appearance or
background.
c) Expectations: Expectations can influence what we perceive and how we interpret it. For
example, if we expect a certain outcome, we may perceive the information in a way that
supports our expectation.
Strategies for Improving Perception
a) Awareness of Biases: Recognizing our own biases and assumptions can help us to
improve our perception. By being aware of our biases, we can take steps to mitigate their
influence.
b) Open-Mindedness: Being open-minded and receptive to new information can help us to
improve our perception. By considering multiple perspectives and being open to new
ideas, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the world.
c) Critical Thinking: Applying critical thinking skills can help us to evaluate information
more effectively and improve our perception. By analyzing information, evaluating
evidence, and drawing conclusions based on reasoning, we can make more informed
decisions.
At this point I will ask what is objectivity?
Objectivity refers to the ability to consider or represent facts and information without being
influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudice. It involves evaluating information
based on evidence and reasoning, rather than on personal opinions or biases.
Key characteristics of objectivity:
1. Impartiality: Objectivity involves being impartial and unbiased in one's evaluation of
information.
2. Evidence-based: Objectivity relies on evidence and data to support conclusions, rather than on
personal opinions or assumptions.
3. Neutral perspective: Objectivity involves considering multiple perspectives and evaluating
information without taking a partisan or biased stance.
4. Focus on facts: Objectivity focuses on verifiable facts and data, rather than on personal
interpretations or opinions.
Benefits of objectivity:
1. More accurate decision-making: Objectivity can lead to more accurate decision-making by
reducing the influence of personal biases and assumptions.
2. Increased credibility: Objectivity can increase credibility and trust in one's work or opinions,
as it is based on evidence and reasoning rather than personal opinions.
3. Better problem-solving: Objectivity can lead to more effective problem-solving by considering
multiple perspectives and evaluating evidence.
Challenges to objectivity:
1. Personal biases: Personal biases and assumptions can influence one's evaluation of
information and lead to subjective conclusions.
2. Emotional involvement: Emotional involvement in a issue can lead to biased decision-making
and a lack of objectivity.
3. Cultural and social influences: Cultural and social influences can shape one's perceptions and
lead to biased conclusions.
By striving for objectivity, individuals can make more informed decisions, evaluate information
more effectively, and develop an understanding of the world around them.
Importance of Objectivity: Striving for objectivity can help us to gain a more accurate
understanding of reality. By setting aside our biases and assumptions, we can evaluate
information more effectively and make more informed decisions.
In conclusion, perception and reality are two related but distinct concepts. By understanding the
factors that influence perception and applying strategies for improving perception, individuals
can develop a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the world around them. Critical
thinking plays a crucial role in improving perception and gaining a more accurate understanding
of reality. Examples
a) A person may perceive a new policy as unfair because of their personal experience with a
similar policy in the past. However, upon further examination, they may realize that the
new policy is actually designed to address a different issue.
b) A company may perceive a competitor's product as inferior based on their own biases and
assumptions. However, upon closer examination, they may realize that the competitor's
product is actually superior in some ways.
By recognizing the factors that influence perception and applying strategies for improving
perception, individuals can develop a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the world
around them. Critical thinking is essential for evaluating information, identifying biases and
assumptions, and making informed decisions.
References
Bassham .G., Irwin.W., Nardone .H., & Wallace .J. (2011). Critical
Thinking: A student's Introduction. 4th edition. McGraw Hill
https://online.jcu.edu.au/blog/improving-cognitive-
thinking#:~:text=What%20is%20cognitive%20thinking
%3F,knowledge%20into%20decisions%20and%20actions
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-critical-thinking-definition-
skills-meaning.html
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/critical-
thinking-skills
Richard Paul & Linda Elder. Critical Thinking: Intellectual Standards
Essential to Reasoning Well Within Every Domain of Human Thought, Part
Two
