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General Biology 1

Science, technology, engineering, snd mathematics (Nagpayong High School)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
1st Semester
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“Characteristics of
Life”_______ Examples
1. Growth and Development o Sea stars reproduce sexually
(fertilization in water) and
♦ All organisms grow and
asexually (fission).
develop using nourishment
and genetic instructions.
4. Response to Environment or
Examples:
Stimuli
o Plants grow through cell division
♦ Organisms adapt and
(mitosis) in meristematic tissue.
o The cell cycle includes nutrient respond to their environment.
absorption, metabolism, protein Examples:
synthesis, and cell division. o Mangroves grow in saline conditions,
o Mature plants use light for affecting seed germination and leaf
photosynthesis and nutrients for development.
growth.
5. Energy Processing
2. Maintain Homeostasis ♦ Organisms need energy for
♦ Organisms keep internal metabolic activities.
conditions stable Examples:
(temperature, pH, chemical o Photoautotrophs (like plants) use
balance) despite photosynthesis to convert sunlight into
environmental changes. chemical energy.
Examples: o Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water
o Mammals regulate body and CO2 to produce carbohydrates.
temperature with fat reserves, fur,
and behavior. 6. Organization
o Small mammals like the ♦ Living things are highly
Philippine tarsier may hibernate to organized, from cells to
maintain thermal homeostasis. tissues to organs and
o Piloerection (hair standing) in systems.
mammals increases insulation and Examples:
can signal aggression. o Cells: Basic unit, holding DNA.
o Tissues: Groups of similar cells (e.g.,
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
3. Reproduction in animals; dermal, vascular, ground
♦ Organisms reproduce to in plants).
create new generations, o Organs: Structures of specific tissues
passing genes to offspring. performing specialized tasks.
o Organ Systems: Groups of organs
working together (e.g., human body

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has 11 systems, plants have shoot and o Inspired the development of

root systems) Keplerian microscopes with
Life convex lenses.
Processes___________
Movement: Organisms move using 3. Antony van Leeuwenhoek:
structures like flagella or cilia. o Known as the "Father of
Respiration: Breaking down glucose
Microbiology."
to produce energy (ATP).
o Made his own simple
Sensitivity: Sensing and responding
to environmental changes. microscopes in the 1670s.
Growth: Increasing cell size or o Discovered bacteria and
number. protozoa using dental
Reproduction: Forming new cells or scrapings, calling them
individuals, passing on genes. "animalcules."
Excretion: Removing toxic by-
products of metabolism.
4. Robert Hooke:
Nutrition: Breaking down food into
o Improved the compound
absorbable molecules.
microscope.
o Coined the term "cell" in
Development of the 1665 by seeing cork tissue.
Microscope_ Early Inventors: o Published his findings in
1. Zacharias Janssen: Micrographia, illustrating
o Dutch spectacle-maker. various microscopic views.
o Credited with creating the
first compound microscope Formation of Cell
around 1590. Theory______
o His microscope had a main Key Scientists and Contributions:
brass tube with lenses at
each end. 1. Matthias Schleiden (1838):

2. Galileo Galilei: ♦ German botanist.

o Famous for telescopes, but ♦ It concluded that all plants
also made microscopes in the are made of cells.
early 1600s.
o Used a bi-convex objective
lens and a bi-concave 2. Theodor Schwann (1839):
eyepiece.
♦ German zoologist.

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♦ It was concluded that all 5. All cells have the same basic
animals are made of cells. chemical composition.
♦ Identified Schwann cells in ♦ Fundamental chemicals like
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
the nervous system, which
and nucleic acids are
insulate nerve fibers.
consistent across all cells.
6. All energy flow of life occurs
3. Rudolf Virchow (1855): within cells.
♦ Cellular metabolism involves
♦ German physician and energy production and
pathologist. utilization (e.g., cellular
♦ Proposed "omnis cellula e respiration and
photosynthesis).
cellula" meaning "every
Foundation of
cell stems from another
cell." Life________
♦ Emphasized the continuity  Cells is the basic building
of cells through cell blocks of all organisms
division. ♦ Tissues: Groups of cells that
perform a specific function.
♦ Organs: Structures composed
Postulates of Cell of multiple tissues that
Theory_____ perform a specific task.
1. All living things are made of ♦ Organ Systems: Groups of
cells. organs that work together to
♦ Cells are the basic building perform complex functions.
blocks of all organisms.
2. The cell is the basic unit of Key Molecules in
structure and function in living
Cell______
things.
♦ Cells perform essential life ♦ Proteins:
processes. ♦ Composition: Made of amino
3. All cells come from pre-existing acids.
cells by division. o Amino Acids: 20 different
♦ Cells do not spontaneously types that determine each
protein’s structure and
arise but are produced by the
function.
division of existing cells. ♦ Structure: Long chains of amino
4. Cells have hereditary acids that fold into complex 3D
information passed during cell shapes.
division. ♦ Functions:
♦ Genetic material (DNA) is o Enzymes: Speed up
replicated and distributed to biochemical reactions.
daughter cells. o Structural: Provide
support in tissues and

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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organs (e.g., collagen in o Membrane Structure:

skin). Major part of cell
o Transport: Move membranes
molecules across cell (phospholipids).
membranes (e.g., o Energy Storage: Store
hemoglobin carries energy (fats and oils).
oxygen in blood). o Signaling: Act as
o Signaling: Communicate signaling molecules
between cells (e.g., (steroids like cholesterol).
hormones like insulin). ♦ Types:
o Fats and Oils: Energy
 Carbohydrates: storage molecules.
♦ Functions: o Phospholipids: Form
o Energy Source: Primary the lipid bilayer of cell
source of energy (e.g., membranes.
glucose). o Steroids: Include
o Structural Support: hormones like cholesterol
Components of cell walls and testosterone.
in plants (e.g., cellulose)
and fungi.  Nucleic Acids:
o Cellular ♦ Types: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Communication: Act as Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid).
receptors on cell ♦ DNA:
surfaces. o Structure: Double helix
♦ Types: made of nucleotides.
o Monosaccharides: o Function: Stores genetic
Simple sugars (e.g., information.
glucose, fructose). ♦ RNA:
o Disaccharides: Two o Types: mRNA
monosaccharides linked (messenger), tRNA
together (e.g., sucrose, (transfer), rRNA
lactose). (ribosomal).
o Polysaccharides: Long o Function: Various roles
chains of in protein synthesis and
monosaccharides (e.g., gene regulation.
starch, glycogen,
cellulose).
Origin and
 Lipids: Revolution________
♦ Composition: Made of fatty Early Cells:
acids. ♦ Prokaryotes: First cells appeared
o Fatty Acids: Can be about 3.8 billion years ago.
saturated (no double ♦ Eukaryotes: Evolved about 2
bonds) or unsaturated billion years ago from prokaryotic
(one or more double cells
bonds).
♦ Functions: Endosymbiotic Theory:

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♦ Theory: Eukaryotic cells formed  Smooth ER:

from a symbiotic relationship Synthesizes lipids,
between different prokaryotic detoxifies substances.
cells. 4. Golgi Apparatus:
♦ Evidence: Changes, sorts, and
 Mitochondria and packages proteins and
chloroplasts have their lipids.
own DNA, like prokaryotic 5. Lysosomes: Has digestive
cells. enzymes to break down
 These organelles waste.
replicate independently 6. Chloroplasts (in plant
within the eukaryotic cell. cells): Site of
photosynthesis.

Prokaryotic and Reproduction:

Eukaryotic_____ Classification: ♦ Prokaryotic Cells:
♦ Three Domains: Archaea, o Binary Fission: Asexual
Bacteria (prokaryotes), and reproduction, producing
Eukarya (eukaryotes). identical offspring.
Organelles: o Genetic Variation:
♦ Prokaryotic Cells: Occurs through processes
o Structure: Simple, no like conjugation,
membrane-bound organelles. transformation, and
o DNA: Found in a nucleoid transduction.
region, not enclosed by a ♦ Eukaryotic Cells:
membrane. o Mitosis: Asexual
o Example: Bacteria and reproduction, producing
Archaea. identical cells.
o Meiosis: Sexual
♦ Eukaryotic Cells: reproduction, producing
o Structure: Complex, have genetically diverse
membrane-bound organelles. offspring.
o DNA: Enclosed within a Ribosomes:
nucleus. ♦ Prokaryotic Ribosomes:
o Examples: Plants, animals, o Size: Smaller, 70S (50S
fungi, protists. and 30S subunits).
o Organelles: o Location: Float freely in
1. Nucleus: Stores genetic the cytoplasm.
material (DNA). ♦ Eukaryotic Ribosomes:
2. Mitochondria: Powerhouse o Size: Larger, 80S (60S
of the cell produces ATP. and 40S subunits).
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum o Location: Found in the
(ER): cytoplasm and attached
 Rough ER: Studded to the endoplasmic
with ribosomes, reticulum.
synthesizes proteins.

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Similarities Between Prokaryotes and condenses to form

Eukaryotes chromosomes during cell
♦ DNA: Both have DNA for genetic division.
o Nucleolus: Produces
coding.
ribosomes.
♦ Plasma Membrane: Both have a
membrane to regulate the entry
and exit of substances. 2. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
♦ Ribosomes: Both use ribosomes “Production Line”
for protein synthesis. -the cell’s manufacturing and packaging
♦ Cytoplasm: Both contain center, crucial for producing and preparing
cytoplasm, a jelly-like fluid inside proteins and lipids for their various roles in
the cell. the cell.

 Structure: A network of flattened

sacs (cisternae) connected to the
outer nuclear membrane.
 Function: Works with the Golgi
apparatus to form the cell’s
secretory route, making and
transporting proteins and lipids.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 Appearance: Studded with
ribosomes, giving it a "rough"
look.
 Function: Synthesizes and
modifies proteins.
o Process:
 Proteins made by
Membrane-bound cell ribosomes on the RER
organelles_ enter the RER.
 They undergo
modifications like folding
1. NUCLEUS “The Control Center”
and adding signal
-the nucleus is the control center of the sequences.
cell, directing all activities by using the  Properly folded proteins
genetic information stored within it. are sent to the Golgi
apparatus for further
processing and shipping.
 Location: Mostly found in  Misfolded proteins are
eukaryotic cells. broken down and
 Size: Largest organelle, taking up destroyed.
about 10% of the cell's volume.  Importance:
 Function: Holds the cell’s DNA
o Secretion: Produces proteins
and controls cell activities by
for secretion (e.g., enzymes,
regulating gene expression.
mucus).
 Structure:
o Nuclear Envelope: A double o Cell Membrane: Makes
proteins for the cell membrane
membrane with pores that
(e.g., receptors, channels).
control what enters and
leaves the nucleus. o Vesicles: Forms enzymes for
o Chromatin: DNA wrapped lysosomes (digestive
organelles).
around proteins, which

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) o Proteins and lipids arrive from the
 Appearance: Lacks ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
giving it a "smooth" look. o Protein Processing: Changes the
 Function: Synthesizes lipids,
carbohydrate parts of
phospholipids, and steroids.
o Specialized Tissues: glycoproteins.
Especially important in o Lipid Processing: Adds phosphate
steroidogenic cells groups to lipids from the ER (like
(hormone-producing) and cholesterol) to form phospholipids
muscles. for cell membranes.
o Detoxification: Contains
enzymes like cytochrome 2. Packaging into Vesicles
p450 for detoxifying drugs
and toxins (e.g., alcohol). o Vesicles: Small bubbles that
o Glycogen Storage: Stores transport materials within the cell.
glycogen in liver cells o Labeling: Adds chemical tags to
(hepatocytes). ensure correct delivery.
o Types of Proteins Packaged:
Imagine the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as  Lysosomal Proteins:
a factory production line: Packaged with a tag called
-Rough ER: Like a busy assembly line with mannose-6-phosphate.
workers (ribosomes) adding parts (amino  Secretory Proteins:
acids) to make products (proteins). These Hormones and other
products are inspected and, if they pass substances ready for release
quality control, are sent to the shipping outside the cell are packed in
department (Golgi apparatus). Defective vesicles that merge with the
products are recycled. cell membrane.

DELIVERY PROCESS
Smooth ER: Like a side department where 1. Exocytosis: The process where
oils, fats, and steroids (lipids) are made vesicles fuse with the cell membrane
and harmful substances are detoxified. to release their contents outside the
cell.
o Energy Requirement: Needs
3. GOLGI APPARATUS: Cell's Packaging ATP (the cell's energy
Center currency) to fuse the vesicle
membrane with the cell
-like a postal service for the cell, modifying, membrane.
packaging, and directing proteins and lipids o Secretory Cells: Special cells
to their correct locations. where this fusion mainly
happens.

INTRODUCTION SECRETORY PATHWAYS

 Location: Found in eukaryotic 1. Regulated Secretory Pathway
cells (plants, animals, fungi, and o Used by cells that release
protists).
large amounts of substances
 Function: Packages and sends
(like hormones).
macromolecules (like proteins and o Vesicles wait until the cell
lipids) to their destinations inside gets a signal to release their
or outside the cell. contents.

KEY FUNCTIONS 2. Constitutive Secretory

1. Modification of Proteins and Lipids: Pathway
o Present in all cells.

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o Continuously sends vesicles o Contains enzymes for the Krebs

to the cell membrane. cycle (a key part of energy
o Moves cell surface proteins production) and fatty acid
and phospholipids to the cell cycles.
membrane.
o Also has DNA, RNA, ribosomes,
and calcium granules.

4. MITOCHONDRIA: The Powerhouses of Functions of Mitochondria

the Cell  ATP Synthesis: Produces ATP,
-Mitochondria are the cell’s power plants, the energy currency of the cell.
converting nutrients into energy.  Regulating the Cell's
-They have specialized structures and Environment:
functions to manage energy production and o Stores caspases which are
regulate cell processes. enzymes that can trigger
apoptosis (programmed
Introduction cell death).
 Structure: Mitochondria have two o Temporarily stores calcium,
membranes (inner and outer) with a
helping to maintain calcium
space between them.
balance in the cell.
 Function: They are the main sites for
energy production in cells.
5. LYSOSOMES: The Cell's Digestive

Key Parts of Mitochondria System

1. Outer Membrane - Lysosomes act as the cell’s waste
o Contains porins (proteins) that disposal system, using enzymes to
break down unwanted materials.
let ions move in and out.
-They play a crucial role in defending
o Has enzymes for fatty acid
the cell against pathogens and
elongation and adrenaline
maintaining overall cellular health.
oxidation.
Introduction
 Structure: Acidic, membrane-
bound organelles.
2. Intermembrane Space  Function: Contain enzymes that
o The space between the outer and break down various substances.
inner membranes.
3. Inner Membrane Key Features of Lysosomes
1. Membrane
o Contains ATP synthase, an
o Surrounds the lysosome,
enzyme that makes ATP (energy
keeping the enzymes inside
molecule) in the matrix. to prevent damage to the
o Has proteins that control what rest of the cell.
enters and exits the matrix. o Maintains an acidic
o Arranged in cristae (folds) to environment by constantly
pumping protons into the
increase the surface area for
lysosome.
energy production.
4. Matrix 2. Hydrolytic Enzymes
o The inner part of the o Catalyze hydrolysis
mitochondrion. reactions, breaking down

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foreign particles, old cell o Enzymes are synthesized

parts, and other materials. on free ribosomes and
o Key enzymes in destroying imported into
harmful substances.
peroxisomes as
Functions of Lysosomes completed polypeptide
chains.
1. Phagocytosis
o Macrophages (a type of 2. Hydrogen Peroxide
immune cell) engulf foreign Management
particles, forming a o Produce hydrogen
phagosome. peroxide as a byproduct
o The phagosome merges with of biochemical processes.
a lysosome to create a o Contain catalase, an
phagolysosome where the
enzymes break down the enzyme that breaks down
particles. hydrogen peroxide into
water or uses it to oxidize
2. Defense Against Pathogens other organic
o Degrades pathogens before compounds, preventing
they can enter the cell’s harm to the cell.
cytoplasm.
o Works through
endocytosis, a process
Functions of Peroxisomes
where the cell engulfs 1. Fatty Acid Oxidation
material from the outside o Involved in the
environment. breakdown of fatty acids
to produce energy.
6. PEROXISOMES: The Cell's Detox
Centers 2. Lipid Synthesis
o Synthesize important
- Peroxisomes act as detox centers, lipids like cholesterol.
managing harmful byproducts like o Produce plasmalogens,
hydrogen peroxide and breaking down a type of phospholipid
fatty acids with a unique ether bond
-They are essential for lipid synthesis and that plays a role in the
maintaining cellular health through their structure of cell
various metabolic functions. membranes.
Introduction
 Structure: Single membrane and
granular matrix scattered in the 7. VACUOLES: The Storage Units of
cytoplasm. the Cell
 Function: Involved in various - Vacuoles are essential storage units in
metabolic reactions, including the cell, keeping nutrients and waste
energy metabolism and
materials separate. They play a crucial role
detoxification.
in maintaining cell health by isolating
Key Features of Peroxisomes toxins and regulating pH levels.
1. Enzymes
o Contain enzymes for Introduction
metabolic reactions.  Structure: Surrounded by a
membrane called the tonoplast.

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 Function: Stores inorganic and  Function: Facilitate the storage and

organic materials, helping to transport of materials within and
maintain cell health and balance. between cells.

Key Features of Vacuoles Key Features of Vesicles

1. Tonoplast 1. Lipid Bilayer
o The membrane that o Lamellar Phase: The outer
surrounds the vacuole, layer enclosing the liquid,
keeping its contents similar to the plasma
separate from the rest of membrane.
the cell. o Composed of a lipid bilayer with
one end hydrophobic (water-
2. Contents repelling) and the other end
o Fluid containing inorganic hydrophilic (water-attracting).
materials (like water) and 2. Contents
organic materials (like o Can contain various substances,
nutrients and enzymes). including nutrients, waste
o Formed from multiple products, and signaling
membrane vesicles, molecules.
giving it a structure
similar to a vesicle. Functions of Vesicles
1. Storage and Transport
Functions of Vacuoles o Store and transport
1. Storage materials within the cell.
o Stores nutrients and o Transport materials to
waste materials. different parts of the cell or
o Protects the cell from to the cell membrane for
release outside the cell.
toxicity by isolating
2. Intercellular Exchange
harmful substances.
o Facilitate the exchange of
2. pH Regulation molecules between cells,
o Helps maintain an acidic playing a crucial role in
communication and
internal pH by regulating
coordination among cells.
the movement of H+ ions
to and from the
cytoplasm. 9. CHLOROPLASTS: The Solar Panels
of the Cell
8. VESICLES: The Transport Carriers - Chloroplasts are the solar panels of plant
of the Cell and algal cells, converting sunlight into
- Vesicles are essential for storing and energy through photosynthesis.
transporting various materials within and -They have distinct regions (grana and
between cells. Their unique structure stroma) that work together to capture light
allows them to protect and move and produce energy, as well as essential
substances efÏciently, supporting molecules for the cell's functions.
numerous cellular functions. Introduction
 Structure: A type of plastid found in
Introduction plants and algae.
 Structure: Membrane-bound  Function: Involved in
organelles containing liquid or cytosol, photosynthesis, the process by
enclosed by a lipid bilayer. which plants and algae convert
sunlight into energy.

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Key Features of Chloroplasts from carbon dioxide and

1. Chlorophyll water.
o High concentration of 2. Production of Essential
chlorophyll, a pigment that Molecules
traps sunlight for o Produces amino acids
photosynthesis. and lipids required for its
2. DNA and Reproduction own membrane and
o Contains its own DNA, function.
allowing it to reproduce
independently from the rest Cell City Adventure
of the cell.
3. Production of Amino Acids and
Lipids
o Produces the necessary
amino acids and lipids for the
chloroplast membrane.

Distinct Regions of Chloroplasts

1. Grana
o Made up of stacks of disc-
shaped structures called
thylakoids.
o Contains chlorophyll pigments. 1.
o Site of the light-dependent Nucleus (City Hall)
reactions of photosynthesis. o Role: The control center.
2. Stroma
o Task: Holds all the
o Homogeneous matrix that
instructions (DNA) for running
surrounds the grana.
the city.
o Contains enzymes, DNA,
ribosomes, and other
o Visual: A big, important-
substances. looking building with lots of
o Similar to the cytoplasm in paperwork inside.
cells, where all organelles are
embedded.
o Contains stroma lamellae,
which connect the stacks of
thylakoid sacs.

Functions of Chloroplasts
1. Photosynthesis
o Light-dependent
Reactions: Occur in the
grana, where sunlight is 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
trapped by chlorophyll o Rough ER (Factory with
and converted into
chemical energy.
Assembly Lines)
o Calvin Cycle (Light-  Role: Protein
independent production.
Reactions): Occur in the  Task: Covered with
stroma, where the ribosomes (workers)
chemical energy is used making proteins.
to synthesize glucose  Visual: A noisy factory
with conveyor belts.

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o Smooth ER (Chemical
Plant)
 Role: Lipid production
and detox.
 Task: Produces lipids
and detoxifies
chemicals.
 Visual: A sleek, 5. Lysosomes (Recycling Centers)
modern plant with
o Role: Waste disposal.
chemical vats.
o Task: Break down waste
materials.
o Visual: Recycling centers
with bins and crushers.

3. Golgi Apparatus (Post OfÏce)

o Role: Packaging and shipping
center. 6. Peroxisomes (Detox Centers)
o Task: Modifies, sorts, and o Role: Detoxification.
ships proteins and lipids. o Task: Break down harmful
o Visual: A busy post ofÏce substances like hydrogen
with parcels and delivery peroxide.
trucks. o Visual: Detox centers with
safety signs and protective
gear.

7. Vacuoles (Storage
Warehouses)
o Role: Storage.
o Task: Store nutrients, water,
and waste.
4. Mitochondria (Power Plants) o Visual: Large warehouses
o Role: Energy producers. filled with supplies.
o Task: Generate ATP (energy).
o Visual: Power plants with
smoke stacks and lightning
bolts.

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1. RIBOSOMES: The Protein

Factories of the Cell

8. Vesicles (Delivery Trucks)

o Role: Transport.
o Task: Move materials around
the cell.
o Visual: Delivery trucks Introduction
zipping around the city. Ribosomes are like tiny factories inside
cells that build proteins, essential for many
cellular functions.

Structure and Location

 Structure: Made of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal
proteins.
 Location: Found floating in the
cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

Function: Protein Production Line

 Role: Assemble proteins based on
genetic instructions.
9. Chloroplasts (Solar Farms)  Process: Follows a sequence of
o Role: Energy producers (in steps to convert genetic
plants). information into proteins.
o Task: Capture sunlight to
make energy Steps in Protein Synthesis
(photosynthesis). 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA):
Carries genetic instructions from
o Visual: Fields of solar panels DNA to ribosomes.
soaking up the sun. 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): Delivers
amino acids to the ribosome
_____Non-Membrane- based on mRNA instructions.
3. Assembly Line: Ribosome reads
bound_cell___ mRNA, matches tRNA carrying
______________organelle_______ amino acids, and links them
together to form a protein.
_______
Types of Ribosomes
- Organelles that are not fluid-  Free Ribosomes: Produce
proteins used within the cell.
filled and do not need to be  Bound Ribosomes (on Rough
separated from the rest of the cell ER): Produce proteins for export
in the same way as to membrane- or use outside the cell.
bound organelles.

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Size and Composition  Location: Often found just

 Size: Varies between cells; beneath the cell membrane in
measured in Svedberg units (e.g., flagellated or ciliated cells.
40S, 60S in eukaryotes; 30S, 50S
in prokaryotes). 3. CYTOSKELETON: Cell's Internal
 Composition: Mostly rRNA and Support and Motion System
ribosomal proteins, essential for
structure and function.

Importance in Cell Function

 Universal Machinery: Needed
by all cells to make proteins
required for growth, repair, and
functioning.
 Regulation: Controlled to match
the cell's needs for different
proteins at different times.

2. CENTRIOLES: Cell Division

Helpers
Introduction
The cytoskeleton is a network of
microscopic filaments in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells, providing structural
support and enabling various cellular
functions.

Structure and Function

 Structure: Made of protein
filaments (microtubules, actin
Introduction
filaments, intermediate filaments).
Centrioles are tiny organelles crucial for  Function: Supports cell shape,
cell division and the formation of structures
facilitates cell movement, and
like cilia and flagella.
organizes organelles within the
cell.
Structure and Location
 Structure: Made of microtubule Key Roles
proteins.  Cell Shape: Maintains the shape
 Location: Found in pairs within of the cell.
the centrosome near the nucleus.  Cell Movement: Facilitates cell
locomotion and movement of
Function in Cell Division
organelles.
 Role: Essential for forming the  Chromosome Movement:
spindle apparatus during cell Essential for chromosome
division (mitosis and meiosis). movement during cell division
 Impact: Absence can lead to (mitosis) and cytokinesis.
division errors and delays in the
mitotic process. Dynamic Nature
 Dynamic Framework:
Formation of Cilia and Flagella
Continuously reorganizes to adapt
 Basal Bodies: Each centriole acts to cellular needs.
as a basal body, anchoring and  Components: Includes
organizing the formation of cilia microtubules forming the mitotic
and flagella.

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
1st Semester
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spindle and actin/myosin proteins

forming the contractile ring for
cytokinesis.

Importance in Cell Division

 Mitotic Spindle: Array of
microtubules that separate
chromosomes during cell division.
 Contractile Ring: Actin/myosin
proteins that pinch the cell in
cytokinesis, dividing it into two
daughter cells.

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