India

India, officially the Republic of India,[j][21] is a

country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country Republic of India
by area; the most populous country from June 2023 Bhārat Gaṇarājya
onwards;[22][23] and since its independence in 1947,
the world's most populous democracy.[24][25][26]
Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the
Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal
on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to
the west;[k] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Flag State emblem
Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian
Motto: Satyameva Jayate (Sanskrit)
Ocean, India is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its "Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border
with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia. Anthem: Jana Gana Mana (Hindi)[a][2][3]
"Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All
Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent People"[4][2]
from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[28][29][30] 0:00 / 0:00
Their long occupation, predominantly in isolation as
hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, National song: Vande Mataram (Sanskrit)[c]
second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[31] "I Bow to Thee, Mother"[b][1][2]
Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western 0:00 / 0:00
margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago,
evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of
the third millennium BCE.[32] By 1200 BCE, an
archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language,
had diffused into India from the northwest.[33][34] Its
hymns recorded the dawning of Hinduism in India.[35]
India's pre-existing Dravidian languages were
supplanted in the northern regions.[36] By 400 BCE,
caste had emerged within Hinduism,[37] and Buddhism
and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders
unlinked to heredity.[38] Early political consolidations
gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta
Empires.[39] Widespread creativity suffused this
era,[40] but the status of women declined,[41] and Territory controlled by India
untouchability became an organized belief.[l][42] In Territory claimed but not controlled
South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian Capital New Delhi
language scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms 28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E
of Southeast Asia.[43] Largest city by city Mumbai
proper population
Largest city by Delhi
metropolitan area
In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, population
and Zoroastrianism became established on India's Official languages Hindi · English[d][8]
southern and western coasts.[44] Muslim armies from Recognised State level and
Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern regional languages
Eighth Schedule[9]
plains.[45] The resulting Delhi Sultanate drew northern
Eighth Schedule
India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Assamese · Bengali ·
Islam.[46] In south India, the Vijayanagara Empire Boro · Dogri · Gujarati ·
created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture.[47] In Hindi · Kannada ·
Kashmiri · Konkani ·
the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting Maithili · Malayalam ·
institutionalised religion. [48] The Mughal Empire, in Manipuri · Marathi ·
1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,[49] Nepali · Odia · Punjabi ·
Sanskrit · Santali ·
leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.[m][50]
Sindhi · Tamil · Telugu ·
Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Urdu
Company turned India into a colonial economy but State level[e]
consolidated its sovereignty.[51] British Crown rule Kokborok · Lepcha ·
began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were Mizo · Sikkimese · all
the 8th scheduled
granted slowly,[52][53] but technological changes were
languages – except
introduced, and modern ideas of education and public Sindhi, Kashmiri and
life took root.[54] A pioneering and influential Dogri[f]
nationalist movement, noted for nonviolent resistance, Native languages 424 languages[g]
became the major factor in ending British rule.[55][56]
In 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into Religion (2011)[11] 79.8% Hinduism
two independent dominions,[57][58][59][60] a Hindu- 14.2% Islam
majority dominion of India and a Muslim-majority 2.3% Christianity
dominion of Pakistan. A large-scale loss of life and an 1.7% Sikhism
unprecedented migration accompanied the partition.[61] 0.7% Buddhism
0.4% Jainism
India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed 0.23% unaffiliated
through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a 0.65% other
pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society.
Demonym(s) Indian · others
India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to
over 1.4 billion in 2023.[62] During this time, its Government Federal parliamentary
republic
nominal per capita income increased from US$64
annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% • President Droupadi Murmu
to 74%. A comparatively destitute country in 1951,[63] • Prime Minister Narendra Modi
India has become a fast-growing major economy and Legislature Parliament
hub for information technology services; it has an • Upper house Rajya Sabha
expanding middle class.[64] Indian movies and music • Lower house Lok Sabha
increasingly influence global culture.[65] India has Independence from the United Kingdom
reduced its poverty rate, though at the cost of • Dominion 15 August 1947
increasing economic inequality.[66] It is a nuclear- • Republic 26 January 1950
weapon state that ranks high in military expenditure. It
Area
has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours,
• Total 3,287,263 km2
Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th (1,269,219 sq mi)[2][h]
century.[67] Among the socio-economic challenges (7th)
India faces are gender inequality, child • Water (%) 9.6
malnutrition, [68] and rising levels of air pollution.[69]
India's land is megadiverse with four biodiversity Population
hotspots.[70] India's wildlife, which has traditionally • 2023 estimate 1,428,627,663[13]
been viewed with tolerance in its culture,[71] is (1st)
supported in protected habitats. • 2011 census 1,210,854,977[14][15]
(2nd)
• Density 429.3/km2
(1,111.9/sq mi) (30th)
Etymology
GDP (PPP) 2025 estimate
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2009), • Total $17.65 trillion[16][17]
the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin (3rd)
India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain • Per capita $12,132[16] (119th)
region to its east. In turn "India" derived successively GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate
from Hellenistic Greek India (Ἰνδία), Ancient Greek • Total $4.19 trillion[16] (4th)
Indos (Ἰνδός), Old Persian Hindush (an eastern • Per capita $2,878[16] (136th)
province of the Achaemenid Empire), and ultimately
Gini (2021) 32.8[18]
its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or 'river'—specifically medium inequality
the Indus River, and by extension its well-settled
southern basin.[72][73] The Ancient Greeks referred to HDI (2022) 0.644[19]
medium (134th)
the Indians as Indoi, 'the people of the Indus'.[74]
Currency Indian rupee (₹) (INR)
The term Bharat (Bhārat; pronounced [ˈbʱaːɾət] ⓘ ),
Time zone UTC+05:30 (IST)
mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the
Constitution of India,[75][76] is used in its variations by Date format dd-mm-yyyy[i]
many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the
Calling code +91
historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied
originally to North India,[77][78] Bharat gained ISO 3166 code IN
increased currency from the mid-19th century as a Internet TLD .in (others)
native name for India.[75][79]

Hindustan ([ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] ⓘ ) is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th
century, [80] and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has
varied, referring to a region encompassing the northern Indian subcontinent (present-day northern India
and Pakistan) or to India in its near entirety.[75][79][81]

History

Ancient India
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent
from Africa.[28][29][30] The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000
years ago.[28] After 6500 BCE, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of
permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in
Balochistan, Pakistan.[83] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[84][83] the first
urban culture in South Asia,[85] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western
India.[86] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied
forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in
crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[85]

During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the

subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the
Iron Age ones.[87] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated
with Hinduism,[88] were composed during this period,[89] and Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the
Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in
historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the
story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE –
Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[87] Most c. 300 CE[82]
historians also consider this period to have encompassed
several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent
from the north-west.[88] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free
peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this
period.[90] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a
chiefdom stage of political organisation.[87] In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by
the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[91] as well as by nearby traces of
agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[91]

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the
small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-
western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies
and monarchies that were known as the
mahajanapadas. [92][93] The emerging urbanisation gave rise
to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became
independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during
the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[94] Buddhism, based on the
teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves
social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life
of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded
history in India.[95][96][97] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an
ideal,[98] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the
kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Maurya Empire.[99] The
empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core
regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[100][101] The Mauryan kings
are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's
renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[102][103]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern
peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with
the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.[104][105] In North India, Hinduism asserted
patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[106][99] By the 4th and
5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the
greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[107][108] Under the Guptas,
a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[109]
This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an
urban elite.[108] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine,
and mathematics made significant advances.[108]

Medieval India
The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to
1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and
cultural diversity.[110] When Harsha of Kannauj,
who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from
606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he
was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the
Deccan.[111] When his successor attempted to
expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king
of Bengal.[111] When the Chalukyas attempted to
expand southwards, they were defeated by the
Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were
Brihadeshwara temple, The Qutub Minar, 73 m opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still
Thanjavur, completed in (240 ft) tall, completed farther south.[111] No ruler of this period was able to
1010 CE by the Sultan of Delhi, create an empire and consistently control lands
Iltutmish
much beyond their core region.[110] During this
time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared
to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were
new non-traditional ruling classes.[112] The caste system consequently began to show regional
differences.[112]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[113] They
were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all
modern languages of the subcontinent.[113] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised
drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[114] Temple
towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[114] By the
8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems
were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[115] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies
were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in
Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[115]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast
armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading
eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[116] The sultanate was to control
much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian
elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and
customs.[117][118] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India
from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of
fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent,
thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[119][120] The sultanate's raiding and
weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara
Empire.[121] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the
sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[122] and was to influence South Indian
society for long afterwards.[121]

Early modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,[123] fell again to the superior
mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[124] The resulting Mughal Empire
did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new
administrative practices[125][126] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[127] leading to more systematic,
centralised, and uniform rule.[128] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar,
the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an
emperor who had near-divine status.[127] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues
from agriculture[129] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[130] caused
peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[128] The relative peace maintained by the empire during
much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[128] resulting in greater patronage
of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[131] Newly coherent social groups in northern and
western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions
during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military
experience.[132] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and
political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[132] As the empire disintegrated, many
among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[133]

By the early 18th century, with the lines

between commercial and political dominance
being increasingly blurred, a number of
European trading companies, including the
English East India Company, had established
coastal outposts.[134][135] The East India A distant view of the Taj A two mohur Company gold
Company's control of the seas, greater Mahal from the Agra coin, issued in 1835, the
resources, and more advanced military Fort obverse inscribed "William IIII,
training and technology led it to increasingly King"
assert its military strength and caused it to
become attractive to a portion of the Indian
elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765
and sideline the other European companies.[136][134][137][138] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and
the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the
1820s.[139] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead
supplying the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's
colonial period.[134] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament
and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more
consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[140]
Modern India
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The
appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for
changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the
surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them,
railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in
Europe.[141][142][143][144] However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off
the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-
style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the
rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company
rule.[145][146] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India
Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state
and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and
landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[147][148] In the decades following, public life
gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in
1885.[149][150][151][152]

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century
was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away
markets.[153] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[154] and, despite the risks of
infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for
Indians.[155] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled
Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[156] The railway network provided
critical famine relief,[157] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[157] and helped nascent Indian-
owned industry.[156]

After World War I, in which approximately

one million Indians served,[158] a new period
began. It was marked by British reforms but
also repressive legislation, by more strident
Indian calls for self-rule, and by the
beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-
co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi
would become the leader and enduring 1909 map of the British Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a
symbol.[159] During the 1930s, slow Indian Empire light moment with Mahatma
Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946
legislative reform was enacted by the British;
the Indian National Congress won victories in
the resulting elections.[160] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II,
the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped
by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and
Pakistan.[161]

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in
place a secular and democratic republic.[162] Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the
collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how,[163] has created a large urban middle class,
transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,[164] and increased its geopolitical
clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;[165] by religious
and caste-related violence;[166] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[167] and by separatism in
Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[168] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China[169] and
with Pakistan.[169] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations;
however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population
remains a goal yet to be achieved.[170]

Geography
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the
Indo-Australian Plate.[171] India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the
Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by
seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.[171] Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan
oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.[171] These dual processes,
driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian
continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.[171] Immediately south of
the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with
river-borne sediment[172] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[173] The original Indian plate
makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi
Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is
checked by the Aravallis.[174][175][176]

The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest

and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as
the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel
chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the
coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[178] To the
south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is
flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the
The Tungabhadra, with rocky
outcrops, flows into the peninsular Western and Eastern Ghats;[179] the plateau contains the country's
Krishna River.[177] oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted
in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′
and 35° 30′ north latitude[n] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east
longitude.[180]

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of

this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular
India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar,
Fishing boats lashed together in a
tidal creek in Anjarle village,
and Lakshadweep island chains.[181] According to the Indian naval
Maharashtra hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the
following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs;
and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.[181]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[182] Important tributaries of the Ganges include
the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to
severe floods and course changes.[183][184] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their
waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain
into the Bay of Bengal;[185] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[186]
Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of
eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[187] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep,
coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the
Andaman Sea.[188]

Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the
economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[189] The Himalayas prevent cold
Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than
most locations at similar latitudes.[190][191] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-
laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's
rainfall.[189] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical
humid, and montane.[192]

Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.[193] Climate change in India
is often thought to be the cause. The retreat of Himalayan glaciers has adversely affected the flow rate of
the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.[194] According to some current
projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the
present century.[195]

Biodiversity
India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries that display high biological diversity
and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them.[196] India is the habitat for 8.6%
of all mammals, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish
species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[197][198] Fully a third of Indian plant species are
endemic.[199] India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots,[70] or regions that display
significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.[o][200]

India's most dense forests, such as the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats,
and Northeast India, occupy approximately 3% of its land area.[201][202] Moderately dense forest, whose
canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.[201][202] It predominates in
the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the
dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.[203] India has two natural zones of thorn forest,
one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the
Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer
visible.[204]

Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem,
which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,[205] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or
peepul,[206] which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,[207] and under which the Buddha is
recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.[208]

Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which
India separated more than 100 million years ago.[209] India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a
mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many
endemic Indian forms.[210] Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographic
passes flanking the Himalayas.[211] This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals,
which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[198]
Among endemics are the vulnerable[212] hooded leaf monkey[213] and the threatened[214] Beddome's
toad[214][215] of the Western Ghats.

India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.[216] These
include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include
the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has
become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.[217] Before they were
extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were
mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the
Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the
cheetah is extinct.[218] The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent
decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected
areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection
Act[219] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in
1980 and amendments added in 1988.[220] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and
eighteen biosphere reserves,[221] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; its
eigthy-nine wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[222]

India has the majority of A chital (Axis axis) stag in Three of the last Asiatic
the world's wild tigers, the Nagarhole National cheetahs in India were
approximately 3,170 in Park in a region covered shot dead in 1948 in
2022.[223] by a moderately dense[p] Surguja district,
forest. Madhya Pradesh,
Central India by
Maharajah Ramanuj
Pratap Singh Deo. The
young male cheetahs,
all from the same litter,
were sitting together
when they were shot at
night.
Politics and government

Politics
A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[225] India has
six recognised national parties, including the Indian National
Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more
than 50 regional parties.[226] The Congress is considered center in
Indian political culture,[227] and the BJP right-wing.[228][229][230]
For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a
republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the
Parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the As part of Janadesh 2007, 25,000
pro–land reform landless people
political stage with the BJP,[231] as well as with powerful regional
in Madhya Pradesh listen to
parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalition
Rajagopal P. V.[224]
governments at the center.[232]

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951,

1957, and 1962, the Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964,
Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in
1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967
and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress
was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted
in. Its government lasted just over two years. There were two prime ministers during this period; Morarji
Desai and Charan Singh. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in
1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an
easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a
National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the
elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years. There were two
prime ministers during this period; V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar.[233] Elections were held again in
1991; no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a
minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[234]

A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election

of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre.
The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by
two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which
depended on external support. There were two prime ministers
during this period; H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the
BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National
US president Barack Obama Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the
addresses the members of the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to
Parliament of India in New Delhi in complete a five-year term.[235] Again in the 2004 Indian general
November 2010.
elections, no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress
emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful
coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support
of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general
election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist
parties.[236] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957
and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.[237] In the 2014 general election, the BJP
became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other
parties.[238] In the 2019 general election, the BJP was victorious again with majority. In the 2024 general
election, the BJP failed to achieve majority and the BJP-led NDA coalition formed the government.
Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat, is serving as the prime minister of India in his third
term since May 26, 2014.[239]

Government
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under
the Constitution of India—the country's supreme legal document. It
is a constitutional republic. Federalism in India defines the power
distribution between the union and the states. The Constitution of
India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,[241] originally
stated India to be a "democratic republic;" this characterisation was
amended in 1971 to a "socialist, secular, democratic republic".[242]
India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi- Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official
federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[243] has grown residence of the President of
India, was designed by British
increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political,
architects Edwin Lutyens and
economic, and social changes.[244][245] Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of
India, and constructed between
The Government of India comprises three branches: the Executive, 1911 and 1931 during the British
Legislature, and Judiciary.[246] The President of India is the Raj.[240]
ceremonial head of state, [247] who is elected indirectly for a five-
year term by an electoral college comprising members of national
and state legislatures.[248][249] The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most
executive power.[250] Appointed by the president,[251] the prime minister is by convention supported by
the party or political alliance having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[250] The
executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of
Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister
holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[247] In the Indian parliamentary
system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly
responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all
decisions of the executive are implemented by them.[252]

The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary
system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called
the Lok Sabha (House of the People).[253] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245 members who
serve staggered six-year terms with elections every 2 years.[254] Most are elected indirectly by the state
and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national
population.[251] The Lok Sabha's 543 members are elected directly by popular vote among citizens aged
at least 18;[255] they represent single-member constituencies for five-year terms.[256] The Indian
constitution historically allowed for the nomination of Anglo-Indians to two seats in the Lok Sabha; this
provision was removed in 2019.[255][257] A number of seats from each state are reserved for candidates
from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population within that state.[255]

India has a three-tier unitary independent judiciary[258] comprising the supreme court, headed by the
Chief Justice of India, 25 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.[258] The supreme court has
original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the
centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.[259] It has the power to both strike down union
or state laws which contravene the constitution[260] and invalidate any government action it deems
unconstitutional.[261]

Administrative divisions
India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.[12] All states, as well as the union
territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected
legislatures and governments following the Westminster system. The remaining five union territories are
directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States
Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[262] There are over a quarter of a million
local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.[263]

States
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jharkhand
11. Karnataka
12. Kerala
13. Madhya Pradesh
14. Maharashtra
15. Manipur
16. Meghalaya
17. Mizoram A clickable map of the 28 states and 8 union territories
18. Nagaland of India
19. Odisha
20. Punjab
21. Rajasthan
22. Sikkim
23. Tamil Nadu
24. Telangana
25. Tripura 27. Uttarakhand
26. Uttar Pradesh 28. West Bengal

Union territories
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands E. Ladakh
B. Chandigarh F. Lakshadweep
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and G. National Capital Territory of Delhi
Diu H. Puducherry
D. Jammu and Kashmir

Foreign, economic, and strategic relations

India became a republic in 1950 and chose to stay in the
Commonwealth of Nations.[265][266] Throughout the decade, India
strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a
leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[267] After initially
cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to war with
China in 1962 and was widely thought to have been humiliated.[268]
This was followed by another military conflict in 1967 in which
During the 1950s and 60s, India
India successfully repelled Chinese attack.[269] India has had tense
played a pivotal role in the Non-
relations with neighbouring Pakistan. The two have gone to war
Aligned Movement.[264] From left
four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars to right: Gamal Abdel Nasser of
were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the third, United Arab Republic (now Egypt),
the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the independence of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and
[270]
Bangladesh. In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice Jawaharlal Nehru in Belgrade,
intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country: a peace- September 1961.
keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an
armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'état attempt in the
Maldives. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic ties with
the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.[271]

Aside from its ongoing special relationship with Russia,[272] India has wide-ranging defence relations
with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has provided 100,000 military and
police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the
East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[273] India has close economic ties with
countries in South America,[274] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen
partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but
especially those involving economic investment and regional security.[275][276]

China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965
war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[278] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in
1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions,
India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[279] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear
policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence"
 doctrine.[280][281] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield
and, a fifth-generation fighter jet.[282][283] Other indigenous
military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-
class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines.[284]

India is estimated to possess up to 172 nuclear warheads, and is

considered to be producing both highly enriched uranium (HEU)
The Indian Air Force contingent
marching at the 221st Bastille Day
and weapons-grade plutonium, with its HEU production assumed to
military parade in Paris, on 14 July be focused on its growing number of nuclear-powered vessels' and
2009. The parade at which India submarines' fuels.[285][286] Kristensen et al. of Nuclear Information
was the foreign guest was led by Project with the Federation of American Scientists estimate that
India's oldest regiment, the India is operating eight nuclear-capable systems as of 2024,
Maratha Light Infantry, founded in including aircraft, land-based and sea-based ballistic missile
1768.[277] systems, with most of its programs in development thought to be
nearing "completion and to be fielded with the armed forces
soon".[285]

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with
the United States and the European Union.[287] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between
India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency
and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce.
As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[288] India subsequently signed
co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[289] France,[290] the United
Kingdom,[291] and Canada.[292]

The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's

armed forces; with 1.45 million active troops, they compose the
world's second-largest military. It comprises the Indian Army, the
Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.[293]
The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion,
or 1.83% of GDP.[294] Defence expenditure was pegged at
US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than
previous fiscal year.[295][296] India is the world's second-largest Prime Minister Narendra Modi of
arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of India (left, background) in talks
the total global arms imports. [297] Much of the military expenditure with President Enrique Peña Nieto
of Mexico during a visit to Mexico,
was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing
2016
Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[298] In May 2017, the Indian
Space Research Organisation launched the South Asia Satellite, a
gift from India to its neighbouring SAARC countries.[299] In October 2018, India signed a
US$5.43 billion (over ₹400 billion) agreement with Russia to procure four S-400 Triumf surface-to-air
missile defence systems, Russia's most advanced long-range missile defence system.[300]
Economy
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian
economy in 2024 was nominally worth $3.94 trillion; it was the
fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and is, at around
$15.0 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity
(PPP).[17] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over
the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,[304]
India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[305]
However, due to its low GDP per capita—which ranks 136th in
A farmer in northwestern Karnataka
the world in nominal per capita income and 125th in per capita ploughs his field with a tractor even
income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP)—the vast as another in a field beyond does
majority of Indians fall into the low-income group.[306][307] Until the same with a pair of oxen. In
1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that 2019, 43% of India's total workforce
were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state was employed in agriculture.[301]
intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from
the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991
forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[308] since then, it has
moved increasingly towards a free-market system[309][310] by
emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[311]
India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1
January 1995.[312]
India is the world's largest producer
The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second of milk, with the largest population of
largest, as of 2017.[293] The service sector makes up 55.6% of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's
GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector milk was sourced from small farms
18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances of US$100 billion in with herd size between one and two,
the milk harvested by hand
2022,[313] highest in the world, were contributed to its economy
milking.[303]
by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.[314] Major
agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea,
sugarcane, and potatoes.[12] Major industries include textiles,
telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology,
food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining,
petroleum, machinery, and software.[12] In 2006, the share of
external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in
Women tend to a recently planted
1985.[309] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.7%;[315] In rice field in Junagadh district in
2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the Gujarat. 55% of India's female
sixteenth-largest exporter.[316] Major exports include petroleum workforce was employed in
products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, agriculture in 2019.[302]
chemicals, and manufactured leather goods.[12] Major imports
include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[12]
Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew
from 14% to 42%.[317] India was the world's second-largest textile exporter after China in the 2013
calendar year.[318]
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,[309] India has more than
doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[319] Some 431 million Indians
have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by
2030.[320] Though ranking 68th in global competitiveness,[321] as of 2010, India ranks 17th in financial
market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation,
ahead of several advanced economies.[322] With seven of the world's top 15 information technology
outsourcing companies based in India, as of 2009, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable
outsourcing destination after the United States.[323] India is ranked 39th in the Global Innovation Index in
2024.[324] In 2023, India's consumer market was the world's fifth largest.[325]

Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when
economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$2,731 in 2024. It is expected to
grow to US$3,264 by 2026.[17] However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing
countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so
in the near future.

A panorama of Bengaluru, the centre of India's software development economy. In

the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in
India, they chose Bengaluru (then called Bangalore) because of the large pool of
skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering
colleges in the surrounding region.[326]

According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity
could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[327] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is
expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major
economy until 2050.[327] The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-
age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill
levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class.[327] The
World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public
sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, education, energy security, and
public health and nutrition.[328]

According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report released by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) in
2017, which compared more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of the
cheapest cities were in India: Bengaluru (3rd), Mumbai (5th), Chennai (5th) and New Delhi (8th).[329]

Industries
India's telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world with over 1.2 billion subscribers. It
contributes 6.5% to India's GDP.[330] After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become
the second-largest smartphone market in the world after China.[331]
The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing,
increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,[332] and
exports by 36% during 2008–2009.[333] In 2022, India became the
world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United
States, surpassing Japan.[334] At the end of 2011, the Indian IT
industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues
close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and
A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the
contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[335]
world's second-largest producer of
tea, is a nation of one billion tea
The pharmaceutical industry in India emerged as a global player. As
drinkers, who consume 70% of
of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 India's tea output.
manufacturing units, India is the world's third-largest
pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and
supply up to 50–60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to US$24.44 billions in exports
and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to US$42 billion.[336][337] India is among the top
12 biotech destinations in the world.[338][339] The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013,
increasing its revenues from ₹204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June
2013 exchange rates).[340]

Energy
India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.[341]
The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable
energy is competing strongly.[342] India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates
to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.[343][344]
Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for
energy in India.[345]

Socio-economic challenges
Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to
face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the
largest number of people living below the World Bank's
international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.[347] The proportion
decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[348] Under the World
Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.[q][350] 30.7%
of India's children under the age of five are underweight.[351]
According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015,
Health workers about to begin
15% of the population is undernourished.[352][353] The Midday
another day of immunisation
Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[354] against infectious diseases in
2006. Eight years later, and three
A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million years after India's last case of
people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, polio, the World Health
such as bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced Organization declared India to be
begging.[355] According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million polio-free.[346]
child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6 million from
12.6 million in 2001.[356]
Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state
domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[357] Corruption in India is
perceived to have decreased. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180
countries in 2018, an improvement from 85th in 2014.[358][359]

Demographics, languages, and religion

With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India is the India by language
world's most populous country.[13] 1,210,193,422 residents were
reported in the 2011 provisional census report.[360] Its population
grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[361] compared to 21.54%
growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[361] The human sex
ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000
males.[360] The median age was 28.7 in 2020.[293] The first post-
colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million
people.[362] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as
increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green
Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[363]

The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, The language families of South
68.7 years for men. [293] There are around 93 physicians per Asia
100,000 people. [364] Migration from rural to urban areas has been
an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of
people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[365] Yet, in 2001, over 70% still
lived in rural areas.[366][367] The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census
to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the
sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[368] According to the 2011 census, there are 53
million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru,
Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.[369] The literacy rate in 2011 was
74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[370] The rural-urban literacy gap, which was
21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural
literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.[368] Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while
Bihar the least with 63.82%.[370]

Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak Indo-Aryan languages, the easternmost branch of
the Indo-European languages; 24% speak Dravidian languages, indigenous to South Asia and spoken
widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% speak Austroasiatic languages or the Sino-
Tibetan languages. India has no national language.[371] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the
official language of the government.[372][373] English is used extensively in business and administration
and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[6] it is important in education, especially as a
medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the
constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism
(79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%),
Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others[r] (0.9%).[11] India has the third-largest
 Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority
country.[374][375]

Culture
Indian cultural history spans
The interior of San Thome more than 4,500 years.[376]
Basilica, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. During the Vedic period
Christianity is believed to have (c. 1700 BCE – c. 500 BCE),
been introduced to India by the the foundations of Hindu
late 2nd century by Syriac- philosophy, mythology,
speaking Christians.
theology and literature were
laid, and many beliefs and A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir
practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and Sahib, or Golden Temple, in
[74]
mokṣa, were established. India is notable for its religious Amritsar, Punjab
diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity,
and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[377] The
predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including
those of the Upanishads,[378] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[377] and by Buddhist
philosophy.[379]

Visual art
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia,
especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and
Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[380] Thousands of seals from the Indus
Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few
with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best
known.[381][382] After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.[382][383] Almost all
surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or
coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the
first imperial movement.[384][385][386] In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian
religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[387] Over the
following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in
articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms
expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[388][389] This is often complicated by the need to give figures
multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the
Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[390][391]

Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi,
Sarnath and Amaravati,[392] or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain
sites appear rather later.[393][394] In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the
prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors
probably usually served all communities.[395] Gupta art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often
regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance
of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.[396][397] Across the north, this became rather stiff and
formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[398] But in the
South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period
of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of
India.[399][400]

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta
Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly
accomplishment in Gupta times.[401][402] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern
India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the
style of these was used in larger paintings.[403] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before
the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on
portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[404][405] The style spread to Hindu courts,
especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most
innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[406][407] As a market developed among
European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western
influence.[408][409] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper,
were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges
founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.[410][411]
 Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist Gupta terracotta relief,
reliefs from Mathura, 2nd Krishna Killing the
century CE Horse Demon Keshi,
5th century

Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Chola bronze of Shiva as Jahangir Receives

Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550 Nataraja ("Lord of Prince Khurram at
Dance"), Tamil Nadu, Ajmer on His Return
10th or 11th century from the Mewar
Campaign,
Balchand, c. 1635

Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids,

Kangra painting, 1775–1785
Architecture
Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other
works of Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture, and South Indian
architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported
styles.[412] Vernacular architecture is also regional in its
flavours. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or
"architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,[413] explores
how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;[414] it employs
precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect
The Taj Mahal from across the Yamuna perceived cosmic constructs.[415] As applied in Hindu temple
river showing two outlying red
architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of
sandstone buildings, a mosque on the
right (west) and a jawab (response)
foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-
thought to have been built for Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".[416]
architectural balance The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders
of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has
been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the
jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".[417]
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-
Islamic architecture.[418]

Literature
The earliest literature in India, composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 CE, was in the Sanskrit
language.[419] Major works of Sanskrit literature include the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1200 BCE), the
epics: Mahābhārata (c. 400 BCE – c. 400 CE) and the Ramayana (c. 300 BCE and later);
Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā, and other dramas of Kālidāsa (c. 5th century CE)
and Mahākāvya poetry.[420][421][422] In Tamil literature, the Sangam literature (c. 600 BCE – c. 300 BCE)
consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.[423][424][425][426] From the 14th
to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the
emergence of devotional poets like Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by a
varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works
differed significantly from classical traditions.[427] In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest
in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by
the works of Rabindranath Tagore,[428] who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Performing arts and media

Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres
and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and the southern Carnatic schools.[429]
Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-
known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-
known folk dances are: bhangra of Punjab, bihu of Assam, Jhumair and chhau of Jharkhand, Odisha and
West Bengal, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and lavani of Maharashtra. Eight
dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance
status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These
are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh,
kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh,
manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of Assam.[430]

Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written

dialogue.[431] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from
medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes:
the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila
of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of
Karnataka.[432] India has a theatre training institute, the National School
of Drama (NSD), in New Delhi.[433] The Indian film industry produces India's National Academy
the world's most-watched cinema.[434] Established regional cinematic of Performance Arts has
recognised eight Indian
traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada,
dance styles to be
Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu
classical. One such is
languages.[435] The Hindi language film industry (Bollywood) is the Kuchipudi shown here.
largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the
South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36%
combined.[436]

Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded
slowly for more than two decades.[437][438] The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the
1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.[439]
Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there
are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite or cable connections compared to other
forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[440]

Society
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy.
The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification
and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian
subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of
endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or
"castes".[441] India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the
adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-
Muslims offer namaz at a mosque discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.
in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-
generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India,
though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[442] An overwhelming majority of Indians,
with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.[443] Marriage is
thought to be for life,[443] and the divorce rate is extremely low,[444] with less than one in a thousand
marriages ending in divorce.[445] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women
wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[446] Female infanticide in India, and lately
female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country
quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population
growth during the same period.[447] According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million
girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.[448] Despite a government ban on sex-selective
foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal
society.[449] The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.[450] Deaths
resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.[451]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai
Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.[452][453]

Education
In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate,
with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to
1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In
1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%,
12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,[454][455]
According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under
three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically,
more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending.
Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its
growth.[456] Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka
(also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat.
The education system of India is the world's second- The salutation Jai Bhim written on the
largest.[457] India has over 900 universities, 40,000 blackboard honours the jurist, social
colleges[458] and 1.5 million schools.[459] In India's higher reformer, and Dalit leader B. R.
education system, a significant number of seats are reserved Ambedkar.

under affirmative action policies for the historically

disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education
system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.[460][461]

Clothing
From ancient times until the advent of the
modern, the most widely worn traditional
dress in India was draped.[462] For women it
took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth
many yards long.[462] The sari was
traditionally wrapped around the lower body
and the shoulder.[462] In its modern form, it is
combined with an underskirt, or Indian
petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for
Women in sari at an adult literacy A man in dhoti
more secure fastening. It is also commonly
class in Tamil Nadu and wearing a
worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which woollen shawl, in
serves as the primary upper-body garment, Varanasi
the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—
covering the midriff and obscuring the upper body's contours.[462] For men, a similar but shorter length of
cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.[463]

The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi
sultanate (c. 1300 CE) and then continued by the Mughal Empire (c. 1525 CE).[464] Among the garments
introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of
trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.[464] In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to
see much longer continuous use.[464]

Salwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom.
They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated
around the waist.[465] The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut
quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. When
they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but
not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or
tunic,[466] its side seams left open below the waistline.[467] The kurta is
traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with
embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just
above or just below the wearer's knees.[468]
Women (from left to right)
In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India.
in churidars and kameez
(with back to the camera),
Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of
jeans and sweater, and everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.[469] The
pink shalwar kameez traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who
favour churidars or jeans.[469] In office settings, ubiquitous air
conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.[469] For
weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short
Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.[469] The
dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven
khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,[470] is seldom seen in the cities.[469]

Cuisine
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with
flavourful savoury dishes.[471] The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened
bread;[472] the idli, a steamed breakfast cake; or dosa, a griddled pancake.[473] The savoury dishes might
include lentils, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a
combination of spices that may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others.[471]
They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed
during the process of cooking.[474]

A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and
peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten
simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and
lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables.[471]
India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the
geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[476] The appearance of
ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many
religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the
predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu
South Indian vegetarian
population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt thali, or platter
of north-central India, as well as among Jains.[476] Although meat is eaten
widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet
is low.[477] Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat
consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in
India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than
meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.[478]

The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the Railway mutton curry from
last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the Odisha
pilaf,[479] developed in the Abbasid caliphate,[480] and cooking techniques
such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern
India from regions to its northwest.[481] To the simple yogurt
marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began
to be added in India.[481] Rice was partially cooked and
layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed
tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking
technique, to produce what has today become biryani,[481] a
feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[482] In the
food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of
Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of
Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked
in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally been used for
baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region,
especially among Muslims, but which is originally from
Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part
by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab
who had been displaced by the 1947 partition.[476]

Sports and recreation 0:00

Several traditional sports—such as kabaddi, kho kho,
pehlwani, gilli-danda, hopscotch and martial arts such as
A tandoor chef in the Turkman Gate, Old
Kalarippayattu and marma adi—remain popular. Chess is
Delhi, makes Khameeri roti (a Muslim-
commonly held to have originated in India as influenced style of leavened bread).[475]
chaturaṅga; [484] in recent years, there has been a rise in the
number of Indian grandmasters,[485] and world
champions. [486]
Parcheesi is derived from Pachisi, another traditional Indian pastime, which in early
modern times was played on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.[487]
Cricket is the most popular sport in India.[488] India has won two
Cricket World Cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition. India
has won eight field hockey gold medals in the summer
Olympics.[489] India has participated in shooting sports and has
won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting
Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.[490][491] Other
sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include
badminton,[492] boxing,[493] and wrestling.[494] Football is popular Girls play hopscotch in Jaora,
in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has
states. The major domestic league is the Indian Premier League. been commonly played by girls in

Professional leagues in other sports include the Indian Super rural India.[483]

League (football) and the Pro Kabaddi League.[495][496][497]

See also
Administrative divisions of India
Outline of India

Notes
a. Originally written in Sanskritised Bengali and adopted as the national anthem in its Hindi
translation
b. "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the
words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram,
which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured
equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."[5]
c. Written in a mixture of Sanskrit and Sanskritised Bengali
d. According to Part XVII of the Constitution of India, Hindi in the Devanagari script is the
official language of the Union, along with English as an additional official language.[1][6][7]
States and union territories can have a different official language of their own other than
Hindi or English.
e. Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled
languages are state-level official languages. For example, the Sindhi language is an 8th
scheduled but not a state-level official language.
f. Kashmiri and Dogri language are the official languages of Jammu and Kashmir which is
currently a union territory and no longer the former state.

g. According to Ethnologue, there are 424 living indigenous languages in India, in contrast
to 11 extinct indigenous languages. In addition, there are 30 living non-indigenous
languages.[10]
Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms
"language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped.
h. "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The
Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total land
area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations lists the total area as
3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2
(1,147,960 sq mi)."[12]
 i. See Date and time notation in India.
j. ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya
k. The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all
of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering
Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan.[27]
l. "A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it.
According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas
was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict
assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the
Islamic conquest."[42]
m. "Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800 km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i
Munauwara ("Illuminated Tomb") – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his
imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal."[50]
n. The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and
Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely
state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan, to be
its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.
o. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region which has more than 1,500 vascular plant
species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.[200]
p. A forest cover is moderately dense if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree
canopy.
q. In 2015, the World Bank raised its international poverty line to $1.90 per day.[349]
r. Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011 Census were "Other religions
and persuasions" (0.65%) and "Religion not stated" (0.23%).

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(PDF), New York: United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs, 2022, p. i
24. Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327, "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard
to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements
since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the
world's new nations.".
25. Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the
World Series (2nd ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, "One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's
largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative
institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's
founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent
Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This
democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for
the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally
democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent
durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty."
26. Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity,
while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely
managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy."
27. "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf) (PDF),
archived from the original (https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf)
(PDF) on 17 March 2015, retrieved 1 September 2008
28. Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA
10), "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern
humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations
average to between 73 and 55 ka."
29. Dyson 2018, p. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1), "Modern
human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between
60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the
Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is
virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even
though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years
before the present."
30. Fisher 2018, p. 23 (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23),
"Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond
Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as
late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations.
Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation,
spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the
warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean.
Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."
31. Dyson 2018, p. 28 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28)
32. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4);
(b) Fisher 2018, p. 33 (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23)
33. Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, "It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions
originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with
the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were
composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the
Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the
Punjab into north India."
34. (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were
orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more
eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The
oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of
northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); [...] The Vedic texts were orally composed and
transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to
student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission
superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of
ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent
(as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. [...] The RV text was
composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000
BCE.";
(b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, "A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda;
ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda [...] Hindu texts began with
the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the
first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of
ancient India.";
(c) Ludden 2014, p. 19 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19),
"In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab')
draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of
its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and
evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the
Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves
sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their
ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in
hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong
to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable,
but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama,
Yajur, and Artharva).";
(d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
4), "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been
due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a
few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the
subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor
of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the
north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one
then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European
language family. [...] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the
gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics.
However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on
the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process
whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who
eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way. That is, it
involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably
including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would
be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the
Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are
poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge
impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early
presence.";
(e) Robb 2011, pp. 46– (https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA46),
"The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not
be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant
either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It
 comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or
Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."
35. (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ), Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, "The
RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and
the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very
different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there.
Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are
already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those
they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism,
though in diminished capacity (p. 4).";
(b) Flood, Gavin (2020), "Introduction" (https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQBA
J&pg=PA4), in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu
Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, "I take the term
'Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number
of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to
endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an
offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism
(although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are
regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).";
(c) Michaels, Axel (2017), Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.), The Oxford History of
Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra (https://books.google.com/books?id=
QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 86–97, ISBN 978-0-19-
100709-5, "Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras
(initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are
combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary
from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core
elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly
tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)"
(d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id
=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35), Cambridge University Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-
0, "It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and
which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and
individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as
Hinduism."
36. Dyson 2018, pp. 16 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16), 25 (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25)
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38. Fisher 2018, p. 59 (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59)
39. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
6);
(b) Fisher 2018, p. 67 (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67);
(c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57 (https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA5
6);
(d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA
29).
40. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA
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(b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic" (https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2Ag
AAQBAJ&pg=PA46), in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval
Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-
135-45932-1
41. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20);
(b) Stein 2010, p. 90;
(c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in South Asia" (https://books.google.com/books?
id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27), in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women
in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-
21267-7
42. Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
43. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA17)
44. (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54);
(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg
=PA78);
(c) Fisher 2018, p. 76 (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76)
45. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA
68);
(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA
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46. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48);
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51. (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA
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52. Taylor, Miles (2016), "The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to
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non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian
Congress."
56. Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=c4n7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA2), Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-
3, "South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost
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1947"
57. Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: "The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and
East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing
British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent
and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later.
Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and
incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their
domains into either Pakistan or India. ... Each new government asserted its exclusive
sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all
other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used
for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and
judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable
government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3
percent for India."
58. Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), "Introduction: Concepts and Questions", in
Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora,
London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, "Joya Chatterji describes how
the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan
produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the
sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the
context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji
2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were
quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to
restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in
their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their
places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host
countries."
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a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis"
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sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands,
did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced
relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the
creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British
empire in India"
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External links
Government

Official website of the Government of India (https://www.india.gov.in/)

Government of India Web Directory (https://goidirectory.nic.in/index.php)
General information

India (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/). The World Factbook. Central

Intelligence Agency.
India (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=India) web
resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
India (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12557384) from BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of India
Geographic data related to India (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/304716) at
OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for India (https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?C
ountry=IN) from International Futures
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India&oldid=1287037668"