Understanding Society

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY Through the Visual

THROUGH THE VISUAL*

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is Ethnography?
1.2.1 The Role of Technology
1.2.2 What Makes a Visual Ethnographic?
1.3 Development of Films and Photography in Anthropology
1.3.1 The Early Pioneers
1.3.2 Texts vs Visuals
1.3.3 Margaret Mead’s Contribution
1.4 Shifts in Theory and Filming Methods
1.4.1 Different Ways of Incorporating the Voice of the Informant
1.4.2 The Factors Influencing the Shooting of a Film
1.5 Seeing Through the Lens of Identities
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 References
1.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Explain the theoretical and methodological frameworks to understand society
through the visual
Trace the development of films and photography in anthropology
Discuss the visuals in the context of factors that impinge on identities.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The visual aspects of society are a universal and integral part of all cultures. In
our contemporary society visuals are everywhere and are a part of our everyday
lives. With technological advancement we have witnessed the newer forms of
visual forms- photographs, films, video clips etc. With growth of social media
platforms, we find these visuals forms have become increasingly interwoven
with our daily lives and they have bearing on our cultures and identities. With
visuals so permeating in all spheres of our social life they offer an important site
of research especially ethnographic research. It is difficult to isolate ethnographic
research from the visuals. In ethnography the images are inevitable as sounds,
words or any medium of cultural expression (Pink 2001).

The ethnographic analysis of societies is concerned with the ways in which the
ethnographer ‘sees’ and observes a society. The recording of data and the
interpretations offered are an outcome of the process of ‘visualising’ what is
Written by Dr. Reema Bhatia, Delhi University, New Delhi 11
Introduction to the seen. Visual anthropology is an outcome of this process of seeing. ‘Seeing’ has
Sociological Study of the
Visual
to be understood in the larger context of theoretical developments in anthropology.
In the following sections we will discuss these issues in greater detail.

1.2 WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?

Pink (Pink, Sarah. 2013) defines ethnography as a “methodology and an approach
to experiencing, interpreting and representing culture and society that informs
and is informed by sets of different disciplinary agendas and theoretical principles.
Ethnography is a process of creating and representing knowledge (about society,
culture and individuals). It is based on the ethnographers’ experiences of realities
that “are as loyal as possible to the context, negotiations and intersubjectivities
through which the knowledge was produced” (Pink, 2013: 18). All ethnographies
are visual in some sense. The study of material culture, facial expressions, gestures
or any aspect of spatial behaviour would constitute the visual.
The visual comprises of not just what we see but also what we do not see. There
are some aspects of society that are so much a part of the everyday that we do not
see them. For instance, the issues around gender inequality linked to domestic
division of labour or limiting gender to just a gender binary or limiting sexuality
to heteronormativity. Heteronormativity is a belief and a framework of thinking
that looks at man-woman sexual relationship as the normal and preferred mode
of sexual orientation. It assumes a gender binary of only men and women
excluding all other genders.
These issues were unseen in society till they were made visible to us through the
feminist movements and the movements around sexuality.
Visuality is closely linked with issues of power in society. The normative is
visible and the marginal is invisible. The researcher ‘sees’ the visible and the
‘invisible’ in the field including all aspects of culture like artefacts, everyday
practices, rituals etc. Traditionally, ethnographic studies based on written texts
helped us ‘see’ and visualise cultures. Occasionally the text would be accompanied
by photographs and at times by films.

1.2.1 The Role of Technology

As technology developed and cameras became lighter and practices of filming
and photographing gained ground. Initially cameras and camera reels were bulky
and expensive and could not record sound. With technological advances cameras
began to record both visuals and sound. Digital technology made cameras and
recorders more accessible and affordable.

This contributed to the growth of visual anthropology as a subdiscipline of

anthropology. Today when we speak of visual anthropology it is broadly
understood in the context of photographs and ethnographic films.

1.2.2 What Kind of Visuals Can be Considered Ethnographic?

People have been taking personal photographs and making home videos for a
long time. Are these images and films also ethnographic? Can documentaries
also be considered ethnographic? Or do we just limit our understanding of
ethnographic films and photographs to those created by an anthropologist?
12
According to Heider (2006) and Pink (2013) the term ‘ethnographic’ is not an Understanding Society
Through the Visual
absolute one and can be applied to any photograph or film. Personal photographs,
home videos, documentaries and films and photographs shot by ethnographers
or by others all can be used to understand societies and cultures. The same visual
can be interpreted from various angles and perspectives. They may coincide,
conflict or differ from each other. What matters is the interpretation of the visual
and the context in which it is situated. In the following sections we will discuss
the development and changes in the use of films and photographs in ethnographic
studies by anthropologists.

Activity 1
Make a video of any daily activity like cooking, cleaning or getting ready
and carefully analyse it from the point of view of the visible and invisible.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is ethnography?
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2) Visuality is closely linked with issues of power in society what is ..................
is visible and the ........................ is invisible.
3) The same visual can be interpreted from various ................ and ................
4) What really matters is the ..................... of the visual and the .......................
in which it is situated.
5) How did changes in technology impact film making?
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1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF FILMS AND

PHOTOGRAPHY IN ANTHROPOLOGY
The use of photographs and films for ethnographic studies was not very popular
with anthropologists. Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski, who were
amongst the first to do fieldwork, had photographs in their monographs but these
were not analysed or commented upon. Ethnographic descriptions were limited
to the use of words. Images were not considered to be important or were often
neglected.
13
Introduction to the
Sociological Study of the
Visual

Malinowski Taking a photograph in the field

(Pic credit:John Tresch, “cropped-mALINOWSKI.gif,” History of Anthropology Newsletter 40
(2016): https://histanthro.org)

Only written ethnographies based on fieldwork and extensive notes were

considered to be ‘real ethnography’. The films were “considered little more than
visual field notes, illustrations that were interesting to look at but did little to
advance ethnographic theory, an attitude that remained largely unchallenged until
pioneers like Margaret Mead and Jean Rouch made a case for the importance of
ethnographic cinema in the 1950s” (Griffiths, 2002, p. 168).

Interestingly, in 1922 Robert Flaherty, a mining engineer shot ‘Nanook of the

North’, a film on the Inuit in the Hudson Bay (click on the link to see the
film:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IAcRjBq93Y) and ‘Moana: A
Romance of the Golden Age’ (1926) on the Savaiim in Western Samoa. Moana
was shot less than three hundred miles from the location where Margaret Mead,
a well-known anthropologist was doing fieldwork amongst the Samoa. Nanook
too was shot very close to the place where Franz Boaz, had done fieldwork. Both
Mead and Boaz did not attach any importance to the films. This becomes
significant particularly since Mead herself made ethnographic films and advocated
the importance of the visual medium (as discussed in the succeeding sections)
(Heider, 2006).

1.3.1 The Early Pioneers

Amongst the earliest to take photographs and shoot films were Alfred Cort
Haddon, Walter Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen. Haddon was amongst the
first to shoot a four minute footage of the Mer Islanders and Australian Aborigines
in 1898 ( see a short snippet of this film: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=NoStmH3nS2o). Walter Baldwin Spencer followed in 1901and shot
films on the Arrernte ceremonies in Central Australia. Frank Gillen too took
photographs of the Australian Aborigines and had a keen interest in collecting
ethnographic material. During the course of their work in Australia, Spencer and
Gillen collaborated to photograph and film the Australian Aborigines. Together
they made thirteen films on the Arrernte ceremonies. Photographs were only
used to scientifically classify humans on an evolutionary scale and not for
ethnographic studies. The novelty of films and expensiveness of the filming
equipment led to the unpopularity of the visual methods in the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth century. There was also the practical issue of tackling
14 failure of equipment in remote places while doing fieldwork.
The equipment was bulky and difficult to manoeuvre. For instance in the filming Understanding Society
Through the Visual
of a dance the camera was unable to capture the entire range of movements if
the dancers moved out the camera range. The people often refused to pose for
photographs as they felt that this took away their privacy. Anthropologists thus
often filmed and portrayed events that could be ‘staged’ like for example dance
rituals.

1.3.2 Texts vs Visuals

Epistemological concerns too limited the use of the visual methods. The
anthropologists felt that the visuals could not portray the socio cultural complexity
of social life. Visuals were considered to be poor substitutes for complex
structures, which were better explained through written texts. Films and visuals
were considered to be undermining the authority of the anthropologists, since
the viewers was free to interpret the image as they wished to (Griffiths, 2002).

Given the positivist theoretical orientation of anthropology, the voice of the

‘scientist’ i.e. the anthropologist was considered to be the voice of authority and
knowledge. The anthropologists with a positivist orientation preferred
photographs over films since they could be retouched and captioned and
recaptioned. The photographs that were taken were assumed to convey an
objective and a realistic portrayal of reality. Through captions anthropological
meanings could be conveyed to the viewer and thus the authority of the
anthropologist remained unchallenged.

It was thought that films would only work if they were accompanied with lectures
by anthropologists. Even as late as 1952, films like ‘Trance and Dance in Bali’
(1952) by Margaret Mead had a very heavy narration. As MacDougall (1997)
argues that the decline in the use of the visual methods in ethnography was an
outcome of the shift in anthropological theory. The focus was now on the use of
the genealogical method and oral records. Anthropologists preferred to use a
notebook to record. The camera was no longer a part of fieldwork and in fact
photographs were not used for illustrations even in ethnographic monographs by
both British and American anthropologists and were limited to museums (Heider,
2006; Banks, 1997).

1.3.3 Margaret Mead’s Contribution

After World War II, the work of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, amongst
the Balinese marked a shift in this approach. Mead in the positivists
anthropological tradition of Franz Boas and Herbert Spencer believed that the
camera was objective. She argued that the role of the camera is like that of the
telescope in astronomy. It was important for her to use the camera to record real
events (Mead, 1975) .

Mead’s methodological approach to film making was one in which she argued
that the relationship between the ethnologist, filmmaking team and the informants
was important. This in some ways is a nod towards reflexivity and the
incorporation of the informants point of view. Mead contended, that it was difficult
to avoid making the film from the point of view of the filmmaker. She did however
believe that the informants could be involved in the process of planning and
editing the film. For her own work on the Bali she trained the Balinese to act as
assistants and critics.
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Introduction to the
Sociological Study of the
Visual

Margret Mead doing her fieldwork

(Pic credit:https://deepartnature.blogspot.com/2011/06/margaret-mead-gregory-bateson-
trance.html)

The value of films for Mead was that it produced ‘masses of objective material’
that could be reanalysed in the light of changes in theory. She believed that films
were better than words in recording cultural change and certain aspects of culture
like dance and rituals. For Mead, the lack of photographic and filming skills
should not be a deterrent. This could be compensated by using a skilled cameraman
who could be directed by the ethnographer (Mead, 1975).

Mead and Bateson’s work on the Bali in 1942, although a watershed in visual
anthropology, did not proceed beyond using photographs as a recording. Mead
believed that the camera was like a ‘fly on the wall’ and that once it was set up to
record automatically, it was unobtrusive and invisible (Mead, 1995). Though
Mead, did underline the importance of involving the informants her work did
not reflect the viewpoint of the informants and their own understanding of their
culture (Banks, 1997).

Check Your Progress 2

1) Name the two films made by Robert Flaherty.
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2) Name the two anthropologists who did their fieldwork close to where Flaherty
shot his films.
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3) Briefly outline the contribution of Haddon, Spencer and Gillen. Understanding Society
Through the Visual
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4) Why were texts preferred over visuals?
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5) Why was there a decline in the use of the visual method?
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1.4 SHIFTS IN THEORY AND FILMING METHODS

The use of the camera as a methodological tool has to be viewed in the context of
theoretical developments in sociology and social anthropology. The shift in
anthropological theory broadly from an evolutionary to positivist to a reflexive
mode of analysis is also reflected in the shift in approach in the analysis of the
visual. The role of the researcher as a neutral observer who does not influence
the outcome of research has been questioned. The assumption that what we
discover in the field cannot be known beforehand has dominated research.
However, what we see is also an outcome of what we seek to discover.

As David MacDougall (1991) says “Whose story is it?” The issue is one of
whose version should dominate. The shift in visual ethnography has been one in
which there is a greater awareness in terms of incorporating the voice of the
informants. This interplay between the voice of the filmmaker and the informant
has influenced the development of visual ethnography. MacDougall (1991) and
Pink (2013) raise the issue of whether merely incorporating the voice of the
informant is enough to address issues of representations of the natives’
perspectives. There is no single way in which to address this methodological
issue. Often the language of the ethnographer is inadequate to represent native
categories of thought. To address this gap some films use indigenous narration
as seen in Jean Rouch’s film La Chasse au lion a l’ arc / Hunting the Lion With
Bow and Arrow (1965) and Dead Birds by Robert Gardner in 1963.(See the link
17
Introduction to the for Rouch’s filmhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PARjcJyZcKc you might be
Sociological Study of the
Visual
interested in this short documentary on Jean Rouch as well: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jzAegaqqf4)

The question however remains whether this is the subjugation of the native’s
voice by the filmmaker or not.

1.4.1 Different Ways of Incorporating the Voice of the Informant

If a film is reflecting the encounter of the informant and the filmmaker then the
subject’s point of view becomes important. In an observational film the assumption
is that the event being portrayed has to be depicted as it is.

Films that revolve around a single person would be made from the point of view
of the person being filmed. The end product however is influenced by
The presence of other people and the effect they exert over the process of
filmmaking influences the final outcome.
The people could be simply drawn to the process of filmmaking. They could
volunteer or they could just be inquisitive and some may view themselves
as important informers in the field. The filmmaker could either ignore or
involve them. In either case they influence the final outcome of the film.
Sometimes an important informant may be resistant to the idea of being
filmed.
Alternatively, a person’s charisma could completely overshadow the film
like for instance Bob Dylan in the film ‘Don’t Look Back’ (1966)
(MacDougall, 1991).

It is also important to recognise that the final outcome of the film is not just
influenced by the filmmaker or the person. A film could go beyond all such
boundaries, since it exists in a particular social and cultural context. The film
takes on a life of its own and transcends all boundaries imposed by the filmmaker
or the subject (MacDougall, 1991).

A film may not be of any importance to the subject like for example Spencer’s
film on the Aranda of Central Australia. The informant had little expectations
from the film. Alternatively, a film could also be actively used by the informants.
This can be seen for instance when people pose for the camera. The filmmaker is
in several ways being directed by the subjects.

Sometimes the films could be a mere filming of rituals without understanding its
significance for example under the direction of the subjects. MacDougall (1991)
illustrates this point through the filming of Aboriginal rituals in Australia. The
rituals could signify a special meaning that could not be disclosed to people who
do not belong to that particular clan or group. The significance of the film varies
according to who is viewing it.
From an anthropological perspective it could be the voice of the
anthropologist accompanying the natives.
From another perspective it could be the voice of the native which is
articulated by the anthropologist.

18
 It could also be the voice of the Aboriginal people speaking to each other Understanding Society
Through the Visual
through the film.
It could be the voice of the aboriginal people speaking to the anthropologist.
Or it could also be the voice addressing aboriginal and non- aboriginal people.

1.4.2 The Factors Influencing the Shooting of a Film

The shooting of a film can be planned before carrying out field work but often it
is influenced by the social relationships and the activities of the ethnographer.
Often visuals develop as a part of the relationships between the researcher and
the informant. Pink (2013) gives contrasting examples from her own fieldwork
in two different places. In her filming and photographing of the bull fights the
informants posed for photos and actually requested for copies of the photographs.
But in West Africa, photographs were a prestige item and one photograph was
equal to ten loaves of bread. The photographs thus represented and signified an
unequal relationship and status between the researcher and the researched. Thus
there are no fixed ways in which the visual will be perceived and viewed. The
professional and the cultural points of view are equally important.

Check Your Progress 3

1) What does the use of the phrase “Whose Story is it?” by David MacDougal
mean?
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2) How has the gap between the language of the ethnographer and the natives
been addressed in films?
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3) What is the underlying assumption in an observational film?
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19
Introduction to the 4) What are the different ways in which a film can be viewed?
Sociological Study of the
Visual .......................................................................................................................
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1.5 SEEING THROUGH THE LENS OF

IDENTITIES
Reality is subjective and a single film could be interpreted in different ways. It is
a part of the lived reality. Since reality is subjective it is not desirable to view it
objectively. Elements like gender, race, ethnicity and class that impact the
identities of the researcher and the researched influence the research process. It
is important to understand how identity construction and perception can impact
the process of filming. For example, in the 1990s gender became an important
aspect of research. Consequently, gendered identity, negotiations and subjectivities
became important in research. The way in which gender and sexuality is lived
and experienced in a culture had an impact on visual ethnographies too.

The connection between visual images and experienced reality is constructed

through individual subjectivities and interpretation of images. There needs to be
a self-conscious reflexive awareness about the ‘reality’ that is portrayed by the
camera. The visual representations are an outcome of the complex interaction
between the culture to which the researcher belongs and his profession as an
ethnographer or social scientist. Thus, visual representations become an outcome
the personal and professional elements and the distinction between them is often
blurred.

If one were to look at photographs of Olympics in the past or when they began,
they would be a very rich source of ethnographic accounts of women in sports
from the point of view of gendered identities, sexualities, race, ethnicity and also
the intersection of various identities. As Bourdieu says (Pink, 2013)' photographs
and images produced by individuals inevitable reflect the shared norms of society.
They reflect the shared schemes of thought, perception and appreciation of the
whole group and not just those of the photographer. Individuals produce images
that are a reflection of shared conventions and are a representation of a particular
material and cultural context. It is difficult to say when a home film or personal
photographs could become ethnographic accounts for example of gendered
identities or sexualities.

Check Your Progress 4

1) What are the different elements of identity that can influence research?
.......................................................................................................................
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20 .......................................................................................................................
2) The visual representations are an outcome of the complex interaction between Understanding Society
Through the Visual
the ________to which the researcher belongs and his ________as an
ethnographer or social scientist.
3) Discuss how photographs and images reflect the norms of society?
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have focussed on understanding the ways in which the use of
visual methods in ethnographic research has developed. We have discussed this
in the context of developments in ethnographic films and photographs. The
approach to research based on visual methods has mirrored the paradigmatic
development in theory. Research is also influenced by the identities of the
researcher and the informants. While doing research it is important to keep in
mind certain ethical considerations. First and foremost, we must ensure that we
do not harm the people we study. Most of the issues around ethical research
cover areas like informed consent, covert research, confidentiality, harm to the
informants, protection of the informants and so on. Units 2 and 5 will the
importance of ethics in research in greater detail.

1.7 REFERENCES
Griffiths, A. (2002). Wondrous Difference: Cinema, Anthroplogy, & Turn-of-
the-Century Visual Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.

Heider, K. (2006). Ethnographic Film. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Mead, M. (1975). Visual Anthroplogy in a Discipline of Words. In P. Hocking,

Principles of Visual Anthropology (pp. 3-12). Paris: Mouton Publishers.

MacDougall, D. (1991). Whose Story Is it? Visual Anthroplogical Review, 7(2),

2-8.

MacDougall, D. (1997). The Visual in Anthroplogy. In Morphy, Howard and

Marcus Banks, Rethinking Visual Anthropology (pp. 276-295). London: Yale
University Press.

Morphy, Howard and Marcus Banks. (1997). Introduction: Rethinking Visual

Anthroplogy. In Howard Morphy and Marcus Banks., Rethinking Visual
Anthroplogy (pp. 1-35). London: Yale University Press.

Pink, S. (2013). Doing Visual Ethnography: Images, Media and Represntation

in Reserach. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Taylor, L. (1998, June). “Visual Anthroplogy is Dead, Long Live Visual

Anthroplogy”. American Anthroplogist, 100(2), 534-537. 21
Introduction to the
Sociological Study of the 1.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR
Visual
PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Ethnography is a process of creating and representing knowledge (about

society, culture and individuals). It is based on the ethnographers’ experiences
of realities that “are as loyal as possible to the context, negotiations and
intersubjectivities through which the knowledge was produced”

2) Visuality is closely linked with issues of power in society what is normative

is visible and the marginal is invisible.

3) The same visual can be interpreted from various angles and perspectives.

4) What really matters is the interpretation of the visual and the context in
which it is situated.

5) As technology developed and cameras became lighter these practices of

filming and photographing gained ground. Initially cameras and camera reels
were bulky and expensive. They were difficult to carry and could not record
sound. Further technological advances cameras began to record both visuals
and sound. The onset of digital technology made cameras and recorders
more accessible and affordable.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The two films were ‘Nanook of the North’ in 1922 and ‘Moana: A Romance
of the Golden Age’ in 1926.

2) Moana was shot less than three hundred miles from the location where
Margaret Mead, a well-known anthropologist was doing fieldwork amongst
the Samoa. Flaherty’s film Nanook too was shot very close to the place
where Franz Boaz, had done fieldwork

3) Haddon was amongst the first to shoot a four minute footage of the Mer
Islanders and Australian Aborigines in 1898. Walter Baldwin Spencer
followed in 1901 and shot films on the Arrernte ceremonies in Central
Australia. Frank Gillen too took photographs of the Australian Aborigines
and had a keen interest in collecting ethnographic material. Later Spencer
and Gillen collaborated to photograph and make films on the Australian
Aborigines.

4) The heavy nature of the equipment meant that it was not easy to move around
thus while filming the camera was unable to capture the entire range of
movements. Sometimes people often refused to pose for photographs as
they felt that this took away their privacy. Anthropologists thus often filmed
and portrayed events that could be ‘staged’ like for example dance rituals.

5) The decline in the use of the visual methods in ethnography was an outcome
of the shift in anthropological theory to the genealogical method and oral
records. Anthropologists preferred to use a notebook to record and not
cameras.
22
Check Your Progress 3 Understanding Society
Through the Visual
1) According to David MacDougall the phrase “Whose story is it?” is about
the issue of whose version should dominate, whether the filmmaker or the
informant. The shift in visual ethnography has been one in which there is a
greater awareness in terms of incorporating the voice of the informants. The
interplay between the voice of the filmmaker and the informant has influenced
the development of visual ethnography.

2) To address this gap some films use indigenous narration as seen in Rouch’s
film La Chasse au lion a l’ arc / Hunting the Lion With Bow and Arrow
(1965) and Dead Birds by Robert Gardner in 1963.

3) In an observational film the underlying assumption is that the event being

portrayed has to be depicted as it is. An observational film would is often
made without knowing the final outcome.
4) The significance of the film varies according to who is viewing it.
a) From an anthropological perspective it could be the voice of the
anthropologist accompanying the natives.
b) From another perspective it could be the voice of the native which is
articulated by the anthropologist.
c) It could also be the voice of the Aboriginal people speaking to each
other through the film.
d) It could be the voice of the aboriginal people speaking to the
anthropologist.
e) Or it could also be the voice addressing aboriginal and non- aboriginal
people.
Check Your Progress 4

1) Elements like gender, race, ethnicity and class that impact the identities of
the researcher and the researched influence the research process. It is
important to understand how identity construction and perception can impact
the process of filming.

2) The visual representations are an outcome of the complex interaction between

the culture to which the researcher belongs and his profession as an
ethnographer or social scientist.

3) According to Bourdieu photographs and images produced by individuals

inevitably reflect the shared norms of society. They reflect the shared schemes
of thought, perception and appreciation of the whole group and not just
those of the photographer.

23