THE UMMED SCHOOL, JODHPUR
AFFILIATED TO CBSE, AFFILIATION NO. 1730944
SESSION :- 2025 - 2026
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT REPORT
SUBJECT:- PHYSICS (042)
TOPIC:- .……………………………………………………………
SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-
MR. SURENDRA PATEL …………………………..
( PGT PHYSICS ) ROLL NO:- …………………..
THE UMMED SCHOOL, JODHPUR
AFFILIATED TO CBSE, AFFILIATION NO. 1730944
SESSION:- 2025-2026
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to thank CBSE for providing us with the opportunity to enhance our skills and
understanding the subject in a better way through the means of this project. I am equally
thankful to Mr. Surendra Patel ( PGT Physics ) for helping me right from the inception till the
successful completion of this project. I sincerely acknowledge him for extending his
valuable guidance, support for information and necessary facts, critical reviews and above
all the moral support he had provided me at all stages of this project.
THE UMMED SCHOOL, JODHPUR
AFFILIATED TO CBSE, AFFILIATION NO. 1730944
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that …………………..………….…………, a student of
class XII has successfully completed the research on the project
…………………………………………………………………….……………………
under the guidance of Mr. SURENDRA PATEL ( PGT PHYSICS ) during
the year 2025-2026 in partial fulfillment of physics practical
examination conducted by AISSCE, New Delhi.
Mr. Surendra Patel Mrs. Ekta Baliya
Signature of Internal Examiner Signature of Principal
Signature of External Examiner
Introduction
Logic Gates are the fundamental building blocks in digital electronics. There
are basically seven main types of logic gates that are used to perform various
logical operations in digital systems. By combining different logic gates,
complex operations are performed, and circuits like flip-flops, counters, and
processors are designed. In this article, we will see various types of logic gates
in detail. A logic gates are an electronic circuit that are designed by using
electrical components like diodes, transistors, resistors, and more. It is used to
perform logical operations based on the inputs provided to it and gives a logical
output that can be either high(1) or low(0). The operation of logic gates is based
on Boolean algebra or mathematics. Logic gates find their uses in our day-to-
day lives, such as in the architecture of our telephones, laptops, tablets and
memory devices.
Types of Basic Logic Gates
Digital logic gates implement Boolean operations. The primary gates are:
• AND Gate: Outputs 1 only if all inputs are 1.
• OR Gate: Outputs 1 if at least one input is 1.
• NOT Gate (Inverter): Outputs the inverse of the input (0 → 1, 1 → 0).
• NAND Gate: Outputs the inverse of the AND gate.
• NOR Gate: Outputs the inverse of the OR gate.
• XOR Gate (Exclusive OR): Outputs 1 if inputs are different.
• XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR): Outputs 1 if inputs are the same.
Basic Logic Gates
1. AND Gate
AND gate is used to perform logical Multiplication of binary input. The Output
state of the AND gate will be high (1) if both the input are high (1), else the
output state will be low (0) if any of the input is low (0).The Boolean Expression
or logic for the AND gate is the logical multiplication of inputs denoted by a full
stop or single dot as
• Boolean expression: Y = A · B
• Symbol and Truth table:
2. OR Gate
An OR gate is a type of logic gate used to perform logical addition. It can have
two or more inputs and one output. The output of the OR gate is low or logic 0
only when all its inputs are low or logic 0. For rest input combinations, the output
of the OR gate is high or logic 1.
• Boolean expression: Y = A + B
• Symbol and Truth table:
3. NAND Gate
NAND Gate is the special type of logic gate which is also known as the
Universal Gate, because it can be used to implement other basic logic gates like
AND, OR, and NOT. It performs NAND (NOT AND) operation between two or
more binary inputs and gives output binary signal.
• Boolean expression: Y = ¬(A · B)
• Symbol and truth table:
4. NOR Gate
NOR gates have numerous applications in digital circuits. They are used in
building digital systems like calculators, computers, and other digital appliances.
In addition, their universal nature makes them a crucial component in
programmable logic devices.
• Boolean expression: Y = ¬(A + B)
• Symbol and truth table
5. XOR Gate
The XOR gate is a digital logic gate that takes in two binary inputs and produces
an output based on their logical relationship. It returns a HIGH output (usually
represented as 1) if the number of HIGH inputs is odd, and a LOW output
(usually represented as 0) if the number of HIGH inputs is even. The XOR gate’s
output is TRUE only when its inputs differ, hence the term “exclusive OR.”
• Boolean expression: Y = A ⊕ B
• Symbol and truth table
6. XNOR Gate
XNOR gate is used in digital communication systems to detect errors that
occurred during data transmission. XNOR gate acts as an equality detector. Thus,
it is also used to compare binary data or signals. XNOR gate is also used to
design digital gaming systems and logic puzzles.
• Boolean expression: Y = ¬(A ⊕ B)
• Symbol:
• Truth table:
Universal Gates
NAND and NOR gates are termed universal because any other logic gate
(AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR) can be constructed solely using only
NANDs or only NORs. This simplifies chip design and manufacturing.
Applications of Logic Gates
Logic gates are the essential building blocks of every digital system you interact
with—from the bitwise operations in your smartphone’s CPU to the control logic
in industrial robots. By combining simple gates like AND, OR, and NOT,
engineers create everything from arithmetic units to memory cells. Below, we’ll
explore key areas where logic gates make modern technology tick.
1. Combinational Circuits
Combinational logic outputs depend only on current inputs. Designers stitch
gates together to perform specific Boolean functions without any memory of past
signals.
• Adders and subtractors for binary arithmetic
• Multiplexers and DE multiplexers to route data streams
• Encoders and decoders for translating between code formats
2. Memory and Sequential Logic
Sequential circuits introduce time into the mix. By feeding outputs back as
inputs, logic gates form the backbone of digital storage and state machines.
• Latches and flip-flops as single-bit memory elements
• Shift registers for serial-to-parallel data conversion
• Counters and finite state machines in timing and control
3. Arithmetic and Data Processing
At the heart of every processor lies an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which blends
logic gates to crunch numbers and compare values in real time.
• Ripple-carry and carry-look ahead adders for fast addition
• Comparators to evaluate equality and magnitude
• Multipliers built from arrays of AND gates plus adder trees
4. Communication and Error Control
Reliable data transfer relies on logic-gate-based components that encode, decode,
and detect errors in noisy channels.
• Parity generators and checkers to flag bit flips
• Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) units built from XOR trees
• Line drivers and receivers with built-in gating for signal integrity
5. Control Systems and Automation
From traffic lights to industrial PLCs, logic gates coordinate sensors and
actuators, turning input conditions into precise control actions.
• Programmable logic controllers using ladder logic abstractions
• Sensor interfacing circuits that translate analog thresholds into digital signals
• Safety interlocks built as combinational fail-safe networks
6. Practical and Emerging Uses
As you push into IoT and edge computing, logic gates live inside FPGAs and
custom ASICs to deliver ultra-efficient, application-specific designs.
• FPGA fabric uses configurable LUTs that function as generic logic gates
• Custom hardware accelerators (e.g., for AI inference) built from optimized gate
arrays
• Low-power sensor nodes leveraging minimalist gate networks
BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/physics/logic-gates/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital-electronics/logic-gates.htm
https://www.electronicshub.org/introduction-to-logic-gates/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate
https://electronicsclub.info/gates.htm
https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/logic-gate-AND-OR-XOR-NOT-NAND-
NOR-and-XNOR
