INTRODUCTION

What is religion? A very complex question! We know religion

and we live religion. But, how do we explain or define religion?
Religion is one of the most sensitive and vulnerable aspects of
human life from the very beginning. Though it looks simple, it is
not a simple reality to be easily defined or explained. There are
many theories proposed regarding the origin of religion as a
result of the development of speculative, intellectual and
scientific mind
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RELIGION
Etymologically, the word ‘religion’ is derived from the Latin
root ‘religare’ and it means ‘to bind fast’. Then ‘religion’ has
certainly a strong emphasis on community aspect. It is
something that binds fast the members of it together. When we
start thinking seriously on religion, naturally we fall upon
thoughts of the definition of religion. Some of the definitions
are phenomenological and try to expose the common elements
that we see in the acknowledged world religions. For example,
the human recognition of a superhuman power entitled to
obedience and worship. Some others are interpretative
definitions. Under this we may group the psychological
definitions – the feelings, acts and experiences of the individual
men in so far as they consider themselves to stand in relations
to what they may call the divine; sociological definitions– a set
of beliefs, practices and institutions which men have evolved in
various societies; naturalistic definitions – a body of scruples
which impede the free exercise of our faculties; and religious
definitions – religion is the recognition that everything in the
world is the manifestation of a power that is beyond human
intellect. None of these definitions, nevertheless, are complete
and exhaustive. The word religion is not an exclusive word
rather it is inclusive. It includes manifold elements and aspects
of life like beliefs, feelings, experiences, values, symbols,
worship, rituals, festivals, cult and cultures, myth and
mythology.
Nature and Scope of Philosophy of Religion
1. Philosophy of religion is generally committed on reason and
rationalism. Aristotle originally suggested that man is a rational
animal and it is rationality that makes him different from
animals.
2. Philosophy of religion is more than affair of head than the
heart. Heart is the place for faith, emotion and feeling. But
head is for knowledge, understanding and reason. It is logical
and rational analysis of religious phenomena. A rational religion
is more philosophical in its approach than the infra-rational
aspect, viz., instincts, impulse, sensation, crude emotion etc.
Reason can very well help us to reject superstitions and blind
belief from the religion. Thus it plays an important role in the
field of philosophy of religion.
3. Philosophy of religion must be based on religious
experiences. The faith, feeling and the emotional attachment of
religion cannot describe its experience, because the mystical
part of religion is ineffable and inexpressible. Religious
experiences can be stated and verified through symbols, figures
and visions. However, the religious experiences of different
religions are included in the study of philosophy of religion
4. Philosophy of religion must cover the study of some major
religions such as Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism,
Islam, etc. It must also study primitive religions such as
animism, animatism, naturalism, etc. the philosophy of religion
must find a synthesis of different religions. The main objectives
is to find universal problems or features common in all
religions.
5. The philosophy of religion is always based on philosophical
foundations viz – way of life and the form of life which refer to
prospects, position, knowledge, and creation of one’s life and is
based on idealism as the fundamental principle of knowledge. It
emphasizes on ideas and explains the spiritual aspects of the
universe
6. Philosophy of religion involves the epistemological and
ontological problems of the world. It observes the nature of
religious knowledge and examines the nature of ultimate reality
7. It seeks to analyze concepts such as God, liberation, worship,
prayer, creation, eternal life, customs, beliefs. Hence we have
to study the philosophical aspects of all these concepts. The
different theories of God in relation to its problems of existence
and its relation to the world become its scope and ground of
observation.
8. In the philosophy of religion the values of man become the
object of philosophical inquiry. The proper study of mankind is
man. And the study of man can never be complete unless it
includes the study of religion.
9. Spirituality is the core of philosophy of religion. The
awakening of spiritual hunger is the very beginning of religion.
But that does not include the supernatural things, nor the
observation of certain external ceremonials coupled with
physical austerities. The spiritual realization is the aim of
philosophy of religion.
10. The idea of a philosophy of religion, the science of the facts
of the inner world of man, as upheld in ancient thought, also
becomes a study of philosophical and spiritual tradition. The
philosophy of religion is a matter of inner experience, a coming
in touch with spiritual facts, and not a matter of belief or
dogma or conformity.
11. In the philosophy of religion there is not only ‘ought’ but
also the ‘it’. It is both union and unity, truth and reality,
restraint and release, destination and destiny. It is what makes
for the advancement, growth and liberation of all.
12. Objectively speaking, philosophy of religion means those
spiritual principles through which one attains perfection,
illumination, God-vision or liberation. These spiritual principles
are truthfulness, purity, self-control, non-violence, forbearance,
detachment, equanimity, straight-forwardness, dutifulness,
compassion and love of God.
13. Subjectively speaking, philosophy of religion means not a
some-time, but an all-time religion in a person’s life. When
religion courses through our blood, vibrates in our nerves,
when it becomes the very breath of our life, religion has
become true for us.
1.DISTINCTION BETWEEN NATURAL AND REVEALED RELIGION
1.1 Natural religion is, as defined by Oxford Languages as
“religion based on reason rather than divine revelation”
It refers to the idea that certain religious truths can be
understood through reason and observation of the natural
world, independent of divine revelation. The ancient Greeks
were among the first to explore the idea of natural religion.
Aristotle's concept of the "unmoved mover" and the Stoic idea
of a rational, natural order to the universe laid the groundwork
for later thinkers to develop the notion of natural religion.

The Enlightenment saw a resurgence of interest in natural

religion, as thinkers such as John Locke and David Hume
explored the role of reason in understanding religious truths.
Locke argued that certain religious principles, such as the
existence of a creator, could be understood through reason
alone.

Natural religion continued to evolve through the ages,

influencing thinkers such as Immanuel Kant and Friedrich
Schleiermacher. Kant argued that natural religion was a
necessary precursor to revealed religion, while Schleiermacher
saw natural religion as a way to understand the universal,
innate religious sense.

Key Principles of Natural Religion

i)The Role of Reason in Understanding Religious Truths

Natural religion emphasizes the use of reason to understand
religious truths. This involves using rational inquiry and
observation to gain insights into the nature of the divine and
the universe.

ii)Observation of the Natural World as a Source of Religious

Knowledge
The natural world is seen as a source of religious knowledge,
providing insights into the creator and the nature of reality.
This can involve the study of the natural world, including the
laws of physics and the complexity of life.

iii)The Concept of a Universal, Innate Religious Sense

Many proponents of natural religion argue that there is a

universal, innate religious sense that is shared across cultures
and throughout history. This sense is thought to be a
fundamental aspect of human nature, providing a common
foundation for religious experience and understanding.

1.2 Revealed religion has been defined as a “religion based on

the revelation by God to man of ideas that he would not have
arrived at by his natural reason alone.

Characteristics of revealed religion

i)Revealed religion originates in a single prophet, who claims to

have direct communication with God and generally insists upon
the unique role of a prophet who is usually regarded as
infallible or close to infallible — Moses, Jesus, or Muhammad.

ii) Revealed religion also insists on the existence of God, often

defined as a personal, supreme being who has the qualities of
omniscience and omnipotence.

iii)Faith is central to revealed religion. Rational argument and

evidence may be used to convince others of the merits of a
revealed religion, but ultimately there are too many
fundamental beliefs in a revealed religion that are either non-
demonstrable or contradictory to evidence from science,
history, and archeology. Faith may be used positively, as an aid
to making a decision in the absence of clear evidence, so that
one does not sustain loss from despair and a paralysis of will;
however, faith may also be used negatively, to deny or ignore
findings from other fields of knowledge.

The problems with revealed religion are widely known:

1. These religions are prone to a high degree of superstition
and many followers embrace anti-scientific attitudes when
the conclusions of science refute or contradict the beliefs
of revealed religion. (This is a tendency, not a rule — for
example, many believers in revealed religion do not
regard a literal interpretation of the Garden of Eden story
as central to their beliefs, and they fully accept the theory
of evolution.)
2. Revealed religions appear to be prone to intolerance,
oppression of non-believers and heretics, and bloody
religious wars. It seems most likely that this intolerance is
the result of a belief system that sees a single prophet as
having a unique, infallible relationship to God, with all
other religions being in error because they lack this
relationship.
2.THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF RELIGION
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
HISTORICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
2.1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES.
The 19th century was a time when anthropology was still in its
infancy, and scholars were grappling with how to explain the
diversity of human cultures. Religion, being a central aspect of
many cultures, became a focus of anthropological inquiry.
However, the absence of physical evidence for the origins of
religion, like religious texts or archaeological remains from
prehistoric times, left scholars to turn to what they could
observe: human behavior, art, and the myths and rituals of
contemporary societies. Their theories, therefore, were
grounded not in empirical evidence, but in inferences drawn
from these observable phenomena.

i)Edward Burnett Tylor’s animism

One of the most influential early theories about the origins of

religion came from British anthropologist Edward Tylor. Tylor’s
theory, was articulated in his 1871 work ‘Primitive Culture’
centered on the concept of “animism”—the belief that all
objects, places, and creatures possess a spiritual essence. Tylor
argued that animism was the earliest form of religion, emerging
as a response to the human need to explain natural
phenomena.
Tylor’s theory was heavily influenced by two key observations:
death and dreams.He noted that many societies had rituals
around death, and believed that the soul of a deceased person
continued to exist after the body’s demise. Tylor also found
that many cultures believed in spirits that could inhabit
animals, trees, and even inanimate objects. He reasoned that
the idea of an animating force, or soul, was the most primitive
form of religious belief and that from this simple concept, more
complex religious systems later emerged. Essentially, for Tylor,
animism was the starting point from which religion evolved
over time, eventually giving rise to more
abstract theological ideas.

Critics of Tylor’s animism theory argue that it oversimplifies the

complex development of religious systems and disregards the
diversity of beliefs found in different cultures. Despite these
criticisms, Tylor’s work was foundational in establishing religion
as an area of study within anthropology and for introducing the
idea that religious beliefs might stem from attempts to explain
the unknown.

ii)Herbert Spencer and the fear of ghosts

Herbert Spencer,a philosopher and sociologist, argued that

religion originated from a fear of ghosts. In his 1857 work *The
Principles of Sociology*, Spencer suggested that early humans,
upon encountering death, believed that the soul of the
deceased continued to exist in a disembodied form. This belief
in the existence of spirits was fueled by a deep fear of the
unknown and the supernatural.
Spencer’s theory builds on the idea that early humans, facing
death and unexplained phenomena, may have developed
religious ideas as a way to cope with their fear and uncertainty.
Ghosts, in this sense, represented the spirits of the dead who
continued to exert influence over the living, creating a basis for
the development of rituals and practices meant
to appease these spirits. For Spencer, this fear of ghosts and
spirits was not just a source of religious belief but also a driving
force behind the development of cultural practices, including
ancestor worship, sacrifices, and the establishment of sacred
rituals.

While Spencer’s theory is an interesting one, it too has been

critiqued for focusing too much on fear and not enough on the
other psychological or social factors that might have
contributed to the development of religion. Nevertheless, his
ideas helped highlight the role of emotions—particularly fear—
in shaping early human conceptions of the supernatural.

iii)Max Müller and the awe of nature

Max Müller, a German philologist and scholar of religion,

proposed in his work ‘The Natural Religion’ (1873) that religion
originated from humanity’s awe and reverence for nature. He
believed that early humans, faced with the overwhelming
forces of nature such as storms, floods, and the sun’s power,
interpreted these natural phenomena as the actions
of divine beings. In this way, religion was born out of
humanity’s attempt to understand and explain the world
around them.
According to Müller, early humans did not initially attribute
natural forces to gods in a literal sense. Instead, they
personified them, giving them human-like qualities. For
example, the sun may have been seen as a powerful deity that
controlled the cycles of life and death, or storms might have
been associated with a wrathful god. Müller’s theory aligns
with the idea that religious beliefs developed as humans sought
to make sense of the mysteries of nature, and in the process,
gave rise to the belief in supernatural beings who controlled or
influenced these forces.

Critics argue that Müller overemphasized the importance of

nature and did not adequately explain how different religious
practices emerged across diverse cultures. Nevertheless,
Müller’s work remains an important part of the history of
religious thought, as it focused on the central role of nature in
early human religious experience.

iv)Animatism and Naturism

Animatism, as proposed by anthropologist Robert Marett, is the

belief that certain forces in nature, such as wind or water,
possess a spiritual essence that can influence human behavior.
Unlike animism, which attributes spirits to objects or creatures,
animatism focuses on more abstract forces that are thought to
imbue the natural world with power and meaning.

On the other hand, naturism, closely related to Müller’s ideas,

is the belief that natural forces themselves are sacred and
worthy of worship. It suggests that early human religious
practices were centered on rituals that sought to honor these
forces. While animatism and naturism share some similarities,
they differ in their focus on particular aspects of the natural
world, with animatism focusing on spirits or forces that inhabit
natural objects, and naturism focusing on the reverence of
nature itself.
2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

i)Henry Leuba
According to Leuba the reason for the existence of religion is
not the objective truth of its conceptions, but its biological
value. He clarifies this idea with the example of the belief in a
personal God. Earlier theologians had put forward metaphysical
arguments, such as the argument from design, for the existence
of such a God. The progress of the physical sciences has
destroyed the strength of such arguments, leading subsequent
theologians to change their arguments and appeal to inner
experience instead.
Here, as Leuba thinks, they have to agree with psychology,
which applies the scientific method onto the innermost
experiences of the individual. The inner experience, instead of
establishing the existence of a personal God, shows how belief
in such a God has arisen from the gratification it provides for
affective and moral needs. Leuba paid special attention to
mystical experiences which are considered to be the pinnacle of
religious experience of God and tried to explain it in
psychological and physiological terms. He compared it to the
sublimation of sexual passion in the ascetical life, as well as to
an altered state of consciousness induced by certain drugs. He
also pointed out its affinity with such pathological conditions as
hysteria and epilepsy. For the psychologist who remains within
the province of science, religious mysticism is not the revelation
of God but of man himself.

ii)Freud’s Psychological Theory on Religion

Freud’s approach to religion was deeply embedded in his

broader psychological theories, particularly his work on the
unconscious mind, repression, and the Oedipus complex. At the
heart of his ideas was the belief that religious practices and
beliefs are not merely cultural or social phenomena but are
deeply rooted in psychological mechanisms that originate in
early childhood experiences and unconscious desires.

Freud suggested that religious beliefs, with their emphasis on

unseen powers, moral codes, and transcendental figures, are
driven by these unconscious forces and that religion is a way for
the unconscious mind to manage inner conflicts, such as
unresolved childhood trauma or repressed desires. In this way,
religion serves as a defense mechanism, offering a form of
psychological protection. This perspective suggests that
religious beliefs are not only a source of comfort but also a
coping mechanism for dealing with deeper psychological issues
that the individual may not be consciously aware of. One of
the key concepts Freud used to explain the psychological
origins of religion is the idea of totemism. Freud saw totemism
as a primitive form of religion that reflected early human
attempts to understand the world and exert control over it

Freud saw the father as a powerful figure not only the source of
authority but also the source of law, order, and the moral
compass of the family. This figure is transferred onto the
concept of God in religious systems, with God acting as
an omnipotent, paternal figure that guides and controls the
behavior of believers.

religion is an expression of the child’s longing for a protective

and authoritative father figure. Freud saw this as a form
of regression, where the individual reverts to a more childlike
state in order to cope with the overwhelming demands of adult
life. In this sense, religion serves as a psychological crutch,
enabling individuals to find comfort and meaning in a world
that may otherwise seem chaotic and uncontrollable.

iii)Theodor Reik

Theodor Reik was influenced by Freud’s work, but he sought to

deepen the psychoanalytic understanding of religious
phenomena.

Reik’s approach to religion focused on two primary elements:

myths and rituals. He argued that both of these components
were psychological expressions of repressed desires and
unresolved conflicts, particularly those related to the Oedipus
complex
Myths and rituals

According to Reik, religious myths were not simply imaginative

stories, but reflections of deep-seated psychological conflicts
represent the unconscious mind’s attempt to process and make
sense of unresolved emotions. and psychological, that led to
the establishment of religion.

Religious myths also act as a collective memory, preserving the

psychological events that contributed to the formation of
religious institutions. These events, often rooted in trauma or
conflict, are remembered not in their original form, but through
symbolic representations. Reik believed that myths serve as a
psychological mechanism that allows societies to process
difficult emotions and experiences without directly confronting
them. The myths offer a socially acceptable and psychologically
safe outlet for these repressed desires.

Rituals, according to Reik, are more than just acts of worship;

they are expressions of the unconscious mind. Like myths,
rituals serve as a means of symbolizing repressed desires and
unresolved conflicts. Reik believed that religious rituals often
act as symbolic representations of sexual and aggressive
impulses that have been repressed by the individual or society
and are acts that serve to release and redirect repressed
desires. These rituals provide a safe space for individuals to
express unconscious impulses in a socially acceptable way.
Through the ritual, the individual can temporarily relive or
confront past conflicts without the fear of direct consequences.
Whereas Freud believed religion to be a product of neurotic
repression and illusion, Reik saw it as a necessary and
productive outlet for the unconscious.

For Reik, myths and rituals provide a way for individuals and
societies to process and express deep-seated emotional
conflicts in a way that makes sense to the collective psyche. In
this sense, religion serves a therapeutic function, offering a way
for individuals to confront repressed desires without
confronting the raw emotional truths directly.
3.HISTORICAL THEORIES

The origins of religious beliefs are deeply intertwined with

humanity’s early social structures and attempts to make sense
of the world. By tracing the earliest forms of worship and belief
systems, we unlock windows into the past, revealing how early
human societies interpreted life, death, and the forces of
nature. From fertility figures to burial practices, these early
religious forms offer insight into how humanity’s spiritual
journey began. This blog delves into these ancient beliefs,
looking at the archaeological evidence and the symbolic
systems that laid the foundation for the religions we recognize
today.

3.1 The birth of religious beliefs: fertility figures and early

worship

One of the most striking pieces of evidence for early religious

belief comes from the discovery of fertility figures and mother
goddess idols. The most famous examples of such figurines are
the Venus figurines, found across Europe and dating back to
the Paleolithic era . These figurines, characterized by large
breasts, hips, and stomachs, are thought to represent a fertility
cult, where the focus was on the worship of the female form
and its ability to generate life.
The symbolism behind these fertility figures is not merely
artistic, but also deeply tied to the survival and continuity of
early human societies. As humans were primarily hunter-
gatherers, the fertility of the earth, the animals, and their own
bodies was of utmost importance for their survival. In this
context, early religious beliefs likely centered on ensuring
fertility in crops, animals, and people.

The worship of the earth mother or mother goddess can be

seen as an expression of the relationship between early
humans and the natural world. The earth was not just a
physical place to inhabit, but a living entity with whom people
were deeply connected. The belief in a nurturing mother figure
gave shape to the idea of divine protection and creation, and in
many cultures, this concept evolved into more complex
mythologies that later shaped the religious traditions of both
ancient and modern societies.
3.2 Burial practices and the afterlife: a window into early
religious concepts

Another significant clue to early religious beliefs lies in burial

practices, which give us insight into how ancient humans
viewed life, death, and the afterlife. The discovery of burial
sites from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic periods reveals a
profound reverence for the dead and a belief in life after death.
These burials often include personal items, tools, and even
animal remains, suggesting a belief that the deceased needed
these items in the afterlife or that they were being
accompanied by spirits into another realm.
In some of the earliest burial sites, bodies were arranged in
specific poses or buried with their faces toward the sky or
earth, a possible reflection of their belief in an afterlife and
suggests that early humans may have believed in some form of
existence beyond the grave, whether it was a spiritual
continuation or a reincarnation of the deceased’s essence.

The belief in an afterlife was not necessarily uniform, but the

common thread was the notion that death was not the end, but
rather a transition to another form of existence. This belief laid
the groundwork for later religious traditions that continue to
explore the concept of the afterlife and spiritual immortality.

3.3 Universal myths: the deluge myth and its cultural

significance

One of the most compelling aspects of early religious thought is

the remarkable similarity between ancient myths found across
different cultures. A prominent example of this is the deluge or
flood myth. Stories of a great flood, often sent by the gods to
cleanse or destroy the earth, are found in almost every ancient
civilization. The most famous versions of this myth are those in
Mesopotamian cultures, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, and in
the Abrahamic traditions, where Noah’s Ark is the centerpiece..

The similarities in these myths suggest that the deluge myth

may stem from common human experiences—such as natural
disasters or the fear of divine retribution—or that these myths
spread across cultures through migration and cultural diffusion

The deluge myth speaks to the deep-seated human desire to

understand forces beyond their control—whether it was the
wrath of gods or the unpredictable power of nature. These
myths functioned not only as cautionary tales but also as ways
to reinforce social and moral codes

3.4 The worship of nature and the animate-inanimate

connection

Another feature of early religious belief systems was the

worship of nature. The earliest human societies often lived in
close relationship with the natural world. For example, many
indigenous cultures view animals as sacred beings with their
own spiritual significance, while trees are often seen as symbols
of life and connection to the divine.

Ancient humans didn’t just worship nature; they saw the divine
in it. Trees were often regarded as sacred beings, believed to
house spirits or deities. In many cultures, gods were associated
with natural forces, like the sun god Ra in Egyptian mythology
or the storm god Indra in Vedic traditions. The belief that gods
could manifest through natural phenomena, such as thunder,
lightning, or the changing of seasons, reflects an early
understanding of the interconnectedness of the spiritual and
material worlds.

The existence of animistic belief systems where not only

animals and humans but also objects, plants, and even stones,
rivers, and mountains were often imbued with spiritual power,
and rituals were performed to appease or honor these
elements suggests that the boundary between the animate and
inanimate was fluid and that all elements of the natural world
were part of a larger spiritual whole.