Notes on Phonetics

BS English
Semester I

Kashif Raza Joyya

Assistant Professor of English
Government Islamia Graduate College, Kasur
Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the physical properties of speech
sounds and their production, transmission, and reception. It is concerned with the articulation, acoustic,
and auditory characteristics of human speech. Here is a detailed overview of phonetics:

1. Articulatory Phonetics:

• Definition: Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the physical aspects of speech production,
focusing on how speech sounds are produced by the articulatory organs (tongue, lips, vocal cords,
etc.).

• Components:

• Place of Articulation: The specific point in the vocal tract where the airflow restriction
occurs during speech sound production (e.g., bilabial, alveolar, velar).

• Bilabial:

• Articulators: Both lips.

• Sounds: Examples include /p/, /b/, /m/.

• Labiodental:

• Articulators: Lower lip against upper front teeth.

• Sounds: Examples include /f/ and /v/.

• Interdental:

• Articulators: Tip of the tongue between the upper and lower front teeth.

• Sounds: Examples include the English "th" sounds, as in "think" (/θ/) and "this" (/ð/).

• Alveolar:

• Articulators: Tongue against the alveolar ridge, which is the bony ridge just behind the
upper front teeth.

• Sounds: Examples include /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, and /r/.

• Post-Alveolar (Palato-Alveolar):

• Articulators: Tongue against the area just behind the alveolar ridge.

• Sounds: Examples include the English "sh" sound (/ʃ/) as in "ship" and the "zh" sound (/ʒ/)
as in "measure."

• Palatal:

• Articulators: Tongue against the hard palate (the bony front part of the roof of the
mouth).

• Sounds: Examples include the English "y" sound (/j/) as in "yes."

• Velar:

• Articulators: Back of the tongue against the soft palate or velum.

• Sounds: Examples include /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/ (as in "sing").

• Glottal:

• Articulators: Vocal cords or glottis.

 • Sounds: Examples include the glottal stop (/ʔ/) found in the Cockney English
pronunciation of "butter" and the "h" sound (/h/) as in "hat."

• Uvular:

• Articulators: Back of the tongue against the uvula (the fleshy extension at the back of the
soft palate).

• Sounds: Examples are found in some languages like French and Arabic but are not
common in English.

Understanding places of articulation is essential for phoneticians, linguists, and language learners,
as it provides insights into the physical aspects of speech production. Different languages utilize these
points of articulation to create distinct sounds, contributing to the diversity of speech sounds across the
world's languages.

• Manner of Articulation: Describes the way in which airflow is restricted during sound
production (e.g., stops, fricatives, nasals).

Speech organs
Speech organs are the physical structures involved in the production of speech sounds. These organs work
together in a coordinated manner to articulate and modulate the airflow, creating the diverse range of
sounds found in human languages. Here is an overview of the main speech organs and their functions:

1. Lungs and Diaphragm:

• Function: The lungs provide the airflow necessary for speech. The diaphragm, a muscle
below the lungs, controls the volume and force of exhaled air.

2. Trachea (Windpipe):

• Function: The trachea allows the passage of air from the lungs to the larynx.

3. Larynx (Voice Box):

• Components:

• Vocal Cords (Vocal Folds): Located in the larynx, these folds vibrate to produce
voiced sounds.

• Glottis: The space between the vocal cords.

• Function: The larynx is crucial for producing voiced sounds. It also plays a role in pitch
modulation.

4. Pharynx:

• Location: The throat region behind the mouth and nasal cavity.

• Function: The pharynx serves as a resonating chamber for speech sounds and helps
modify the quality of the sound produced.
 5. Oral Cavity:

• Function: The oral cavity, or mouth, is instrumental in shaping sounds by changing the
position of the tongue, lips, and other speech organs.

6. Nasal Cavity:

• Function: The nasal cavity contributes to the production of nasal sounds. The velum, or
soft palate, can be raised or lowered to allow or block airflow through the nose.

7. Tongue:

• Parts:

• Apex (Tip): The front part of the tongue.

• Blade: The flat part of the tongue just behind the apex.

• Front: The portion of the tongue from the apex to the back.

• Back: The rear part of the tongue.

• Function: The tongue plays a crucial role in articulating various speech sounds by changing
its shape, position, and contact with other speech organs.

8. Teeth:

• Function: The interaction between the tongue and teeth affects the production of certain
speech sounds, especially in sounds like /θ/ and /ð/ (as in "think" and "this").

9. Lips:

• Function: Movements and positions of the lips contribute to the articulation of bilabial
and labiodental sounds, such as /p/, /b/, /f/, and /v/.

Understanding the role and coordination of these speech organs is fundamental to the study of
phonetics. The precise arrangement and movement of these organs create the wide array of speech
sounds found in human languages.

2. Acoustic Phonetics:

• Definition: Acoustic phonetics examines the physical properties of sound waves produced during
speech, including their frequency, amplitude, and duration.

• Components:

• Frequency: The number of cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz). It determines the
pitch of a sound.

• Amplitude: The intensity or loudness of a sound wave.

• Duration: The length of time a sound persists.

3. Auditory Phonetics:

• Definition: Auditory phonetics explores how the human ear receives and processes speech
sounds.

• Components:

• Auditory Perception: The ability of the ear and brain to interpret sound waves as
meaningful speech.

• Phonetic Transcription: The representation of speech sounds using symbols to capture

their auditory characteristics.
4. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):

• Definition: The IPA is a standardized system of phonetic notation that represents the sounds of
spoken language. It provides a set of symbols for each distinct sound, allowing linguists and
language learners to transcribe spoken words accurately. The IPA is designed by International
Phonetic Association.

Consonants:

Bilabial

• Stops: /p/ (pat), /b/ (bat)

Labiodental

• Fricatives: /f/ (fish), /v/ (vase)

Dental

• Fricatives: /θ/ (think), /ð/ (this)

Alveolar

• Stops: /t/ (top), /d/ (dog)

• Fricatives: /s/ (sun), /z/ (zebra)

• Nasal: /n/ (no)

Post-Alveolar (Palato-Alveolar)

• Fricatives: /ʃ/ (she), /ʒ/ (measure)

• Affricates: /tʃ/ (chop), /dʒ/ (judge)

Velar

• Stops: /k/ (cat), /g/ (go)

• Nasal: /ŋ/ (sing)

Glottal

• Glottal Stop: /ʔ/ (uh-oh)

• Fricatives: /h/ (hat)

Vowels:

Front

• Close: /i/ (see), /e/ (they)

• Open-Mid: /ɛ/ (bed)

• Open: /a/ (father)

Central

• Close-Mid: /ɵ/ (bird)

• Open-Mid: /ʌ/ (strut)

• Open: /ɑ/ (bath)

Back
 • Close: /u/ (boot), /o/ (go)

• Open-Mid: /ɔ/ (thought)

Diphthongs:

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound that begins with one vowel sound and glides into another within
the same syllable. In English, there are eight recognized diphthongs. Here they are, along with example
words:

• /aɪ/ as in "price, ride"

• /eɪ/ as in "day, say"
• /ɔɪ/ as in "boy, coy"
• /aʊ/ as in "cloud, shout"
• /oʊ/ as in "go"
• /ɪə/ as in "here, there"
• /eə/ as in "air, fair"
• /ʊə/ as in "tour"

Keep in mind that the pronunciation of these sounds might vary depending on regional accents and
individual speech patterns. The word examples are provided to give you a sense of how these sounds
might be used in English words. This is just a brief overview, and the IPA chart includes many more symbols
for specific sounds and variations.

5. Phonetic Transcription:

• Definition: The process of representing speech sounds in written form using phonetic symbols. It
is also known as narrow transcription and represented by straight brackets [ ]

• Applications: Phonetic transcription is used to represent exact pronunciation of individuals and

linguistic research to accurately capture the individual differences in pronunciation of words.

6. Clinical Phonetics:

• Application: In the field of speech-language pathology, clinical phonetics is applied to assess and
treat individuals with speech disorders. It involves analyzing and addressing articulation,
phonological, and auditory processing difficulties.

7. Dialectal and Cross-Linguistic Variations:

• Dialectal Differences: Different dialects may exhibit variations in pronunciation, including

regional accents and phonological distinctions.

• Cross-Linguistic Variation: Phonetics allows for the comparison of speech sounds across different
languages, identifying commonalities and differences.

8. Developmental Phonetics:

• Focus: Investigates how speech sounds and pronunciation develop in individuals, particularly in
children.

Phonetics is a fundamental tool for linguists, speech scientists, language teachers, and speech
therapists. It plays a crucial role in understanding the mechanics of speech production, the diversity of
speech sounds across languages, and the nuances of pronunciation. The knowledge gained from phonetics
contributes to various fields, including linguistics, communication disorders, and language education.