sustainability

Article
Facilitating Sustainable Self-Directed Learning Experience with
the Use of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning
Kyeong-Ouk Jeong

Department of English Education, Graduate School of Education, Hannam University, Daejeon 34430, Korea;
monicajko@hnu.kr

Abstract: This study explored the impact of utilizing mobile-assisted language learning to help
EFL university students promote their learning performance and support a sustainable self-directed
learning experience while developing digital literacy and technology competence. The global pan-
demic and spread of COVID-19 have accelerated the convergence of technology in the classroom
in response to an emergency where the sustainability of education is at stake. With the progress of
digital technology, a variety of smart mobile applications have been applied in English language
learning and teaching. The use of those technologies can encourage language learners to practice self-
directed learning beyond the classroom settings, which is essential for motivated and autonomous
learning. Mobile phone applications have great potential as effective pedagogical tools with features
such as accessibility, manageable interface, and multifunctional components. However, the use of
mobile-assisted language learning for sustainable, self-directed learning outside the classroom has
been relatively under-researched. In this study, EFL university students engaged in mobile-assisted
language learning that could make their learning more sustainable and independent outside of the
classroom. The data of this study show that students’ attitudes toward participating in mobile-
assisted English language learning were affirmative. The results show that incorporation of mobile





 applications into language learning could foster learner motivation and make their learning more
Citation: Jeong, K.-O. Facilitating
sustainable and entertaining than simply using the conventional instructional methods. Participants
Sustainable Self-Directed Learning of this study stated that major benefits of experiencing mobile-assisted learning for their English study
Experience with the Use of were ease of access to learning contents, portability of the learning tools, flexible and self-directed
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning. learning environment, better interaction, and improved self-efficacy in English learning performance.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894. https:// The pedagogical implications of the study are discussed, and instructional strategies are suggested to
doi.org/10.3390/su14052894 share ideas about a more pertinent learning environment in the era of digital transformation.
Academic Editors: Pilar Colás-Bravo
and Jesús Conde-Jimenez Keywords: sustainable learning; learning with ICT; mobile-assisted language learning; self-directed
learning; EFL
Received: 28 January 2022
Accepted: 26 February 2022
Published: 2 March 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction

with regard to jurisdictional claims in The development of information and communication technology has been changing
published maps and institutional affil- not only the lifestyle of modern people but also the educational environment at a striking
iations.
speed. E-learning, which uses computers and the Internet to learn in class, has already
become a common learning method, and the development of such information and commu-
nication devices provides both teachers and learners with opportunities to experience a new
teaching and learning environment [1]. The global pandemic and spread of COVID-19 have
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
accelerated the convergence of technology with the classroom in response to an emergency
This article is an open access article
where the sustainability of education is at stake. With the recent innovative progress in
distributed under the terms and
digital technology, the use of digital devices today has penetrated into all aspects of our
conditions of the Creative Commons lives. Recently, mobile phones have become a must-have item for people living in the era
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of the digital revolution. Mobile phones are equipped with multitask functions such as
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ wireless computer activity, phone function, camera function, memo function, and personal
4.0/). information management function without time and space restrictions. In addition, a lot of

Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052894 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 2 of 13

activities are possible with mobile phones, such as listening to music, watching video clips,
using a navigator in driving, taking photos and videos, checking an e-calendar, taking notes,
reading an e-book, and playing mobile games. Therefore, it can be said that mobile phones
can be utilized as a new educational tool that can accelerate a new type of mobile learning
environment [2]. Mobile devices are not only replacing traditional learning tools but are
also being recognized as an expanded learning tool for the digital learning environment,
which requires new teaching and learning functions [3]. Moreover, the characteristics of
portable digital devices enable learner-centered education by enabling cooperative learn-
ing through ubiquitous interaction beyond face-to-face relationships in the classroom [4].
Integrating mobile phones in learning and teaching has received favorable responses from
both educators and students [5]. Research results show that mobile devices could boost
learner motivation, make the learning process more engaging, and help students acquire
knowledge in an entertaining way [6].
In the field of English as foreign language education (EFL), there is no exception in
efforts to integrate technology into the field of language learning and teaching [7]. With
the development of the ICT industry, interest in mobile learning in the field of English
teaching and learning is growing, and research is also being actively conducted [8–10]. As
a result, the extensive use of technology-integrated instruction has made it possible for EFL
learners to experience the diverse capabilities of technology in their language learning [11].
One of the most valuable affordances of mobile phones is situated learning [12]. In situ-
ated language learning environment, language learners can act as active constructors of
their own knowledge as they learn to understand their own needs and develop learning
styles and strategies. English communicative competence is best acquired within authen-
tic contexts, in which students can be involved in realistic language learning tasks [13].
Technology-integrated instruction can help the students focus on the situated learning
context in language learning and knowledge construction. Integrating language learning
activities into real-world settings holds the potential to make learning more relevant and
enjoyable [14]. With the more learner-centered innovative approaches of new technologies,
language learners can have opportunities to achieve communicative competence while
engaging in authentic communication in relevant and meaningful contexts [15]. Utilizing
digital devices can support language learners in acquiring communicative competence to
meet their learning needs and to engage them in authentic communication from meaningful
and sustainable perspectives.
Incorporating digital devices, such as mobile phones or pads, into the language
learning process has potential as an innovative language learning and teaching method due
to several aspects, such as portability, agility, and connectivity [16]. As using mobile phones
has become an integral part of everyday life for most college students, educators and
researchers have been scrutinizing how to integrate digital smart devices into classroom
procedures. The widespread use of smartphones among college students has prompted
teachers to explore how this digital technology can help enhance learning motivation and
maintain students’ sustainable learning experiences [17].
The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of utilizing mobile-assisted
language learning in helping EFL University students promote their learning performance
and support sustainable self-directed learning experience. The research questions of this
study are as follows:
1. What are the perceptions and attitudes of university students about using digital
devices and mobile applications to study English?
2. How does the integration of mobile applications help students to develop digital
literacy and technology competence?
3. How can mobile-assisted language learning facilitate the sustainable self-directed
learning experience of university students?
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 3 of 13

2. Related Research
With Research
2. Related the growth of information and communication technology, technology-en-
hanced language learning has been increasingly regarded as a successful way to support
With the growth of information and communication technology, technology-enhanced
learners with more interconnecting and collaborative language learning environments.
language learning has been increasingly regarded as a successful way to support learners
Since smartphones have recently become an indispensable item in modern society, mo-
with more interconnecting and collaborative language learning environments. Since smart-
bile-assisted language learning (m-learning) has been introduced to assist students’ lan-
phones have recently become an indispensable item in modern society, mobile-assisted
guage learning
language learning with the convenient
(m-learning) has been features of digital
introduced devices
to assist and mobile
students’ language technologies
learning
with the convenient features of digital devices and mobile technologies [6,18].due
[6,18]. In particular, in the situation in which schools have been shut down to the
In partic-
global COVID-19 pandemic and the sustainability of education
ular, in the situation in which schools have been shut down due to the global COVID-19 has been threatened, the
role of m-learning
pandemic becomes even
and the sustainability ofmore
education important
has beento provide quality
threatened, the education to students
role of m-learning be-
outside of school and help them to continue their self-directed
comes even more important to provide quality education to students outside of school and learning. Self-directed
learning
help themistothe concept
continue of autonomous
their learning outside
self-directed learning. the classroom
Self-directed learning isdimension
the concept [19].
of
When schooling is threatened and too limited to allow meaningful
autonomous learning outside the classroom dimension [19]. When schooling is threatened learning to happen, as
it is today, it is crucial to utilize the alternative educational resources
and too limited to allow meaningful learning to happen, as it is today, it is crucial to utilize available outside the
classroom.
the alternative Theeducational
accessibility and flexibility
resources available of the mobile-assisted
outside the classroom. language learning envi-
The accessibility and
ronment provides
flexibility students withlanguage
of the mobile-assisted more authentic learning learning opportunities,
environment providesmaking students it easier
with
to adapt
more to unfamiliar
authentic learning learning experiences.
opportunities, Thisitiseasier
making why technology-enhanced
to adapt to unfamiliar m-learning
learning
is inevitable for sustainable self-directed learning [20]. M-learning
experiences. This is why technology-enhanced m-learning is inevitable for sustainable can support students
to develop digital literacy and technology competence. It also
self-directed learning [20]. M-learning can support students to develop digital literacy provides a learner-centered
andtechnology
and self-directed learning environment
competence. It also provides where learning is autonomous
a learner-centered and sustainable
and self-directed learning
[21].
environment where learning is autonomous and sustainable [21].
TheICT
The ICTDevelopment
DevelopmentIndex Index(IDI)(IDI)isisaacomposite
compositeindex indexwithwith11 11indicators
indicatorscombined
combined
intoaacomposite
into compositescore. score.It It
is is used
used to monitor
to monitor andand compare
compare developments
developments in information
in information and
and communication
communication technology
technology betweenbetween countries
countries over time.
over time. According
According to thetoInternational
the Interna-
tional Telecommunication
Telecommunication Union (ITU) Union (ITU)South
report, report, South
Korea Korea
placed 1stplaced 1st in
in the IDI (ICTtheDevelopment
IDI (ICT De-
Index)
velopment rankingIndex)among 147 among
ranking countries 147incountries
2016 andin2nd 2016 outandof 2nd
176 out
countries
of 176in 2017 [22].
countries in
Korea also Korea
2017 [22]. showsalso higher
showslevels of ICT
higher accessibility,
levels network infrastructure,
of ICT accessibility, ICT intensityICT
network infrastructure, of
society,
intensity and
of ICT influence
society, and ICT in digital
influence literacy. Korea
in digital ranks first
literacy. Koreain ranks
the worldfirst for smartphone
in the world for
ownership
smartphoneand internet and
ownership use.internet
Nine out use. ten Korean
Nine out tenadults
Koreanmake use of
adults the use
make internet
of theand in-
own a smartphone. Korea is also known as the country with
ternet and own a smartphone. Korea is also known as the country with the best internet the best internet connection
in the world.
connection in It
theshowed
world. the highestthe
It showed internet
highest penetration rate at 96 rate
internet penetration percentat 96followed
percent fol-by
the
lowedNetherlands and Australia
by the Netherlands (both at 93
and Australia percent)
(both [23]. According
at 93 percent) to the report
[23]. According to theby the
report
US-based Pew Research
by the US-based Center, South
Pew Research Center, Korea recorded
South Koreathe highestthe
recorded smartphone ownership
highest smartphone
rate of 94 percent
ownership rate of followed
94 percentby Israel (83
followed by percent)
Israel (83and Australia
percent) (82 percent)
and Australia as seen in
(82 percent) as
Figure 1 below [23].
seen in Figure 1 below [23].

Figure1.1.Global
Figure Globaldivide
divideon
onsmartphone
smartphoneownership.
ownership.

As can
As canbe
beseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure22below,
below,this
thisstatistic
statisticshows
showsthe
thesmartphone
smartphoneownership
ownership
rate
rate of
of internet
internet users
users in
in Korea
Koreaas
asof
ofSeptember
September2020
2020bybyage
agegroup.
group. ItIt shows
shows that
that 99%
99% of
of
, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 4 of 13

people aged 20–59 have

people smartphones
aged and utilizeand
20–59 have smartphones theutilize
internet, and 94.7%
the internet, agedaged
and 94.7% 6–19 and
6–19 and
93.1% aged 60–6993.1%
haveaged
smartphones and utilizeand
60–69 have smartphones theutilize
internet [24]. [24].
the internet

Figure 2. Smartphone ownership

Figure South
2. Smartphone Korea South
ownership 2020, Korea
by age group.
2020, by age group.

For university
For university students students ininparticular
in particular in Souththe
South Korea, Korea,
use the use of digital
of digital technology
technology andand
smartphones has become an inseparable part of their daily activities. Hence, instructors at
smartphones hascollege
become aninvestigated
have inseparable part ofmethods
teaching their daily activities.
to transform theirHence, instructors
students’ enthusiasmatfor
college have investigated
using digital teaching methods
devices into to transform
a pedagogic paradigm. their students’
Researchers enthusiasm
and instructors havefor
also
using digital devices into aeducational
investigated pedagogic paradigm.
designs that canResearchers and instructors
leverage the beneficial elements ofhave also
smartphone
applications
investigated educational to tailorthat
designs the needs and interests
can leverage theofbeneficial
tech-savvy, digitally
elements native college students.
of smartphone
Thanks to the all-encompassing capabilities of smartphones, mobile learning has become a
applications to tailor the needs and interests of tech-savvy, digitally native college stu-
prominent element of the e-learning movement. Smartphone integration gives students
dents. Thanks toeasytheaccess
all-encompassing
to language learningcapabilities
resourcesof and smartphones,
allows them to mobile learning
interact with has
teachers and
become a prominent fellowelement
students of the e-learning
whenever movement.
and wherever they wantSmartphone
[25]. Smartphonesintegration gives
can be useful and
convenient
students easy access learning tools
to language in language
learning educationand
resources because they have
allows themfeatures such as Internet
to interact with
connectivity, voice and text messaging, and audiovisual recording capabilities. All the
teachers and fellow students whenever and wherever they want [25]. Smartphones can be
characteristics of mobile phones can be successfully implemented in the learning and
useful and convenient
teachinglearning tools in Table
of a new language. language education
1 classifies becauseofthey
the characteristics have
mobile features
learning into six
such as Internet connectivity,
categories [20]. voice and text messaging, and audiovisual recording capa-
bilities. All the characteristics
Interrelated of mobile
factors, suchphones
as learnercan be successfully
characteristics, implemented
teachers’ in thethe
educational beliefs,
context of a particular course, and learning assessment, have
learning and teaching of a new language. Table 1 classifies the characteristics of mobile played an essential role in
the success of mobile learning. The most important characteristics of mobile learning are
learning into six accessibility,
categories mobility,
[20]. interactivity, and flexibility [26]. Smart education has the advantage
of allowing users to access the Internet anytime, anywhere using digital devices such
Table 1. Features of
asmobile
mobile learning.
phones and tablets, and this enables language learners to choose the learning
contents and learning environment that suit their learning style and strategy. Most digital
Features devices are equipped with innovative and Contents
cutting-edge technologies, such as high-quality
Learning
camera features,function through
voice recording free movement
capabilities, good storagewithout space
capacity, re-screen sizes,
proper
Mobility of learning
and astrictions
longer battery life, so language educators have been working to increase the use
spaces of technology in the classroom [27]. In addition, these days, it is possible for learners
Expanding learning places and experience opportunities
to perform various language learning activities, such as language dictionary searches,
Fast and
translation, flexible
real-time accessand
tutoring, to arecording
varietyusing
of learning
various resources
mobile applications. These
Flexibility and easy
Timely
features learning
are attracting is possible
attention with
as useful smartinstant access
learning to the
tools that desiredthe
can increase learn-
efficiency
access to resources
of foreign language learning because they allow learners to consume the necessary language
ing materials
Individualizedlearning contents at their own pace [28].
Customized learning tailored to the characteristics of the learners
learning topic Personalized learning that meets the needs of learners
Systematic, structured, simplified, and modularized learning con-
Simplicity of learn-
tents
ing content
Provide learning focusing on concise and condensed core contents
Interactivity with Changes in tools and methods of interaction
learning objects Cooperative learning possible through immediate interactions
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 5 of 13

Table 1. Features of mobile learning.

Features Contents
Learning function through free movement without
space restrictions
Mobility of learning spaces
Expanding learning places and
experience opportunities
Fast and flexible access to a variety of
learning resources
Flexibility and easy access to resources
Timely learning is possible with instant access to the
desired learning materials
Customized learning tailored to the characteristics of
Individualized learning topic the learners
Personalized learning that meets the needs of learners
Systematic, structured, simplified, and modularized
learning contents
Simplicity of learning content
Provide learning focusing on concise and condensed
core contents
Changes in tools and methods of interaction
Interactivity with learning objects Cooperative learning possible through
immediate interactions
Able to perform learning activities in real situations
or contexts
Contextuality of learning activities
Integration of theoretical learning contents and
practical experience

Digital devices can only make students’ language learning experience itself truly
mobile when language teachers are able to make use of creative learning tasks that allow
their students’ learning experience to extend beyond the classroom. With such instruc-
tional strategies, students expressed their enjoyment of being able to learn and practice a
language outside of the classroom with the support of mobile phones [29]. Mobile learning
can provide students with a more exciting learning environment. It can also allow students
to collaborate with immediate feedback, dynamic classroom interactions, and improved
learning outcomes [30]. Other research has shown that the integration of mobile phones
and digital applications into EFL education can improve EFL learners’ speaking, reading,
grammar, and writing skills [5,31]. To develop EFL students’ English communication com-
petence and to guarantee sustainable self-directed learning experiences, smart technologies
should be integrated into existing educational curricula to create more opportunities for
authentic social interaction and meaningful negotiation experiences [32].

3. Research Context and Methods

3.1. Research Subjects
The participants of this study included 62 university students from the middle region
of South Korea who were enrolled in a general English course. Among them, two students
who did not respond to the questionnaire were excluded from the study. The gender and
majors of a total of 60 participants are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Participant distribution (N = 60).

Majors N %
Language and Literature 9 15.0
Philosophy 8 13.3
Department History 12 20.0
Electronic Engineering 18 30.0
Mechanical Engineering 13 21.7
Male 42 70.0
Gender
Female 18 30.0
 Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 6 of 13

3.2. Research Context

Since this study was a three-credit general English course, classes were held twice
a week,
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and each class was 90 min long. The students’ English proficiency level was at
6 of 13
the low-intermediate level. The objective of this English course was to enhance students’
English communication skills and help them develop learning strategies for self-study in
English. In Korea, the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) score is
language
used as an ability in thetool
important job to
market or promotion
evaluate in the workplace.
English proficiency and is used Therefore,
to verify high TOEIC
a candidate’s
scores allow
language for mobility
ability in class
in the job marketmovement in society.
or promotion in theInworkplace.
some cases, TOEIC scores
Therefore, high above
TOEIC
ascores
certainallow
level for
aremobility
requiredin asclass
a graduation condition, and TOEIC scores have
movement in society. In some cases, TOEIC scores above a significant
impact onlevel
a certain career
arepaths afterasgraduation
required a graduation forcondition,
the university students,
and TOEIC scoressohave
improving test
a significant
scores
impact on career paths after graduation for the university students, so improvingnot
was important for students. However, since improving TOEIC test scores was test
the primary
scores goal of thefor
was important course, the However,
students. instructor since
decided to incorporate
improving TOEIC the test use of mobile
scores was not
application
the primary programs
goal of theas part of the
course, thecourse to provide
instructor decidedstudents with thethe
to incorporate opportunity
use of mobile to
improve theirprograms
application TOEIC test asscores
part ofthrough self-study
the course outside
to provide of classroom
students with the instruction.
opportunity As ato
hybrid
improve m-learning
their TOEICcourse,
test the participants
scores were required
through self-study outside to use a digital device
of classroom such as
instruction. Asaa
mobile
hybridphone or padcourse,
m-learning to download and accesswere
the participants a mobile application.
required to use a Through a freesuch
digital device mobile
as a
mobile phone
application or pad
called to download
Hackers and access awas
TOEIC, m-learning mobile application.
conducted Through
for one semestera free
as amobile
part
ofapplication
the generalcalled Hackers
English class,TOEIC,
and in m-learning
the 15th week, waspost-experience
conducted for one semester as autiliza-
of application part of
the was
tion general English
surveyed byclass, and in theat15th
questionnaire the week,
end ofpost-experience
the semester. For ofself-directed
application utilization
m-learn-
was
ing surveyed
practice, by questionnaire
participating students at were
the end of the to
required semester.
log into For
the self-directed
mobile applicationm-learning
and
practice, participating students were required to log into the mobile
study the vocabulary, listening, and reading sections of the TOEIC, which were updated application and study
the vocabulary,
daily in the mobile listening, and reading
application. Figure 3sections
shows of thethe TOEIC, whichlanguage
mobile-assisted were updated daily
learning ac-in
the mobile application. Figure 3 shows the mobile-assisted language
tivities that allow students to self-study outside the classroom using the mobile applica-learning activities that
allow students to self-study outside the classroom using the mobile application.
tion.

Figure
Figure3.3.Mobile
Mobilelearning
learningfor
forstudents’
students’self-study.
self-study.

Duringthe
During the experimental
experimental period,
period, students
studentswerewereasked
askedtoto study
studythethe
TOEIC reading
TOEIC part
reading
and listening part, each consisting of 5 questions, using a self-study mobile
part and listening part, each consisting of 5 questions, using a self-study mobile applica- application
to stimulate
tion andand
to stimulate motivate them.
motivate When
them. students
When accessed
students the mobile
accessed application
the mobile to study
application to
onlineonline
study learning contents,
learning they were
contents, they required to submit
were required a summary.
to submit They were
a summary. Theyrequired
were re-to
uploadtowhat
quired uploadthey hadthey
what learned
hadto the course
learned to theLMS eachLMS
course week. While
each solving
week. Whilethe problems,
solving the
the students
problems, the reviewed and studied
students reviewed andimportant vocabulary,
studied important sentences,
vocabulary, grammargrammar
sentences, elements,
and pronunciation.
elements, In class, the
and pronunciation. In instructor
class, the checked
instructorand monitored
checked andstudents’
monitored learning logs
students’
and briefly discussed common challenges most students had faced
learning logs and briefly discussed common challenges most students had faced when when using mobile
applications
using for self-directed
mobile applications learning. Once
for self-directed a week,Once
learning. the instructor
a week, theprovided online
instructor quizzes
provided
on TOEIC self-study using Google test forms so that students could
online quizzes on TOEIC self-study using Google test forms so that students could check check and reflect on
and reflect on what they had learned through self-directed m-learning. As soon as stu-
dents took the online quiz using their mobile phones and submitted their answers on their
mobile phones, the instructor used an instant-grading program to provide immediate
feedback on the quiz.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 7 of 13

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

what they had learned through self-directed m-learning. As soon as students took the
online quiz using their mobile phones and submitted their answers on their mobile phones,
the instructor used an instant-grading program to provide immediate feedback on the quiz.
3.3. Data Collection and Analysis
3.3. Data Collection
In this study, and
dataAnalysis
were collected from a variety of sources. The effect of self-directed
In this study,
m-learning data were collected
was investigated from apre-
by conducting variety
andof sources.using
post-tests The effect of self-directed
the abridged version
m-learning
of TOEIC. The was short
investigated
version by conducting
of the TOEIC test pre-consisted
and post-tests using
of a total of the abridged version
40 questions, with 20
of TOEIC. each
questions The short
in theversion
listening ofpart
the TOEIC test consisted
and reading part of theofTOEIC
a total test.
of 40Test
questions, with
performance
20 questions
data each in the
were analyzed listening
using part and
the SPSS reading
24 trial. part of thetwo
In addition, TOEIC
onlinetest.surveys
Test performance
were con-
data were
ducted analyzed
through theusing
Google the SPSS
survey 24 form.
trial. In
Inaddition, twothe
this study, online
pre-surveys were conducted
and post-questionnaire
through
items were partially reconstructed with reference to the questionnaire items used items
the Google survey form. In this study, the pre- and post-questionnaire in the
were
studypartially reconstructed
of Kim [20]. with reference
The first online to the questionnaire
pre-questionnaire survey wasitems used in
conducted at the
the study
begin-
of Kim
ning of[20]. The first to
the semester online pre-questionnaire
find out whether learners survey was conducted
had prior experienceat ofthe beginning
learning of
English
the semester
using mobiletophones
find out
and whether learnersrelated
self-evaluation had prior experience
to learning of learning
English. English
It consisted of 8using
mul-
mobile phones
tiple choice and self-evaluation
questions with the five related to learning
Likert-scales (highlyEnglish.
disagree It as
consisted of 8 multiple
1 and highly agree as
choice
5) andquestions
2 open-endedwith the five Likert-scales
questions. At the end(highly
of the disagree
semester,asthe
1 and highly
online agree as 5) and
post-questionnaire
2survey
open-ended questions. At the end of the semester, the online
was conducted to examine students’ motivation and perception about the post-questionnaire survey
effec-
was conducted to examine students’ motivation and perception about
tiveness, relevance, satisfaction, and usefulness of using mobile applications in self-di-the effectiveness, rel-
evance, satisfaction, and usefulness of using mobile applications in
rected m-learning. In addition, semi-structured focus group interviews were conductedself-directed m-learning.
In addition,
with semi-structured
volunteer students. The focus group interviews
post-questionnaire were was
survey conducted
composed withof volunteer stu-
18 multiple-
dents.
choiceThe post-questionnaire
items with the five-point survey wasscale
Likert composed
and 2 of 18 multiple-choice
open-ended items with
questionnaire items.theIn
five-point
order to obtain more reliable survey results, the anonymity of the respondents wasmore
Likert scale and 2 open-ended questionnaire items. In order to obtain guar-
reliable
anteed survey results, In
in the survey. theconsideration
anonymity of of theethical
respondents wasinformed
concerns, guaranteed in thefrom
consent survey. In
study
consideration of ethical concerns, informed consent from study participants was obtained.
participants was obtained. The purpose of the study was introduced in advance, and the
The purpose of the study was introduced in advance, and the consent was obtained via a
consent was obtained via a question asking whether or not students wished to participate
question asking whether or not students wished to participate in the research included in
in the research included in the questionnaire survey. The survey data were analyzed using
the questionnaire survey. The survey data were analyzed using Google Forms’ automatic
Google Forms’ automatic statistics feature. Five of the participants voluntarily partici-
statistics feature. Five of the participants voluntarily participated in a semi-structured
pated in a semi-structured focus group interview about their perceptions and motivations
focus group interview about their perceptions and motivations for engaging in self-directed
for engaging in self-directed mobile learning. Open-ended questionnaire items and semi-
mobile learning. Open-ended questionnaire items and semi-structured interview data were
structured interview data were analyzed and interpreted in terms of effectiveness, utili-
analyzed and interpreted in terms of effectiveness, utilization, satisfaction, and usefulness
zation, satisfaction, and usefulness of mobile-assisted language learning.
of mobile-assisted language learning.

4.4.Results
Results
4.1.The
4.1. TheEffect
EffectofofMobile-Assisted
Mobile-AssistedLanguage
LanguageLearning
Learningon
onStudents’
Students’Learning
LearningPerformance
Performance
AtAtthe
thebeginning
beginningof ofthe
the semester,
semester,thethepre-questionnaire
pre-questionnairesurvey
surveywas
wasconducted
conductedto tofind
find
outstudents’
out students’self-evaluation
self-evaluation related
related to
to learning
learning English.
English. Figure
Figure 44 shows
shows the
the participants’
participants’
responsesto
responses tothe
thequestionnaire
questionnaire item
item “Do
“Do youyou think
think your
your general
general English
English level
level is
is good?”.
good?”.
The
Theresult
resultshows
showsthat
thatonly
only5%5%ofofthe
thestudents
studentsanswered
answeredthat
thatthey
theythought
thoughtthey
theywere
weregoodgood
at English and 25% of the students answered that they were not good at
at English and 25% of the students answered that they were not good at English at English at all. This
all.
result signifies
This result that more
signifies than half
that more thanofhalf
theof students perceived
the students their English
perceived proficiency
their English level
proficiency
as low-intermediate.
level as low-intermediate.

Figure4.4.Students’
Figure Students’responses
responsesto
tothe
theperceived
perceivedEnglish
Englishproficiency
proficiencylevel.
level.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 8 of 13

Figure 5 shows the participants’ responses to the questionnaire item “Which of the
four Figure
English 5 shows theyou
skills are participants’ responses
most confident to According
in?”. the questionnaire item “Which
to the survey of the
results, the Eng-
four
English
lish skillskills
that are you most
students wereconfident in?”. According
most confident to the survey
in was reading, and theresults, the English
most difficult oneskill
was
that students
writing. were most confident in was reading, and the most difficult one was writing.

Figure5.5. Students’
Figure Students’ response
responseto
tothe
theperceived
perceivedconfidence
confidencelevel
levelof
offour
fourEnglish
Englishlanguage
languageskills.
skills.

The
The preliminary
preliminary testtest to
to determine
determine thethe students’
students’ English
English introductory
introductory level
level was
was anan
abridged
abridged version
version of the TOEIC test consisting
consisting of of 40
40 questions
questionsfrom
fromlistening
listeningpart
part22and
and3
3and
andreading
readingpart
part5 5and
and 6 of
6 of thethe TOEIC
TOEIC test.
test. It was
It was administered
administered in the
in the second
second week
week of
of the
the semester.
semester. In order
In order to examine
to examine the effect
the effect of self-directed
of self-directed m-learning
m-learning usingusing a mobile
a mobile appli-
application, students
cation, students took thetook the same
same type
type of of post-test
post-test at the
at the end of end of the semester
the semester to checktothe
check
exit
the exit
level of level of proficiency.
English English proficiency. Table the
Table 3 shows 3 shows
scoringthe scoring
results results
of the pre- of the
and pre- and
post-listen-
post-listening tests indicating
ing tests indicating whether or whether or not students’
not students’ listening
listening ability hadability had improved.
improved.

Table3.3.The
Table Theresults
resultsof
ofpre-test
pre-testand
andpost-test
post-testofoflistening
listeningpart.
part.

Test Test Mean MeanN N SD SD t t pp

Listening Pre-testPre-test 15.54 15.5460 60 2.711 2.711
Listening Part −2.555
−2.555 0.013
0.013 * *
Part Post-test16.25
Post-test 16.2560 60 2.811 2.811
**pp<<0.05.
0.05.

As
Asaa result
result of
of the
the independent samplest-test,
independent samples t-test,in
in the
the TOEIC
TOEIC listening
listeningpart,
part,the
the average
average
score of the pre-test was 15.54 and the average score of the post-test was
score of the pre-test was 15.54 and the average score of the post-test was 16.25. There 16.25. There was a
was
0.71-point increase in the listening mean score between the pre-test and the
a 0.71-point increase in the listening mean score between the pre-test and the post-test, post-test, with
awith
statistically significant
a statistically difference.
significant This This
difference. result could
result indicate
could that that
indicate the use of the
the use mobile
of the mo-
application had a positive effect on students’ TOEIC listening study through
bile application had a positive effect on students’ TOEIC listening study through self-di- self-directed
mobile learninglearning
rected mobile outsideoutside
the classroom.
the classroom.
Table 4 shows the scoring
Table 4 shows the scoring results of theofpre-
results theand
pre-post-reading tests indicating
and post-reading whether
tests indicating
or not students’ reading ability had improved.
whether or not students’ reading ability had improved.

Table4.4.The
Table Theresults
resultsof
ofpre-test
pre-testand
andpost-test
post-testofofreading
readingpart.
part.
Test Test Mean Mean N N SD SD t t pp
Reading Pre-testPre-test 14.93 14.93 60 60 2.6332.633
Reading PartPost-test −1.212
−1.212 0.230
0.230
Part Post-test15.24 15.24 60 60 2.3622.362
p < 0.05.
p < 0.05.

As
As aa result
result of
of the
the independent samples t-test,
independent samples t-test, in
in the
the TOEIC
TOEIC reading
readingpart,
part,the
the average
average
score of the pre-test was 14.93 and the average score of the post-test
score of the pre-test was 14.93 and the average score of the post-test was 15.24. There was 15.24. There
was
was a 0.31-point increase in the reading mean score between the pre-test
a 0.31-point increase in the reading mean score between the pre-test and the post-test. and the post-
test. According
According to results
to the the results
of anofindependent
an independent samples
samples t-test,
t-test, therethere
waswas no statistically
no statistically sig-
significant
nificant difference in the TOEIC reading part between the pre-test scores and
difference in the TOEIC reading part between the pre-test scores and post-test
post-test
scores.
scores. Based
Based onon the
the preliminary
preliminary survey
survey results,
results, in
in which
which students
students responded
responded that
that they
they
were more proficient in reading than listening, it can be inferred that students spent more
were more proficient in reading than listening, it can be inferred that students spent more
time and effort studying the area in which they needed to improve, listening. Even though
time and effort studying the area in which they needed to improve, listening. Even though
there was no noticeable difference in using smart applications for studying the TOEIC
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 9 of 13

reading part, it can be said that students’ reading ability slightly improved to some extent
by repeatedly studying the reading part and acquiring important vocabulary, sentence
reading, and grammar.

4.2. Students’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Mobile-Assisted Language Learning

At the end of the semester, the post-questionnaire survey was conducted to examine
students’ perception and attitudes toward the effectiveness, relevance, satisfaction, and
usefulness of using mobile applications in their self-directed m-learning. As a result of
the survey shown in Table 5, students answered that self-directed learning using mobile
applications was an overall positive and motivating learning experience. Of the 60 students,
49 (82%) said that they enjoyed studying English using the mobile application for their
self-study [20,24].

Table 5. Students’ responses to the enjoyable aspect of mobile-assisted language learning.

I Enjoyed Studying English Using Mobile Application Using Digital Devices

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Frequency 0 2 9 27 22
Percent 0% 3% 15% 45% 37%

As shown in Table 6, 43 students (72%) of the 60 respondents said that studying English
through a mobile application was more attractive than traditional learning methods. These
results are consistent with other research findings that, when digital devices are integrated
into language learning, students preferred mobile-based learning over traditional learning
methods because of a more convenient and interesting learning environment [28,29,33].

Table 6. Students’ responses to traditional vs. mobile-assisted language learning.

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Was More Attractive Than Traditional Learning Format
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Frequency 1 3 13 18 25
Percent 2% 5% 21% 30% 42%

As a result of the survey shown in Table 7, of the participants, 43 (72%) answered that
studying with a mobile application was helpful for their TOEIC listening studies. These
responses are compatible with the research results that show the use of mobile applications
had a significant effect on pre- and post-test improvement in TOEIC listening skills [34]. The
very positive results of participants’ perceptions of the integration of mobile applications
into their language learning suggest that mobile-assisted learning may have a potential
effect as a sophisticated learning device on students’ self-directed learning.

Table 7. Students’ responses to effect of m-learning on improving TOEIC listening skill.

Studying with Mobile App Was Helpful for TOEIC Listening Study
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Frequency 0 1 16 16 27
Percent 0% 2% 26.5% 26.5% 45%

According to Table 8 below, it is meaningful that 40 students, 66% of the total re-
spondents, answered that studying through the mobile application was helpful for TOEIC
reading study. Although it was found that studying using the mobile application did
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 10 of 13

not have a statistically significant effect on students’ TOEIC reading pre- and post-test re-
sults, it suggests that students had positive perceptions and attitudes toward using mobile
applications for TOEIC reading study [24].

Table 8. Students’ responses to effect of m-learning on improving TOEIC reading skill.

Studying with Mobile App Was Helpful for TOEIC Reading Study
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Frequency 0 4 16 23 17
Percent 0% 7% 27% 38% 28%

According to Table 9 below, 42 students, 70% of the total respondents, responded that
mobile-assisted language learning was a very successful instructional method in promoting
their learning motivation and self-directed study experience. Most of the participants
showed a positive reaction to learner-centered autonomous learning and reinforcement of
learning motivation using the TOEIC application on their mobile phones. Considering the
aspect of self-directed learning outside of class time without the help of the instructor, it is
considered to have significant implications.

Table 9. Students’ response to learning motivation and self-directed learning experience.

Studying Using the Mobile App Has Been a Great Motivation for My Self-Study of English
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Frequency 0 5 13 18 24
Percent 0% 8% 22% 30% 40%

According to open-ended questionnaire survey items and semi-structured interviews,

participants generally perceived that using a smartphone application as a mobile-based
self-learning method was an effective, interesting, convenient, and creative format for
improving their English skills. The positive results of learners’ perceptions of using mobile
applications suggest that mobile-based language learning may have potential as a tool
for self-study in their English learning. Therefore, it is necessary for educators to create a
learning environment that can increase the correlation between the use of mobile phone
applications and class contents [20,35]. The participants responded that taking the online
quiz on their mobile phone was convenient. They also responded that it was good that
they were able to receive immediate test results and feedback as soon as they submitted
their answers, which gave them an opportunity to reflect on their own learning. It can be
seen that these mobile learning and online quizzes have successfully served as a way to
promote the motivation of learners.
The repeated themes from the thematic analysis of qualitative data of the focus group
interview were convenience and entertainment. Functionality, along with convenience
and entertainment, was one of the biggest factors in determining satisfaction with the
use of mobile phone applications and whether participants would continue using them.
Students perceived m-learning using mobile phones as an attractive teaching/learning
method suitable for the age of digital transformation and answered that they were able to
learn autonomously with pleasure. Students in this study reported that the main benefits of
studying TOEIC using a mobile application included easy access, convenience, portability,
flexible time management, enjoyable learning, and improved self-direction in learning [26].
Some of the comments from respondents include:
I felt it was the right class for the interest of a new generation. This semester, I was able
to realize the convenience of the high-tech industry through the experience of using the
mobile application as a tool for self-directed learning. It was a new and novel way of
teaching. It was very convenient and good to take the quiz on a mobile phone. I felt it was
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 11 of 13

efficient because it was possible to reduce the time for distributing test papers or scoring
by hand. It was convenient to be able to study for the TOEIC test anytime, anywhere
using the mobile application! During the vacation, I plan to use the app that we used this
semester for self-taught TOEIC study. (Data from individual interview)
Using the mobile application for self-directed learning was a new experience for me this
semester, so I wanted to participate more actively in self-directed learning. Instead of
spending the meaningless time in SNS or YouTube, it was nice to be able to conveniently
study on my mobile phone while using public transportation for commuting to school.
The biggest advantage is that it can be used anytime, anywhere. The time and frequency
of accessing TOEIC learning contents has increased compared to studying TOEIC with
books. (Data from individual interview)
Some participants also reported that they were not yet used to learning English on a
mobile phone due to the small screen size or data problems. Some participants responded
that mobile phones were mainly useful for short-term learning ‘on the go’, not for long-term
learning that required concentration. They also said that while learning English using a
free mobile application was a good experience, they would not actively use their phone to
the point of using a paid mobile application for their study. Therefore, it was suggested
that active guidance related to class contents is needed in self-directed language learning
using mobile phone applications.

5. Conclusions
This study explored the impact of utilizing mobile-assisted language learning in
helping EFL university students promote their learning performance and support sustain-
able self-directed learning outside of the classroom. The purpose of this study was first
to examine how mobile-assisted self-directed learning affects the English proficiency of
EFL university students. This study also tried to investigate participants’ perception and
attitudes toward their mobile-assisted language learning experience. To examine the effec-
tiveness of mobile-assisted self-learning, pre- and post-TOEIC tests were conducted. Pre-
and post-questionnaire surveys were also conducted to investigate participants’ perceptions
and attitudes toward their learning experiences of using mobile applications. Regarding
the effect of mobile-assisted language learning, which was the first objective of the study,
on the TOEIC pre- and post-test scores, there was a significant average improvement in the
TOEIC listening ability, and there was an average increase in the TOEIC reading part scores,
although there was no significant difference seen. This suggests that the use of mobile
phone applications helps to some extent in autonomous and self-directed English learning.
In terms of participants’ perceptions, as elucidated by the second research question, on
self-directed mobile-assisted language learning, most of the participants showed positive
responses to self-study using a mobile application.
The results of this study show that the advantageous features of self-directed learning
using mobile phone applications included easy access, convenience, portability, flexible
time management, and enjoyable learning, and improved self-direction in learning [26]. As
a disadvantage, it was pointed out that the continuity and concentration of learning were
reduced due to eye fatigue and reduced readability due to the small screen size of their
mobile devices [35]. The fact that learners have a positive intention to use mobile phone
applications for English learning in the future implies that using mobile phone applications
has a potential value for language learners’ self-directed learning in making their learning
experience more sustainable [36]. Therefore, instructors should make efforts to develop
appropriate syllabus designs and teaching strategies to provide their students with a
sustainable learning environment and to enable self-directed learning, while making good
use of the various advantages of mobile learning and identifying the disadvantages [37]. As
implied by the results of this study, when the utilization of mobile applications is applied
to provide sustainability in learning and to increase students’ motivation and autonomy
in learning, mobile-assisted language learning can help improve students’ self-directed
learning habits [38].
Sustainability 2022, 14, 2894 12 of 13

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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