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Food Adulteration and Food Fraud 1st Edition Jonathan
Rees Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Jonathan Rees
ISBN(s): 9781789142471, 1789142474
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 1.60 MB
Year: 2020
Language: english
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 F O O D A D U LT E R AT I O N A N D F O O D F R A U D
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Food Controversies
Series Editor: Andrew F. Smith

Everybody eats. Yet few understand the importance of food

in our lives and the decisions we make each time we eat.
The Food Controversies series probes problems created by
the industrial food system and examines proposed alternatives.

Already published:

Fast Food: The Good, the Bad and the Hungry Andrew F. Smith
Food Adulteration and Food Fraud Jonathan Rees
What’s So Controversial about Genetically Modified Food? John T. Lang
What’s the Matter with Meat? Katy Keiffer
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 food
­adulteration
and ­
food fraud
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

jonathan rees

reaktion books

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Published by Reaktion Books Ltd
Unit 32, Waterside
44–48 Wharf Road
London n1 7ux, uk

www.reaktionbooks.co.uk

First published 2020

Copyright © Jonathan Rees 2020

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publishers

Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
isbn 978 1 78914 194 8

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION:
A MATTER OF TRUST 7
1 PARTIAL SUBSTITUTIONS 25
2 TAINTED FOODS 42
3 COUNTERFEIT FOODS AND COMPLETE
SUBSTITUTIONS 60
4 THE IMPORTANCE OF PLACE 77
5 TESTING 94
6 POLIC Y, STRATEGY AND LEGISLATION 109
CONCLUSION: ADULTERATION AND CULTURE 126
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES 145
NOTE ON SOURCES AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 165
INDEX 171

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 INTRODUC TION: A MATTER
OF TRUST

E ating food prepared, manufactured or cooked by some-

one else has always been an act of trust. In the Middle
Ages and Renaissance, royal families required food tasters
because they were afraid of poisoning. These days the effects
of whatever poisons might be in our foods tend to take effect
much more slowly. Over time, what we eat (and what we
don’t) has lasting effects upon our lives and our health. Thus
eating is an intimate act. Unless we happen to be farmers or
gardeners, we take something produced, handled and often
cooked by someone else and put it into our mouths – we take
it into our bodies. That is perhaps the easiest explanation for
why some people choose what they eat so carefully, while
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

others trust food producers unfailingly (if not consciously).

Today, even if people aren’t being poisoned by their food,
there is nevertheless a good chance they are being cheated.
People once depended upon visual clues to know if the food
they bought was spoiled or altered somehow. If a baker
added sawdust to his flour in order to stretch it further, it
was impossible to tell until you brought the bread home and
cracked it open. Even today, consumers are not equipped
with chemical testing kits when they go to the supermarket.
They have to depend upon the farmers, producers and

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

merchants who sell them food to be trustworthy; other­wise

customers would cease to do business with them, and
commerce would grind to a halt.
As food-provisioning systems have grown larger and
more complicated, producers and consumers have become
more physically separated. Indeed, there are often whole
oceans between the producers and consumers of particular
foods. This greater complexity in provisioning systems also
means that consumers have become less likely to understand
anything about what goes into the products they eat. This in
turn makes it easier for food producers to slip in ingredients
that don’t belong or to substitute entirely different foods in
order to make more money. For consumers to decide which
ingredients should be welcome in a particular food requires
a decision about exactly what that food is. To answer that
question requires an examination of what function that food
performs and whether an entirely different set of ingredients
can perform that function just as well. It might also require
some consideration of where that food originates.
The traditional name for any kind of manipulation of food
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

products is food adulteration. Dishonest sellers can adul-

terate food at any point along the supply chain so that they
can pocket the price difference between the adulterant and
the unadulterated food they leave out. When one dishonest
seller undercuts the price of a good, other producers may
feel the pressure to adulterate their products too so that they
can cut prices to a similar level. In this manner, a few bad
apples can undermine the quality of whole subsections of
food industries. Because food supply chains are often global,
food adulteration is an international problem. Examine food

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

adulteration anywhere in the world and you are looking at

a practice that might very well affect what you buy at your
local supermarket, if not directly, then indirectly.
Estimates of the extent of food adulteration, and its close
cousin food fraud, are obviously difficult to make because
these deceptions are difficult to detect. Nonetheless, there
is wide agreement that the problem is severe and growing
worse all the time. ‘Around the world, food fraud is an
epidemic – in every single country where food is produced
or grown, food fraud is occurring,’ explained the president
of a private firm that advises on food security issues in 2013.
‘Just about every single ingredient that has even a moderate
economic value is potentially vulnerable to fraud.’1
According to the Grocery Manufacturers Association,
food fraud of all kinds costs food producers worldwide
somewhere between $10 billion and $15 billion per year.2 In
Great Britain, it has been estimated that this practice costs
uk firms £11 billion each year.3 In the United States, as much
as 10 per cent of the food on supermarket shelves might be
adulterated.4 In Bangladesh, the problem of food adulteration
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

is so bad that it has been likened to genocide.5 One of the

problems with assessing the extent of food fraud is that there
is no really reliable data on the extent of the problem. Some
of the information generated about the problem is propri­
etary, or kept secret for fear of lawsuits. Even the definitions
of ‘food adulteration’ and ‘food fraud’ vary from country
to country.6
Among the foods that most often get adulterated or
fraudu­lently marketed are fish, honey, olive oil, chilli
powder and milk. While none of these foods are particularly

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

expensive, they are all sufficiently so that it pays either to

partially substitute in cheaper ingredients or to misrepresent
something else entirely as the good in question. Other popu-
lar foods to adulterate, such as caviar, are expensive enough
that money can be made by adulterating small amounts of
the product. However, the fact that there is a market for adul-
terated rice or apple juice suggests the large scale at which
adulteration can occur.7

Food Adulteration and Industrialization

Traditionally, food adulteration has been seen as the

presence of any substance in a particular food that does not
appear there naturally. A widely cited definition of food
adulteration comes from the Food and Drug Administration
(fda) of the United States: ‘the fraudulent, intentional
substitution or addition of a substance in a product for the
purpose of increasing the apparent value of the product or
reducing the cost of its production’. While this is a good start,
a broader definition of food adulteration would be more
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

useful. Adulteration can also include just the removal of

valuable substances that should appear in a food naturally.
Moreover, by explicitly including some practices that are
legal (albeit somewhat deceptive) in our working definition
of adulteration, this activity can become a window into what
food-manufacturing practices are acceptable across different
cultures, and even into what food means to different people
around the world.
Food adulteration can be traced all the way back to
ancient times. The Romans complained about their wine

10

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

being diluted. Greeks and Romans both complained that

their wine had been artificially coloured. Adulteration was
a problem in the earliest Chinese dynasties, too, around the
second century bce, while an old Sanskrit tablet from about
300 bce threatens to fine anybody who adulterates grains,
salts, oils, scents or medicines. The adulteration of flour with
chalk also dates from the Greek and Roman era. Measures to
control such practices are among the earliest recorded laws.8
Nonetheless, these practices persisted.
However, it was only with industrialization and the
mass production of foodstuffs that this problem became
particularly bad. Industrialization meant that consumers
became less familiar with the people who sold them food,
which therefore made it far easier for producers to cheat
them. When vegetables went into cans or whisky was put
into brown bottles, consumers were no longer able to use
traditional visual clues to see if the goods they were buying
were actually pure. Today, packaging (often with deceptively
delicious-looking pictures of the supposed contents) separ­
ates consumers from foods of all kinds. Even when they
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

can see what they’re buying, other inventions like artificial

colourants make it easy to cover the signs of adulteration or
decay that would have been easily detected in an earlier era.
Over the last 150 years or so, food manufacturing and food
processing have become extraordinarily efficient, as well as
technologically sophisticated. Since the late nineteenth cen-
tury, as food manufacturing and processing has scaled up in
different countries at different times, the separation between
food producers and consumers has grown. Moreover, as
people moved from the country to the city, they began to

11

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

encounter new processed foods that they may never have

seen before. This meant that it was particularly easy to fool
consumers with adulterated foods, or even foods that were
entirely fraudulent. Such deceptions included a vast variety
of food products – everything from honey and beef to coffee
and whisky.
Food additives, legal and illegal alike, have made the exact
definition of food adulteration more fluid than it once was.
To understand exactly why the line between adulterated and
acceptable falls where it does, it is useful to examine both
legal and illegal food adulteration. All food adulteration is
an attack upon norms and a violation of the public trust.9
In most instances, the success of the practice depends upon
customers not knowing exactly what is in their food. While
many consumers prefer ignorance about the exact nature of
what they’re eating, this is not always the case. In a similar
way to vegetarians avoiding eating meat, health-conscious
consumers will often avoid foods made with food additives
that are perfectly legal to use because they believe they are
unhealthy, even if their governments don’t. This is a sign that
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

public trust has already suffered severe harm.

Nobody supports food adulteration or food fraud (aside
from the people making money from it). No ethical actors
embrace these practices. However, there can be confusion
at the margins about what these practices actually are. In
fact, adulteration and even some kinds of deception can
actually be welcomed by consumers, a situation that is of
course predicated on the fact that they know these additions
or subtractions from their food are actually happening.
Any definition that does not take into account these other

12

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

circumstances misses the many differences in how changes

to food are perceived across cultures. It also misses the
opportunity to see how ideas about what food should be
have changed over time. The legal definition of adulteration
is culturally determined, but laws seldom go as far as many
cultures do. Whether adding something to food is legal or
illegal depends upon how consumers react to this practice,
which in turn depends upon whether they even know or
understand that it is happening.
Food fraud is closely related to food adulteration,
but is not quite the same thing. Think of it as a matter of
degree: food adulteration is any substitution in or addition
to a particular food and is only somewhat fraudulent, while
food fraud that is not an adulteration involves a complete
substitution and total deception. Food adulteration is a
kind of food fraud, but there is far more adulteration than
outright fraud because partial substitutions are much harder
to detect than complete substitutions, as well as easier to
justify if the perpetrator gets caught. It is very common in
the reporting on this subject to fail to distinguish between
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

adulterated and completely fraudulent foods. These two cat-

egories are obviously related, but they can be very different
in practice. Adulteration usually involves simply adding
something while a convincing complete substitute for any
particular food can be much harder to find.10
Search scholarly and media databases for the term ‘food
adulteration’ and its variants, and plenty of literature on food
fraud and food adulteration will not appear in the results.11
Nevertheless, thanks to a series of serious, well-reported
incidents in recent years, food adulteration and food fraud

13

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

have drawn important attention around the world. In less

developed countries they are often literally a matter of life
or death. However, the food in question does not necessarily
have to be a threat to public health in order to be adulterated
or fraudulent.12
The key to understanding the difference between legal
and illegal practices involving food adulteration is the degree
of deception involved. Place the cheaper ingredients on the
label and price the resulting product lower, and it becomes
more difficult to call the same practice food adulteration
when the consumer is fully informed about what their
food is made of. List all the ingredients on the label and,
assuming the ingredient itself is legal, what you’re doing is
probably legal – if not necessarily ethical. How consumers
react to food adulteration or food fraud depends upon their
expectations of the risks they take when they eat something.
Acceptable health risks in one country are unacceptable
in others. These grey areas at the margins of acceptability
are what reveal the cultural underpinnings of how people
think about their food as well as the modern manufacturing
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

practices that test the limits of which ingredients people are

willing to consume.
Despite these differences, there are some kinds of food
adulteration that are unacceptable everywhere. At the top
of that list would be deliberate, fatal poisoning or anything
close to bioterrorism exercised through the food supply.
These crimes are incredibly rare compared to other forms
of adulteration. Furthermore, such incidents are one-time
events designed to inflict the greatest possible harm in the
shortest possible time. Food adulteration and food fraud

14

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

need to be an extended swindle in order to be profitable.13 It

is these kinds of deceptions that reveal the most about the
societies where they occur. They also raise a lot of questions
about the nature of food.

Types of Adulteration and Food Fraud

Every kind of food adulteration or food fraud threatens

the trust that has to be maintained for the global food­
provisioning system to function smoothly. Labels tell us
what’s in our food, but many incidents of adulteration
remind us that those labels cannot always be trusted. The
role of governments in this arrangement is to enforce
the laws that food manufacturers have to follow, but this
can be difficult when resources are at a premium and the
food in question originates (as it so often does these days)
somewhere outside its jurisdiction. Adulteration is intimately
connected with public health since so many illegal additives
are unhealthy or dangerous and so many legal ones are
perceived to be. Examining food adulteration and food fraud
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

also offers a unique opportunity for consumers to under-

stand what exactly is in their food, and even what their food
really is.
To explain why adulteration is important requires a
taxonomy of the practice around the world. Classifying
different kinds of adulteration will also help explain both
why the practice occurs and its varying effects on economies
and cultures at different stages of economic development.
Many substances, like honey for example, are adulterated or
sold fraudulently in a variety of different ways. Organizing

15

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

by type of deception rather than food makes it possible to

see the qualities of each kind of fraud that do not depend
upon the food in question. Variations in these tactics suggest
differences in culture too.
The most important dividing line between types of adul-
teration lies between economically motivated adulteration
and fraud, and accidental or environmental contamination.
‘Contamination and adulteration both may involve the pres-
ence of a substance that is not intended to be in a product,’
explains the chemist Markus Lipp. ‘The difference is that
contamination is unintentional. It may result from natural
causes . . . Contamination can also occur as a consequence
of some sort of shortcoming or lapse in quality control.’14 The
important thing to remember is that from the point of view
of the consumer the results of adulteration and accidental
contamination are the same. Their health is threatened and
the producer is at fault.
The earliest, pre-industrial adulterations were economic.
They invariably involved substituting cheaper ingredients or
fillers for a valuable pure food because it allowed producers
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

or sellers to save money. Sell the adulterated food at the

same price as the unadulterated food and a manufacturer’s
profits will increase sharply. A related swindle would be to
short weight a customer when they bought your bread or
wine, essentially adulterating your product with the cheapest
additive of all, namely air. Pack a food in excess water or with
too much ice and the effect can be the same. These kinds of
dishonest practices date back to ancient times, and continue
today wherever food is sold because capitalism incentivizes
it. When profit is the seller’s primary end and adulteration

16

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

is hard to detect and potentially lucrative, it is bound to

happen often.
A different kind of misrepresentation involves mislabel-
ling or misbranding. Misrepresenting the country of origin
for a particular food product might not involve adding
anything to a product, but it is a serious breach of the trust
because consumers often use country of origin as a sign of
quality assurance. Because such mislabelled foods are often
passed off for much more expensive products, this practice
too can be very lucrative. Testing such products for type
or their point of origin can be difficult and very expensive,
meaning this kind of fraud can be very hard to detect. Only
consumers with the most sophisticated palates might be able
to tell the difference between such a product and the product
it claims to be. Indeed, many victims of this fraud might
prefer to think their high-end food purchases were legitimate
products since their consumption is often as much a matter
of status as it is of taste.
False or misleading claims about where a particular food
is produced would also fit into this category of food fraud,
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

even though they don’t involve adulteration per se, since it

means replacing one food with another that doesn’t fit the
label of the first food at all, even if the food is chemically
similar in many ways. Trans-shipments, like moving Spanish
olive oil to Italy and calling it Italian, are actually legal, but
deceptive nonetheless. Misrepresenting the manufacturing
process is another related form of deception. For example,
claiming something is certified organic when it isn’t will
not necessarily hurt someone, but it is a kind of deception
that resembles the food adulteration of old in the sense that

17

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 FOOD ADULTERATION AND FOOD FRAUD

it misrepresents a product for the sake of inflating profits.

Other terms, like ‘free range’ or ‘natural’, are easy to use in a
fraudulent manner because the production methods that can
legally draw these labels are not always regulated and some
of these terms are practically impossible to define.15
There are also problems with food documentation fraud
in places where the production of particular foods is tightly
controlled. The marketing and selling of legitimate food
products in places where those foods aren’t allowed is known
as a diversion. When a legitimate food product is produced
beyond the quantitative limits specified in production
agreements it is known as an over-run.16 These are not
adulterations in the traditional sense of that word. They are
food crimes designed to exploit the rules of today’s global,
highly regulated food-provisioning system. Like adulter-
ations, however, these crimes are economically motivated
and they depend upon the origins of a given food remaining
mysterious.
The most disturbing kind of adulteration involves the
addition of dangerous chemicals to food. In the early
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

twentieth-century United States, people were suspicious

of preservatives both because arresting decay was viewed
as deceptive and because there were legitimate fears that
some of them might not be healthy for people to consume
over the course of a lifetime. The tendency of today’s media
to report that everything added to our food is a dangerous
adulterant is just more evidence that reporters recognize
that the easiest way to grab the public’s attention is to write
about either sex or death. Of course, some added ingredients
really are dangerous, but it can be difficult for even the most

18

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Introduction: a matter of trust

informed consumers of news around the world to tell which

ingredients those are.
Non-economically motivated forms of adulteration are
usually best understood as contamination, a subcategory of
adulteration. Their effects are the same as the most danger-
ous forms of adulteration, but their cause is either accidental
or natural. Deliberate criminal behaviour is seldom involved.
For example, illegally high amounts of pesticide residue have
got into food products of all kinds in recent years. No pro-
ducer in their right mind would let this happen intentionally,
as such products become subject to costly recalls once their
presence is detected. However, in this age of long supply
chains, food producers and distributors have little control
over exactly what happens to their products either before or
after the food is under their direct control. These kinds of
adulterations demonstrate the close link between this subject
and food safety issues, a distinct but related food controversy
that entails much more than just the ingredients of particular
products.17
This book will not cover all of the different kinds of food
Copyright © 2020. Reaktion Books, Limited. All rights reserved.

adulteration to the same depth.18 Some kinds of adulteration

are more important than others because they happen more
often or cause more damage. In fact, much of this book will
examine practices that in many cultures are not considered
to be adulterations at all. The location of the line between
adulterated and acceptable is worth studying across cultures
because it can reveal what different cultures expect their food
to be. Equally, changes within cultures as to what is consid-
ered acceptable can, depending on one’s perspective, mark
either the degradation or modernization of that culture’s diet.

19

Food Adulteration and Food Fraud, Reaktion Books, Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
and for the Holy Spirit is imposed b}^ the editors of the periodicals.
Stated contributors are entitled to a copy of the periodical to which
they contribute, without payment. The subject is of such importance
that the Committee feel it a duty to press on the members of the
Conference the need of a new stimulus being given to the circulation
of the periodicals. In some parts of the missionary area, no agency
exists. The influence and usefulness of these periodicals would be
greatly aided, if one missionary at each port and station would
iindei-take the agency, and thus help in diffusing the multifarious
knowledge comprised in them among the population in his vicinity.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.93%
accurate

RKPORTS OF COMMITTEKS. -175 Tf there ho any ^vllo are

laboring in tracts of coniitry where readers arc few, it wouUi be
hij^hly desirable to excito and foster an appetite for a form of
literatui-e adapted to prove so beneticial to the Christians and the
general population of this country. (Signed) J. Edkixs. A.
WlI.LlAM.SuN. Y. J. ALi,f:N. VI. — liciHiii iij C'jiiiuitUec ml AjJiJC'd to
the Churches. The Committee appointed to draw up an appeal to the
Home Churches* beg leave to present the following appeal for
adoption by this Conference: — " The Committee invite the most
earnest attention of their brethi-en througliout the whole world to
the following facts and thoughts : — I. China is by far the largest
heathen countiy in the world. Including it.s dependencies, it
embraces a territory larger than the whole continent of Europe; or,
excluding the ^Eohammedun kingdoms, it is about equal to all the
rest of the heatlien nations combined. II. It is also beyond all
question the most important. The discoveries of Livingstone revealed
a grand future for Africa; the wealtli of India is well known ; but no
heathen country in the world can for one mojnent be compared to
Chijia. Its mineral resources alone rival those of the Western iStates
of America, and indicate that China will bo one of the great nations
of the future. III. The Chinese, though the oldest nation in the
world, are as full of vigor and promise as ever. Intellectually they are
fit for anything. In diplomacy ai^d mercantile enterprise they have
proved themselves a match for the ablest and most far reaching
minds among ourselves. There are those among theni who have
mastered every new art and science we have set before them. Their
enterprise and perseverance are proverbial. IV. At the present
moment, one feature of the Chinese character desovve.s special
notice. They are the great colonizers of the East. The natives of
Camlxidia, Sumatra, Java, the Philippine Islands, Timor, Borneo, the
Sandwich Islands, etc., fall before civilization. Europeans cannot
cope with the insalubrity of these climates. The Chinese alone have
proved themselves able to maintain vigorous physical life in these
regions. They are entering them by thousands, and in some cases
tens of thousands, every year, and that in an ever-increasing ratio.
They are also rapidly colonizing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Thibet. It
is clear, therefore, that the Chinese will ultimately become the
dominant race in all these vast countries. V. A stream of iraraigi-ation
has of late set in towards Australia, New Ze.iland, and the Pacific
States of America, which is widening every year. It will prove a
blessing or a cur.se just in proportion as the fountain is cared for. *
Soc p. 19. Ucsolution III.
 470 llEl'OKTS OF COMMITTEES. We will Bot pursue this line
of thought further : the dark features of Cliitiese life and character
oppress us. Cliinese civilization has been set against Christian
civilization. Those who draw this comparison cannot have mingled
with the Chinese people. Underneath their showy exterior, the most
pitiful, debasing and cruel customs prevail. The highest authority in
the land testifies to this. The Felcing Gazette, day by day,
demonstrates the prevalence of the grossest superstition aruong all
classes, from the emperor downwards. We will not seek to haiTow
your feeling's by entering into details. Of old it was said that men
"changed the glory of the uncorruptible God, into an imag-e made
like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and ci-
eeping things." The Chinese go further than this. They not only
worship the dead, and idols of wood and stone, but also, in many
districts, the most loathsome creatui'es. Mere civilization is no
criterion of the moral condition of the people. We have all read of
the debasing worship of the ancient Egyptians, the horrid rites of the
cultivated Phoenicians, and have stood aghast at the immorality of
Greece and Rome during the most g-lorious epochs of their history.
We do not say that the Chinese have reached the same depths of
iniquitj^ but we do affirm that, with the exception of immoral rites in
religious services, parallels can be pointed out in China, at the
present day, to almost every form of degradation, cruelty and vice
which prevailed in those ancient kingdoms. Human nature is the
same in all ages, and, left to itself, more or less faithfully fulfills the
appalling picture drawn by the apostle Paul. And what aggravates
the case is that the literati and rulers of all grades —
notwithstanding occasional proclamations to the country — make
nse of the prevailing superstitions to influence and govern the
people. Thus the educated, instead of seeking to enlighten and
elevate the masses, only bind the fetters of ignorance more
effectually upon them. IViere is iJterefore no hope for China in it.felf.
Under these circumstances millions pass into eternity every year!
What an agonizing thought! Souls of men, endowed with the most
glorious faculties, perishing for lack of that knowledge which has
been entriisted to us for diffusion ! Souls Avhich might be
emancipated from sin, transfen'ed into the kingdom of God, and
thus established in a career of ever-widening intelligence, and ever-
deepening joy, to "shine as the brightness of the firmament, and as
the stars for ever and ever." How long shall this fearful ruin of souls
continue ? Ought we not to make an effort to save China in this
generation ? Is God's power limited? Is the efficacy of prayer
limited? This grand achievement is in the hands of the Church. If we
faithfully bring our tithes into the storehouse, and preach the Gospel
everywhere, then the windows of heaAen shall be opened, and
blessings showered down upon us, till there be not room enough to
receive them. f There are many indications of promise (1) Thirty-
seven years ago, there were only three native Christians in all China,
in connection with Protestant Missions. Now there are at least twelve
or thirteen thousand (2). A much larger proportion have applied for
baptism during the past year than in any previous year, and the
candidates have been generally of a higher type of character. (3) .
The empire is more open than ever for the pi'eaching of the Word,
and the Chefoo Convention of last year, together with the
proclamations agreed upon, is proving a mighty instrument towards
the more effectual opening up of the vast interior. (4). Not only is
the country open to our efforts, but the minds of many, in different
c^uarters, have been more or less aroused irom their lethargy.
 iJKrOUTS OF CO'MMITTEES. 477 (5). !Multitudos arc
rciidiiig our l)oi)ks; and not a few are eagerly investigating tlie niilnre
and bearing of Western innovations. We earnestly a]>i)eal to the
whole Christian world for help. There are still eight Provinees in
whieh there is not one resident ^lissionary. In others there are oidy
two or three; and taking China as a whole, we stand as one
Missionary for Massaehusetts, or two for Scotland. Young men, first
of all, we appeal to you. Standing on the threshold of life, it is clearly
your duty to consider how you may employ the talents God has
given you, so as in the highest degree to promote His glory. There is
no field in the world where devoted Christian workers may so
cfteetively and extensively serve their generation as in China; and
where the foundation work of the present is connected with such
grand results in tlie future. If, after careful consideration and earnest
prayer, this call awakens a response in your iieart, say not hastily
that you have no qualifications. Perhaps you are better qualified than
you suppose ; or it may be your duty to qualify your.self for this
service. There is in China a wide sphere for all kinds of talent. While
we chiefly need men able to preach the Word, to instruct the
converts, and watch over the native church, training it for self-
government ; we also need medical men, to heal the sick and train
up native physicians ; men of science, to elucidate the works of God
; and men of literary tastes, to translate or compose books and to
wield the power of the press in guiding and moulding public opinion;
also, teachers, colporteurs, printers, etc; and last, but not least,
devoted women, to penetrate the homes of the people and save the
women of the country — their Chinese sisters. Young men, let us
freely speak to you. You hold in your hands the incorruptible seed of
the Word, fitted to awaken eternal life in dead souls, and transform
worms of the dust into heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ. Can
you hesitate to respond to our call? Can you prefer to spend your
lives in comparatively narrow spheres, when you might exert an
influence on vast multitudes ? The fields are white unto the harvest,
and everything is inviting you to noble service. It is a field where the
most varied gifts and graces, the loftiest talents, the most extensive
and accurate erudition will find abundant room for their highest
exercise. It is a service in which an archangel would rejoice. Can you
turn a deaf ear to our solemn appeal, to the call of God, — and the
silent cry of the millions of China. In the name of Christ Arisk. Let
the dead bury their dead ; go ye, and preach the kingdom of God.
Fathers and Mothers, we commend these thoughts to you. Your
affections are centred on your sons and daughters, growing up in
strength and beauty, and your highest ambition is that their powers
may be utilized in the utmost possible degree. Draw their attention
to this land, so vast and varied, so rich and populous, in which the
people are just beginning to arise from the ashes of the dead past,
and, instead of restraining them, rather rejoice if God inclines the
hearts of your children to bring to this people that light and
guidance which they so urgently need, and which Christianity alone
can impart. Pastors of churches, heads of schools and colleges, and
all in charge of the young, we appeal also to you. We are in dead
earnest. We do not know what to do for lack of men. The country
opens ; the work grows. Think of stations with only one man to hold
his own against the surging tide of heathenism ! We are ready to be
overwhelmed by the vastness of the work. Many among us are
temj)ted to undertake too many duties. Hence the broken health
and early death of not a few of
 478 l^KPORTS OF COMillTTEES. our best men. We beseecli
yon, therefore, to place this matter before the minds of tlie young.
Show especially to students that the completion of their cuiTicnlum
synchronizes with China's need, and that they are therefore under
the most solemn obligations to give the claims of this empire their
earnest, unbiassed, and prayerful consideration. We want China
emancipated from the thraldom of sin in tin's geiierntion. It is
possible. Our Lord has said, "According to your faith be it unto you."
The church of God can do it, if she be only faithful to her great
commission. When will young men press into the mission field as
they struggle for positions of w'orldl)^ honor and affluence ? When
will parents consecrate their sons and daughters to missionary work
as they seai'ch for rare openings of worldly influence and honor?
When will , Christians give for missions as they give for luxiiries and
amusements? When will they learn to deny themselves for the work
of God as they deny themselves for such earthly objects as are dear
to their hearts ? Or, rather, when will they count it no self-denial, but
the highest joy and privilege, to give with the utmost liberality for
the spread of the Gospel among the heathen ? Standing on the
borders of this vast empire, we, therefore — one hundred and
twenty missionaries, from almost every evangelical religious
denomination in Europe and America, assembled in General
Conference at Shanghai, and representing the whole body of
Protestant Missionaries in China, — feeling our utter insufficiency for
the great work so rapidly expanding, do most earnestly plead, with
one voice, calling upon the whole Church of God for more laborers.
And we will as earnestly and unitedly plead at the Throne of Grace
that the Spirit of God may move the hearts of all, to whom this
appeal comes, to cry, — -" Lord, what wilt thou have vie to do ?"
And may this spirit be communicated from heart to heart, from
church to church, from continent to continent, until the whole
Christian world shall be aroused, and every soldier of the cross shall
come to the help of the Lord against the mighty."
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STATISTICS.
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.8 31 T HIT AT 8
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STATTSTTr--^ '"'F T'Vr T I >-'! A\ r V!9«li'vs 1\ miVA. 4fiO

CO 05.'' 'T a» ~ n sr S. n 3-3 ill "CO _3 a O 2J 4 1 . : -: 0 1.' » 0
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STVTISTIC? OF VROTV'?r\vr MT<:st in="" ci1in.="" i=""

a="" s="" o-="" f="" s-="" g="" if="" t="" kg="" ctta="" jim.=""
o="" ko="" w="" stations="" inhere="" missionaries="" reside.=""
r="" :=""> *W*4: MMxarOi: C»lu< Out-statloni. : ^ M -_ Mio' *. .k.
Organited Churches. : ' lO M o :-K>::::w:: : |i WhoUy se!/supporti?
ig. Partiallii set/ tiipporting. : c. Ci» -• * ; ->.i : -i -«i h 9 . •O « J' ^
= lO Communicants. S S - 1 >- — lO ao ^ 1 >4 * Males. -1 o .U
Pupils. i h : - r|--«: : «: ^^ : |» to Oil uDay Schools. ; ^ N : M 2 r-^i
: 5-: „: : 1 g|« ! Pupils. i -h • : - i :;:=:-: i : ; : 1 1 1 Theolofjieal
Schools. : OD 3> -l-i = |i : c.: : -: ! -=w w Students. -1= ►s — : —
— CJ — i — — «■ !••■ j Sunday Schools. Hs O I u T 1 Schchrs. -» -h
-1 (J S*»o — ►»(» — ooow 1 o ^^ j School Teachers. P> > : W ;
M»*: ; to \ w — \ 1 1 Ordained preachers * 1 ■* 1 and pastors. | M
»» S 1 Ci 1 w to w o O^ — — M,l«»SWCiltO to to Assistant
preachers. : : h : 19 • ; ; >'Mto: W'-: 1*5 ^ Colporteurs. M »# ; h :
* e>:'— :::*o:: w u Bible tcomen. : : * Z M S k3Mw;:M:*a>>' o> CP
1 Church bu Wngs for ' Christian tcorship. - 1 i «" •P 01 M
Zwcii'»>e»a(ipie>e««
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^
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ST.'.TISTKS cK ri;iTl>l.\M .MISSIONS l.N CHINA. 482 /Is' ^

i Gsc ooooo^ En 5- 2--5 1 si 5- r & |5 &•§ e:f§ 5;| = to stations
where missionaries resiete. Out-station*. M M 1 : : M M « » ±^ u ■-
— : 3 — — — JTIWM— _ — Organized Ckureht$. =• 1 i : Wholly self
sttpportiitg. S : *. oa — : : to : i i -: -: i i Partially ielf supporting. ei S
i o 00 to *. O J>. to *. *» O O ^ ^ 00 o Commttnicant.i. * * o o : ; -
J —wZ — w»o 00 o ^ o c;* CI o« - - : i ^ .s*o---wio CI— ciao*«ioa'
to f5 to — _ *. «■ -t tJ _ **^ ^ gi O C/" O M to O Males. -^-^"^r^-
^S-llw Females. : • : — k3 : : X to Boys' Boarding Schools. -- — : :
*. o : : o 2 ; ifc. *j : : ; : : • Pupils. to o to Cl -1 to n — : : i i : -• : :
Bovs' Day-schools. ilk ~ o — to u- — O O O — C-. o — :::::—::!
Pupils. o o = -to: i * i : -i i : Oirls' Boarding Schools. o . to CJ • • :
wo-: : -^ o w *• : : o : • • Pupils. 1 •: :;«-:Girls' Day SchcoU. : 1 : :
: 1 ::;::: : ; h i . . 00 • — ... Pupils. : : |: :-::•: • : : : : i i i : |
IheolotjTzal ScUmIs : £ • A. • • • : •=> : w : : ^ : : : : ic : • • :
Students. M w =• ! : K> : : --: i ; i ; : ; ; i : : Sunday Schools. '■ £?>
: : o C-. : ; ::::::::: 1 Scholars. ' -1: C.9 1 ■u> 1 to OD a> to to w *
- — «:::::: ( -SfAoo/ Teachers. o •- oi * : : : 00 — — : "- w t5 : • ;
Ordained preachers and pastors. _ o w o ^ *. » •o : • to A. — o —
to — 1 Assiitant preachers. : ei : *• to : m to u to u *. : — — \
Colporteurs. : : 00 I- _ ^ „ : _ Cl : : ; «: c.: : : Bible women. >• »i :
: lO » M "- ta o> "- •- ►Cd :::-::-:Church buldings for Christian
icorship. O ■ 00 — o : o — o> — to lOMibOM^: un> Chapels and
other preaching fla-cs. 1 :::-:: ::::::::: Jlospitals. : : i |: : I I :■•::■.
■. Jn-patienis la.'l year. 1 M I-il: : OtU-patientt last year. :::::Di-
fpcnsaries. § s : S o ! J ' : ; ^ • •:::=> o Patients treated last
'•'••■''■•.•.: year. : '■ . i . -' 1 = tr • 1 ; M : oj ; Medical FtudenU. P o
p b o CI to o o A. : • — = o to ; : 'rs 'o 'o '»• CO •: : psc^fi: : : . io b
c. c> Total contribution* of the Hat ire Clirisliantfor all purpos'f list
year
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.STATISTICS OF IROTESTANT MIS.SIOXH IN CHINA. 4S3 o

1 If * If J H M 1 Ifiiii i 1 O to lO •- — !-| . : ———MM stations where
rmuionaries reside. = = n u M : — 1 a* o 5 5 X M — : CI M en 0> M
Out-statums. • : -1 CC M — — o» o= = : O O U M lO Ortfanited
Churches. : : -• :-«•:« Wholtij self supporting. -« W kS — — «■ j; ^
-. o ; ai ^ M M : Partialtti ne'/ suppo>iii!fi, Comrnvnicants. S h — -4
» O O — M IT •o M 1 • £SSt2J c» to *. en 00 **3 # W c: ^ Ni C—
M« O O — _ ii J^_ __-t- ^ — ^ _'7- ^ *i K/ tn ; lO •!* — O M • C "
P — o 00 o i" •- — Hales. SI _o_ *.^M oi^ rr g • * Feimdes. i : : : : :
• : :•:::: ISoys' £oardiny Schools. Pupils. O- i" o ir': tc u M M u. ^ 00
• <> M — : : Leys' iJap-vlinols. Pupils. ac » 1 -. '• ^ «v g g -a 4f» -4
in • §Sa- • : air/s' licardi.ig \ Miools. '■ -J ■■■ \o i i i : i M j riipils. \ J
to -i i M " Oi : : : ■ 5 W ::*•-: OD Student.'. ■— *c i ; : ■>» -J : - i :
; i Sunday Schools. o K. : ; • ^ ii 5 y» 1 : ij : : : : t t^cholars. -^r ^
: MA M OD 1 00 = ■ *■ i M ; : ; School Teachers. M : : : : « . . .
Ordained preachers . . M — : u ^^^j pastors. *a M O W M — » CD
» c» Cl» s • 5 00 i. o. « Assistant preachers. * *: : : : M lO o : : 00 M
: : Colporteurs. •o * * i i i • : o : : M M — — 1 Bible women. >S
Total contributions of the Nat ire Chrisliansfor all piirpose.t la.rt year.
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STATISTICS OF rUuTESTAM MlS.SloNS IN t'niNA. ISlo o 3 .

Totals CONTINENTAL MISSIONS. BaselMiss. IIongkonRi Inland, r; 3
o Q g3 1 S-3 la 1 J* f 3. § j -a ?5 a. t; ■1 ^ * * * — — — •- : w to
w rd lo ; &9 ca o -'■ en S : : SK Out-stalioni. to lo : ■ - -: : i to Z a>
Organited Churches. i : : Wholly scl/iii/iporliiiy. a. : . : u gPartially self
StipjMllllUJ, ? CO : u 2 • u "as o ?» Communicants. o S :1 S' : = = =i
S 2 1 * — Cftt M — Males. i _l.... "' • ..1 -.4 . ; (O »a : o at a> o o ••
-4 -^ * i o Females. M ►» — : : Boys' Boarding Schools. ^ g e Si 3j
--. O) — — — " ■ ^ -J 5 Bogs' Day-schools. o o g Pupils. : : •: : - -: i
: - : Oirls' Boarding Schools. w « 5 H : = z\ r ~ S : 00 Pupils. : -: • •
Omj Schools. r. .-. O o i » a, : •: I Ptiji'ls. - -. ; : : : « — — J
Tlieological Schools. "•> M o o : : s -r Students, r : r -M : ; Sunday
Schools. • ; : *• • j : : Scltolars. o O Z Z K ■6 w w : ; ; -i : -»
iSc/wo/ Teachers. .» lo »s : : : : : : : Ordcdned preachers and
pastors. :^ - -: : = = Dispeiisarie.<. i="" :="" treated="">« year. • •
. 1 . . : «* «i Afedieal filmhiiii. a>
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STATISTICS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN CUINA. 485 c 1

i BRITISU MISSIONS. China Inland, ... .„ ... Church Missionary
Society,... Society fjr Prop, of Gospel, L'aptist Missionary Society,...
London Do. Metliodi.st New Connexion, ... United Muthw'.ist Free
Church, Wcsleyan Methodist, Canadian Presbyterian, English Do.
Irisli Do. Scotch United Preshytertan, Unconnected, o £ g a p p _c _o
p 2. 3 g9 3* k.S'pI' • -If fit?Is 1^ 1 * „-^«-o,--^ ,= *
•-»MOMA>a>to: Slat ions trlitre *• * mii-innaries reside. _ g! Out-
aatioru. S : wm£ — eioiouiw: SS M . — • u ec — • » : *. : IK o< cj
■- ■ — s : -: w: •jv-uts- oo a : -»»ciSj»o!m^ — ei> w Organited
Omrthes. «l !:.'•-:: i : ci ::: : I »» • o :' ►- : : •-i }r/ii}!l!/ self
supporting. • : : S»: -iu>-jc. : • *» lr» : c-r: SJ: rf to ~l i artial/y .w//
supportivg. *i 1 W U C 1 O ~ lO J. O : O M _^y o» ".u .-."cd to ^.
C£> >0 W — *■ CJ' .. — O" — lO on M O W 1 -'■ eo -t
Comrminicanis. s ■f ^»*C^frd-.-IOCJ.O OLIO CJ rfk ^ 00 *- to -.i.-
aco*.woo-> to w Males. ! « g =-. -. c, r ^' - : S s — ^ ^ ~ •" _
Femaks. 9 >o • : » ao »- "- o» M • •-» l-» Boys' Boarding Schooh.
Ot >»: la :::::::: oi — ~» . • to jT — cc M . ; : *. - ' a> OD o> 00 :
ss Pupils. o __; ~j V a *s -J- ^ : ': ou ; ottf^ODCjfi— Aifr; ^c. Hoys'
Day-scbooU. 1 ; •p' (o — CO • coooo*awv«o; O 00 to — o to u< 00
-J Pupils. s :_:_:: _: -: • *^ — — — o»-wM»o: ^^ (firts' Boarding
Schools. 5 : = = = : : -.: g: : SS . c! toiouife — -i.i>c;<:
woioo="">'-. r "-: I : w — lOi^: : — :i 5 : : — lb to M » a> : o> —
airls' Day Schools. 8 'to : : — lo 01 : : o : o » o » w *. e = = -SS| =
S = »•-::»««::—: ts •: ^: H.: to-^: t-KTheological Sctiools. z : : : -
a^b; ^ u '■ ■ £k» o ; aoMH-cdooD..}; to j Indents. w > — o to • : :
(T. ic -. — 51 oj : O « — *. O -J Scholars. or. v a. Mw: w: lawoDoi : »
O lO ^^ •■ft. CO Ordained preachers and pastors. C-. *. — — _—*
• OM ^ totouoioSwSto ^£f Assistant preacliers. * • — I ei; *.• »o: :
sio kS : : : u m — >o o : •- &» Colporteurs. : — : : — •: — «•: ; aoci
s •o : : -tfS -1 cS«§«S: o,g Chapels and otiier • preaching places. :
»: : : *! = -j C-. I/ofpitaU, "ft* o o 1 ' * ■ Zl ' WW — ' In-f : ;» last
]).ur. In.* s ; : : w — — w u : Out-patients la.H year. :-::-::•:-:-: =
to — Ditpatsaries. jj> J- J* o o o * — o S ■ "— "o £8 Patients
treated last year. :::»:::""»»!:«»t ;r ' i : : 5: -*: : -Medical Student*.
-_- ^.-^ -_- : S K> to at S » ? : i,. b i. 1. b X b ? o ^ ?? 7 o itTotal
contributions oj the Xitire Chrittiansfur nil purposes lo't pear. "I/O c
> no
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Statistics of Protestant JVLissions in ^hina, 485,^ — £. * 3

2. 2. E ^* 1= 2 - Ir- s = 2 "5 ^-r —•5 '"• >5 '• a'i:j;-x 'en "to "oo
r>"-i 5ai5 O C3 O 1 -« ,_ oj — • p o P I "cp S- j; ?L » C 5' ZZ ': C =-
: 5 » O X ;i S O • — • ^^ ' g ^ 2 c, „ 2. — 2 5? 7: Oi OJ d. li. a ~i^
K ^ c 00 '' J-*. r> 0 "5 0 i-» 0: -i; g "^ "x rs "S^ t to r)'— ' ^1 ^T
■;- li iC U -> 1— il" '^ H-* t-" to 3500i-'Oii»-«3O~4»'«0' cc f -^ -^
h- 5 CD W ' © .-! 3
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1 «, I l^riix ,.K I'lMlKSTANT MISSIONS IX CHINA. 4X0 o z H

H n n ■| 1 5.1 8 = — OD 10 — Slalioiif trlien tuis'ioiiarie.f resiile.
Out-italion.i. OiyanheJ Churchts. Wholly ttlffuppoilhg. Paitial/i/ eel/
supporting. Commiinicants. a? O S. -• I i i "s 2 ^5 o i, ft " 3 2 C' o!.
3 p S s' Pi »» 10 — 00 p x> ^ o u iloyi' Boarding Schools. riipils.
Beys' Dav-schnols. O O -J i' _ I CJi — :;! PiipiU. OS ^9 K -^ Oi;7i'
Bvctrding Schools. tl 10 a? c> Pupils. « to tn IJ — ,i. -« UirW Day Si-
lwols. S CO -O — to :,! Pupils. 0 to «> 0 Theological Schools. g 10 —
(3 StuJetils. • M 0 Sunday ScLools. p • si Scholars. 0 to oe ^ i. OD
CD School Teachers. -I 09 X to Ordained prectchers and pastors. 2
to to « C-. — Assistant preachers. ^' «?s Colporteurs. 0 10 ss Bible
vometi. w en In M Church buildings /or Cliristian Korship. > r G > 10
— to OB Chapels and ctlter preactiincj % lares. Hospitals, Jn-fatients
last year. Out-patients last year. Disperuaries. |l: 11 Patients treated
last year. 3 — O (9 Medical Students. Toli:l contnbiilions c/ tlw Sative
Chris'iiiusfor all ptirprtt" I I't 'lear CONTINENTAL MISSIONS. Havl
Mi'sion Rhenish Mission 1 OD *■ A. Stations where missionaries
reside. tc = =; Out-stations, to 1 ^ Organized Churches. — Wholly
set/ supporting. Partially self supporting. 1 Communicants. CI OD *
to J». 0 ^ ifaks. 00 ♦ is Females. u — to Boys' Boarding Schooh. 0 gi
Pupils. «^ 00 CI Boys' Day-schools. 10 0 ri to Pupils. to Oirls'
Boarding Schools. to eo — Pupils. - : Girls' Day Schools. in to tc S : 1
Pupils. • j Tlieologieal Schools, j to 0 Students, Sunday Schools. : : 1
Scholars. £ ~ — ! School Teachers. b9 "- »s Ordciii'td preachers I
and pastors. 1 — g Assistant preachers. ,^ _ 1 Colporteurs. 1 _Bible
women. s; = * Church buildings /or Chi-istian worship. s 0 S Chapels
and other preaching places. Hospitals, In-patients la>t year. Out-
patients last year. 0 c. : Dispensaries. — 1 Patunts trcaled last -:
Medical .^tuiltnts. : : Total conlribii/ii'iis ij the y.ilirc r/iris/Kiiis/ot nil
Xfriiose- Uit year G > 7i
 STATISnCS OK I-ROIKSTANT MISSIONS IN CUINA. 48;
NAME OF MISSION. MAKKlin INCLUnINGTHEIK WIVES. AMERICAN.
American Baptist Missionary Union, Do. (South), Seventh Day
Baptist, ... Am. Board of Commiss. for For. Miss. Protestant Episcopal
Mission, Methodist Do. (North), Do. Do. (South), Presbyterian
Mission (North), Do. (South), Reformed Dutch Mission, Woman's
Union Mission, BRITISH. Baptist Mission, China Inland Mission,...
Church Mission, Propagation of the Gospel, ... London Mission,
Methodist New Connexion, United Methodist Free Church, Wesleyan
Mission, Canadian Presbyterian, English Do. Irish Do. Scotch United
Presbyterian,... Soc. for Promo, of Female Education, CONTINENTAL.
Basel Mission, ... Ehcnish Mission, BIBLE SOCIETIES. American Bible
Society, British and Foreign Bible Society, ... National Bible Society of
Scotland, ... UNCONNECTED Totals 12 8 40 10 26 6 41 4 4 SINGLE
MALE. 28 28 38 8 2 20 4 20 4 4 12 10 3U 2 16 4 3 3 2 9 SINGLE
FEMALE. G6 2 8 12 3 1 2 10 1 63 16 11 50 12 37 7 59 10 6 2 2 61
83 3 43 8 4 33 4 23 4 8 3 15 11 2 2 4 7 473 Total number of
Missionaries ... 473 Do. e.Tclusive of Missionaries' Wives 301 Note.
— Some alterations mieht have to be made in a few of the above
figures, for the sake of perfect accurity; but ills bclicvQi.l th:it the
t'ltals TioiUd n«l be affectcJ materially thcr.-''y.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 21.61%
accurate

STATISTICS OP ROMAN CATUiiLI'.' MI.-J.^IO.NS IN COINA.

488 TATISTICS OF RoMAN CaTHOLIC ^VllSSIONS IN pHINA. Taken
from the ''Bulletin des Missions Catholiqiies" for 1870.*
EUROTICARIATE-APOSTOtIC NAME OF MISSION. PEAN fNATIVE
CHRISOF MISSIONARIES. PRIESTS. TIANS. ^ North ... Congregation
de la Mission ... 14 20 27,000 Pechili ■< (Lazarists), ^^''"'"1 West
Do. Do. Do. 5 15 20,000 (East Society of Jesus, 11 20,000 Shantung
Franciscans, 7 "7 10,750 Shau.si Do. 8 16 15,200 Honan Milan
Congregation of Foreign Missions. 5 3,200 Kiancman ^ ^''^"oSU ° (
Ngauwhei Society of Jesus, 42 81,000 Kiangsi ... Congregation de la
Mission ... (Lazarists), 5 12 11,000 Chckiang Do. Do. Do. 7 16 4,000
Tokicu Dominicans 16 10 25,000 (including Formosa) Hoojioh
Franciscans 20 14 16,800 Iliiuaii Do. 3 11 2,680 Shensi Do. 7 17
23,000 / East ... Congregation des Missions 10 38,000 Szechuen
L.^^t ... Etrangcrs de Paris, Do. Do. Do. 12 35,000 I South ... Do.
Do. Do. 12 17,000 Kwangtang Do. Do. Do. 21 20,000 Yunimn Do.
Do. Do. 11 8,500 Kweichau Do. Do. Do. 19 10,000 Manchuria Do.
Dc. Do. 11 8,000 Mongolia Belgian Congregation of Foi'eign
^rissitm.s. 8 8,400 Totals. 251. J138 404,530 * TJiew statistics are '
• r-oultl be obtained, but arc correct only to the year 1870. Since
then tlioru liiive been - ,1.1c cluinjses ; fir instiince in Kian^cnan
there are now 62 European Missionaries, ana -- v . ,,.;,..-. <
mistiiins, instead of 4'2 and nl.OCo as above. t Tlie figures in this
column are tukeu iVoni the '•Annuls of I he Piojnigaliuii of llie Faith"
fur 1907. % This does not represent the full totJiI of Native I'riest-*
as there is no report from some of the Missions.
 INDEX. Abstract of proceedings, 9. AnvAXTAGES of tlie
eni})loymeut of native assistauts, 323. Ancestral worship, 3G7.
Appeal to tlie home cliurclies 475. Baldwin, Rev. Dr., Essay on
Christian literature 2u3. Baldwin, Rev. S. L., Essay on the self-support
of the native church 283, speech on medical missions 126, on foot-
binding 138, on secular literature 235, on the elevation of native
church 268, on duty of foreign residents &c. 282, on native
pastorate 321, on employment of native agents 333, on stimulating
the native church to Christian work 347, on questionable practices
&c. 402, on treaty rights 414, on church unity 438, on training of
native agency 458. Barchet, Dr., speech on medical missions 128.
Barclay, Rev. T., speech on training of native agency 460. Barrett,
Rev. E. R., speech on questionable practices &c. 401. Best means of
elevating the native chui'ch 255. Blodget, Rev. Dr., speecb on
preaching 83, on woman's work 154, on employment of native
agents 336, on principles of translation 428. Buddhism and Tauism
62. Butcher, Very Rev. Dean, Essay on duty of foreign residents
aiding in the evangelization of China 272. Butler, Rev. J., Essay on
the native pastoi-ate 3o4, speech on schools 107, on Christian
literature 220, on secular literature 235, on questionable practices
&c. 404. Christian literature 2o3. Closing exercises of the conference
465. Committees appointed by conference 17, reports of , 471.
Consecration essential to missionary success 45. Corbett, Rev. H.,
Essay on the native pastorate 299. Crawford, Rev. T. P., Essay on the
employment of native assistants 323, speech on Buddhism and
Tauism 75, on foot-binding 137, on woman's work 159, on Christian
literature 225, on church membership 252, on self-support of native
church 295, on questionable practices 396. Crawford, Mrs., Essay on
woman's work for woman 147. Dodd, Rev. S., Essay on boys'
boarding schools 188, speech on itineration 109, on Christian
litei'ature 224, on self-support of native church 298, on native
pastorate 317, on employment of native agents 335, on treaty rights
413, on church unity 441. Douglas, Rev. Dr., Essay on systematic
cooperation 443, speech on Buddhism and Tauism 73, on itineration
112, on woman's work 154, on Chi'istiau literature 223, on duty of
foreign residents &c. 283, on self-support of native church 298, on
native pastorate 318, on stimulating the native church to Christian
work 348, on the opium question 364, on treaty rights 417, on
church unity 439.
 490 IXDEX. DouTHWAiTE, ]\Ir., speecli on medical missions
129. DuBOSE, Rev. H. C, speech on itineration 109, on woman's woi-
k 152, on secular literature 237, on the opium question 366. Dukes,
Rev. E. J., speech on selfsupport of native church 297, on church
unity 440. Duty of foreign residents to aid in evangelization of China
272, Ecclesiastical union of native churches 429. Edkins, Rev. Dr.,
Essay on Buddhism and Tauisra 62, speech on preaching 88, on
woman's woi'k 158, on Christian literature 291, on secular literature
238, on elevation of native church 271, on native pastorate 317, on
the opium question 365, on questionable practices &c. 404, 405, on
treaty rights 414, on principles of translation 427, on training of
native agency 463. Eaenham, Rev. J. M. W., speech on schools 196,
on employment of native agents 334. EEET-binding 132. Field of
labour in all its magnitude 55. FiELDE, Miss, speech on woman's
work 156. EosTEE., Rev. A., speech on preaching 88, on duty of
foi'eign residents &c. 280, on stimulating the native church to
Christian work 351. Ertee, J. Esq., speech on secular literature 238.
Gauld, Dr., Essay on medical missions 119. Goodrich, Rev. C, Essay
on importance of vernacular Christian litex'ature 213, speech on
preaching 87, on itineration 113, on elevation of native church 270,
on questionable practices &c. 401, on jninciples of translation 429.
GoiTGH, Rev. F. F., Essay on best means of elevating the tone of the
native church 255, speech on questionable practices &c. 400, on
principles of translation 426, on church unity 441. GouGH, Mrs. F. F.,
Essay on day schools 186. Graves, Rev. Dr., Essay on how to
stimulate the native church to aggressive work 338, speech on
medical missions 126, on Christian literature 226, on church
membership 254, on self-support of native church 297, on the opium
question 362, on treaty rights 415. GuLiCK, Rev. Dr., speech on
medical missions 128, on schools 198, on self-support of native
church 298, on church unity 439. Happer, Rev. Dr., Essay on
woman's work for woman 139. Hartwell, Rev. C, Essay on
questionable practices connected with marriage and funeral
ceremonies 387, sjieech on preaching- 84, on self-support of native
church 295. Helm, Rev. B., Essay on itineration 93, speech on
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