Who was Gaius Julius Caesar?

Gaius Julius Caesar is perhaps one of

the most well-known individuals in
history, he is the man who
transformed Rome from a Republic
into an Empire.

Julius Caesar was born into an

aristocratic family in 100 BC.
He serves for a period as aedile –
someone who is responsible for
public buildings and temples.
Caesar slowly climbs up the political
ladder and becomes consul in 60
BC.
In 60 BC, he formed the First
Triumvirate with Gnaeus Pompey
and Licinius Crassus. This was a
secret political alliance that they
used to manipulate the Senate to
get what they wanted.
These three men were the most
powerful people in Rome. Pompey
was a powerful General, Crassus was
the one of the richest men in Rome
and Caesar led a powerful army and
was very ambitious.

The Gallic wars

Caesar and his Romans fought
against the Gauls, led by their king
Vercingetorix.
There was a huge, final showdown at
a place called Alesia, and Caesar's
team won!
Vercingetorix had to give up, and he
surrendered by laying down his
weapons at Caesar's feet.
Later, Vercingetorix was killed in a
special ceremony in Rome.
After that big win, Caesar's spent a
couple more years making sure
everyone else in Gaul(modern day
France) knew the wars were over.

Trouble at home
Growing tensions between Pompey
and Caesar, exacerbated by the
deaths of Crassus and Caesar's
daughter Julia, escalated into a
political crisis. Pompey sought to
limit Caesar's power, leading the
Senate to issue an ultimatum
demanding Caesar relinquish his
army and return to Rome as a
civilian. Caesar defied this order,
setting the stage for civil war.

Crossing the Rubicon

In 49 BC, Caesar leads a single
legion across the Rubicon river into
Italy in defiance of the Roman
senate. It was illegal to bring
armies into Italy and, by doing so,
Caesar could not turn back and had
to follow through. It was now civil
war.
After the senate trying in vain to
stop a civil war, Caesar and Pompey
were now at war with one another.

Pompey and his allies had decided to

leave Italy and rather consolidate
their position in Greece and the
eastern part of the Empire. Caesar
now assumes control of the
government. Despite this, Caesar
still covered incredible distances to
put down a revolt in both Spain and
Gaul further consolidating his power.

In 48 BC, Pompey is defeated at

the Battle of Pharsalus in
Greece. Pompey now flees to
Egypt where he is assassinated.

Julius Caesar's rule was marked by

significant changes:
Effective Leadership: He
consolidated power as dictator,
using it to expand the Senate,
implement governmental reforms,
and reduce Rome's debt.
Infrastructure and Citizenship:
He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth and
extended Roman citizenship to
foreigners.
Popularity and Opposition: While
popular with the people, his growing
power alienated the Senate.
Dictator for Life: His declaration as
"dictator perpetuo" in 44 BC
intensified senatorial opposition.
The Ides of March
The Ides of March falls on 15th
March and in Ancient Rome was
the day for settling debts.

On this day in 44 BC, fearful of his

growing power and that he may
become eventual king, a group of
senators assassinate Julius Caesar.

Caesar was stabbed a total of 23

times. This group of senators
included: Marcus Junius Brutus ,
Gaius Cassius Longinus and
Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus.
Retribution and rise of an
Empire
Following Caesar’s death, the Roman
public were outraged. Mark Antony
(Marcus Antonius), an ally of
Caesar’s and his co-consul, had
managed to stabilize the situation
but had turned the people against
the assassins.

Caesar, in his will, had named his

adoptive son (who was his
grandnephew) Gaius Octavius his
sole heir. He became Gaius Julius
Caesar Octavianus otherwise known
as Octavian and he now inherited
Caesar’s wealth and estate as well
as the loyalty of much of the Roman
people.

Second Triumvirate
The Second Triumvirate was
formed with Mark Antony,
Octavian and Marcus Lepidus.
This triumvirate was also a legal
arrangement unlike the first.

It was formed in 43 BC with a term

of five years. It was renewed in 37
BC for another term.

The Triumvirs were given broad legal

powers which gave them practically
absolute power by the lex Titica
and it also split the Roman world into
three sets of Provinces.

A series of civil wars followed soon

after as the Liberatores (Caesar’s
assassins) fled Rome and the forces
of Mark Anthony chased after them.
The Liberatores are eventually
defeated in the battle of Phillipi in
42 BC and it is in this battle that
Brutus takes his own life, whilst
Cassius was killed during the
fighting.

After this, the Second Triumvirate

began to break down after Octavian
expelled Lepidus in 36 BC for
attempting a revolt in Sicily.
Beginning of a new era
Octavian was able to defeat his
political rivals (Lepidus in 37 BC and
Mark Antony in 32 BC). This
cemented his authority in Rome and
was anointed Princeps – a title that
made him first citizen.

He ruled as Consul at first,

maintaining the Republic. However,
in 27 BC, he receives the title
Augustus – effectively changing
from a Republic to an Empire. He
has now become the first Roman
emperor.
Augustus the Emperor
Augustus (Octavian) now rules
effectively and is adored by the
people. He implements much
needed reforms such building roads,
public works, securing outlying
provinces and even reforming
Roman morality (even exiling his
own daughter for adultery). After his
death, he is declared a god by the
senate.
During his reign, Augustus did not
like to show off his wealth and
sought to relate with the common
man as well as introducing a police
force and firefighters.
Augustus’ reign as emperor (27 BC –
14 AD) effectively ushered in the
Pax Romana – a period of roughly
 200 years of peace and minimal
wars in the Roman Empire.

The Roman War Machine

The Roman Army
The Roman army was one of the
most formidable and recognizable
forces in History.
It was a well-disciplined force that
moved from civil defense in Rome's
early history, to a full-time
professional army in its later years.
Throughout Roman history, the
Roman army enforced Roman will
and helped ensure its influence
spread with an iron fist.
The Early Roman Army
In Rome’s early days, the Roman
army consisted of regular men who
would come together in times of war
or campaign seasons.

It was not until 107 BC during the

Marian reforms that the Roman
army became a full-time professional
force.

Marian reforms
The Marian reforms were introduced
by Gaius Marius and aimed to
standardize the roman army.

He changed the socio-economic

background of the army by allowing
soldiers from a poorer background to
join.
He also installed the aquila as the
universal legion standard as well as
various equipment changes to the
army.
These reforms modernized the
Roman army and shifted it to a
stronger fighting force.

Legion structure
A contubernium (tent group)
consisted of 8 men.
A centuria (century) consisted of 10
contubernium commanded by a
Centurion.
A cohort consisted of 6 centuriae for
a total of 480 men (without officers).
The first cohort was double strength
with only 5 centuriae.
A legio (legion) consisted of 10
cohorts.

Each century also had a

tesserarius, a signifer, a
cornicen, and an optio.

The Legionnaires
Forming the core of the Roman
army, Legionnaires were vital to the
success of the Roman war machine.
Early on, only Roman citizens
between the ages of 17 and 46 were
eligible. Later, provincials with
Roman citizenship could join. Height
and physical fitness were essential
(5ft 7 minimum height).
Volunteers signed up for 25 years of
service, receiving a signing bonus
and regular pay. Later, non-Roman
citizens were allowed to join and
received their citizenship after 25
years.

Training
New recruits underwent rigorous
training, known as the tirocinium,
lasting several months. It focused on
physical conditioning, marching
drills, weapons training, and
discipline. Senior soldiers served as
instructors and drill sergeants.

Throughout their service,

legionnaires participated in regular
exercises, maneuvers, and mock
battles. These honed their skills in
formations, battlefield tactics, and
teamwork.
Punishment
Decimation was a severe Roman
military punishment where one in
ten soldiers of a condemned unit
was randomly selected and beaten
to death by their fellow soldiers.
Survivors endured further hardship,
including being forced to camp
outside the fort and receiving
inferior rations. It was used for grave
offenses like desertion, mutiny, or
cowardice.

Peace and Downtime

Roman legionnaires lived
multifaceted lives beyond combat.
They built strong social bonds,
engaged in religious practices, and
enjoyed leisure activities. Their long
service fostered camaraderie and
loyalty. They also performed crucial
non-combat duties, including
construction, infrastructure
maintenance, policing, and rigorous
training.

Tactics
The Roman army's strength lay in its
adaptability and combined arms
tactics. Key elements included:
Tactical Flexibility: They rotated
frontline soldiers for rest and
maintained constant pressure.
Effective Weaponry: They used
the pilum (javelin) for ranged attacks
and the gladius (short sword) for
close combat.
Defensive Formations: The
Testudo ("tortoise") formation
provided excellent protection against
projectiles.
Pilum
The Pilum was a Roman Javelin
carried by the legionnaires.

It was an effective weapon aimed at

disabling an enemy’s shield whilst
also acting as a potent armour
piercing tool.

Gladius
The Roman Gladius’ design
originated from a Spanish sword.

It was supposed to be used primarily

as a stabbing weapon – a stab
wound is more effective than a cut
which could not always penetrate
armour.

Roman cavalry had a much longer

variant whilst the infantry’s weapon
evolved over time.

Scutum
The Scutum was a shield used by
Roman soldiers.

It offered considerable protection to

Roman soldiers due to its size and
curved design.

Shields were often painted in a red

colour to serve as tribute to the god
of war – Mars.
The Centurion
Centurions were highly experienced
soldiers commanding 80-man units
(Centuria) within a Roman legion.
While there were different Centurion
ranks (excluding the highest, Primus
Pilus), their core responsibilities
were maintaining discipline and
leading their Centuria in battle.
The Optio
Optiones served as second-in-
command within a Centuria,
ensuring troop discipline from the
rear using a staff (hastile). They
were prepared to take command if
the Centurion fell in battle and
received double the pay of a regular
legionnaire.
The Aquilifer
The Aquilifer was a highly
prestigious and well-paid (double
pay) role within a Roman legion.
Their primary responsibility was to
carry the Aquila, the legion's
imperial standard. Losing the Aquila
was a massive disgrace, making this
position one of significant honor.

The Legatus
The Legatus was a high-ranking
Roman military officer, comparable
to a modern-day general, who
typically commanded a legion. They
were often senators and profited
significantly from campaign spoils.

Praetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard was an elite
unit of veteran soldiers serving as
the Roman Emperor's personal
bodyguard. They wielded significant
political power, capable of deposing
and installing emperors, as
demonstrated by their role in
Claudius's succession. They received
high pay and were a force emperors
sought to appease. Disbanded in 313
AD by Constantine, they should not
be confused with the earlier
Germanic bodyguards (Numerus
Batavorum).

Evolution
The Roman military demonstrated
adaptability by modifying equipment
and tactics based on their enemies.
For instance, they adopted the
Manica arm guard to counter Dacian
curved swords. Later, they shifted to
smaller shields and longer swords for
increased maneuverability. However,
the quality of Roman troops declined
as the Empire weakened, leading to
a noticeable difference between
early and late Roman soldiers.

Decline and later Roman army

The decline of the Roman Empire
was mirrored by a deterioration of its
army. The inclusion of non-citizens
diluted the sense of duty among
Roman citizens, leading to increased
reliance on foreign recruits and
mercenaries. Constant border
conflicts strained resources and
resulted in less disciplined and
poorly trained soldiers. The army
was divided into two tiers: the lower-
quality limitanei, used for basic
defense, and the more mobile and
better-equipped comitatenses, who
served as frontline troops.