Types
[edit]
Typology of violence[3]
The World Health Organization divides violence into three broad categories:[3]
Alternatively, violence can primarily be classified as either instrumental or
reactive / hostile.[7]
According to the WHO, collective or group violence is subdivided into social,
political and economic violence.[8]
Self-directed
[edit]
Self-directed violence is subdivided into suicidal behaviour and self-abuse. The
former includes suicidal thoughts, attempted suicides—also called para
suicide or deliberate self-injury in some countries—and suicide itself. Self-abuse,
in contrast, includes acts such as self-mutilation.
Collective
[edit]
Massacre of Polish civilians during Nazi Germany's occupation of Poland, December
1939
Unlike the other two broad categories, the subcategories of collective violence
suggest possible motives for violence committed by larger groups of individuals or
by states. Collective violence that is committed to advance a particular social
agenda includes, for example, crimes of hate committed by organized groups,
terrorist acts and mob violence. Political violence includes war and related
violent conflicts, state violence and similar acts carried out by armed groups.
There may be multiple determinants of violence against civilians in such
situations.[9] Economic violence includes attacks motivated by economic gain—such
as attacks carried out with the purpose of disrupting economic activity, denying
access to essential services, or creating economic division and fragmentation.
Clearly, acts committed by domestic and subnational groups can have multiple
motives.[10] Slow violence is a long-duration form of violence which is often
invisible (at least to those not impacted by it), such as environmental
degradation, pollution and climate change.[11]
Warfare
[edit]
Main article: War
A United States M8 Greyhound armoured car in Paris during World War II
War is a state of prolonged violent large-scale conflict involving two or more
groups of people, usually under the auspices of government. It is the most extreme
form of collective violence.[12] War is fought as a means of resolving territorial
and other conflicts, as war of aggression to conquer territory or loot resources,
in national self-defence or liberation, or to suppress attempts of part of the
nation to secede from it. There are also ideological, religious and revolutionary
wars.[13]
Since the Industrial Revolution the lethality of modern warfare has grown. World
War I casualties were over 40 million and World War II casualties were over 70
million.
Interpersonal
[edit]
Cain killing Abel
Saul attacks David (who had been playing music to help Saul feel better), 1860
woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld
Interpersonal violence is divided into two subcategories: Family and intimate
partner violence—that is, violence largely between family members and intimate
partners, usually, though not exclusively, taking place in the home. Community
violence—violence between individuals who are unrelated, and who may or may not
know each other, generally taking place outside the home. The former group includes
forms of violence such as child abuse and child corporal punishment, intimate
partner violence and abuse of the elderly. The latter includes youth violence,
random acts of violence, rape or sexual assault by strangers, and violence in
institutional settings such as schools, workplaces, prisons and nursing homes. When
interpersonal violence occurs in families, its psychological consequences can
affect parents, children, and their relationship in the short- and long-terms.[14]
Child maltreatment
[edit]
Main article: Child abuse
Child maltreatment is the abuse and neglect that occurs to children under 18 years
of age. It includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual
abuse, neglect, negligence and commercial or other child exploitation, which
results in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or
dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power.
Exposure to intimate partner violence is also sometimes included as a form of child
maltreatment.[15]
Child maltreatment is a global problem with serious lifelong consequences, which
is, however, complex and difficult to study.[16]
There are no reliable global estimates for the prevalence of child maltreatment.
Data for many countries, especially low- and middle-income countries, are lacking.
Current estimates vary widely depending on the country and the method of research
used. Approximately 20% of women and 5–10% of men report being sexually abused as
children, while 25–50% of all children report being physically abused.[3][17]
Consequences of child maltreatment include impaired lifelong physical and mental
health, and social and occupational functioning (e.g. school, job, and relationship
difficulties). These can ultimately slow a country's economic and social
development.[18][19] Preventing child maltreatment before it starts is possible and
requires a multisectoral approach. Effective prevention programmes support parents
and teach positive parenting skills. Ongoing care of children and families can
reduce the risk of maltreatment reoccurring and can minimize its consequences.[20]
[21]
Youth
[edit]
The Kids off the Block memorial featuring hundreds of simple stone blocks, one for
each child killed by violence in Roseland, Chicago
Following the World Health Organization, youth are defined as people between the
ages of 10 and 29 years. Youth violence refers to violence occurring between
youths, and includes acts that range from bullying and physical fighting, through
more severe sexual and physical assault to homicide.[22][23]
Worldwide some 250,000 homicides occur among youth 10–29 years of age each year,
which is 41% of the total number of homicides globally each year ("Global Burden of
Disease", World Health Organization, 2008). For each young person killed, 20–40
more sustain injuries requiring hospital treatment.[22] Youth violence has a
serious, often lifelong, impact on a person's psychological and social functioning.
Youth violence greatly increases the costs of health, welfare and criminal justice
services; reduces productivity; decreases the value of property; and generally
undermines the fabric of society.[vague]
Prevention programmes shown to be effective or to have promise in reducing youth
violence include life skills and social development programmes designed to help
children and adolescents manage anger, resolve conflict, and develop the necessary
social skills to solve problems; schools-based anti-bullying prevention programmes;
and programmes to reduce access to alcohol, illegal drugs and guns.[24] Also, given
significant neighbourhood effects on youth violence, interventions involving
relocating families to less poor environments have shown promising results.
[25] Similarly, urban renewal projects such as business improvement districts have
shown a reduction in youth violence.[26]
Different types of youth on youth violence include witnessing or being involved in
physical, emotional and sexual abuse (e.g. physical attacks, bullying, rape), and
violent acts like gang shootings and robberies. According to researchers in 2018,
"More than half of children and adolescents living in cities have experienced some
form of community violence." The violence "can also all take place under one roof,
or in a given community or neighborhood and can happen at the same time or at
different stages of life."[27] Youth violence has immediate and long term adverse
impact whether the individual was the recipient of the violence or a witness to it.
[28]
Youth violence impacts individuals, their families, and society. Victims can have
lifelong injuries which means ongoing doctor and hospital visits, the cost of which
quickly add up. Since the victims of youth-on-youth violence may not be able to
attend school or work because of their physical and/or mental injuries, it is often
up to their family members to take care of them, including paying their daily
living expenses and medical bills. Their caretakers may have to give up their jobs
or work reduced hours to provide help to the victim of violence. This causes a
further burden on society because the victim and maybe even their caretakers have
to obtain government assistance to help pay their bills. Recent research has found
that psychological trauma during childhood can change a child's brain. "Trauma is
known to physically affect the brain and the body which causes anxiety, rage, and
the ability to concentrate. They can also have problems remembering, trusting, and
forming relationships."[29] Since the brain becomes used to violence it may stay
continually in an alert state (similar to being stuck in the fight or flight mode).
"Researchers claim that the youth who are exposed to violence may have emotional,
social, and cognitive problems. They may have trouble controlling emotions, paying
attention in school, withdraw from friends, or show signs of post-traumatic stress
disorder".[27]
It is important for youth exposed to violence to understand how their bodies may
react so they can take positive steps to counteract any possible short- and long-
term negative effects (e.g., poor concentration, feelings of depression, heightened
levels of anxiety). By taking immediate steps to mitigate the effects of the trauma
they've experienced, negative repercussions can be reduced or eliminated. As an
initial step, the youths need to understand why they may be feeling a certain way
and to understand how the violence they have experienced may be causing negative
feelings and making them behave differently. Pursuing a greater awareness of their
feelings, perceptions, and negative emotions is the first step that should be taken
as part of recovering from the trauma they have experienced. "Neuroscience research
shows that the only way we can change the way we feel is by becoming aware of our
inner experience and learning to befriend what is going on inside ourselves".[30]
Some of the ways to combat the adverse effects of exposure to youth violence would
be to try various mindfulness and movement activities, deep breathing exercises and
other actions that enable youths to release their pent up emotions. Using these
techniques will teach body awareness, reduce anxiety and nervousness, and reduce
feelings of anger and annoyance.[31]
Youth who have experienced violence benefit from having a close relationship with
one or more people.[30] This is important because the trauma victims need to have
people who are safe and trustworthy that they can relate and talk to about their
horrible experiences. Some youth do not have adult figures at home or someone they
can count on for guidance and comfort. Schools in bad neighborhoods where youth
violence is prevalent should assign counselors to each student so that they receive
regular guidance. In addition to counseling/therapy sessions and programs, it has
been recommended that schools offer mentoring programs where students can interact
with adults who can be a positive influence on them. Another way is to create more
neighborhood programs to ensure that each child has a positive and stable place to
go when school in not in session. Many children have benefited from formal
organizations now which aim to help mentor and provide a safe environment for the
youth especially those living in neighborhoods with higher rates of violence. This
includes organizations such as Becoming a Man, CeaseFire Illinois, Chicago Area
Project, Little Black Pearl, and Rainbow House".[32] These programs are designed to
help give the youth a safe place to go, stop the violence from occurring, offering
counseling and mentoring to help stop the cycle of violence. If the youth do not
have a safe place to go after school hours they will likely get into trouble,
receive poor grades, drop out of school and use drugs and alcohol. The gangs look
for youth who do not have positive influences in their life and need protection.
This is why these programs are so important for the youth to have a safe
environment rather than resorting to the streets.[33]
Intimate partner
[edit]
Joint Base Myer-Henderson Hall (JBM-HH) roundtable addressing digital stalking,
ties to intimate partner violence
Main articles: Domestic violence and Intimate partner violence
Population-level surveys based on reports from victims provide the most accurate
estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner violence and sexual violence in
non-conflict settings. A study conducted by WHO in 10 mainly developing
countries[34] found that, among women aged 15 to 49 years, between 15% (Japan) and
70% (Ethiopia and Peru) of women reported physical and/or sexual violence by an
intimate partner. A growing body of research on men and intimate partner violence
focuses on men as both perpetrators and victims of violence, as well as on how to
involve men and boys in anti-violence work.[35]
Intimate partner and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical,
mental, sexual and reproductive health problems for victims and for their children,
and lead to high social and economic costs. These include both fatal and non-fatal
injuries, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, unintended pregnancies,
sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.[36]
Factors associated with the perpetration and experiencing of intimate partner
violence are low levels of education, history of violence as a perpetrator, a
victim or a witness of parental violence, harmful use of alcohol, attitudes that
are accepting of violence as well as marital discord and dissatisfaction. Factors
associated only with perpetration of intimate partner violence are having multiple
partners, and antisocial personality disorder.
A recent theory named "The Criminal Spin" suggests a mutual flywheel effect between
partners that is manifested by an escalation in the violence.[37] A violent spin
may occur in any other forms of violence, but in Intimate partner violence the
added value is the mutual spin, based on the unique situation and characteristics
of intimate relationship.
The primary prevention strategy with the best evidence for effectiveness for
intimate partner violence is school-based programming for adolescents to prevent
violence within dating relationships.[38] Evidence is emerging for the
effectiveness of several other primary prevention strategies—those that: combine
microfinance with gender equality training;[39] promote communication and
relationship skills within communities; reduce access to, and the harmful use of
alcohol; and change cultural gender norms.[40]
Sexual
[edit]
Main article: Sexual violence
Meeting of victims of sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual
comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a person's
sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the
victim, in any setting. It includes rape, defined as the physically forced or
otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part or
object.[41]
Population-level surveys based on reports from victims estimate that between 0.3
and 11.5% of women reported experiencing sexual violence.[42] Sexual violence has
serious short- and long-term consequences on physical, mental, sexual and
reproductive health for victims and for their children as described in the section
on intimate partner violence. If perpetrated during childhood, sexual violence can
lead to increased smoking,[43] drug and alcohol misuse, and risky sexual behaviors
in later life. It is also associated with perpetration of violence and being a
victim of violence.
Many of the risk factors for sexual violence are the same as for domestic violence.
Risk factors specific to sexual violence perpetration include beliefs in family
honor and sexual purity, ideologies of male sexual entitlement and weak legal
sanctions for sexual violence.
Few interventions to prevent sexual violence have been demonstrated to be
effective. School-based programmes to prevent child sexual abuse by teaching
children to recognize and avoid potentially sexually abusive situations are run in
many parts of the world and appear promising, but require further research. To
achieve lasting change, it is important to enact legislation and develop policies
that protect women; address discrimination against women and promote gender
equality; and help to move the culture away from violence.[40]
Elder maltreatment
[edit]
Main article: Elder abuse
Elder maltreatment is a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action,
occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which
causes harm or distress to an older person.
While there is little information regarding the extent of maltreatment in elderly
populations, especially in developing countries, it is estimated that 4–6% of
elderly people in high-income countries have experienced some form of maltreatment
at home[44][45] However, older people are often afraid to report cases of
maltreatment to family, friends, or to the authorities. Data on the extent of the
problem in institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes and other long-term care
facilities are scarce. Elder maltreatment can lead to serious physical injuries and
long-term psychological consequences. Elder maltreatment is predicted to increase
as many countries are experiencing rapidly ageing populations.
Many strategies have been implemented to prevent elder maltreatment and to take
action against it and mitigate its consequences including public and professional
awareness campaigns, screening (of potential victims and abusers), caregiver
support interventions (e.g. stress management, respite care), adult protective
services and self-help groups. Their effectiveness has, however, not so far been
well-established.[46][47]
Targeted
[edit]
Several rare but painful episodes of assassination, attempted assassination
and school shootings at elementary, middle, high schools, as well as colleges and
universities in the United States, led to a considerable body of research on
ascertainable behaviors of persons who have planned or carried out such attacks.
These studies (1995–2002) investigated what the authors called "targeted violence,"
described the "path to violence" of those who planned or carried out attacks and
laid out suggestions for law enforcement and educators. A major point from these
research studies is that targeted violence does not just "come out of the blue".
[48][49][50][51][52][53]
Everyday
[edit]
As an anthropological concept, "everyday violence" may refer to the incorporation
of different forms of violence (mainly political violence) into daily practices.
[54][55] Latin America and the Caribbean, the region with the highest murder rate
in the world,[56] experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.
[57]
