My Notes by Shoubhik Sen

Syllabus
1. Psychological and physiological basis of motivation and emotion;
2. Measurement of motivation and emotion;
3. Effects of motivation and emotion on behaviour;
4. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation;
5. Factors influencing intrinstic motivation;
6. Emotional competence and the related issues.

Introduction

Motives and emotions are viewed as conditions that arouse, regulate, and sustain behaviour. Both the
terms come from the same Latin root 'movere' meaning to move or incite to action. Therefore, both the
terms have implication of energy, force and action which groups them under the broad heading of
Dynamic Psychology.

The term motivation addresses to the causes or why of behaviour, used in this sense motivation would
cover all the psychology, since psychology is the study of human behaviour. But as we know that many
aspects of behaviour are attributable to learning and maturation, the psychologists narrow down the
concept of motivation to those factors which energize behaviours and give them a direction.

Development of Concept of Motivation

Reason is the main determinant of behaviour. If man is viewed as rational being whose intellects are free to
choose goals and decide on courses of action, then the concept of motivation is unnecessary. Rationalism
was the predominant view of the philosophers and theologians for hundred of years. Man was free to
choose and choices were either good or bad, depending on one's intelligence and education. It was
assumed that given the good choice, if known, would automatically be selected. There, man was considered
very much responsible for his behaviour. Hence, there would be no motive that causes the behaviour,
rather, man is free to choose and act and man's choices would be rational and accordingly behaviours
would be reasonable, adaptive and good.

Seeking answer to the basic driving force behind human behaviour, Plato and Hippocrates were the earliest
philosophers who abandoned the idea of rationalism and favoured a humoral or bodily basis of
motivation.

Seventeenth and Eighteenth century philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke etc took a more mechanistic
view and suggested that some actions arise from internal and external forces over which we have no
controls. Benthem was the first to formulate clearly psychological hedonism as basis for human
motivation. Benthem held that we behave in such a manner as to achieve pleasure and avoid pain. No
matter whatever reason we give for our conduct, these two tendencies are the underlying causes of all
behaviour. Largely as a consequence of application of this doctrine in criminal law, the penal code is based
on assumption that punishments act as deterrent to crime by balancing the pleasure which one would gain
by committing the crime. However, doctrine of hedonism was over simplification of human motivation. It

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could not explain the altruistic nature of human beings, risk taking abilities of people and sacrificing nature
of individuals.

Hence, hedonism is now considered not so much a determiner of conduct than as an emotional
accompaniment of motivated behaviour. Person may indulge in behaviours that may be associated with
unpleasant or painful experiences to achieve larger or distant goals. People may also postpone or delay
their gratifications for sake of facilitating survival of others. For instance, the father may quit smoking to cut
down his expenses for paying for the books or toys of his child. Further, people may also place greater
importance to certain social goals over physiological pleasure. For instance attending a social ceremony
even when one is tired or running short of time, exchanging gifts even when financial exchequer is not in a
good shape, donating blood in blood camps, and contributing labour for social causes even in his/her
leisure.

However, pleasantness can create a tendency to accept more readily certain goals than others.

 Pleasantness or hedonistic tone indicates an overall tendency of approach and acceptance while
unpleasantness implies tendency to reject and withdraw.

The extreme of the mechanistic view is defined by the theory of Instinct. An instinct is an innate biological
force (not learned and present in all members of a particular species) that predisposes the organism to act
in a certain way. Such behaviours have no intellect and could not be defined on the basis of reason.

William Mc Dougall suggested that all human behaviours have an instinctive basis. Although he maintained
that unlike reflexes the instinctual behaviours get modified in the process of learning and experience.

The theory lies diametrically opposite to the rationalistic view of humans and advocates that instead of
choosing the goals and actions, man is subject to mercy of innate forces which motivate his course of action.

Psychoanalytical theory by Freud saw behaviour as a result of unconscious irrational forces which are
present innately. He named those energies as Eros and Thanatos, which implied sex and aggression. Man
was viewed as closed energy system in which continuous transformations of energy is taking place. The
sexual and aggressive energy present in infinite amounts within the human mind build up to form urges,
which drive human behaviour for their release. Hence, release of pent up urges, which Freud termed
Catharsis and withholding the urges which he termed Counter Catharsis became the common
denominator of all human behaviours. Freud however, also mentioned about release of energy trapped in
these urges in behavioural expression which seems widely unrelated to, original raw urges. Such expression
although involve catharsis but nevertheless, in a Sublimated form.

For Sigmund Freud, the instincts of sex and aggression build up within human as a psychological
energy which compel the individual to invest them in certain behaviours which would eventually seek their
release. The investment (Catharsis), so done, provides satisfaction and relief and are associated with sense
of pleasurable experience. Hence, such behaviours become repetitive and identifiable with human beings
over the time.

The instinctual theories got their explanatory support from Darwin's concept of evolution. Once the
mechanism of heredity has been identified, the bodily basis of instinct could be logically gratified.
Instincts therefore become nature of man over time like in other animals with behaviours being signatures
which are particular or distinctive to entire human race.

The limitation of instinctive theory was the circular nature of its explanation. Eg- To say that a man fought
because he had instinct of aggression is nothing more than description of his behaviour. Further,
anthropologists found that not all instincts were found in all the cultures. That is to say, that if instinct have

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evolved due to human adaptations with the natural environment, they should be present as universal
phenomena across the entire range of human species. But, culture does induce specific instinct in human
beings which question the universality of instinct. The cultural variables are learned as we acquire the
culture to which we are born and not that we are born with a prior knowledge of culture within us.

Hence instinctual theories gave way to Drive Theories that compounded both learned and unlearned
motives to account for behaviours.

Characteristics of Motives

1. Motives are never observed directly. They are inferred. The motives arise within the mind of the
individual and get expressed in the behaviours which lead to satisfaction and eventually termination
of the motive. Hence, behaviours are indicative of the motives in progress and are directed towards
the direction advocated by the motive. Therefore, behaviours could also be assumed as manifested or
expressed motives which could be brought under observation to infer the motives which they entail
and shadow.

2. Different forms of behaviours may be similarly motivated. Eg- If a house is set on fire, the individual
inside will show screaming, running etc. jn finding a way to go out. Again, if one is motivated to
become rich, he may show behaviour associated with saving at the some time investing only in gainful
business.

3. Different motives may result in single form of behaviour. Eg- Preparing for civil service may have
several motives - (a) social status (b) Security (c) Service etc. Similarly, behaviour of greeting friends at
home may be associated with motive of joy, respect, affiliation and so on.

4. Motivation is related to number of physiological processes—

Changing physiological states associated with hunger, thirst, sex and so forth. These physiological
states are cyclic in nature and lead to strong motives periodically more or less at regular intervals.
They are primary motives arising from some learned form of deprivation or disruption of balance of
essential substances within the body. Hence, they are urgent in nature giving rise to motives which
require instant gratifications. Similarly, bodily pains arising out of injury arouse the motive of fear to
avoid the injurious stimulus, and seek relief from pain by obtaining Medicare, rest or exercise.

Motivation is related to number of psychological processes.

(a) Emotional states - emotions often reinforce motives in progress. For instance when one fails to
withhold his/her anger and enters into argument with others, the accompanying emotion of disliking
or hatred towards the other person adds fuel to the on going behaviour and the argument might last
longer before settlement as it would otherwise be. It may also happen that argument may scale up to
result in verbal abuses and so on. It is the result of reinforcement that a particular motivated
behaviour drives that individual to over perform certain actions which might not have been originally
intended. Possibly, it is the reason why one uses the terms like "I did not intend” or "I did not mean it"
or "It just happened".

(b) Habits that are well established can incite an individual into action. Unlike emotions which largely
power and accompany the motives in progress, the Habits often trigger the silent motives. Habits are
strengthened patterns of behaviour which lie above or are very close to threshold level required for
any action. They are activated easily and the person acts as per his/her habits. For instance, a
advertisement displaying cigarettes or finds somebody else smoking? Likewise a person habituated to

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rise up early and get ready for his work may do the same even on a Sunday, instead, of sleeping for
extended hours.

(c) Sets, attitudes and values have compounded in part motivational factors.

Sets - are temporary state of motivation that makes for greater selectivity of perception and increased
specificity of response. Sets are mental preparedness that arise due to motives which are by and large
temporary. As long as the motive prevails sets direct the behaviours in a particular direction. It often
blocks many other: behaviours and allows for few. Hence, sets have motivational value in a sense they
direct the behaviours in a specific direction.

5. Attitude - Attitudes are motivation in a sense that where they are strongly held, they predispose an
individual for doing actions. Eg.: Racial Prejudices. Often are strong enough to make a person react
unfavourably towards a particular group. Some times, the motivated state of a prejudiced person
becomes strong enough to make him indulge into behaviours which are directed against a particular
group. In such a case the behaviours lead to discrimination. The motives associated with attitude
often inhibits rational thinking and reasonable motives. Attitudes may also scale up the intensity of
motives. For instance, a favourable attitude towards poor may increase the persons responses of
helping the poor and may even get him motivated to spend his pocket money in the same direction.
Therefore, attitudes posses both direction i.e. either favourable or unfavourable, and at the same time
intensity, weak or strong which can predispose a person for an action. Hence, attitudes themselves
are enduring motives held by a person.

Values - function as guides to conduct and also as goals towards which individual gets motivated to
direct his/her behaviours. Values have powerful motivational value can be understood from the fact
that behaviours which are consistent with individuals preferred values lead to self satisfaction on
internal satisfaction much like satisfaction which the individual would have achieved upon successfully
accomplishing an external goal or receiving on external reward.

Often value expressive behaviours like behaving in a manner which reflects honesty or being helpful
and co-operative to colleagues brings a sense of achievement. People get motivated towards such self
set standards of behaviours.

However, values are central to our personality and are present at a deeper level of consciousness.
They are not readily available to motivate people. In much of the occasion in day-to-day life, people
first perform a behaviour and subsequently refer to their personal value system to check its
consistency or discrepancy. Attitudes lying in the periphery of persons interact with the environment
readily. Attitudes are psychological attributes which are more visible than deeper value system. Hence,
if motives are seen as causes for behaviours; then attitudes are more frequent causal factors over
values.

To sum up one say that attitudes are more frequent motivators while values which in most of the
cases much more powerful in terms of relative strengths are more intense motivations. The
distinction between attitudes and values as motivators is that former is qualitatively larger while the
later is quantitatively stronger.

6. Incentives and environmental influences plays important role in motivational process. Although
motivation is a state which occurs within the body of the individual but such internal processes are
nevertheless influenced frequently by external stimuli. A latent motive can be aroused upon external
stimulation which might come as an incentive, reward or provocation. It is because of these
influences that individual interacts and adapts to its environment either actively or passively. For

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instance, the aroma of food being cooked in the kitchen can incite the hunger motive irrespective of
the fact that person is not deprived of food at that point of time. The sexual motives can be aroused at
the slightest of provocation that might come from a tainted poster fixed at the road side wall. In both
the cases the person was initially not looking for either food or sex but external stimulations have
aroused such motives. Often report 'love at first sight' which shows that motivation for affiliation, love
and belongingness have been aroused by an external stimulus. Similarly, financial investment which
are not preplanned in nature such as deciding to shop or sale offer by a boutique, or, spending more
than usual in telephone bills due to attractive offers are other examples which suggest that role of
external stimulations cannot be discounted as powerful motivation. One can safely say that human
motivation in civilized and developed world are largely locked in the environment and greater
the degree of exposure an individual has of the infinite world larger the number of motives he
is left with to be satiated.

7. Motivations help to explain why behaviours varies over time. For instance, many people cannot bring
themselves to loose weight, quit smoking, or exercise until they experience a heart attack or other
serious health problem. Then, in accordance with health belief models, these people may be
motivated eat a low fat diet, give up tobacco, and exercise regularly. Therefore, the stimuli like ice
cream, cigarettes, and health clubs would derive different responses at different times.

8. Motivation establish unity in diversity - Einstein once called the whole purpose of science was to
establish unity in diversity Motivation attempts to serve the same purpose. Let us consider an
example of a man who works on two jobs, refuses party invitations, wears old cloths, never
contributes to charity, never uses the Air Conditioner all summer. One could propose a separate
explanation for each of these behaviours, perhaps he likes to work hard, hates parties, fears new
clothes, like warm air and so on. Alternatively, one could suggest a motive that provides a single
explanation for all the diverse and unrelated behaviours. That unifying motive might be his desire to
save as much money as possible.

Classification of Motives

Acc. to Luthans, there are three type of motives.

1. Primary Motives - Depending upon internal bodily states, there may be organic motives like hunger,
thirst, respiration, sex etc. These are not learned and hence, has physiological basis.

2. Secondary Motives - Are learned motives based upon one's interaction with the environment. E.g,
achievement motivation, affiliation motives.

3. General Motives - Are not learned and at the same time do not have physiological basis. Ex- curiosity,
interest etc. These are also called objective motive.

Theories of Motivation

The theories of motivation attempts to explain the sources from which human motivation stems. The
sources fall into four general categories. They are -

(a) Biological factors - Particularly the need for food, water, sex and temperature regulation (Tinbergen,
1989)

(b) Emotional factors - Panic, fear, anger, love and hatred can be crucial to behaviour ranging from
selfless giving to brutal murder (Izrad, 1993)

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(c) Cognitive factors - People often behave in certain way because of their perception of the world, their
beliefs about what they can do, and their anticipations of how others would respond (Weiner, 1993)

(d) Social factors - Motivation may stem from social factors like, reaction to parents, teachers, siblings,
friends, television and other socio - cultural factors (Boumeister & Leary 1995)

No one theory gives a complete explanation for all the aspects of motivation but collectively they
help tell part of the story.

The four most prominent theories are

(l) Instinct theory (2) drive reduction theory

(3) Arousal theory (4) Incentive theory

(1) Instinct Theory - At the dawn of this century instinct theory was much favoured by psychologists.
According to (Tinbergen 1989) instinct are automatic, involuntary and unlearned patterns of behaviours
consistently released by particular stimuli. For instance, male three- spined stickleback fish attacks
aggressively when it sees the red underbelly of another male. Such behaviours are often called fixed action
patterns because they are unlearned, genetically coded responses to specific 'releaser' Stimuli.

Environmental cues that reliably evoke a specific response pattern in the member of a particular
species are called 'releasers'

In this regard one can site the research of (Fox, 1974) on the Turkey, a species of birds. Turkeys are
good mothers. Thev spend much time caring for their young ones cleaning, warming and feeding them.
Young chicks respond by chirping contentedly with characteristic sound of 'cheep-cheep'. One day it was
observed by a researcher that a Turkey chick stopped making it's usual sound, white it was still walking
around actively but it did not chirp. Tina, it's formerly affectionate mother, stopped attending it ignored it
and finally killed it. Why did this female Turkey murder her own helpless chick? Could the maternal
behaviour of Mamma Turkey have been influenced by that 'cheep-cheep' sound?

Yes, indeed, it has been found that this particular sound triggers an automatic reaction in all mother
Turkeys. To demonstrate how blindly automatic that response is, the researcher put a stuffed polecat near
Tina. She furiously attacked this creature, who is a natural enemy. But when the stuffed polecat moade the
'cheep cheep' baby Turkey sound (from a tape recorder planted inside it), Tina gathered it to her bosom,
giving it all the love that only mother turkey can. When the tape recorded 'cheep' stopped, Tina turned
terrible, tearing apart the silent polecat.

Such fixed action patterns are instincts which are transmitted generation after generation and help
in survival of the species .When an organism is at given stage in its development, a behaviour that is truly
instinctive will appear “full blown" the first time that adequate stimuli are present. Instinctive behaviour will
be performed adequately the first time, despite lack of previous opportunity to learn or practice it. Once,
released, it no longer depends upon the external ones, but is completed automatically.

Hence, it can be summarized that instinctual behaviours are elicited by internal secretions, such as
hormones and external stimulations (releasers) such as odour cues called pheromones

Early Christian theologians assumed that only animals were guided by instincts. They believed that
God had given humans reasons, free will, and thus responsibility of their own actions which gave them a
chance to earn their way to heaven. Then, in 1859 Charlis Darwin presented evidence of continuity of
species, from lower animals to humans. Willims James, writing in 1890, stated his belief, that humans rely
on even more instincts than lower animals to guide their behaviours. Besides biological instincts which

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humans share with animals, he also described a host of human social instincts, such as sympathy, modest
sociability, and love. For, James both human and animal instinct were Purposive.

William Mc. Dougall (1908), argued that human behaviour, too, is motivated by instinct. He defined
instincts as inherited dispositions that had three components -

1. Energizing aspect

2. Action aspect

3. Goal directedness

He began by listing eighteen human instincts, including self assertion, reproduction, pugnacity,
gregariousness, parenting, submission, sympathy, mating, jealousy, cleanliness and more Mc. Dougall
states instincts as behavioural patterns that are

(1) Unlearned

(2) Uniform in expression

(3) Universal in a species.

For instance if all members of a particular species of birds build their nest in the same way, even when
raised in isolation (indicating that the response is unlearned) then this nest building behaviour qualifies to
be instinctive.

Sigmund Freud - had some what different view of instinct. Contrary to James and Mc. Dougall, Freud
thought instincts had neither conscious purpose nor pre-determined direction, and that many means of
satisfying them can be learned. He believed that instinctive urges exists to satisfy bodily needs, and that
they create a tension, or psychic energy. The tension drives is towards activities or objects that will bring
satisfaction through reduction of tension. This notion of Freud brings him seemingly close to learning
theorist who believe that drives are generalized energizer of behaviour whereas learning provides the
necessarily direction via stimulus - response connections.

However, a closer look at Freud would illuminate the vital differences and uniqueness of his theory.
First of all, although Freud believed that instincts affect our conscious, thoughts and feelings, they operated
largely below our level of consciousness. Hence, our conscious mind which is also the guardian of societal
demands is often in conflict with irrational instinctual urges stemming from deeper levels of mind. The
conflict increases tension which eventually forces to us to behave in a manner so as to reduce them.
Thereafter if the deeper psychological force coming in conflict with learned social demands which eventually
provides the cause of behaviours, and not just the learning which an individual acquires comprising of
knowledge of demands of society.

Freud also distinguishes himself from the learning theorist and others when he qualifies instincts
into two broad categories they are life instinct (Eros) and death instinct (Thanatos) he says that life instinct
functioned in a manner to maintain life and to lead an individual to reproduce sexually. The death instinct
was negative force of nature that kept even the noblest of creatures mortal through illness, aging and finally
death. When death instinct however turns outward, it results in aggression and vandalism. Both life and
death instincts are often in situation of conflict during lifetime. This might explain why you love and hate the
same individual at different point of time and at times at same point of time, it also explains why you are
enthusiastically and unrealistically positive at times, while you are pessimists without any substantial
reasons at other point of time.

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Limitation of Instinct theory

(a) Circularity of Explanation - Instead of postulating processes and mechanism to account for human
behaviours, instinct theorist merely provided convenient labels. The aggression instinct was used to
explain why people behaviour was taken as evidence for an instinct to aggress.

(b) Cross-cultural Counter Evidence - Anthropologists like Margaret Mead (1939) has found enormous
behavioural difference in different cultures. Behavioural patterns that have been assumed to be
universal expression of "Human nature" were now seen to be variable reflecting specific cultural
experiences and learned values.

(c) Many Proposed human instinct were not Universal or automatic

Many human instinct as proposed by the instinct theorist were questioned by the critics on account of
being universal or automatic. Instincts such as jealousy and cleanliness are not universal or automatic
but are heavily dependent upon personal experience.

(d) Multiplicity of Human instincts – Within few years Me.Dougall and other theorist had named more
than 10000 instincts, prompting one critic (Bernard, 1924) to suggest that his colleagues had "an
instinct to produce instinct". Instinct had become meaningless labels that described behaviours
without explaining it. Saying that someone gambles because of gambling instinct, golfs because of
golfing instinct, works because work instinct or studies psychology explains nothing.

(f) Empirical demonstrations against instinct - The behaviorist insisted that important behaviours were
learned rather then inborn. Beginning with Watson, experimenters demonstrated environmental
determinants of actions and even of emotions. For example, learned fear of Little Albert is clearly not
instinct rather induced by environmental contingencies.

Current Statues of instinct-oriented models - Today some theorist continue to advocate "instinct-
oriented" explanations of human motivations, for example- Eibl- Eibesfeldt (1979) Lorenz (1981) and Ardrey
(1966). But these theorists mostly emphasize the biological basis of specific motives, such as sex and
aggression. The don't suggest that instinct produce automatic stereotyped responses in humans. Instead,
they argue that some human motives are instinctive in a sense these motives have an innate component
that is by product of evolutionary forces. For instance facial expressions of smile, sorrow, anger or
happiness have an innate component which make them uniform and bear same meaning across the
cultures.

In recent years, the most prominent instinct oriented model of human motivation has been E.O.
Wilson's sociobiological theory.

Sociobiological theory - Sociobiology is the study of genetic and evolutionary basis of social behaviour in all
organization including humans. Sociobiology came into existence since, 1975 with publication of Edward
Wilson's Sociobiology: A New Synthesis. Although he makes little use of concept of instinct per se, his
theory is descended from instinct theories in that it proposes that some human motives are genetically
programmed.

Sociologist argue that natural selection favors social behaviours that maximize reproductive
success- i.e. passing on genes to next generation (Hamilton, 1970, Wilson, 1980). Social motives such as
competition, dominance, aggression and sex drive in terms of their evolutionary value serve the purpose of
survival of the organism i.e. Species. If a Species is intensely competitive, sociobiologists would says, it is

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because competiveness gives a survival advantage, so that proportionately more competitive genes are
passed on the next generation.

Sociologist have even gone ahead to explain the self sacrificing or Altruistic behaviours to be
stemming from genetic selfishness. For example, when a soldier throws himself on a hand grenade to
protect a comrade, it appears as an unselfish social behaviour. (Krebs, 1987) offers an interesting
explanation for this apparent paradox. He points out that an organism may contribute to passing on it's
genes by sacrificing itself to some others that share the same genes. Altruistic behaviours that evolves as
members of species protect their own off springs, can be extended to other, more distantly related member
of the same Species. For instance, the Eskimos have developed the practice of committing suicide when they
grow old by moving out in snow without clothes. They do so to save the other members during the times of
shortage of food. Thus the principle of genetic selfishness may operate to produce behaviours that seems
remarkably unselfish.

Similarly, Trivers (1972) has proposed that mating patterns in species depends upon what each sex
has to invest, by the way of time, energy and survival risk, to maximize the transmission of it's genes to the
next generation. In many mammalian species, males have to invest little beyond copulation, so their
reproductive potential is maximized by mating with as many females as possible. In contrast, females
typically have to invest weeks or months of effort to carry and nourish offspring thereby limiting the number
of offspring that female can produce in a breeding season, regardless of how many males they mate with.
Hence, females have no incentive for mating with males. Females in mammalian species therefore optimize
their reproductive potential by being selective in mating. They tend to maximize the transmission of their
genes to future generation by mating with larger, stronger, and healthier males, who are more likely to
produce larger, stronger and healthier offspring who are more likely to survive to produce viable offspring of
their own.

Limitation:

(a) The psychobiological theories are highly speculative.

(b) The post hoc explanations cannot be test empirically. .

(c) According to some critics this approach overemphasizes the influence of biology on behaviours
while ignoring the cultural factors.

(d) This approach can be misused to assert the status-quo present in society i.e. dominant status of
males over females by assuming that it is an inevitable outcome of evolutionary forces.
(Lewonllnin, Rose be Kamin 1984) Genetic discrimination can be justified as a product of natural
selection which has favoured the arrangement where males would remain dominant over
females.

(e) Further, in case of human beings, the factors which guide the process of mate selection, are much
complicated. It essentially is not concerned so much with larger, stronger healthier partner,
instead, personality, subjective preferences, and partner's personal attitude, family background,
financial status etc come into prominent role while selecting mates.

Conclusion - There is a general recognition today that the complexity that is human organism in action is
usual1y influenced by interaction of internal and external factors i.e. by both what we logically think and
what we can become through learning.

The mechanism thought to be translating motivations into learning and learning back into
motivation was first described in Drive theory.

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Drive Theory

According to this theory, biological needs arising within our bodies create unpleasant states of arousal like
hunger, thirst, fatigue etc. Drive theory rests on the Principle of Homeostasis which states that any deviation
from a balanced physiological state generates behaviours in a manner and in a direction such that the
balance is restored. Thus, biological need pushes (or drives) human behaviours designed to satisfy the
needs. And, behaviour continues overtime until the need is eliminated.

Drive theory may be, broadly, delineated in two groups on the basis of source of drive. Theorist (like Lorenz,
Tinbergen, Freud, etc) conceived drive to be in-born~ and instinctive. While others have emphasized the role
of learning in the drive states. Such driving states are conditioned by individual's past learning and
experience and therefore, are different for different individuals.

Ex - Hunger is an innate drive but feeling hungry at a fixed time, say 1 P.M., is result of practice and routine
and hence, called secondary drive.

Amongst the major contributors to the drive theory, Hull, Spence and Miller have adopted a scientific
method. For example, Hull has used hypothetical deductive approach to explain the drive theory.

Hull Concept

Human behaviour, according to Hull, is an outcome of an interaction between organism and environment.
Environment provides the stimulus to which organism responds. In a broader context such interaction is
called biological adaptation of the organism to the environment. Such adaptation, according to Hull,
facilitates survival of organism. So that, whenever the survival of organism is not facilitated, the organism is
in a state of need. Hence, need is a state of organism in which deviation from optimal biological conditions is
necessary for survival of organism to take place. Bodily needs arise both from deficiency of substance
necessary for survival as well as excess of substance inimical to survival.

Drive is a general condition of deprivation in a organism. It is a common denominator for all primary
motives whether it be need for food, or for water or tissue injury, or sex hormones. Hence, drive is non-
specific energizer of behaviour i.e. it lacks direction. Under the pressure of needs and drives, organisms
undertake adaptive actions. The pattern of action (i.e. response) that leads to reduction of drive (stimulus)
become reinforced. (Thorndikes law of effect).

In the process the need reducing actions i.e. the response may get associated with the stimulus i.e. drive
situation. The S-R linkage, so formed, provides the direction to the behaviour. Hence, energy for the
behaviour is provided by drive, and the

direction by S-R association.

Hence, for prior association to be displayed, there must be state of need. Further, since drive is non-
directional energizer of behaviour, any need will activate most probable or highest associative linkages
present in the individual's habit strength.

What is habit?

 Whenever a drive stimulus (energy) impacts upon receptor (i.e. mechanism within the individual that
senses the drive state) an afferent receptor impulse is generated. This conjunction is closely followed
by diminution on the need and the associated drive. This will result in an increment in the tendency
for that stimulus to evoke similar reaction on subsequent occasion. This is law of primary
reinforcement. Hence, stimulus is some form of physical energy ex-heat, sound, pressure, light etc.
(Impulse is drive, a reaction is response behaviours)

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 The tendency for a given stimulus to evoke that reactions on subsequent occasion is called habit.
Habits, are reinforced and conditioned response patterns. They are persistent patterns of behaviour
acquired by reinforcement. Once the reinforcing needs are removed, habits become inhibited,
weakened or extinguished. Whenever, habits do not lead to the biological adaptation of the organism
and do not help survival, they become subject to extinction and gradually disappear. This explanation
has great implication in behavioural therapy i.e. aversion therapy.

Hull, therefore, specified a mathematical relationship between the drive (energy) and habit (direction).

That is

B = H x D (Behaviour = habit x drive)

The above relation initiated lot of research. Perin (1942) and William (1938), in their respective studies
showed that drive energises behaviour and the relationship between drive and habit is multiplicative.

Meryman (1952) showed that a drive is a pooled energy source. Drive is an internal energy and is
distributed across various kinds of deprivation or needs. If we consider this energy to be finite in terms of
quantity, then it could be assumed that drive is locked up in various proportion amongst various types of
needs. So, at any point of time, the total drive energy available to guide the behaviour would by equal to
the sum of pooled up energy locked in different drives, this may be reason why we hold multiple motives
but only specific motive drives us to maximum at a given point of time. For example, if one is thirsty, he/she
will be more driven towards the refrigerator to reach out cold water or juice rather than turning to
television to watch his/her favourite show.

But there are behaviours that occur even when primary drives are absent like, absence of food, water or
painful stimulus. To account for such behaviours, Hull emphasized the importance of secondary drives
which are also called learned drives. The acquired drives account for most of the psychological motives,
such as stealing, parental approval, desiring for affiliation with other people, desire to earn money etc,
Primary drives are induced by internal biological needs and not depending upon learning, but just as
neutral stimulus paired with reinforcement can acquire reinforcing power, so neutral stimulus paired with
primary motives or drive acquire motivating power. Hence, secondary drives are acquired through learned
association with some primary drives. For instance, when one feels thirsty, he reaches out the refrigerator
instead of reading a book, because this sequence has been previously reinforced by reduction of thirst.
Because we have repetitively associated the sight of the refrigerator with thirst, merely seeing it can now
motivate us to drink even when we are not thirsty. This is an acquired or learned drive.

Some investigation to establish the role of secondary drives have been successful especially in case of
avoidance behaviours.

Miller Expt.

A cage had white compartment as well as black compartment. Rat was placed in white compartment which
had shock arrangement. Rat started running here and there. Accidentally, rat discovered door for black
compartment where they did not get shock. Again the process was repeated. Rat, again, took some time to
discover black compartment. But every successive trial reduced the time of latency.

Next time, the door was made unoperatable and a wheel was placed in the white compartment that could
be rolled to make escape. In this setup, the rats exhibited sign of fear when they discovered that their
previous way of escape was no longer available. After a period of random activity the rat discovered the
response that opened the door.

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In the second phase of expt, the shock was not available, yet it generated behaviours that were earlier
generated in the presence of painful stimulus i.e. shock. Hull noticed that fear in absence of shock is learned
and was not as a result of tissue need i.e. primary drive. He called it secondary drive. In his book 'Essential
of behaviour' (1951). Hull stated, "It is the matter of common observations that situations that are
associated with drives themselves become drive". Such acquired associative conditions have motivational
process. In the above expt, the cues in the white compartment got contiguously associated with the fear
drive state induced by the shock. In this way the cues acquired the characteristic of drive itself and became
secondary drive. The evidence of learned fear brought great changes in Hull's earlier conception on
motivation.

Tissue deficit (i.e. hunger, thirst etc) was no longer only source of drive rather any external stimulus was
capable of acquiring sufficient intensity. Thus, if hunger, sex and pain are primary drives, then greed,
curiosity and fear respectively would be secondary drives.

Hullian theory further went for expansion in the light of Honzig, Tolman and Crespis expt which proved the
role of incentives in motivation and is major determinant of performance.

Hence, Hull was forced to accept independent role of incentive. Hence, earlier equation become as

B = D x H x K (Where, K = incentive)

Spence suggested that drive and incentive should be added as both are similar entity. Only difference is that
the drive has push property while incentive has pull property which generate anticipatory goal response.

Incentive theory - Instinct, Drive and Arousal theories of motivati1on, all focus on internal processes that
prompt people to behave in certain ways. By contrast, incentive theory emphasis the role & of
environmental stimuli that can motivate behaviour by either pulling people towards them or pushing people
away from them.

Incentives refer to activating and energizing effect on behaviour that occurs before a goal is reached. They
characterize the reinforcement received because of apparent anticipation of goals or rewards.

According to incentive theory, people act to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative incentives.
Differences in behaviour from one person to another, or from one situation to another, can be traced to the
incentives available and the value a person places on them at the time. so, if one expects a behaviour such
as buying a lottery ticket to lead to a valued outcome which is winning money, one will want to engage in
that behaviour.

The value of an incentive is influenced by biological as well as cognitive factors. For example, food is
more motivating incentive when one is hungry than when one is satiated (Ballcine & Dcknisow, 1994)

The expectancy-value models of motivation, according to (Atkinson and Birch, 1978), are incentive
theories which suggest that one's motivation to persue a particular course of action depends upon two
factors

1. Expectancy about one's chances of attaining incentive

2. Value of desired incentive.

For example, your motivation to persue a promotion at work will depend on your estimate of the
likelihood that you can be promoted (expectancy) and how appealing the promotion is to you (value). The
same holds true for buying lottery tickets. This is perhaps the reason why, state run lotteries lure people by
placing high sumed prizes which provides greater value and at the same time provide daily small prizes to
raise the expectancy of winning amongst the players.

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Limitation of Drive theory

1. Drive theories cannot explain all motivation as it is based upon Walter Cannons (1932) concept of
homeostasis which implies a state of physiological equilibrium or stability. Homeostasis seems
irrelevant to some human motives like thirst for knowledge, curiosity etc. which makes a person
wanting and unstable. More you acquire knowledge more thirsty you feel which goes against the
principle of homeostasis which suggest that body tries to restore the equilibrium by pulling an
individual away from departure point so as to restore the stability.

2. Motivation may exist without drive arousal. For instant, much of the time we eat at a particular
intervals of time and not essentially when we are hungry. Further, even when we have eaten enough
we might be seduced by an ice cream parlor on our way to school.

3. We not only eat in absence of internal tension but sometimes eat to cause ourselves some internal
tension for example by overeating.

4. It is also sound at different behaviours demand different degrees of arousal to be performed

optimally. Hence, individual regulate their level of arousal from time to time and task to task. In the
process they may not only reduce the drive arousal but may also elevate it to perform; certain task.
This principle has been successfully proven by Yerkes - Dodson law

Arousal theory: Whereas Hulls theory of motivation was a drive reduction theory the Arousal theories are
based upon the realisation that people sometimes try to reduce arousal and sometimes try to increase it.
This has led these theorist to argue that motivation is tied with regulation of arousal and not essentially
reduction of arousal.

Deci (1980), Rozin and Shenkar (1989) have cited the examples of behaviours which do not reduce any
known drive. For instance,

(a) People go out of their way to ride roller coasters.

(b) Sky diving increases tensions which lead to amusement.

(c) Eating chili peppers are again tension increasing in nature causing increase in drive for water.

(d) Besides, there are curiosity oriented behaviours like exposing new environments and manipulating
novel situations.

All the above cited behaviours increase people's level of activation.

Most of these theorist think of arousal as a general level of activation reflected in the state of several
physiological systems (Brehm & Selj 1989). Thus, one's level of arousal can be measured by the brain's
electrical activity, by heart rate, or by muscle tension. Normally, arousal is lowest during deep and quiet
sleep and highest during panic or great excitement. Many factors increase arousal, including hunger, thirst
intense stimuli, unexpected events and stimulant drugs.

According to Teigen (1994), people perform best, when arousal is moderate. The relationship
between arousal and performance was proven empirically by research conducted early this century by
Robert Yerkes and his colleague hence, it is called Yerkes Dodson law.

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Figure (A) - The performance is poorest when arousal is very low or very high and best when arousal is at
some intermediate level. When we are either nearly asleep or overly excited, it may be difficult to think
clearly or to be physically coordinated.

Figure (B) - Show that optimal performance comes at lower level of arousal for difficult task or complex
tasks while optimal performance comes at a higher level of arousal for easy task. For instance, a small
amount of overarousal can cause students to perform for below their potential on difficult test (Sara Son
1984)

It has also been estimated that, in battle, 75 to 85 percent of soldiers sometimes become so overaroued that
they do not fire their weapons (Marshall, 1974)

According to Arousal theory of motivation - (1) people are motivated to behave in ways that keep them at
their own optimal level of arousal (Hebb, 1955) Fiske & Maddi ,1961)

(2) This optimal level differs from person to person. It is higher for some than others (Zuckerman, 1984)

According to Farley, (1986) and Zuckerman (1979), there is a relationship between arousal and individuals
personality. They suggested that people who enjoy high level of arousal are likely to smoke, engage in
frequent sexsual activity, drink alcohol, listen to loud music, eat spicy foods an do things that are novel and
risky. While those with lower level of arousal tend to behave in ways that bring less intense stimulation and
to take fewer risks. Most of the differences in optimal arousal have a strong biological basis and may help
shape broader differences in personality, such as introversion and extraversion.

(3) Generally, people try to increase arousal when it is too low and decrease it when it is too high. They seek

excitement when bored and relaxation when overaroued. For instance after classes you may want to see an
exciting movie. But if your day was spent playing baseball fiercely, an evening of relaxation may seem ideal.

Limitation of Arousal theory

1. Arousal theories view motivation in terms of activation level which is a physiological component
cognitive component is missing in the theory.

2. Some motives may cause higher arousal within an individual irrespective of his/her personality,
particularly if the motives belong to the areas of personal interest of the individual.

3. There are enough instances when optimal performance has occurred incidentally irrespective of the
fact that the person was under aroused or over aroused.

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4. It is needless to say that with practice one can give optimum performance in any kind of task with
any degree of difficulty. The role of practice & skills in performance cannot be therefore discounted
against level of arousal.

5. Like Instinct and Drive theories of motivation, arousal theory also focuses on internal processes
which prompt people to behave in a certain way. The role of environmental stimulation has not
been addressed by this theory.

Conclusion-

The Drive theories views motivation to stem from deficiency while Arousal theory focuses upon motivations
for increasing tension. Amidst these contrasting paradigms, one emphasing motivation to be tension
reducing while other tension increasing, the Humanistic theory finds it's place. It complements the efforts
made by the two.

Maslows, theory of Motivation: Deficiency Vs Growth Motivation

A theory that explains both tension - reducing and tension increasing action is that of humanistic
psychologist, Abraham Maslow (1970). Maslow contrasted deficiency motivation, in which individual seek to
restore their physiological equilibrium, and growth motivation, in which individual seek to go beyond what
they have done and been in the past.

Growth motivated people may welcome uncertainty, an increase in tension, and even pain if they see it as a
route towards greater fulfillment of their potential and as a way to achieve their goals. For example, a martyr
or revolutionary who voluntarily suffers for a political cause may accept pain or humiliation as necessary in
an attempt to change the prevalent attitudes and institutions. Such person suffers to achieve meaningful
goals that fit with personal values.

Maslows theory holds that we all have a needs hierarchy, in which our inborn needs are arranged in a
sequence of stages; from most primitive to most human. At the bottom of the hierarchy are the basic
biological needs such as hunger or thirst. When they are pressing, other needs are put on hold and are
unlikely to influence our actions. But, when they are reasonably well satiated, then the needs on the next
level begin to motivate us. These are safety needs. When we are no longer concerned about danger crisis,
we become motivated by attachment needs i.e. need to belong, to affiliate with others, to love and be loved.
When we are well fed, safe and feeling a sense of social belongingness, we move up to esteem needs. These
include the need to like oneself, to see oneself as competent and effective and to be held in esteem by
others.

At each level, Maslow, argues, the need is inborn, not learned, although the way it is elicited and expressed
is affected by values learned in one's family and culture.

Pathology may result, when need at any level is frustrated. Frustrated love needs, for example can lead to
hostility and perversion of sexsuality. Further, so long as a lower level need is not reasonably satisfied to
the next higher level. Such a case the person develops a nucleus of thoughts and, action in which he gets
his/her life stuck. He/she fail to conquer greater heights of maturity for his/her personality.

As we move to top of the hierarchy, we find person who is nourished, safe, loved and loving, secure has a
sense of a worth. Some human needs in quest for fullest development of their potential or self
actualization. A self actualizing person is self aware, self accepting, socially responsive, creative,
spontaneous, and open to novelty and challenge among other positive attributes.

Maslows hierarchy goes several steps further to include needs for transcendence. Such needs may lead to
higher states of consciousness and a more cosmic vision of one's part in the universe. There seems to be a

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similarity between Maslows highest level of human Striwing and Kohlberg's top stage of moral
development.

Similar views have been held by his fellow humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers (1959). Carl Rogers believed
the central motivational force for humans is the innate need to grow and actualize ones highest
potentialities. The motivation to self actualize is essentially to be open to experiences, ideas, feelings, to
explore both external and mental environments. (Buttler and Rice, 1963) posted that such a process of
self actualization is a form of Curiosity or stimulus motivation. Anxiety and Guilt inhibits this motivation.

In any case becoming free from deficiency motivation allows a person to become more competent and
fulfilled. Limitations of Humanistic theories of Motivation

Some psychologist have resisted this theory of the inherent goodness of individuals. They criticize this
approach because

(a) It lacks adequate experimental confirmation.

(b) Its concepts are vague and not operationally defined.

(c) The world is filled with too much violence, evil, and destructive behaviour patterns for this goodness
model to account for.

(d) Environmental forces clearly exert strong influences on individual behaviour, even overcoming the
best intentions of innately good people.

(e) There are several people, who pass on to higher level of motivation within short of span of time,
overlooking several intermediate stages. For example, most of the world's greatest literary figures
were malfed or unloved, but have exhausted their fullest potentialities in making themselves literary
genius.

(f) Maslow may have been overly optimistic in his assumption that everyone has potential to self
actualize. The fact that average British person spends 25 hours a week watching television suggests
that there are many people whose motivation for personal growth is not sufficient.

(g) Influence of Environmental factors like schooling, training, supportive parents and so on has not been
adequately addressed. Individuals are more likely to become self-actualized in stimulating
environment.

Emperical Evidence of Maslow theory:-

Aronoff in (1967) tested the prediction that higher needs will only emerge when lower needs are satisfied.
He compared the fishermen and cane cutter in British West Indies. Fishermen worked on their own and
generally earned more than cane cutter, who worked in groups. Cane cutting was on the other hand more
secure job, because the rewards fluctuated much less than fishing for cutters were paid even when unwel1.
According to Maslow's theory, people who chose for being fishermen should be mainly those whose security
and esteem needs were met and therefore they chose to take up more challenging and responsible job of
fishermen. This prediction was confirmed by Aronoff in 1967.

The need-Press Theory Henry Murray (1938)

The age old controversy of person Vs. Situation finds a reasonable compromise in the theories of Murray
and Kurt Lewin. B = f(P,I), i.e. behaviour is a function of environment and characteristic of an individual in
part, Murray preceded Lewin in his Need -Press theory which seeded the very idea. Henry Murray argued in
his need press theory that we have 20 manifest needs. The needs include dominance, achievement,
affiliation, play, sex, aggression and nurturance as important ones.

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Each need has a desire or intended effect, feeling and actions associated with it. For Ex. The dominance
need involves the desire to control or influence other people, feeling of confidence, and - actions designed
to influence and persuade others. In order to understand someone's behaviour, we have to take account to
press, which consist of those features of the environment which are relevant to need satisfaction. For
example, the need for dominance can only be satisfied when there are other people around who are willing
to be influenced. Hence, persons behaviour is combined result of his internal needs and environmental for
situational opportunities in form of press.

In order to measure these needs, Morgan and Murray, (1935) developed Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
In is a type of projective test which consist of number of pictures for example, a young man turned away
from an older women. The individual taking up the test are asked what is happening in the picture, what led
up to the situation, and what will happen subsequently. These stories are usually interpreted in rather
flexible-and subjective fashion to identify individuals underlying motives and conflicts. TAT was developed by
Murray as a part of an attempt to discover the covered (inhibited) and unconscious (partially repressed)
tendencies of normal persons.

Mc.Clleland, who worked with Murray, developed a measure of need for achievement based on ways the
pictures were interpreted by the subjects.

Limitations of Murray theory

1. The approach to motivation adopted by Murray and Mc.Clleland is concerned with only important
needs. For example, need for achievement has been found to be relevant in predicting job success,
and account for some difference among cultures. Hence, the theory is not comprehensive theory of
motivation.

2. Thematic Apperception test designed to measure the needs have fairly low reliability and validity. They
are not free from subjective biases and therefore lack the much needed objectivity in psychological
testing.

3. Many of the needs identified by Murray have not been studied in detail, and therefore it is difficult to
evaluate the overall success of the need- press theory.

LEWINS FIELD THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Lewins system is Gestalt in its overall orientation and at the same time differs strikingly in its emphasis on
needs, will, personality and social factors from orthodox Gestalt psychology. He believed that science has
evolved over three developmental epochs, which he designates as speculative, descriptive and constructive.
In the speculation stage, the goal was to discover the fundamental elements or processes underlying natural
phenomena. In descriptive stage, science seeks to accumulate as many facts as possible and to describe
them with precision. In the constructive (also called as Galilean stage by Lewin), mode of science has as its
goal in the discovery of laws by means of which the scientist can predict individual cases.

Events are lawful even if they occur only once in an individual. The proof of a law depends upon the "purity
of the case" and not necessarily upon the frequency with which it occurs. Reduced to its simplest terms,
Lewins argument holds that psychological laws need not be formulated solely on the basis of statistical
average. Thus, Lewin favours an idiographic psychology in which the focus is on the individual as opposed to
a nomothetic psychology where the emphasis is on the statistical average Lewin reduces his thesis to the
following formulae:

B = f(PE)

B = behaviour,

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f = function (law)

P = person

E= total environmental situation

Lewin invented a new system of geometry called hodological space, which consists of qualitative geometry
emphasizing locomotion along psychological path, the dynamic interaction of individuals in their
environments and their behaviour at borders and barriers.

The concept of person in the total life space represents the descriptive or structural aspects of field theory
to which we may now relate Lewin's dynamic concepts. The fundamental concept in the motivational system
are as follows: need, tension, valence, vector, barrier and equilibrium.

Need is Lewins concept for any motivated state that can be brought about by a physiological condition like
the desire for an environmental object, or the intention to achieve, a goal.

Tensions are emotional states that accompany needs. Tensions may also be induced by environmental
objects that have potential need significance for the individual.

Objects may have either positive or negative valence. Objects that satisfy needs are attractive and have
positive valence, whereas objects that threaten the individual or are repellant have negative valence. Thus,
to a hungry child an apple has a positive valence, whereas for a child who is experiencing the ill effects of
having eaten a half dozen green apples, the apple has a negative valence.

A vector is a directed line. If only one vector impinges upon the individual, he/she will move in the direction
indicated by the vector. If two/more vectors impel the individual in different directions, the effective
movement will be the resultant of all these vectors. If two equally balanced vectors are operating, the result
is a conflict.

Lewins analysis of conflict situation is one of his best known conceptual schemes. The approach -approach
conflict exists between two positive goal objects of opposite but equal attractiveness. Ex.- On receiving two
equally attractive job offers simultaneously.

The equilibrium is however, an unstable one. As individual moves towards one of the goal and goal-gradient
effect occurs in which the attractiveness of the nearer goal increases, while attractiveness of the goal moved
away from decreases. Because the individual is now in a imbalance, he/she will be drawn rapidly to the
nearer of the two goals.

More serious is the avoidance-avoidance conflict, in which the individual is compelled to choose between
two negative alternatives. Eg. A soldier suffering from combat fatigue and who wishes to escape from
battlefield, is compelled to remain there due to social and military pressure. As an individual approaches an
alternative, its negative force increases and he tends to vacillate close to the middle.

The approach avoidance conflict is likely to be extremely disruptive, since the individual is both drawn to and
repelled by the same situation at the same time. Thus, the drug addict, may be strongly motivated towards
quitting addiction but dreads undergoing the process of withdrawal symptoms and the return to a lonely,
meaningless life. The approach avoidance conflict is thus characterized by a stable equilibrium.

Mclelleland's theory of Achievement Motivation

The achievement motive is the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high
standards of excellence. People with high need for achievement seek to master tasks - be they sports,
business ventures, intellectual puzzle, or artistic creation - and feel intense satisfaction from doing so. They

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exert strenuous effort in striking for excellence, enjoy themselves in the process, and take great pride in
achieving at a high level.

In Maslow's need hierarchy, achievement is found at forth level, among esteem needs Characteristics of
person with strong achievement motivation

1. People with high achievement needs tend to set challenging but realistic goals.

Mc. Clleland in (1958), gave children a test to measure their need for achievement called n Ach. The
test was TAT i.e. Thematic Apperception Test in which children were supposed to tell a story upon
seeing a picture. Subsequently, the researcher asked the children to play ring toss game. Children
scoring low on need achievement test (TAT), usually stood so close or so far away from ring toss target
that they either could not fail of could not succeed. In contrast, children scoring high on need-
achievement test stood at a moderate distance from the target, making the game challenging but not
impossible.

John Atkinson - Provides the explanation why people with high n Ach tend to prefer task with
moderate degree of difficulty. He has elaborated upon Mc Cleland's original theory and has identified
certain situational determinants of achievement behaviour. Atkinson theorises that the tendency to
pursue achievement in a particular situation depends upon following factors –

(a) The strength of one's motivation to achieve success. This is viewed as a stable aspect of
personality.

(b) One's estimate of probability of success for the task in hand. This varies from task to task.

(c) The incentive value of success. This depends upon intangible or tangible rewards for success on
a specific task. The later two variables (b and c) are situational determinants of achievement
behaviour. According to Atkinson, the pursuit of achievement increases as the probability and
incentive value of success go up. The joint influence of these situational factors may explain why
achievers prefer tasks of inter mediate difficulty.

Atkinson notes that the probability of success and incentive value of success on a task are
interdependent to some degree. As the task get easier, success becomes less satisfying. As the task
get harder, success becomes more satisfying but its likelihood obviously declines. When the
probability and incentive value of success are weighed together, moderately challenging tasks seem to
offer the best overall value in terms of maximizing one's sense of accomplishment.

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2. People with high n Ach have different personality. People with high n Ach like to seek success, take risk
as needed, and are intensely satisfied with success. But, if they feel they have tried their best, people
with high achievement motivation are not too upset by failure. Those with low achievement
motivation also like to succeed, but instead of joy, success tends to bring them relief at having avoided
failure (Atkinson & Brich,1978).

Atkinson maintains that people achieve in their motivation to avoid failure. This motive is considered
stable aspect of personality. Together with situational factors such as probability of failure and
negative value placed on failure, it influences achievement strings. Consider the following figure:-

Determinants of achievement behaviour. According to John Atkinson, a person’s pursuit of

achievement in a particular situation depends on several factors. Some of these factors, such as need
for achievement or fear of failure, are relatively stable motives that are part of the person’s
personality. Many other factors, such as the likelihood and value of success or failure, vary from one
situation to another, depending on the circumstances.

As with the motive to achieve success the motive to avoid failure can stimulate achievement. For
instance you ]could work very hard persistently in psychology primarily because you could not tolerate
the shame associated with failure. In other words, you could work more to avoid a bad grade than to
earn a good grade. The relative strengths of the motives to achieve success and the motive to avoid
failure influences the risk that people prefer to take.

In some situations, the motivation to avoid failure may inhibit achievement. A strong fear of failure
may prevent an aspirant to take up his attempt in the current year for Civil Services exam. Many
people shy away from worthwhile challenges in life due to this reason.

3. According to Klinch de Feldman 1992, People with high n Ach select tasks with clear outcomes, and
they prefer feedback from harsh but competent critic rather than from one who is friendlier but less
competent. In contrast, people who are less motivated to achieve are less likely to seek or enjoy
feedback, and they tend to quit in response (Weiner, 1980).

4. People with high n Ach work persistently on an impossible task than those with low n Ach when the
task was announced difficult rather than easy. People with low n Ach gave up sooner when they were
led to believe the task was difficult, but they persisted for the supposedly easy (actually impossible)
task. (Mc Clleland 1976)

5. People with high n Ach were found to be more upwardly mobile than those with low scores on n Ach
test. Also, the Sons who had high n Ach scores were more likely to advance above their father's
occupational status than Sons with low n Ach measures (Mc Clleland, 1976)

6. People with high n Ach seem to have internal locus of control. They believe that outcomes of their
actions are the result of what they do. On the other hand people with low n Ach tend to have
orientations toward external locus of control, the interpret the outcomes for their action as result of
factors in the environment. This has led Harackiewicz and Ellist, 1993 to suggest that people with
strong achievement motivation tend to be pre-occupied with their performance and level of ability.

7. According to Raynor (1970) people with high n Ach like to struggle with a problem rather than get help.
They can wait for delayed rewards and they make careful plans for future.

8. According to Joseph Nultin et al, people with high n Ach hold a future oriented time perspective, which
influences wide range of psychological process. It intensifies ones present tendency to put forth
effects, in planning and setting goals.

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9. People with n Ach are intrinsically motivated. They do things mostly because they enjoy doing them
and not so much because of external reward associated with it. According to Lepperetal external
rewards provided for activities which are enjoyed by the individual decreases instead of increasing
his/her achievement motivation.

Factors influencing achievement motivation

The important factors influencing achievement motivation are outlined below-

1. Parenting: Achievement motivation tends to be learned at early childhood, especially from parents. In
one study, young boys were given a very hard task at which they were sure to fail. Fathers whose sons
scored low on achievement motivation tests often became annoyed as they watched their boys, discouraged
them continuing, and interfered or even completed the task themselves (Rosen & D'Andrade, 1959) A
different pattern of behaviour emerged among parents of children who scored high on tasks of achievement
motivation such parents tended to encourage the child to try difficult tasks, especially new ones, give praise
and other rewards for success, encourage the child to find ways to succeed rather than merely complaining
about failure and prompt the child to go on to the next, more different challenge (Mc Clleland, 1985)

2. Culture and Society: Mc.Clleland, found that, in general, Protestant countries (in which achievement
and independence tend to be twin virtues) were more economically advanced than Catholic countries. He
found that men in these 'achieving societies' were more successful earlier in life, the; value autonomy as a
success seeking style.

He also found that subtle messages about a cultures view of the importance of achievement often appear in
the books children read and the stories they hear. Does the story's main character work hard and overcome
obstacles (creating expectations of pay-off for persistence) or loaf and then win lottery (suggesting that
rewards come randomly regardless of effort)? If this outcome of personal initiative (typical of individualistic
culture) or he succeeds due to his ties with a supportive and cooperative group (typical of a collectivist
culture)? Such themes appear to act as blue prints for reaching the goals one should aspire to. Therefore,
ideas about achievement motivation also differs from culture to culture. In one study, Zahrani and Kaplowitz
(1993). asked individuals from Saudi Arabia and United States to comment on short stories describing
people succeeding at various tasks. Saudis tended to see the people in the stories as having succeeded
because of the help they got from others, while Americans tended to attribute success to the internal
characteristics of each story's main character.

3. Gender role stereotypes:- Gender difference in achievement motivation emerge early in life, perhaps
because of differences in ways that boys and girls learn to think about themselves and their performance
(Bums Seligman, 1989)

According to Dweek and Sillliard , 1975, females are more likely than males to attribute failures on school
related tasks to lack of ability, and they tend to begin doing so at an early age. Many persist in seeing
themselves as incompetent even when grades and other objective evidence show that they excel.

Girl's readiness to depreciate their own abilities in school may stem in part from the performance feedback
they receive from their teachers. Observational studies show that both boys and girls are told what wrong
they do instead. But, boys are more likely than girls to also be told that they are not concentrating or are
being careless. Thus, boys learn to see failure as due to lack of efforts or some other situational factors. In
contrast, the feedback that girls receive lead them to attribute failure as lack of ability.

Support for this view comes from a study in which researches arranged for girls, with high achievement
motivation to receive the type of criticism normally directed towards boys with high achievement

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motivation. The girls behavior became more like that of boys with high achievement motivation. They
adopted challenging goals, worked hard and persisted in the face of failure Dweek, (1986)

4. Cultural Discrimination: - In some culture's gender role stereotypes discourage achievement in

women. These stereotypes may potray the pursuit of excellence and mastery as 'unfeminine' and
threatening to men. As a result, some women in these cultures may hide success or act in ways that
undermine their chances of success - a pattern called fear of success (Horner 1970, Santucei et al 1989)

According to Leinhardt, Seewald and Engel, 1979, teachers and parents may communicate gender role
stereotypes about achievement, including ideas about 'appropriate' areas of achievement for boys an girls.
For example, if boys are expected to do better at math and girls to be better at reading, boys may receive
more help and encouragement in maths than girls do.

5. Attributional Style: - The way one explains the events in his/her lives - from winning at cards to
having failed in exams can become lifelong attributional styles that affect the way one views himself.

Pessimists attribute problems to stable - internal global factors for example - "I have always had this
problem, it's never going to get better, it will ruin may' career". Optimists tend instead towards an
attributional style that deals with 'problems' by perceiving them as unstable external and specific.
"Sometimes my mate gets into terrible moods and that causes temporary glitches in our relationships".
However, when things go well, the optimist rushes in to take stable internal global credit. "It's just part of my
nature to always be a winner".

People with high n Ach tends to have an attributional style to an optimist

6. Locus of Control orientation: - When people acquire an internal locus of control, they interpret
that the outcomes of their actions are the result of what they do. Whereas, when people develop external
locus of control, they interpret the outcomes of their actins to be result of factors in the environment.

Internal locus of control orientation leads people to set goals and develop generally successful means of
attaining them. They develop a sense of personal Self Efficacy. This is a feeling that they have control over
what happens to them. Perceived Self efficacy, in turn, influences an individuals thought patterns,
performance and emotional arousal. With higher perceived self efficacy, performance is better and
emotional arousal less. Perception of self - efficacy also influences one's choice of coping patterns in
response to stress as well as one's level of physiological arousal.

By contrast; a feeling of self inefficacy can lead to apathy, despondency, a sense of futility and feeling that
one is a victim of external forces.

7. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: - Motivation to engage in an action for its own sake is called
intrinsic motivation. Things that we do because we simply enjoy doing them like playing video games,
singing in the shower, or keeping a secret diary - are intrinsically motivated. Work, too, can be intrinsically
motivated when a individual is deeply interested in the job to be done. It is intrinsic motivation that keeps
one working late into the night just for the sake of solving a problem or doing the best possible job, even if
no one else knows it.

Extrinsic Motivation: - On the contrary is the motivation to engage in an activity for some outside
consequences rather than for its own sake. Gold Stars, grades and penalties for failure or misbehaviours are
testament to the belief that school children are extrinsically motivated and must be given external
consequences if they are to learn. In extrinsic motivation, behaviour is instrumental in obtaining something
else, while in intrinsic motivation, behaviour is carried out without a purpose beyond immediate rewards of"
doing it", consuming it, for it's pleasure.

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Consider the study by Lepper et at 1973

Evidently extrinsic rewards in this case were superfluous. More important they were actually detrimental
with a reward the task itself is not enjoyed asmuch, and when extrinsic rewards are with drawn, it is less
likely that the activity will be engaged again.

8. Rewards: - According to Deci 1975, rewards play a crucial role in achievement motivation. Rewards
provided for activity incur a hidden cost which reduces the intrinsic motivation of an achiever at times. It
depends upon on what activities and in what manner the rewards are administered.

He suggested that hidden cost of rewards are greatest where the rewards are

(a) Made obvious and given for activities with high intrinsic interest. It will reduce the interest.

(b) If the reward is provided for open ended activities like problem solving and creative tasks in which
performance plan is not well defined in advance.

On the other hand, rewards may improve performance and not destroy intrinsic motivation when they are
perceived as

(a) Conveying information about one's competence and progress and not serving as means of control.

(b) When rewards are given for well-learned activities that are part of one's routine.

Intrinsic motivation and n Ach are highly correlated.

9. Psychological time perspective: - One aspect of psychological time, as contrasted with clock time, is
time perspective. Time perspective is the way we partition the flow of perceived events and experiences
into frames of past, present and future. Time perspective is influenced by processes of socialization,
education, influence of friends, peers etc. Because of this we may place greater focus on one of these time
frames (past, present and future) while lesser or no emphasis on others.

A person's time perspective is a global cognitive structure that influences a wide range of psychological
process, from attention and actions. This subtly learned, pervasive cognitive tendency to have one or
another time frame influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions, is a fundamental mechanism in human
achievement and work motivation.

While a present oriented individual lives hedonistically, "for a moment", or fatalistically avoids worrying
about a future that is presumed to be determined, the future oriented person delays gratification, plans,
sets goals, "saves for a rainy day", endures boring lectures for an anticipated desired good grade, and makes
"to do" which are followed.

According to Belgian psychologist - Joseph Nuttin (1985) the psychological inability of some people to
achieve long term projects is related to a lack of future time perspective. A future orientation towards
achievement can intensify ones' present tendency to put forth-efforts, but it does much more than that. A
future orientation provides a path in which the stream of human action flows. It transforms a job into
career, an actors time into plot. Human action is not a static sequence of specific behavioral acts bound by
an eliciting stimulus; rather, it is a continuing series of episodes perceived by the actor as extending into the
future.

Measurement of Motives

Measurement involves guazing the relative strength and intensity of different motives present in the
organism. Researchers first of all, induces a drive in the organism '0', by depriving it of say food, water or
sex, and subsequently, observes the behavioral changes which follows. It is found that as result of such

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induced drive, tension builds within, 'O' which increases the general activity level of the organism. In other
words, greater the tension involved due to any kind of deprivation, higher the activity level and therefore
stronger must have been the drive. Hence, measuring the increase in the activity level, the strength of the
drive is estimated.

However, it is difficult to measure human motives due to the following reasons

1. Human being are not easily available on large scale, so that a broad generalization can be theorized.

2. Ethical and Social constraints do not allow to conduct experiment on motives.

3. Animals can be easily controlled than men.

Hence, much of the experiment involving measurement of motives have been conducted over animals
Broadly, the methods employed can be classified in three categories-

1. Activity Method

2. Counterbalancing of Motives

3. Contrasts of Motives

Each method have several sub-parts. The following table shows the scheme –

1. ACTIVITY METHOD: - As the name suggests activity method involves observing the activities of an '0'
under a motivated state. The motivated state may be introduced by the experimenter. Accordingly,
there are two types of activity methods.

(a) Field observation method

(b) Laboratory observation method

(a) Field observation Method: In this method, the free activity of the animal is studied under a
motivated condition without any experimental control. Such, observations therefore are conducted in
natural and real settings over which the experimenter has no control. The changes in activity levels within
animal are studied in terms of seasonal breading cycle of feeding, elimination, seasonal changes in
migration patterns of birds on so on. Besides, certain specific activities such as nest building in birds which
occur due to certain psychophysical changes in them during pregnancy are also studied.

The limitation of this method is that it is cumbersome and time consuming, but, it yield results over large
number of animals.

(b) Laboratory Observation Method: The spontaneous activity of animal is studied under controlled
condition in a laboratory set up. Specific activities like nest building, eating, drinking and others are recorded

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by kymograph. The observations are recorded with greater precision which allows for establishing
correlation between motives and behaviours. For example, Wang observed oestrousis rhythm (heat cycle) in
female rats. He found that there is a high correlation between Oestrous rhythm and general activity level in
female rats.

2. Counter-Balancing of Motives

It is difficult to measure the strength of the motives in absolute terms. '0' may carry several motives at a time
but not all will drive it's behaviour. Hence, it is important to compare the relative strength of motives.

In counterbalancing of motives, two incompatible drives are brought forth into direct opposition to compare
their relative strengths. There are three way in which it is done-

(a) Method of Choice

(b) Method of Preference

(c) Obstruction Method

(a) Method of Choice: it is a qualitative measure of relative strengths of different motives. The relative
strength of two motives are measured by comparing one against the other and observing which one of the
two dominates.

Tsai (1925), had made use of this method by opposing hunger and sex drives. He used an apparatus
consisting of two goal boxes - A and B, on two groups of male rats.

To one group, food is presented in Box A and a mate in Box B. To the second group, food was presented in
Box B and a mate in Box A. For two weeks prior to the experiment, the animals were made habituated to
both the goals on alternative days. There after the rats were deprived of food and mate for 24 hours. The
drive for food and mate were thus introduced. Rats were now one after another placed in the entrance of
the boxes to choose between food and mate. Depending upon the strength of the drives, the rats were
assumed to make the choice. Rats would choose for the choice which satisfies the stronger drive.

Result- The result showed that first group of rats which were nine in numbers selected food for 78% of the
times and females mates for 22% of the times. The second group selected food for 76% and female mates
for 24% of the times. Conclusion - The findings led Tsai to conclude that mats tended to choose food rather
than female mate when they are deprived of both. Therefore, at any point of time, hunger drive for male
rats is stronger than sex drive.

The experiment yielded same results in case of some student when the same motives of hunger and sex
were counter balanced.

(b) Method of Preference: - While method of choice, focuses on which of the two drives pushes the '0'
the more, method of preference focuses on which of the two alternatives for the same drives pulls the 'O'
the more.

The organism is placed under a drive state and is given two options or incentives through which '0' can
eliminate the drive. Depending upon which incentives is selected the preference of the organism can be
known. It is therefore a qualitative measure of strength of different environmental stimuli in terms of their
ability to pull the organism.

In this method, two incentives are given at a time and it is observed which one of the two is preferred. The
motive is one, but incentives are many. If the drive is HUNGER, the incentives may be different types of food.

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P. T. Young conducted an experiment by using this method on rats. Different pairs of foods were
counterbalanced in all possible combinations and the strength of different types of food preferences were
measured. He found the food preferences in the following order

1. Fresh milk

2. Cane sugar

3. Ground whole wheat Increasing Preference

4. Direct whole milk

5. White flour

6. Pure butter

Harlow performed another preference experiment where rats were allowed to choose one of the four types
of foods presented simultaneously. It produced a series conflict of approach - approach type in the '0'.
However, both the experiment arrived at a general conclusion that choices of different rats were much more
similar than different.

(c) Obstruction Method:- It is another quantitative method which is employed to measure the strong
drives. In this method an obstruction is put in the ways of goal and persistence of a drive despite the
obstruction is measured. Thus, if the drive is sufficiently strong, the "0' will cross the obstruction.

The obstruction may in the form of an electric grill, getting a shock etc. Moss (1924) used an apparatus
where an animal had to cross particular place and get electric shock to reach the goal whereas, Jenkins and
their associates in 1931 have extremely used Columbia obstruction Apparatus. They found that presence of
a strong drive can be indicated by (a) Number of times it is crossed (b) crossing of an electric shock provided
grill or plate which serves as a powerful deterrent.

The rat enters into a situation of approach - avoidance conflict when it has to take the electric shock to reach
the goal. For instance if the hunger drive is sufficiently strong, the rat would cross the electric grill. Further,
more persistently the rat responds near the obstacle, the stronger is the motive. In different categories of
drives, the rats were observed for 20 minutes. It was found that material drive was strongest for female rats,
the obstruction being crossed 22.4% times while exploration drive was weakest as the obstruction was
crossed in this case 6.0 times. Thirst had second position in case of male rats, 18.2 times they chose hunger
and 13% of the times rats chose the sex drive. The limitation of obstruction method lies in the fact that as
the rats gradually get accustomed to electric shock, it shows less and less resistance. Further, the strength of
a particular drive also depends upon the period of deprivation or the magnitude of need.

CONTRAST OF MOTIVES

Contrast of Motives is a technique in which one motive is compared with the other at a time. It does not
involves counterbalancing of motives where the '0' is compelled to choose one between the two goals which
are opposing each other. Rather one motive is contrasted and compared at a time. Upon comparison the
relative strength of various motives are estimated. For example, HUNGER-SEX, SEX-THIRST, THIRST-HUNGER,
THIRST -MATERNITY DRIVE and so on.

Sturman and Hable conducted a study on two groups of rats who were trained to run a maze. One group
was motivated by FOOD-HUNGER and the other group by SEX-HUNGER. Food and mate were of
approximately equal strength in rats who were one year old.

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Simon found that in case of male rats the drive for receptive female rats was found to be strength i.e. 0.55
while Bread and Milk along with returning back home was 0.59.

In both the above studies the same group was not forced to choose between two opposing goals. Instead,
two separate but similar groups were used and strength of two different motives were compared and
contrasted.

In another study, Elliot's noticed that motivation suddenly changed in goals. In controlled groups, the rats
were rewarded with Sunflower seeds throughout the experiment. The experimental group was, however,
given branmash for nine days and on 10th day suddenly it was changed to Sunflower seeds. Results
indicated that with change in rewards, the strength of motive becomes weak. Elliot interpreted that it is
because of expectation of a specific reward (incentive) rather than more satisfaction of hunger drive. Hence,
role of expectation drive was contrasted with hunger drive. Bruce in (1927), conducted on experiment to
observe the rate at which the rats (who were kept thirsty for last 20 hours) run a 17 ft. runway to water
counter. The smaller the percentage of water they were given the faster they run. Here again, the thirst drive
was contrasted with internal expectation of receiving water. The strength of thirst drive is measured through
amount of water in the water counter. The speed of runway the maze has been chosen as criteria.

Similarly many other criterions of motivation such as rate of learning, achievement etc have been suggested.
But, according to Thurstone they are difficult to apply because they require control over fatigue, distraction
etc.

Anderson (1950) measured the strength of different biological drives in groups of 47 male rats using 47
different criterions. But it could not be decided which is the best method to measure the strength of drive
accurately. Hence, the question that which is the best method to measure drive remains unanswered.

Further, the above mentioned method used to measure mostly animal drives. But, how would these method
apply to in the case of measurement of human motives is difficult to answer.

MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN MOTIVE

Experiments on human motivation is by and large neglected due to complexity in human motive and
intermixing of human motives. The major limitations in studying human motives are as follows:

(a) Hanging together of motives:- The biogenic and Sociogenic human motives get intermixed with each
other so that they are difficult to be isolated and studied separately.

(b) Contextual influence on contents:- The biological motives are also transformed and modified to
considerable extent by the processes of Socialisation and cultural variables. Hence, it is difficult to find
them in their true character for study.

(c) Problems of Self reporting:- Human being are not directly aware of their motives, as most of the
human actions are guided by unconscious motives in opinion of Freud. The reason remains hidden in
most of the cases. Hence, unconscious activity cannot be expressed verbally. Also, such hidden
motives manifest themselves in behaviors in disguised forms.

(d) Ethical Issues in testing Human being:- It does not seems practicable or ethical to bring human
being into lab, deprive them of food, water or sex and then study the intensity of their motives.

(e) Human beings are mental mediators:- Human beings cannot be directly motivated by incentives or
stimuli in the labs because they are thinking organisms. The stimulus in mentally processed &

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understood in variety of ways before responded. The mental variables of different individual are
different and are difficult to be controlled.

Despite these limitation there have been attempts to develop measure of human motives, it is different
matter that none of the methods are perfect.

Few important methods are as follows.

(a) Measuring drive strength in terms of tension involved: - It has been suggested by many
researchers that stronger the drive greater the level of tension or actively level. In case of human begins,
also tension can be an index to measure drive strength. But, human subjects cannot be deprived of
immediate biological needs. Therefore human beings are instructed to learn a particular task in a motivated
state. This tension before and after learning is measured. Such measurement is done through various
instruments designed to record physiological changes that takes place during various levels of tensions. For
example, Strand constructed a hand styles to measure air pressure changes produced by subject's hand
when he is in tension. Differences in pressure before and after learning measures the strength of the motive
directly.

Other measures of tension involves measuring reflex responses like knee, eyelid responses, Galvanic
skin responses, Heat and respiratory rates etc. These criteria's are found to positively correlated with
tension.

However, these method are not scientific entirely. Many a times they yield contradictory results. The method
lack reliability as the results often differ at different occasions. Further, the methods themselves are not
mutually correlated. And above all these methods are not standardised .

In order to make these method more scientific, many changes and important are being made by the
researchers. The scaling methods are being used for reliability. Large number of investigations are gradually
breaking the lacks of mystery that is associated with human motives.

(b) Method of preference: - Method of preference has been used especially in the case of children who
have been asked to choose one out of many types of food candy, ice creams, chocolates etc. The
preferences are indicating of incentive value or pull factor of motivation.

(c) Questionnaire method/self report inventories: - In questionnaire method, subjects are asked to
respond to the items. Their responses are assigned some numerical which yields an overall scores to
indicate the intensify of their motives. For instance, Kinsey used a questionnaire to measure the sex motives
in females. Thorndike in 1904, attempted to measure human motives by comparing different sums of
money spent on different motives by a questionnaire technique. EPPS (Edward's Personal Preference
Schedule) has been specially designed to measure the social motives.

(d) Obstruction method: - Wright (1946), concluded that when there is a barries, the motive is stronger
to overcome it especially in the case of children.

(e) Substitute method: - Lissner (1933), concluded that when one task is interrupted and another
substituted, the second may perhaps be satisfactory substitute for the thirst and serve to work off the
'tension'. So that there is no tendency left towards resumption of the first task. She prepared pairs of fairly
similar ones and obtained the following results

(i) In 42% of the cases when the two tasks were very similar, the interrupted task was resumed.

(ii) In 71 % of the cases, the interrupted task was resumed when the two tasks were fairly similar.

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(iii) In 87% of the cases the interrupted task was resumed when the two tasks were very dissimilar.

Hence, motivation is sustained in task in hand if the subject is interrupted with a dissimilar task which is not
a substitute for the original task. This occurs because incomplete task leaves the tension behind which
cannot be reduced with a dissimilar activity.

(f) Projective Tests: - As the name suggests, these test project the hidden an concealed motives of an
individual about which the individual himself may be largely unknown. The test stimuli are deliberately made
ambiguous and individual is free to respond in the way he/she wishes. The individual in these test need not
respond specifically along predetermined lives like it happen in case of self report inventories. The Stimulus
may be in form of pictures, in blots, incomplete sentences or ambiguous figures. One such test is TAT
(Thematic Apperception Test) in which the subjects are required write a story after seeing a series of
ambiguous pictures. These stories are then analyzed by experts who interpret there themes. The themes
are used as basis of drawing inferences regarding the social motives of person.

(g) Situational Test: - Involves placing a person in Pre-determined and created situations, and observe
his/her responses and activities. The activities reveal the strength of the motives and also speak about
whether the motives have changed in strength. For instance the affiliation motive can be measured by giving
the subjects, a choice between waiting in a room alone or with other people. Children's aggression motive
can be estimated by observing the number of aggression responses they make to the dolls provided for
playing. Aggression can be measured in case of adults by humiliating a person and observe his/her response
in retaliation.

(h) Analysis of literary themes: - Involves analysis of historical characters, events etc which appear in
the literatary works. The themes are analysed by the procedures prescribed in psychohistory. The
researcher might study a historical event in which a society rose and fell in connection with its leadership
and change of power (Mc.Clleland, 1971). Leadership represents the champions of then dominant societies
and the changing social motives. Such collective social motivation, if inferred correctly, can form a predictive
basis for exiting societies.

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EMOTION
Definition-Emotion is a state characterized by arousal, plus changes in facial expression, gestures, postures
and subjective feelings. This state generally is arrived as a person's reactions to any stimulation from the
environment. Emotion and motivation have the same Latin origin ‘movere’ which refers to movement or
activity. While motivated person usually mouse physically towards some goal or away from some aversive
situation, the emotional person is moved internally by some psychologically significant situations. This
moving experience of emotion involves both physiological reactions and `stirred up feelings’ as well.

Emotions, therefore, have two components the external and the internal. Aristotle was the first to
distinguish between the physiological component of emotion, which he referred to as it’s matter and
psychological component, its `form’ or ‘idea’. Seventeenth and eighteenth contrary philosophers generally
thought that emotions were non-rational, which are meant to be curbed out by proper exercise of human
reasons and intellect. Many common expression still reflect this view: “I got so mad that I could not think
strength, so I hit him”.

McDougall (1949):

Emotion is an affective experience that one undergoes during an instinctive excitement. For example, when
a child perceives a bull coming towards him. (cognition) he experiences an affective experience in the form
of the arousal fo accompanined emotion of fear and consequently tries to run away (conative aspect of
one’s behaviour).

McDougall discovered 14 basic instincts and concluded that each and every emotion, whatever it may be, is
the product of some instinctive behaviour.

These instincts, with their associated emotions, can be listed as:

Human instincts with their associated emotions

S.No. Instincts Emotion accompanying it

1. Flight or escape Fear

2. Pugnacity or combat Anger

3. REpulsion Disgust

4. Curiosity Wonder

5. Parental Tender emotion, love

6. Appeal Distress

7. Construction Feeling of creativeness

8. Acquisition Feeling of ownership

9. Gregariousness Feeling of loneliness

10. Sex, mating Lust

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11. Self-assertion Positive self-feeling or elation

12. Submission Negative self-feeling

13. Food-seeking Appetite

14. Laughter Amusement

Thus, whatever may be the terminology used by all these different writers and psychologists, their
definitions tend to describe emotions as some sort of feelings or affective experiences which are
characterised by some physiological changes that generally lead them to perform some or the other types of
behavioural acts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONS

(1) Physical arousal - Body gets physically aroused during emotion. Such bodily stirrings cause us to
say that we are 'moved' by a play, a funeral, or an act of kindness, by emotions such as fear, anger
or joy. Hence, emotions have a powerful influence on motivation. Motivation energizes the
behaviour while emotions power the motives in progress. For example, people who are feeling
happy are more likely to help others and vice-versa.

(2) Emotion may be adaptive or disruptive- Emotions may be linked to adaptive behaviours like
attacking, treating, helping others, reproducing, seeking comfort etc. At the sometime they may be
disruptive for example having a fright of public speaking called fright or choking of body movements
in an athletic contest. But more often they aid survival, hence, are largely adaptive.

(3) Physiological changes are involved in emotions- The physiological changes may involve
alterations in heart rate blood pressure, perspiration and other bodily stirring. Most of the changes
are caused by adrenaline hormone produced by the same glands. Adrenaline enters blood stream
when the sympathetic nervous system is activated, people who have their adrenaline glands
removed due to medical reason display much less emotional arousal.

(4) Expressions- Emotional expressions are outward signs of what a person is feeling. It may be
particular posture, facial contortions, voice modulations associated with specific emotions. Facial
expressions are associated with emotions that are recognized across the cultures. Hence, are
important in communication.

(5) Emotional feelings- Are persons private emotional experience. This is a part of emotion to which
we are typically-most familiar. It can be only assessed in human beings.

(6) Cognitive Manipulations or Thinking- Emotions are usually directed towards information about
people or objects. Also the cognitive processes show change as the result of emotions. For
instances, the interpretations which one makes of an event, the memories that reoccur or which are
relived the expectation one develops, all of them are emotionally toned and at the same time
capable of evoking emotions. Therefore, it is rightly said “If you think good, you will feel good”.

Ex- we get anxious (emotional state) when situation is dangerous, but we know that situation is
dangerous and not harmless as a result of thinking.

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(7) Behavioral Patterns- A pattern of behaviours may be produced by emotions ex-fight or flight. The
behavioral reactions are both expressive such as crying, smiling and so on, as well as instrumental
such as screaming for help, running etc.

Physiological basis of Emotions

Physiological systems provide the machinery of response to internal and external stimuli by sending signals
that activate or inhibit emotional responding. These reactions begin with the arousal of the brain as a whole
by the reticular activating system. through which incoming sensory messages pass on their way to the brain
(Lindsley, 1951; Zanchetti, 1967). As we saw in chapter 4, this system functions as a nonspecific, general
alarm system for the rest of the brain.

The influence of hormones on emotion has been shown in several kinds of studies. Hormone levels in the
blood and urine rise during emotional states, whereas changes in emotional responding occur when
hormones are administered and in diseases affecting the endocrine glands. Much research has also shown
that perception of emotional stimuli is accompanied by release of hormones such as epinephrine and
norepinephrine. Steriod hormones act on many different kinds of body tissues, including nerve cells. These
normally occurring steriods can affect the receptors on the membrane surfaces of nerve cells, causing them
to change their excitability rapidly and directly. They can produce eurphoria in short-term low doses, but
depression in long term high doses (Majewska et al., 1986). Many of the mood changes associated with
stress, pregnancy and the menstrual cycle may be related to the effects that steriod hormones have on
brain cells.

The autonomic nervous system also prepares the body for emotional responding by action of both its
divisions; the balance between them depends on the quality and intensity of the arousing stimulation. With
mild, unpleasant stimulation, the sympathetic division is more active; with mild, pleasant stimulation, the
parasympathetic division is more active. With more intense stimulation of either kind, both divisions are
increasingly involved.

Integration of both the hormonal and the neural aspects of arousal is controlled by the hypothalamus and
the limbic system old-brain control systems for emotions and for patterns of attack, defense, and flight.
Either lesioning or stimulation in varius part of the limbic system produces dramatic changes in emotional
responding. Tame animals may become killers; usual prey and predators may become peaceful
companions. Finally, in all complex emotions, the neocortex is involved through its internal neural networks
and its connections with other parts of the body. The neocortex provides the associations, membories, and
meanings that integrate psychological experience and biological response.

Types of Emotions

Primary Emotions - Robert Plutchik (1980-1990) based upon his researches believed that there are some
emotions more basic than others. The identified eight emotions to be primary - (1) Fear (2) Surprise (3)
Sadness (4) Disgust (5) anger (6) Anticipation (7) Joy (8) Acceptance. Each emotion may vary in intensity for
example-anger may vary from simple annoyance to rage.

The mildest forms of all emotions are called moods. Mood is a low intensity, long lasting emotional state
that act as a subtle emotional undercurrent that affects much of our day to day behaviours (Clark and
Withanason l989). Secondary emotions- Plutchik's most interesting idea concerns the mixing of the primary
emotions as shown in the diagram.

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Each pairs of adjacent emotion may be mixed to give rise to a third, more complex secondary emotions.
Other mixtures are also possible. For example- You might have felt both joy and fear when you were eating
stolen chocolates. The result was guilt - secondary emotions, Likewise jealousy could be mixture of love,
anger and fear.

Theories of Emotions

Theories of Emotions can be classified on the basis utility of emotions and genesis of emotion. Accordingly,
there are two systems of classification:

1. On the basis of ability

a. Conflict theories of emotions

b. Adaptive theories of emotions.

2. On the basis of genesis

a. Peripheral theories

b. Central theories

c. Combination of both (two factor theories)

d. Modern theories.

On the basis of functions/utility, the emotions serve for us, we may quote two theories:

1. Conflict.

2. Adaptive.

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1. Conflict theories of Emotions

A number of theorist take 1920’s (Angier, 1927, Howard, 1928) came up with the view that emotions do no
good for human existence. They proposed that emotions were inner physiological disturbance produced
only when an organism could not cope up with the environment i.e. in a situation of conflict. And once
aroused, they further interfered with ones ability to use effective coping strategies. The claim that emotions
served no useful or adaptive function was echoed by one of these conflict theorists as: “Fear occurs only
when flight is impossible. Anger is displayed only when one cannot strike his enemy. By learning and natural
selection, overtime these preparations reactions have become part of emotional expression of anger.

Darwin believed that bodily changes which comprise any motion are weak preparatory forms of behaviors
that originally had adaptive value under circumstances that evoked the emotion in the past. Thus, for
Darwin the emotional expressions were innate not learned from experience and are evolutionary remnants
of previously adaptive behaviors.

As we ascend the scale from simple organisms to humans, we observe both increasing differentiation of
facial muscles used to express emotions and on increasing diversity of emotional behaviour. Humans have
not evolved away from primitive non-rational emotions with renovation of superior brains rather we seem
to have evolved towards combinations of intellect and emotions (Scherer, 1984) we are smartest and at the
same time most emotional of all creatures.

Similar view is stared by Plutchik who suggests that we have plethora of different emotions which are
nothing but different combinations of primary ones. According to Clapardere, 1928, the emotions like
sorrow, joy, anger etc. disrupt our attention, jeopardize our power of judgments and make us commit
regrettable acts.

Criticism of Conflict theories

The conflict theories folded under the weight of critical analysis which made obvious the weakness of these
theories. For instance emotions like joy could not be related to situations of conflict.

Further, the critics pointed out that emotions function in an adaptive way when the arousal is not above the
threshold beyond which the person gets freezed or choked. For example, Fearful people flee, angry people
attack, happy people smile and attract others to them. (Arnold, 1970, Leeper, 1948).

2. Adaptive theory of Emotions: Darwin view

Charles Darwin (1872/1965) points out that emotions work for our survival. Certain situations evoke
emotions and associated behaviors such as when an organism prepares to fight after being angry by a
threatened takeover of its territory.

Darwin held that it was adaptive for organisms to prepare to fight under such circumstances, to increase
general muscle or basic emotions. The basic emotions being universal to humanity.

Theories of organic (bodily processes) or mental (cognitive processes) Fraisse, 1968. This distinction also
comes under the heading of peripheral Vs. Central theories of emotions. The peripheralist i.e. organic
theorist are concerned with peripheral or Visceral reactions, especially those of autonomic nervous system
(ANS), while centralize (mental theorist) focus their concerns on the activities of Central Nervous System
(CNS) especially the role of brain in emotions.

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Those in peripheralist tradition have argued that precursors of emotions are physiological events. Contrary
to this, centralist asserts that causes of emotions, thoughts and psychological events are primary. Bodily
reactions are influenced by and also follow from these psychic events.

William James theory emotion belongs to organic tradition, Richard Lazarus is a modern proponent of
mental tradition while Stanley Schachter has tried to combine the two neither of them by itself is sufficient
to cause emotions.

(1) James-Lange Theory (1884-1885)

Common sense tells us that we see a bear, feel fear, become aroused, and run. But this order of events were
questioned by American psychologist William James and Danish psychologist Carl Lange

According to them bodily arousal such as increased heart rate does not follow feeling or fear. Instead, they
argued emotional feelings to follow bodily arousal. Thus we see a bear, run, and are aroused, and then feel
fear as we become aware of our bodily reactions. For example, we often do not experience an emotion until
after realizing what has happened. Imagine a person who is driving and suddenly a car pulls out in front of
his. The person swerves and skids to an abrupt halt at the side of the road. Only after having stopped, he
notices his pounding heart, rapid breathin & tensed muscle and recognizes his fear.

Hence, according to them emotions occurs when individual perceives the internal physiological changes that
occur in an emotion-arousing situation. By this account it is the physiological arousal that is emotion.

Time

Jame Lange theory, therefore, argued that certain instinctive reactions, such as trembling when threatened,
are accompanied by Visceral, “gut” arousal. Different instinctive responses would them send different
sensory and kinesthetic (motor) feedback to the brain, which in turn, would flood a person’s consciousness
and create the feeling of a specific emotion. Therefore, we feel sorry because we cry, angry, because we
strike, afraid because we tremble.

Criticism of James Lange Theory

The theory was seriously challenged by Walter Cannon (1927, 1929) and Phillip Bard. Their objections were
as follows:-

1. These researches noted that animals continued to respond emotionally even after their viscera were
separated surgically from the central nervous system. This led them to the conclusion the emotions
were independent of ANS arousal.

2. Some visceral reactions are found to occur in very different situations. Palpitations of heart
accompany aerobic exercise as well as running away from danger. But the emotions generated in
the above cases are not same.

3. Many emotions cannot be distinguished physiologically. A person cannot experience different

emotions simply by reading the visceral reactions which are not well differentiated.

4. ANS responses are typically slow. Their onset of about two seconds would mean that emotions
would also have to be slow in their onset. Therefore, rapidly elicited emotions cannot be elicited by

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slow ANS. Emotions cannot be accounted for by slowpoke ANS that is so critical to James - Lange
visceral theory.

(2) Cannon Bard Theory (1927)

Walter Cannon (American psychologist) and Phillip Bard (USA) disagreed with James - Lange theory. They
proposed that emotional feelings and bodily changes (arousal) occur at the same time. They believed that
experience of emotion is separate from physiological arousal. Both are organized in the brain. Seeing a bear
activates the thalamus. The thalamus in turn alerts both the cortex and the hypothalamus for action. The
cortex produces our emotional feelings and emotional behaviour. The hypothalamus is responsible for
arousing the body. Thus on seeing the bear, bodily arousal, running and feeling of fear, all will be generated
simultaneously by brain activity.

Time

Cannon-Bard theory is also called Thalamic Theory because sensory information about emotional situation
first reaches the thalamus, which sends signals simultaneously to the autonomous nervous system and to
the cerebral cortex. In the cortex the emotions become conscious. So, when you see a bear, the brain
receives sensory information about it, interprets the information as bear, and directly creates the experience
of fear while at the same time sends message to heart, lungs and legs to initiate a rapid departure.

According to Cannon-Bard theory, there is a direct, central nervous system experience of emotion, with or
without feedback about peripheral responses.

The evidence in support of Cannon-Bard theory comes from the findings that people with spinal chord
damage experience full range of emotions without feedback from peripheral responses.

Many modern theorist agree with Cannon-Bards view that emotions originate in sub-cortical brain
structures (Buck, 1984, Izrad 1984, Tomkins, 1980).

UPDATION OF CANNON-BARD THEORY BY MODERN RESEARCHERS

According to (Lange 1995, Le Duox, 1995) thalamus is not the seat of emotions as Cannon has suggested.
Still, through its connections to the amygdale, the thalamus does participate in some aspect of emotional
processing. For example, animal studies show that emotion of fear is generated by thalamic connections to
the amygdale. The implication is that strong emotions can sometimes by pass the cortex without requiring
conscious thoughts to activate them. This possibly explain why people find it so difficult to overcome an
intense fear, or phobia, even though they may consciously know the fear is irrational.

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Ultimately, the key issue in debate between the James – Lange and Cannon-Bard views turned out to be
whether different emotions are associated with different patterns of autonomic arousal. The research
findings mostly supported the Cannon-Bards point of view for several decades. Investigators found that
different emotions are not reliably associated with different patterns of autonomic activation (Strongman,
1992). However, more recent studies have detected some subtle differences in the patterns of visceral
arousal that accompany basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger and fear (Ekman, Levenson and
Freisen 193, Levenson 1992).

The debate continues, because many psychologist doubt whether people can actually distinguish between
these slightly different patterns of physiological activation (Zillnonn 1983). Humans are not particularly adept
at recognizing their autonomic fluctuations. Thus, there must be some other explanation for how people
differentiate various emotions.

(3) Schachter’s two factor theory (1971)

The previous theories are mainly concerned with physical responses. Stanley Schacter realized that cognitive
(mental) factors also enter into emotions. According to him, emotions occur when a particular label is
applied to general physical arousal. Schacter believed that when we are aroused, we have a need to interpret
our feelings. Assume, for instance, that someone sneaks up behind you on a dark street and says "Boo". No
matter who the person is, your body will be aroused pounding heart, sweating palm, and so on). If the
person is a total stranger, you may interpret, this arousal as fear, but if the person is a close friend, the
arousal may be labeled as surprise or delight. The label (such as anger, fear, or happiness) applied to bodily
arousal is influenced by past experience, the situation, and the reactions of others.

Schacter was social psychologist and he was encouraged to present his theory because of the dilemma that
existed for the previous two theories. James-Lange’s theory suggested emotions to be generated by
recognisition of physiological arousal. By this, different emotions should be related to different kinds of
physiological arousal, which is not possible.

Cannon-Bard could not explain the fact that how do we decide that a given situation is emotional.

Hence, cognitive labeling theory by Shachter was certainly an improvement over the previous. The
experimental support for this theory comes from the experiment conducted by Schachter and wheeler
(1962). Subjects watched a slapstick (comedy) movie. Before viewing the movie, 1/3 of the subject received
an injection of adrenaline, 1/3 got a placebo injection, and remaining were given a tranquilizer. Subjects who
were given adrenaline rated the movie funniest and showed maximum amusement while watching it. In
contrast, those given tranquilizer were least amused and placebo group fell in between.

According to cognitive theory of emotion, subjects who received the adrenaline had a stirred-up body, but no
explanation for the way they were feeling. Consequently, they became happy when the movie implied that
their arousal was due to amusement.

Perception, experience, attitude and judgment, and many other mental factors also affects emotions.
Consider the following illustration:-

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Stanley Schachter believes that people look for situational cues to differentiate between alternative
emotions. According Schachter (l964; Schachter & Singer, 1962, 1979), the experience of emotion depends
on two factors: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal. Schachter proposes
that when you experience visceral arousal, you search, your environment for an explanation. If you're stuck
in a traffic jam, you'll probably label your arousal as anger. If you're taking an important exam, you'll
probably label it as anxiety. If you're celebrating your birthday, you'll probably as happiness.

Schachter agrees with the James - Lange view that emotion is inferred from arousal. However, he also agrees
with the Cannon -Bard Position that different emotions yield indistinguishable patterns of arousal. He
reconciles these view by arguing that people look to external rather than internal cues to differentiate and
label their specific emotions. In essence, Schachter suggests that people think along the following lines: “If
I’m aroused and you’re obnoxious, I must be angry”. The two-factor theory of emotion has been tested in
numerous studies that nave produced mixed results. Some aspects of the model have been supported and
some have not (Reisenzein, 1983). A naturalistic study of interpersonal attraction by Dutton and Aron (1974)
provides a particularly clever example of research that supported the two-factor theory. They arranged for
young men crossing a footbridge in a park to encounter a young woman who asked them to stop briefly to
fill out a questionnaire. The woman offered to explain the research at some future time and gave the men
her phone number. Autonomic arousal was manipulated by enacting this scenario on two very different
bridges. One was a long suspension bridge that swayed precariously 230 feet above a river. The other bridge
was a solid, safe structure a mere 10 feet above a small stream. The experimenters reasoned that the men
crossing the shaky, frightening bridge would be experiencing emotional arousal and that some of them
might attribute that arousal to the woman rather than to the bridge. If so, they might mislabel their emotion
as lust rather than fear and infer that they were attracted to the woman. The dependent variable was how
many of the men later called the woman to pursue a date. As predicted, more of the men who met the
woman on the precarious bridge called her for a date than did those who met her on the safe bridge.

The Dutton and Aron study supports the hypothesis that people often infer emotion from their physiological
arousal and label that emotion in accordance with their cognitive explanation for it. The fact that the
explanation may be inaccurate sheds light on why people frequently seem confused about their own
emotions.

Evaluation

Schachter and Singer (1962) were right to argue that cognitive processes are important in determining
whether emotion will be experienced, and in determining which emotion will be experienced. Their cognitive
leabelling theory led several other theorists to develop cognitive approaches to emotion, and so their theory
has been very influential.

On the negative side, it has proved very hard to repeat the findings of Schachter and Singer (1962). Marshall
and Zimbardo (l979) found that large doses of adrenaline reduced (rather than increased) their participants
happiness in the euphoria or joy condition. Perhaps a high level of arousal is generally regarded as

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unpleasant. Another problem is that the situation used by Schachter and Singer is very artificial. In our
everyday lives, we rarely experience high level of arousal that are hard to interpret.

As the theory predicts, emotional intensity tends to be greater when the level of physiological arousal is
high. However, the effect of arousal on emotional intensity is often much weaker than would be expected
theoretically (Reisenzein, 1983)

Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory

Most theorists nowadays no longer accept cognitive labeling theory as an adequate theory to account for
emotion. However, it is fairly generally accepted that Schachter and Singer (1962) were right to emphasis the
role of cognitive processes in emotion. One of the most influential cognitive approaches to emotion was put
forward by Lazarus (1982, 1991). According to Lazarus (1982), "Cognitive appraisal (of meaning or
significance) underlies and is an integral feature of all emotional states." This contrasts with view of Zajonc
(1984): "Affect and cognition are separate and partially independent systems and... although they ordinarily
function conjointly, affect could be generated without a prior cognitive process." It has not proved possible
so far to obtain clear evidence on the issue of whether cognitive processes always precede emotional
reactions to stimuli. However, Zajonc (1980) discussed several studies, melodies or pictures were presented
either very briefly below the level of conscious awareness or while the participants were involved in a task.
Even though these stimuli could not be recognized in a later memory test, the participants still tended to
choose previously presented stimuli rather than similar new ones when asked to select the ones they
preferred.

According to Zajonc (1980), these studies indicate that there can be a positive emotional reaction to
previously presented stimuli (as assessed by the preference judgments) even when there is no evidence of
cognitive processing (as assessed by recognition memory). This phenomenon is known as the "mere
exposure effect”. One problem with these studies is that they do not have much obvious relevance to
ordinary emotional states. The participants made superficial preference judgments about fairly meaningless
stimuli of little relevance to their personal lives, and so only minimal emotion was involved. Another
problem is Zajonc’s assumption that the absence of recognition memory means that the stimuli was not
cognitively processed and that cognitive processing must be conscious, which very few cognitive
psychologists would be willing to do.

According to Lazarus (1982, 1991), cognitive appraisal of the situation ca be subdivided into three more
specific forms of appraisal.

Some of the earliest evidence indicating the importance of cognitive appraisal was reported by Speisman et
al. (1964). The participants were shown a film of a Stone Age ritual in which adolescent boys had their
penises deeply incised. Cognitive appraisal was manipulated by varying the soundtrack of the film. Denial
was produced by indicating that the film did not show a painful operation, and intellectualization was
produced by considering matters from; the perspective of an anthropologist viewing strange native customs.

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There was also a control condition in which there was no soundtrack. The participants in the denial and
intellectualization condition were less anxious than those in the control condition in terms of physiological
measures (eg., heart rate)

Emotion generation in everyday life.

Emotion generation in the case of unexplained arousal

Evaluation

Studies such as the one by Speisman et al. (1964) have shown that emotional reactions to situations can be
changed if cognitive appraisals are changed. However, there are various problems with cognitive appraisal
theory. First, it can be very hard to assess an individual's cognitive appraisals of a situation, because they
may occur below the level of conscious awareness (Lazsarus, 1991). Second, the studied carried out by
Lazaus and others are rather artificial. The participants typically situation passively in an initially
unemotional state while they are exposed to emotionally threatening stimuli. In the real world, however, it is
likely that the causality can go in the opposite direction, with emotional states influencing the process of
cognitive appraisal. Third, it is unlikely that emotional experience depends only on cognitive appraisal. As is
discussed next, it is probable that other factors (e.g. bodily reactions) also play a part in determining
emotional experience.

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Synthesis: Four-factor theory

The major theories of emotion we have considered are generally thought of as being in competition with
each other. However, none of them can be regarded as providing complete accounts of emotion. It is
increasingly argued that what is needed is a theory combining elements of' previous theories, as an example
we can take the four-factor theory of emotion put forward by Parkinson (1994). According to this theory,
emotional experience depends on four separate factors:

1. Appraisal of some external stimulus or situation: this is the most important factor, and is the one
emphasised by Lazareus (1982,1991)

2. Reactions of the body (e.g. arousal): this is the factor emphasized in the James-Lange theory.

3. Facial expression: the importance of this factor was shown in a study by Strack, Martin, and Stepper
(1988) in which participants were more amused by cartoons when adopting a facial expression close
to a smile than when having expression resembling a frown.

4. Action tendencies: for example, preparing to advance in a threatening way is associated with anger,
whereas preparing to retreat is associated with fear (Frijda, Kuipers, & terrorist Schure, 1989).

These four factors are not independent of each other. Cognitive appraisal of the situation affects bodily
reactions, facial expression, and action tendencies, as well as having direct effect on emotional experience. It
is for this reason that cognitive appraisal is the most important of the four factors.

LIMITATION OF COGNITIVE THEORIES

The cognitive revolution is credited with replacing behaviorism's actor with a thinker, one whose head is
filled with "cold cognitions," According to this view, liking or disliking comes only after we have analyzed the
situation cognitively. Feelings and preferences follow cognitions and inferences.

An alternate view is that feelings and preferences are not necessarily derived from thoughts, but may be
immediate reactions to stimuli, independent of cognitive analysis. We like this person and distrust that one,
find her beautiful and him pretentious, enjoy chocolate and hate liver, are attracted to smiling faces and
repulsed by frowns. These "gut reactions" give our experiences an immediate feeling tone that is part of
their overall meaning and can be independent of our reasoning about them.

One of the first psychologists to emphasize the pervasive role of immediate, unlearned affective reactions
was Sylvan Tomkins (1962, 1981). He points out that infants respond with fear to loud sounds or difficulties
in breathing with no need for cognitive appraisal or prior learning. They seem "prewired" to respond to
certain stimuli, with an emotional response general enough to fit a wide range of circumstances. As adults,
humans are excited by sex-and also by solving difficult problems, Tomkins, in fact, sees emotions as the

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primary motivating forces for human actions: they amplify our innate needs and acquired motives by
providing a sense of urgency. It is emotions that endow any activity with a sense of importance and
transform indifference to desire. In this view, without emotion, nothing matters; with emotion, anything can
matter.

Don't you have to discriminate, recognize, and interpret what a stimulus is before you can feel anything
about it? Not according to research by Robert Zajonc (pronounced "Zy-onts").

In an extensive series of experiment, subjects were presented with a variety of stimuli such as foreign words,
Japanese characters, sets of numbers, and strong faces. The stimuli were exposed on a tachistoscope, which
flashed them briefly at exposure times below those necessary to recognize what they were. Subjects were
still able to express a preference toward them without knowing why they liked some more than others.
Mere repeated exposure to given stimuli increased their attractiveness: those stimuli which were repeated
more often produced the strongest liking: yet this increased liking was shown to occur independently of
recognition. (Zajonc, 1980)

This line of research forces us to consider the extent to which are reactions, including simple cemotional
preferences, are influenced by no voluntary appraisal that are consciously inaccessible (Lazarus, 1984;
Zajone, 1984).

Development of Emotions and Emotional Competence

The process of maturation and learning play effective roles in the development of emotions in the human
beings. As a child grows, he may acquire various positive and negative emotions through his environmental
experiences and training. Emotions or emotional behaviour are in all sense, the learned and acquired
pattern of our behaviour. Therefore, at the time of birth, a child does not show the presence of any specific
emotions except a sort of general excitement in the form of crying or smiling. This state of general
excitement showing pleasure or displeasure to the concerned stimuli remains with the infant up to 6
months. Therefore, it can be safely said that a child begins his journey towards the development of his
emotional behaviour with the help of two distinct emotions i.e. emotion of distress (displeasure) and
emotion of delight (pleasure). When an infant completes his six months, negative emotions (like fear,
disgust, anger, jealousy etc.) take the lead and then the positive emotions (like elation, love, sympathy,
enjoyment etc.) creep in. Generally, upto two years, almost all the emotions, positive and negative, take their
shape and become quite distinct in children.

Emotional development, after the stage of infancy, is thus totally concerned with the development of
the ways and manners of expressing various positive and negative emotions. These ways and means of
emotional expressions are learned through environmental experiences, formal as well as informal
education and specialized training given to an individual right from his childhood.

Whatever, experience, education or training a person may get for the expression of his emotional
behaviour during his childhood and adolescence, we expect from him a quite mature behaviour in terms of
his emotional expression during his adulthood. Besides attaining maturity in terms of his physical and
mental development, an adult should also demonstrate adequate maturity in terms of his emotional
development. In other words, he must be emotionally mature and must exhibit it in his behaviour.

Meaning of Emotional Competence

Emotional maturity is that characteristic of emotional behaviour that is generally attained by an adult after
the expiry of his adolescence period. After attaining emotional maturity, he is able to demonstrate a well-

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balanced emotional behaviour in his day-to-day life. A person may be said to be emotionally matured if he
has in his possession almost all types of emotions-positive or negative and is able to express them at the
appropriate time in an appropriate degree.

The Characteristics of an Emotionally Competent Person

An emotionally matured person demonstrates the following traits and characteristics in his behaviour.

1. Almost all the emotions can be distinctly seen in him and their pattern of expression can be easily
recognised.

2. Manifestation of emotions is very much refined. Usually he expresses his emotions in a socially
desirable way.

3. He is able to exercise control over his emotions. Sudden inappropriate emotional outbursts are rarely
found in him. He is able to hide his feelings and check his emotional tide.

4. The person perceives things in their real perspective. He is not a daydreamer and does not possess
the desire to run away from realities.

5. His intellectual powers like thinking and reasoning are properly exercised by him in making any
decision. He is guided more by his intellect than his emotions.

6. He does not possess the habit of rationalization i.e. he never argues in defence of his undesirable or
improper conduct. Also he never shifts the responsibility of his mistakes on others. He is always
honest in his behaviour.

7. He possesses adequate self-concept and self-respect. He never likes to do things or show such
behaviour that can injure his self-respect and is adverse to his ideals.

8. He is not confined to himself. He thinks about others and is keen to maintain social relationships. He
never engages himself in such a behaviour as is antisocial and can result in social conflicts and strain
his social relationships.

9. He can exercise his emotions at a proper time in a proper place. If there is a danger to his self-prestige
or if anyone is in distress, he can rise to the occasion by exercising his emotion of anger. But if he
commits a mistake and is rebuked, he is equally able to check his emotion of anger. Matured
emotional behaviour is characterised by greater stability. A person having such maturity does not
sudden shift from one emotion to another.

In conclusion, regarding the meaning of emotional maturity, I would like to quote Arthur T. Jersild
(1968). He is of the opinion that emotional maturity should not involve just simple restriction and
control. It means much more. An adequate description of emotional maturity must take account the full
scope of the individual's capacity and powers, and of his ability to use and enjoy them. In its broadest
sense emotional maturity means the degree to which the person has realized his potential for richness
of living and has developed his capacity to enjoy things, to relate himself to others, to love and to laugh;
his capacity for whole-hearted sorrow when an occasion for grief arises. . . and his capacity to show fear
when there is occasion to be frightened, without feeling a need to use a false mask of courage.

(to be added: Factors influencing intrinsic motivation, measurement of emotion)

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