Punctuation

Prepared by shoaib mirza

Capital letter Quotation mark Dashes
Question mark Colon coma
Hyphen Full stop semicolon
Dash Exclamation Apostrophe
mark
Punctuation : The Traffic Signs of
English
 Punctuation: The Traffic Signs of
The Full Stop = Red light ( . )

Full stops are used:

- to mark the end of a sentence

Norma slid beneath the covers.
The rocket metal cooled in the meadow winds.
- to mark the end of a sentence fragment

Are you cold? – Yes, a bit.

Do you like this sort of music? Not really.

A sentence fragment is a sentence that

is missing either its subject or its main
verb.
 - in initials for people’s names, although this
practice is becoming less frequent

J. k. Rowling Iain M. Banks

M. C. Hammer Ronald G. Hardie
- after abbreviations
She’s moved to the I.T. department.
The U.S. government reacted strongly to the
accusation.
When an abbreviation consists of a shortened
word such as Re. or Prof., a full stop is needed.

Prof. John Johansan will be speaking on the

subject of ‘Discourse in the Electronic Age’.
Flight BA 345: dep. 09.44 arr. 11.10.
- When an abbreviation contains the last letter
of the shortened word, a full stop is not needed.

Dr McDonald St Mary’s School

41, Douglas RD Universal Pictures(uk) Ltd
Note that full stops are not used in many
common sets of initials,
Did you see that programe on BBC 4 last
night?
or at the end of headlines , headings and titles.
Fear grip global stock markets.
Teaching grammar as a liberating force.
Wuthering Heights
The question mark (?)
The question mark marks the end of a question.

When will we be arriving?

Why did you do that?
Does any of this matter?
 - Question marks are used in direct questions,
when the actual words of a speaker are used.
A reported question should end with a full
stop.

The lady said, “ where are you going?”

The lady asked where she was going.
Note: You put a question mark at the end of a
question , even if the words in the sentence are
not in the normal question order, or some words
are omitted.

You know he does not live here any longer?

A full stop also replaces a question mark at the
end of a sentence which looks like a question if,
in fact, it is really a polite request.
Will you please return the completed forms to
me.
Would you please call my brother and ask him
to collect my car.
The exclamation mark (! )

The exclamation mark is used after

exclamations and emphatic expressions.

I can’t believe it!

oh, no! look at this mess.
Interjections

“ Hooray! I got accepted to my

top choice university!”

“That was an impressive victory!

congratulations!”
Adding emphasis to imperative
sentences.
we often use exclamation points to
intensify a command, generally to
indicate anger , exasperation or
urgency.
“Get out of here, now!”
“Go to your room this instant!”
Capital letters
A capital ( or upper case) letter is
used to mark the beginning of a
sentence.

When I was 20, I dropped out of university and

became a model.
 Capital letters and Proper nouns
- people’s names - Public holidays
Jenny Forbes , Patricia Christmas, Yom Kippur

- Days of the week - nationalities

Wednesday, Sunday Spanish, Iraqi
-months of the year - Languages
August, January Urdu, Saraiki
 - Geographical locations
Australia Loch Ness
Mount Everest The Mediterranean Sea
- Company names
Dyson Harper Collins
- Religions
Islam Buddhism
- Capital letters are also used for the first letter
in titles of books, magzines , newspapers, TV
shows, films etc.

The Times Hello

Twelfth Night The Secret Garden
Newsnight All in the Family
 The comma
The comma marks a short pause between
elements in a sentence.
 Joining independent clauses
A compound sentence is formed by adding a
comma followed by a coordinating conjunction.
( and , but, or, so , for, nor, or yet)
She wanted to play tennis, but he wanted to
play basketball.
We can go to the movies tonight, or we can just
stay home.
Note- We can also use a semicolon instead of a
comma to join independent clauses.

We can go to the movies tonight; however, I

would rather just stay home.

She wanted to play tennis; he wanted to play

basketball.
 Comma Splices – Joining two independent
clauses using only a comma on its own.
My brother is a very good swimmer , I am a better
runner. ( incorrect )
My brother is a very good swimmer; I’m a better
runner.
My brother is a very good swimmer , but I’m a better
runner.
My brother is a very good swimmer; however, I’m a
better runner.
 Separating Items in a list
Commas are used to separate three or more
items in a list or series.
I enjoy swimming , hiking , and riding my
bicycle.

I like apples, bananas, pears , and figs.

 Oxford Comma- before coordinating
conjunction (and)
It is stylistic preference. However, omission of
oxford comma can sometimes lead to
misunderstandings.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.
In case like above, clarity demands oxford
comma.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and
grapes.
 Joining Coordinate Adjective
In general we use commas between adjectives
that describe the noun independently from one
another.
I bought a heavy, long table.
Or
I bought a heavy and long table.
 Cumulative Adjectives
They don’t function independently .They give a
complete description.
I bought a black wooden table.
Black describes wooden table ( not just table
alone) , so
I bought a wooden black table (incorrect)
I bought a black and wooden table.(incorrect)
With adverbials

When an adverbial such as however, therefore

or unfortunately modifies a whole sentence, it is
separated from the rest of the sentence by a
comma.
However, police would not confirm this rumor.
Therefore, I try to avoid using the car as much
as possible.
 Separating subordinate clauses from main
clauses.

Commas are normally used if the subordinate

clause comes before the main clause.

If you have any problem, just call me.

Just call me if you have any problems.
 Separating relative clauses from main clauses
Commas are used to mark off non-defining
relative clauses .
This is the type of clause that adds to
information about a noun or noun phrase.

My next door neighbour , who works from

home, is keeping an eye on the house while we
are away.
With discourse markers

Commas are used to separate discourse

markers like well and Now then from the rest of
the sentence.

Well, believe it or not , I actually passed!

Now then, let’s see what’s on T.V tonight.
Actually, I quite enjoyed it.
With question tags and short responses.
Commas are used before question tags and
after yes or no in short responses.
It’s quite cold today, isn’t it?
Are you the mother of these children?- Yes, I
am.
You’re Amy , aren’t you?- No, I am not.
With vocatives
Commas are used to separate the name of a
person or group being addressed from the rest
of the sentence.

Come on, Olivia, be responsible.

Dad, can you come and help me, please?
 In reported speech
Commas are used to follow direct speech ( if
there is no question or exclamation mark after
the quotation) , or to show that it comes next.
‘I don’t understand this question,’ said Peter.
Peter said, ‘I don’t understand this question.
‘You’re crazy!’ Claire exclaimed.
‘What do you think you are doing?’ Dad
bellowed.
use a comma after a participle phrase if it comes at
the beginning of a sentence.

If a sentence starts with a participle phrase , use a

comma right after it.

Opening the door, she picked up the package and

carried it into the kitchen, leaving it on the table.
She sat in the living room, looking out the window.
Note: We do not generally use comma with Participle
phrases in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
But use commas to set off an adverbial participle
phrase to:
1. add non essential information
2. signal that phrase modifies the entire
sentence and not just a word.

We relaxed for the first time in years , walking

through the countryside, and enjoyed a wonderful
Conversation.
Semicolons
Definition
Semicolons(;) are used for
two main purposes: to separate
lengthy or complex items within
a list and to connect independent
clauses.
 Separating items in a list
Use semicolons to separate list items that contain
commas.
Dr.Peebles, expedition leader; Mr. Keen, botanist;
and Mr.Tait, chef.

When list contains Dr.Peebles, expedition leader

Commas, you can Mr.Keen, botanist
Separate them with Mr.Tait, Chef
semicolons.
 Joining independent Clauses
A semi colon can replace a period if the writer
Wishes to narrow the gap between two closely
linked sentences.
-I hope the traffic isn’t too bad.
-I don’t want to be late for the movie.

I hope the traffic isn’t too bad; I don’t want

to be late for the movie.
 Semicolon before “ however”
Use semicolon before a term like “however,”
“ consequently,” and “as a result”

I am not happy; however, I will do it.

Such terms serve as bridges between

sentences . They are called conjunctive
adverbs.
 Note: A semicolon may be used between
independent clauses joined by a connector , such as
and , but, or, nor, etc. When one or more commas
appear in the first clause.

Example: When I finished here, and I will soon, I

will be glad to help you; and that is a
promise I will keep.
 The Colon
Introduction

A colon means “ that is to say”

or “ here’s what I mean.”
Colons and Semi colons should never be used
interchangeably.
Rule 1. Use a colon to introduce a series of items.

Do not capitalize the first item after the

colon(unless it is a proper noun).

Examples: you may be required to bring many

things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm
clothing.
I want the following items: butter , sugar and
flour.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list when it
directly follows a verb or preposition.

I want: butter, sugar. And flour.

I want the following: butter,sugar, and flour.
OR
I want butter, sugar, and flour.
I have seen the greats, including: Barrymore.
Guinness, and Streep.
Rule. After introductory headings

Cooking time : about five minutes.

Start time : 10 o’ clock.
Rule. In front of an explanation or a reason.

Africa is facing a terrifying problem: perpetual

drought.
( explain what the problem is)

I decided against going away this weekend: the

weather forecast was terrible.
 The Colon and the Semicolon compared

consider
Lisa is upset. Gus is having a nervous
breakdown. ( no particular connection)

with semicolon
Lisa is upset; Gus is having a nervous breakdown.
( cause of breakdown is same)
With Colon

Lisa is upset: Gus is having a nervous breakdown.

The Gus’s nervous breakdown is the reason for

Lisa’s distress.

A colon introduces an explanation or elaboration

of what has come before.
 Hyphen Rules

A hyphen is (-) a punctuation mark that we use to join

words or parts of words.
 We need hyphens
because working
Twenty four-hour shifts
Is not the same as working
Twent-four hour shifts
Or twenty-four-hour shifts.
1. Hyphen Rule 1a

Rule: use a hyphen to join two or more words that

serve as a single adjective before a noun.

Examples:
Well-known actress
Kind-hearted man
Brand-new phone
Note: When compound modifiers come after a
noun, they are not hyphenated.

Compound modifier= word-word( act like an adj.)

Examples: She was a well-known actress.

The actress was well known
It is a dog-friendly restaurant.
Is the restaurant dog friendly?
 Hyphen Rule 2
Rule: Use a hyphen with compound numbers. You
should hyphenate compound numbers between
21 and 99. A compound number is any number
that consists of two words.

Examples: There are twenty-two

Thirty-three chickens on her farm.
Sixty-five There were one hundred
Eighty-two and twenty-two people
at the concert.
 Hyphen Rule 3

Rule: use a hyphen with the following prefixes.

ex- ( meaning former)
self-
all-
Examples: He, his ex-wife and their children will all
suffer.
I wish I had more self-confidence.
God is an all-knowing being.
 Hyphen Rule 4
Rule: Use a hyphen between a prefix and a
capitalized word.

anti-Trump My birthday is in
pro- Nawaz Sharif mid-August.
Pre- Civil War
mid-October
Post-World War
 Hyphen Rule 5
Rule: Use a hyphen with hyphenated compound
words.
Compound words: open words, closed words, and
hyphenated.

open words( dining room)

Examples: closed words( airport)
Brother-in-law hyphenated( one-sided)
In-laws
Merry-go-round
Runner-up
 Rule 6
An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverbs
Very and adverbs ending in –ly are not hyphenated.

Incorrect: the very-elegant match

Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch

but
Correct: the friendly-looking dog
Correct: a family-owned café
Rule 7. Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.

Example: more than two-thirds of registered voters.

 Introduction to Apostrophes

Apostrophes have two main uses:

1) They show possession

2) They indicate letters have been removed to form
contraction.
1. Apostrophes and possessive Nouns

We use apostrophes to indicate that something

belongs to someone.

Rule: For most singular nouns, add apostrophe + s:

The boy’s bike
The dog’s bone
Jack’s car
Emily’s baby
1. Apostrophes and Possessive Nouns

Rule: For most plural nouns, add only an apostrophe

The boys’ bikes

The dogs’ bones
His partners’ car
1. Apostrophes and Possessive Nouns

Usually, most plural nouns end in s.

Rule: For plural nouns end in s, add apostrophe + s

The children’s teacher

The sheep’s wool
The women’s university
1. Apostrophes and Possessives

Rule: Singular noun ending in ‘s’ can either end in

an apostrophe or just ‘s’ to show possession.

Example words: Thomas, Lucas, Paris, Barbados

It is Thomas’s birthday.
It is Thomas’ birthday.
 Pronoun possessive Pronouns

me my mine

You Your Yours

He His His

She Her Hers

It Its Its

We our ours

They Their theirs

2. Apostrophes with certain compound nouns

Examples of compound nouns: brother-in-law

mother-in-law
Some compound nouns do not add their plurals
By adding ‘s’ to the end.
the ‘s’ is added to the principal word.
Examples: Brother-in-law(singular)
Brothers-in-law(plural)
My brother-in-law’s new job has so many benefits.
My brothers-in-law’s wives do not get along well.
3. Apostrophes with joint ownership

Rule: When one thing belongs to two or more people,

make only the final name possessive.

Examples: Susan and Dave’s wedding.( Susan and

Dave are getting married.)
Karen and Judy’s shop( Karen and Judy
own a shop.)
Rule: when you are talking about separate things
that belong to different people, make all the
name possessive:

Example:
Susan’s and Dave’s weddings( Susan and
Dave are each having a wedding.)
Karen’s and Judy’s shops( Karen and Judy
each own a shop )
5. Apostrophe in Contractions

A contraction is a shortened form of a word(or group

of words) that omits certain letters or sounds. In
a contraction, an apostrophe represents missing
letters.

Examples: I’m = I am He’ll = He will

Don’t= Do not Won’t=will not
 The dash (--)
A space dash(i.e. with a single space before and after
at the beginning and end of a comment that
interrupts the flow of a sentence.

Now children—Kenneth, stop that immediately! --

open your books on page 20.
To separate off extra information.

Boots and shoes – all shapes, sizes and colours –

tumbled out.

An unspaced dash( i.e. with no space before or after

It) is used: to indicate a range.
pages 26—42
between two adjectives or noun modifiers that
two countries or groups are involved in something
or that an individual has two roles or aspects.

Swedish—Norwegian relations improved,

the United States—Canada free trade pact
a mathematician—philosopher
to indicate that something such as a plane or a train
goes between two places.

the Anguilla—St kitts flight

the New York—Montreal train
1. Quotation Marks Rule

Rule: Use double quotation marks to indicate a direct (

word-for-word) quotation.

Examples:
“ I love horror movies,” she said.
“ Do you want to go for dinner tomorrow night?”
Mary asked.
“ I have a business meeting next Friday,” John answered
2. Quotation Marks Rule 2a

Rule: Always capitalize the first word in a complete

quotation.

Examples:

Rob screamed, “ Don’t lie to me!”

The judge said, “ You are guilty as charged.”
2. Quotation Marks Rule 2b

Rule: If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence

, do not capitalize the second part of the
quotation.
Examples:
“ I didn’t see any celebrities in Los Angeles,
“Mr. Smith said, “ but I still had a good time.”
3. Quotation Marks Rule 3

Rule: Use commas to introduce or interrupt

direct quotations.

Examples:
He yelled, “Get out of my way!”
“Where,” he asked, “ is the party tomorrow?”
“ I need to borrow your car,” my sister said, “ so
I can go to my appointment.”
4. Quotation Marks Rule 4

Examples:

The manager said, “ Everyone Christmas bonus.”

“The cream,” whispered the shop assistant, “is on
the third shelf.”
5. Quotation Marks Rule 5

a) Place a question mark or exclamation point

within closing quotation marks if the
punctuation applies to the quotation itself.

b) Place the punctuation outside the closing

quotation marks if the punctuation applies to
the whole sentence.
Examples: Jane asked, “Where is the library?”
Jack said, “ I hate you!”
Do you agree with the phrase, “ Time is
money”?
6. Quotation Marks Rule 6

Rule: Use single quotations within quotations.

Examples:
I spoke to George yesterday and he said, “Did you
talk to Jane? She told me, ‘I am quitting my job.”