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Research paper
A look at advanced learners’ use of mobile devices for
English language study: Insights from interview data
Mariusz Kruk
University of Zielona Gora, Poland
______________________________________________________________
mkruk @ uz.zgora.pl
Abstract
The paper discusses the results of a study which explored advanced learners of
English
engagement with their mobile devices to develop learning experiences that meet
their
needs and goals as foreign language learners. The data were collected from 20
students
by means of a semi-structured interview. The gathered data were subjected to
qualitative and quantitative analysis. The results of the study demonstrated that,
on the
one hand, some subjects manifested heightened awareness relating to the
advantageous role of mobile devices in their learning endeavors, their ability to
reach
for suitable tools and retrieve necessary information so as to achieve their goals,
meet
their needs and adjust their learning of English to their personal learning styles,
and on
the other, a rather intuitive and/or ad hoc use of their mobile devices in the
classroom.
Keywords: Learner autonomy, mobile devices, advanced EFL learners, learning
English.
1. Introduction
Mobile devices, smartphones and tablet computers in particular, have generated a
lot of
interest among researchers in recent years (Byrne & Diem, 2014). This is because
the
opportunities these new technologies may offer (e.g. individualized learning, the
variety
of mobile apps available, easy access to the internet) and/or the fact that they
are
increasingly more common among learners make them an important and potentially
useful addition to formal and informal language learning.
According to Benson (2011), there has always been a connection between educational
technologies and learner autonomy to the extent that they have often been intended
for
independent practice. It should be noted, however, that this link and “future
enquiry
and practice into technology-mediated learner autonomy will need to be increasingly
aligned to the tools, settings, and activities that are of significance to language
learners”
(Reinders & White, 2016, p. 151). Reinders and White (2016) further argue that as
long
as “the potential range of settings, tools, and experiences is now virtually
limitless,
individuals need to be increasingly adept at critical adaptive learning in order to
benefit
from and contribute effectively to those settings” (p. 151). Beyond doubt,
contemporary
language teachers should equip foreign/second language learners with appropriate
knowledge concerning the affordances of mobile devices for language study and they
should prepare them for effective usage of such devices for this purpose. It is
also of
paramount importance, for both researchers and practitioners, to comprehend the
link
between the modalities of the language learners' organization of their own learning
experiences and environments and the role mobile technologies, in particular
smartphones and tablets, play in these contexts.
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned issues, the study reported in this
article
investigated ways advanced English language students use their mobile devices (i.e.
smartphones and tablet computers) for their language learning. The article
commences
with a short overview of relevant literature. Next, the design of the study is
described,
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19
namely a research question, description of participants, data collection tools and
analysis. This is followed by the presentation of the results of the study. The
article
closes with discussion and conclusions.
2. Literature review
2.1. Autonomy in foreign/second language learning
The concept of autonomy in second/foreign language learning and teaching has been
the focus of attention for many researchers and practitioners for more than three
decades. According to Benson (2001), the notion of autonomy was introduced and
popularized in 1981 by Henri Holec in his seminal report for the Council of Europe
entitled Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning in which the researcher defined
autonomy in the context of language learning as “the ability to take charge of
one’s own
learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3). Holec’s idea of autonomy encompasses some components
and capacities on the part of language learners (e.g. self-directed learning). For
some
other authors autonomy also involves “a capacity – for detachment, critical
reflection,
decision-making, and independent action” (Little, 1991, p. 4) and “the capacity to
take
control of one’s own learning” (Benson, 2001, p. 46). As stated by Benson (2011, p.
16), “autonomy is multidimensional and takes many different forms according to the
person, the setting, and multiple contextual and micro-contextual factors” and it
is “a
multi-faceted concept that consists of several layers” (Reinders, 2011, p. 48)
whose
roots are based in political, societal and educational developments. In addition to
this,
work on autonomy emphasizes social dimensions of learner autonomy in view of the
fact that “autonomous learners always do things for themselves, but they may or may
not do things on their own” (Little, 2009, p. 223) and that by means of social
interactions language learners “develop a capacity to analyze, reflect upon and
synthesize information to create new perspectives” (Lee, 2011, p. 88). It should
also be
noted that recent research shows that fostering autonomy is no longer predominantly
a
matter of individualizing learning through out-of-class initiatives since the
dominance of
classroom-based approaches (Benson, 2011). Finally, it has to be added that
researchers, in general, seem to be in agreement with the following claims
suggested
by Benson (2011): “(a) language learners naturally tend to take control of their
learning, (b) learners who lack autonomy are capable of developing it, and (c)
autonomous language learning is more effective than non-autonomous language
learning” (p. 16).
Perhaps in order to define the concept of autonomy in language learning it is
necessary
to understand who autonomous learners are. As Littlewood (1996) claims, an
autonomous learner is “one who has independent capacity to make and carry out
choices which govern his or her actions” (p. 428). The researcher argues that this
capacity depends on two major components such as ability and willingness, and he
claims that the attributes can also be further subdivided. Thus, ability depends on
having knowledge about the options from which one can choose and skills so as to
choose the most suitable alternatives. When it comes to willingness, this depends
on
having motivation and confidence in order to take responsibility for adequate
choices.
Moreover, Littlewood (1996) argues that if an individual is to be successful in
being
autonomous, all of these components have to be present all together.
At the close of this section, a few words are in order on the notion of autonomous
language learning. An interesting description of the concept in question is offered
by
Reinders (2011), who defines autonomous language learning as “an act of learning
whereby motivated learners consciously make informed decisions about that learning”
(p. 48). According to the said researcher, it is not possible or needed in all acts
of
learning to be able or ready to intentionally make decisions since different
learning
situations present different demands. Reinders (2011) further argues that “autonomy
is
not an either-or concept, but has to be seen as a continuum” (p. 48). This is
because a
learner can display more or less autonomy in different learning circumstances.
Autonomy, in Reinders’ terms changes over time between skills and within skills and
thus it is difficult to achieve and is not invariably permanent (Reinders, 2011).
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2.2. Autonomy and new technologies
As stated in the previous section, the concept of autonomy has been one of the most
researched areas in the field of second/foreign language learning and teaching over
the
last few decades. It should be noted, however, that the field of learner autonomy
started to be influenced by technology in the mid-1990s as a result of the growing
influence of the internet on almost every sphere of our life (including
second/foreign
language education) and the opportunities for online collaboration and
communication
(Reinders & White, 2016). As stated by Benson and Chik (2010), the latest
generations
of new technologies, particularly those encompassing the internet, user-generated
Web
content and mobility, seem to be having a bearing on the way autonomous language
learning develops. Perhaps, one of the most important benefits of implementing new
technologies into language learning is the fact that they provide occasions for
language
learners who do not have direct access to the target language. This is because the
use
of new technologies, including mobile technology, allow them to “bypass classrooms
and
go directly to target language texts and users through the internet and social
media”
(Benson, 2011, p. 17).
When it comes to the use of mobile technology, and, in particular, smartphones and
tablet computers, for learning a foreign or second language, they can assist
language
learners with their learning endeavors by granting access to numerous language
resources whenever and wherever such learners need them and/or they happen to be
(Jones, 2015). In Jones’s opinion, such language involvement might comprise, for
instance, the use of chunks of spare time for language practice, searching for
target
language vocabulary in relevant contexts or interactions on social media (Jones,
2015).
Furthermore, by having a mobile device a language learner has the opportunity to
take
control of his or her learning, direct it and engage in language activities that
meet his or
her individual needs and goals (Kukulska-Hulme, Traxler & Pettit, 2007; Pettit &
Kukulska-Hulme 2007).
Given the importance attached to new technologies, and, in particular the potential
role
of mobile devices in autonomous language learning, the terms mobile
learning and mobile devices (MobDs) need first to be explained. As for mobile
learning,
no single agreed-upon definition of the term exists in the literature (Oz, 2015).
This is
because some researchers define mobile learning as an extension of e-learning built
upon mobile devices whereas some other researchers understand it as learning that
happens anywhere and anytime (cf. Oz, 2015). As far as mobile devices are
concerned,
they can be defined as “any device that is small, autonomous and unobtrusive enough
to accompany us in every moment and can be used for educational purposes”
(Trifanova Knapp, Ronchetti & Gamper, 2004, p. 3) or as “hand held electronic
devices
that can be comfortably carried around in a pocket or bag, including MP3 players,
digital
recorders, e-readers, tablets, and smartphones” (Kukulska-Hulme, Norris & Donohue,
2015, p. 39).
A lot of studies concerning the use of mobile technology and mobile devices in
language
learning have been published. The findings of these studies concentrated on, for
example, language learners’ views on the use of mobile devices in language
instruction
(e.g. Oz, 2015), students’ attitudes towards using mobile phones as instructional
tools
for foreign language learning (e.g. Cakir, 2015), profiling mobile language
learners (e.g.
Byrne & Diem, 2014), their effect on learning a foreign/second language (e.g. Nah,
White & Sussex, 2008; Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009; Zhang, Song & Burston, 2011),
distance language learning (e.g. Demouy, Jones, Kan, Kukulska-Hulme & Eardley,
2016), informal language learning practices (Reinders & Cho, 2011; Jones, 2015),
learners’ use of mobile devices for learning a foreign language (Stockwell, 2007;
Dashtestani, 2015) and autonomy in language learning (e.g. Díaz-Vera, 2012; Djoub,
2015). In addition to this, researchers investigated a number of applications of
mobile
devices and presented both benefits and drawbacks of the usage of mobile
technologies
(e.g. Miangah & Nezarat, 2012), discussed the use of mobile devices in supporting
social contacts and collaborative learning (e.g. Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008) and
offered guidelines related to the implementation of mobile learning into
second/foreign
language instruction (e.g. Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2015).
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3. Method
3.1. Research question
One of the questions related to future research and practice in technology-mediated
learner autonomy addressed by Reinders and White in their recent critical overview
of
the relationship between technology and autonomy in the journal Language Learning &
Technology (LLT) concerned language learners engagement with technology-mediated
environments in order to develop learning experiences that reach their aims and
meet
their needs as language learners (Reinders & White, 2016). Taking this important
matter into consideration, and in view of the fact that mobile technology,
including
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers, are ubiquitous and
substantial constituents of almost every language learner’s everyday life, the
abovementioned question was modified and posed in this study in the following way:
Do students engage with their mobile devices to develop learning experiences
(e.g. the use of mobile devices for formal and/or informal English language
study) that meet their needs and goals (e.g. the development of the target
language skills and sub-skills) as English language learners? If yes, why and how
do they do this?
3.2. Participants
The participants were 20 Polish university students of English philology, nine of
whom
(seven females and two males) were in the second year of their BA programme, six
(five females and one male) in the third year and five (all females) in the second
year of
their MA program (1). The study participants were on average 22.22 years old (20.66
-
year 2, BA; 21.82 - year 3, BA and 24.50 - year 2, MA). The subjects reported
having
learned English for an average of 11.38 years (10.49 - year 2, BA; 11.27 - year 3,
BA
and 12.21 - year 2, MA). The proficiency level represented by the participants of
the
study could be described as somewhere between B1 and B2 (second year BA students),
B2 and C1 (third year BA students) and C1 and C2 (second year MA students), as
specified in the levels laid out in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages.
3.3. Data collection and analysis
The data were gathered by means of a semi-structured interview. This interview
format
was chosen intentionally since it uses a set of prepared in advance guiding
questions
and prompts and interviewees are encouraged to elaborate on the problems raised
during it (Dörnyei, 2007). As Dörnyei (2007) explains, in this type of the
interview “the
interviewer provides guidelines and direction (hence the ‘-structured’ part in the
name),
but is also keen to follow up interesting developments and to let the interviewee
elaborate on certain issues (hence the ‘semi-’ part)” (p. 136).
During the interview, the present researcher attempted to encourage the subjects to
describe their learning experiences concerning the use of mobile devices for
English
study. This was a form of introspection where the students were prompted to examine
their behaviors and provide a first person narrative of such experiences. All the
study
participants were informed that the interview concerned the use of mobile devices
for
English study and they were asked for permission to be digitally recorded. In order
to
obtain relevant data the following questions were asked (2):
 Do you use your mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets, MP3 players,
PDAs) for learning English?
 Why do you use your mobile device(s) for learning English?
 When did you start using your mobile device(s) for learning English? Has the
use of your mobile device(s) increased or decreased since that time?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) during classes?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) more frequently in- or out-of-class English
learning?
 What mobile apps have you been using most frequently and/or recently?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) more often in relation to formal or informal
English language study?
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 Do you organize regular formal or informal mobile English language learning
sessions?
 What do you learn most frequently by means of your mobile device(s)? Why
this?
 Do you feel that thanks to the use of your mobile device(s) you devote more
time for learning the English language?
 As far as learning English through your mobile device(s) is concerned, do you
consider yourself as an experienced user of such device(s)?
The gathered data were subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis. The
analysis
started with partial transcription of the important parts of the data (Dörnyei,
2007) on a
computer word processor program Microsoft Word 2016. Then the transcribed parts of
the data were read several times in order to look for common themes and frequently
occurring information. The recurring ideas were coded and recoded, revised and
updated. The researcher used the highlighting function of the word processor
program
which allows the user to highlight the text on the transcript with different colors
and
comments to record any observations and thematic categories recognized in the data.
The emerged categories were reviewed, compared, modified and either merged or
abandoned. It should also be noted that the obtained data were analyzed
quantitatively.
This type of analysis involved counting the number of the interviewees’ responses
and
calculating percentages.
4. Findings 2.0 wowow
A thorough analysis of the data yielded the following thematic categories: usage of
mobile devices, reasons for using mobile devices, resources and tools, mobile
encounters, language practiced and study performance.
4.1. Usage of mobile devices
Table 1 shows the study participants’ mobile devices (MobDs) usage descriptions.
The
table demonstrates that smartphones were the most often used mobile devices by the
students. In addition, the numerical information in the table indicates that the
participants, on average, had been using them for English language study for about
3.80 years (minimum 2, maximum 6 years). 9 (45%) and 11 (55%) of the subjects
started using their mobile devices at senior high school and university,
respectively. It
should also be added that, with the exception of one student (i.e. S9), all the
other
participants claimed to use their mobile devices in order to learn English much
more
frequently with time. Finally, more than half of the students (55%) regarded
themselves
as experienced or fairly experienced users of their MobDs for English language
learning;
however, 45% claimed not to be very skilful in this area.
Table 1. The students’ mobile devices usage descriptions.
Year/
Level of
study
Student Sex Device used Erm what? What does this Say Lol. I just searched research
document and copied some random shit
Use of MobDs
for language
study (approx.)
Self-assessed
experience
2nd year
B.A.
S1 female smartphone and tablet 2 years not very experi