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Teaching and Researching Translation 2nd Edition Basil
A. Hatim Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Basil A. Hatim
ISBN(s): 9781408297636, 1408297639
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 2.02 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
 Teaching and Researching Translation

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 1 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 Applied Linguistics in Action

General Editors:

Christopher N. Candlin and David R. Hall

Books published in this series include:

Teaching and Researching Computer-Assisted Language Learning,

2nd edition Ken Beatty
Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning Philip Benson
Teaching and Researching Motivation Zoltán Dörnyei and
Ema Ushioda
Teaching and Researching Reading William Grabe and
Fredricka L. Stoller
Teaching and Researching Lexicography R. K. K. Hartmann
Teaching and Researching Speaking Rebecca Hughes
Teaching and Researching Writing Ken Hyland
Teaching and Researching Language and Culture Joan Kelly Hall
Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies Rebecca Oxford
Teaching and Researching Listening Michael Rost

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 2 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 Teaching and Researching
Translation

Second edition

Basil Hatim

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 3 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 First published 2001 by Pearson Education Limited
Second edition published 2013
Published 2014 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2001, 2013, Taylor & Francis.

The right of Basil Hatim to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by
him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: 978-1-4082-9763-6 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Set in 11/13pt Janson Text by 35

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 4 11/20/12 4:58 PM

 Contents

General Editors’ Preface ix

Author’s acknowledgements xi
About this book xii

Section I:â•…Translation studies: History, basic concepts

and key issues in research 1

1 Translation studies and applied linguistics 3

1.1 Applied linguistics and the translation analyst 4
1.2 Reflective practice 7
1.3 Action research: The theory–practice cycle 9
1.4 Translation studies: A house of many rooms 11

2 From linguistic systems to cultures in contact 15

2.1 Formal equivalence 16
2.2 Bridging cultural and linguistic differences 21

3 Equivalence: Pragmatic and textual criteria 30

3.1 Opening up to pragmatics 30
3.2 Textuality and equivalence 35
3.3 Translation and relevance 41

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 vi Contents

4 Cultural studies and translator invisibility 48

4.1 Translator invisibility 50
4.2 Deconstruction: The plurality of meaning 54
4.3 Gendered translation: Production not
reproduction 57

5 From word to text and beyond 62

5.1 Translation as metatext 63
5.2 Translation: Shaping context and history 67

6 Literary and cultural constraints 72

6.1 Polysystem theory and translation 73
6.2 The Manipulationists 78
6.3 Translation purpose 79
6.4 The circle closes: Linkages to other disciplines 87

Section II:â•… Research models 93

7 Register-oriented research models 95

7.1 The age of dichotomies 96
7.2 Skopos and translation strategy 97
7.3 Text reception and translation strategy 100
7.4 Quality assessment and translation strategy 101
7.5 Translation strategy dichotomies assessed 105

8 The pragmatics turn in research 107

8.1 Translation strategy and relevance theory 108
8.2 Translating the direct way 110
8.3 Communicative clues 111
8.4 The pragmatic view of translation strategy
assessed 118

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 Co n t e n t s vii

9 Focus on the text 120

9.1 Text processing and the process of translation 121
9.2 The genre–text–discourse triad 130

10 Translation and ideology 137

10.1 The ideology of vs in translation 137
10.2 The ideology of translation: A cultural
studies perspective 139
10.3 The North American scene 140
10.4 The ideology of translation: A feminist perspective 145

11 Translation of genre vs translation as genre 151

11.1 What is a genre? 152
11.2 Translation as genre 155

12 Empirical research in translation studies 162

12.1 Corpus research into translation universals 162
12.2 Process research 166

13 Theory and practice in translation teaching 173

13.1 Translation into the foreign language 175
13.2 The nature of translation errors 179
13.3 Text typologies as a didactic instrument 182

Section III:â•… Developing practitioner research 197

14 Action and reflection in practitioner research 199

14.1 Textual practices and practitioner research 200
14.2 Researching text, genre, and discourse 203
14.3 Text matters 207
14.4 Discourse practices 215
14.5 Genre norms 225

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 7 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 viii Contents

15 Setting a teaching and research agenda:

The case of style translation 234
15.1 Literal translation: Limitations and possibilities 234
15.2 Style and textual dynamism 236
15.3 Register theory enriched 237
15.4 The ubiquitous nature of style 241
15.5 Interdiscursivity, genre and translation 244
15.6 Case studies 245
15.7 Exemplar research projects 259

Section IV:â•… Links and resources 265

16 Resources 267
16.1 Links and resources 267
16.2 Glossary of text linguistics and translation terms 281

References 298
Index 312

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 8 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 General Editors’ Preface

Applied Linguistics in Action, as its name suggests, is a Series which

focuses on the issues and challenges to teachers and researchers in
a range of fields in Applied Linguistics and provides readers and
users with the tools they need to carry out their own practice-related
research.
The books in the Series provide the reader with clear, up-to-date,
accessible and authoritative accounts of their chosen field within Applied
Linguistics. Starting from a map of the landscape of the field, each
book provides information on its main ideas and concepts, competing
issues and unsolved questions. From there readers can explore a range
of practical applications of research into those issues and questions, and
then take up the challenge of undertaking their own research, guided
by the detailed and explicit research guides provided. Finally, each
book has a section which provides a rich array of resources, information
sources and further reading, as well as a key to the principal concepts
of the field.
Questions the books in this innovative Series ask are those familiar
to all teachers and researchers, whether very experienced, or new to the
fields of Applied Linguistics.

• What does research tell us, what doesn’t it tell us, and what should
it tell us about the field? How is the field mapped and landscaped?
What is its geography?
• How has research been applied and what interesting research pos­
sibilities does practice raise? What are the issues we need to explore
and explain?

ix

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 9 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 x Genera l Edit o r s ’ Pr e fa ce

• What are the key researchable topics that practitioners can undertake?
How can the research be turned into practical action?
• Where are the important resources that teachers and researchers need?
Who has the information? How can it be accessed?
Each book in the Series has been carefully designed to be as accessible
as possible, with built-in features to enable readers to find what they want
quickly and to home in on the key issues and themes that concern them.
The structure is to move from practice to theory and back to practice
in a cycle of development of understanding of the field in question.
Each of the authors of books in the Series is an acknowledged author�
ity, able to bring broad knowledge and experience to engage teachers
and researchers in following up their own ideas, working with them to
build further on their own experience.
The first editions of books in this series have attracted widespread
praise for their authorship, their design, and their content, and have
been widely used to support practice and research. The success of the
series, and the realization that it needs to stay relevant in a world where
new research is being conducted and published at a rapid rate, have
prompted the commissioning of his second edition. This new edition
has been thoroughly updated, with accounts of research that has
appeared since the first edition and with the addition of other relevant
additional material. We trust that students, teachers and researchers
will continue to discover inspiration in these pages to underpin their
own investigations.

Chris Candlin & David Hall

General Editors

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 10 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 Author’s acknowledgements

Writing a book of this kind inevitably involves the participation of

many people. I should in particular like to thank Chris Candlin and
David Hall for their insightful comments throughout the process of
completing this work in its two editions.
A number of colleagues have my gratitude for commenting on indi-
vidual chapters: Mona Baker, Ron Buckley, Ann Chebbo, John Cleary,
Peter Crompton, Teresa Crompton, Charlene Constable, Ali Darwish,
Peter Fallon, John Laffling, Margaret Lang, Ian Mason, Anthony Pym
and Gavin Watterson.
The following institutions deserve a special mention for their sup-
port in providing me with the time and facilities which made this work
possible: Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh; King Fahd School of
Translation, Tangiers; American University of Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates, where I have been based since 1999.
Last but not least, I should like to express my heartfelt thanks to
former and current editors at Pearson Education: Elizabeth Mann, Casey
Mein, Verina Pettigrew, Alex Whyte, Jessica Harrison, Kate Ahl, Sarah
Turpie and Kathy Auger, for seeing this work through the various stages
of production.

xi

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 About this book

Re-writing the research agenda

An interesting thread runs through the discourse found in many
introductory books on translation studies. There is a tendency to use
linguistics as a scapegoat – as something to blame for the ills that
have befallen us in the study of translation. The argument usually lists
the weaknesses of such paradigms as structural linguistics and trans�
formational grammar (which admittedly leave a great deal to be desired
as linguistic theories, let alone as translation models), only to conclude
that linguistics has all but failed us.
This book suggests that the conceptual map of translation studies
could be drawn differently and perhaps in more helpful ways. The script
we will be working to is inspired by a simple yet telling coincid�ence.
The year is 1955, and the place is Harvard. Noam Chomsky was lecturing
on his theory of transformational generative grammar, and the linguists
and psychologists – and a few translation theorists – were buzzing with
excitement. In the same year, the British philosopher John Austin was
also at Harvard to present the prestigious William James Lectures.
In the course of these lectures, Austin outlined a programme for what
was to have an enduring influence for generations to come – the study
of language as Action, and language use as ‘doing things with words’.
Pragmatics has had a strong impact on a wide range of disciplines,
including linguistics and translation.
The first question we must then ask of any linguistics-oriented
model of translation is: What kind of linguistics is being applied? Yet, it
is remarkable how all criticism of the role of linguistics in the study of

xii

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 12 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 Ab o u t th i s bo o k xiii

translation seems to have focused on abstract and esoteric work divorced

from practical considerations, and to ignore the contribution of those
trends in linguistics which are anything but abstract and esoteric.
This book takes a close look at this inconsistency and asks: Would
the conceptual map of translation studies have looked different, and
linguistics perhaps less uninviting, had we been more discriminate of
the kinds of ‘linguistics’ that were on offer? Would we have offered the
translator more effective guidance had we paid more attention to such
forward-looking models of linguistics description as pragmatics and to
what these paradigms can do and have actually done for the translator?
These are some of the questions that this book will attempt to answer.

Overview
Teaching and Researching Translation is divided into four major sections.
Section I (Chapters 1–6) outlines the historical and conceptual back-
ground to translation studies, and highlights key issues in translation
research. The various strands work together to provide answers for
such questions as:
• Which research is informed by which paradigm?
• What does research into the various paradigms tell us?
• What does it not tell us?
• What should it tell us?
There seems to be a pattern to the way translation studies and
research seem to have evolved. No matter which way the wind of
fashion blows, translating or the study of translation has always and
inescapably been seen in terms of the two extremes ‘literal’ vs ‘free’.
Thus, such requirements as whether it is the ‘letter’ or the ‘spirit’ of the
original that can or needs to be reproduced in the translation have
regularly been used as a basis for what have come to be well-known
distinctions such as communicative vs semantic translation, or covert vs
overt translation. In mainstream translation studies, distinctions such
as the literal/free have also been influential in defining other aspects of
translation method or strategy, and familiar categories such as ‘interlinear’
translation at one end, and ‘imitation’ at the other, are conceived within
such frameworks. Distance from or adherence to the source text thus
seems to be an important motif and one that has underpinned significant

A01_HATI7636_02_SE_FM.indd 13 19/11/12 11:34 AM

 xiv Ab out t his b ook

developments in the discipline. This metaphor is used as a main

organising principle in this book.
Section II (Chapters 7–13) focuses on how the perspectives outlined
in Section I have yielded operational frameworks for research. In this
book, researching the practice is seen in terms of three major aspects of
how texts function and how they get translated:
• Textual register, informed by a language use/user perspective.
• The pragmatics of intentionality, acceptability and related standards
of textuality.
• Language as a social-semiotic impinging on micro- and macro-units
of interaction and involving what users of language in social life actu-
ally do with texts, genres and discourses.
In this section, the questions asked are:
• How has research on the ground been and how can research best be applied?
• What interesting research possibilities does practice raise?
Section III (Chapters 14 and 15) presents current practical applications
of translation research: How the areas represented by the three facets
of translation research (register, pragmatics, semiotics) have shaped up
in terms of practitioner action research projects (both carried out and
yet to be carried out). With this, the question becomes:
• What are the important researchable issues and topics that practitioners can
research in an action research way?
Section IV provides links and resources for translators and is supple-
mented by a glossary of basic terms. This will end a journey through a
rather difficult terrain. Indeed, the case may not have been overstated
when Ivor Richards (cited in Holmes, 1988: 73) once described transla-
tion as ‘very probably the most complex type of event yet produced in
the evolution of the cosmos’.

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 Section

I Translation studies:
History, basic concepts
and key issues in research

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This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

Translation studies and applied

linguistics

This chapter will . . .

• describe how applied linguistics can contribute to the study of translat-
ing and translations;
• set the theory–practice debate against the background of pioneering
work on educating reflective practitioners;
• propose the notion of practitioner/action research as an ideal method-
ology with which to study translation, and thus question the assumption
that theory and practice are separate and distinct;
• introduce translation studies in terms of the way the subject has evolved as
an interdisciplinary endeavour.

Translation studies, the discipline which concerns itself with the theory
and practice of translation, has come of age and is maturing rapidly.
Nevertheless, a number of obstacles remain and will have to be over-
come if the discipline is to develop further.
To begin with, activities such as translating or translation teaching
have, until fairly recently, been kept separate from ‘research’ into these
and related issues. The polarisation is historical and is evidence of the
misleading demarcation lines that are often too readily drawn between
‘theoretician’ and ‘practitioner’ in many disciplines. Theory and practice
are ultimately complementary and, particularly in a field such as trans-
lation, the distinction needs to be re-examined.
Another obstacle in the development of translation studies has to do
with a distinction also traditionally maintained between ‘linguistics’ and

M01_HATI7636_02_SE_C01.indd 3 6/29/12 1:30 PM

 4 TEACHING AND RE S E ARCHING T RANS LA T I O N

the range of disciplines within which translation is studied (e.g. cultural

studies). Like the theory vs practice distinction, this division has militated
against fostering an atmosphere of interdisciplinarity in the study of
translation as an important form of intercultural communication.
To set the scene for this survey of how translation studies has evolved,
the first question addressed is: In what ways can applied linguistics, with its
many and varied orientations, inform translation research?

1.1 Applied linguistics and the translation analyst

Quote 1.1

Translation is characteristically purposeful as a profession; it has targets

and goals. It is done on behalf of sponsors. It lacks (except in rare cases)
the leisure of reflective consideration about the researchable questions of
why like this, why here. Nonetheless, translators as applied linguists do
have certain obligations to the furthering of our understanding of lan-
guage and our ability to explain the acts of communicating in which we
are continually engaged.
Christopher Candlin (1991)

In applied linguistics, it is now generally accepted that what is applied

in teaching or research is not so much knowledge about language as it
is a way of investigating language. The identity of what exactly is being
applied tends to be of secondary importance, compared with how the
application might best be effected and for what purpose. There is still a
great deal of uncertainty among linguists as to what the subject matter
of their discipline is. Yet, this has not stood in the way of applied lin-
guists using linguistics in the search for solutions to a wide range of
practical problems in fields as varied as language teaching and speech
pathology.
From an applied linguistic perspective, it is thus the how and, perhaps
more important, the why of an application that should underpin any
serious attempt to deal with translation. In this applied sense, a range of
characteristics generally associated with sound scientific practice would
be adhered to: objectivity, comprehensiveness, explicitness, precision.

M01_HATI7636_02_SE_C01.indd 4 6/29/12 1:30 PM

 T RANS L AT I O N S T U D I E S A N D A P P LI E D LI N G U I S T I C S 5

Theoretical statements would also be valued, taking into account not

only the ‘facts’ which one’s methodology uncovers, but also how the
facts may best be systematised and explained.
Applications conducted along these lines invariably seek to solve
a problem. In practice, however, the notion of ‘problem’ is not so
straightforward. In attempting to deal with a perceived problem, the
first complication likely to arise relates to responsibility: Who decides
whether there is a problem in the first place?
In this respect, reference to the practitioner or learner is standard
practice in applied linguistics. In the first instance, these consumers
of linguistic knowledge can reveal through tests, experiments and so
on, what the problem is. The problem would then be viewed within a
particular framework that ‘linguistics’ as the discipline applied makes
available. Such procedures are being increasingly adopted in translation
studies where traditionally armchair theoreticians have been the first to
pronounce on problems of translation.
But no sooner is the issue of ‘responsibility’ resolved than another
arises, this time relating to constituency. Language or translation analysts
constantly come up against the question of whether groupings such as
‘practitioners’ or ‘learners’ are sufficiently homogeneous to yield mean-
ingful generalisations about what the problem is. The issue at stake is
complex and has a great deal to do with the varying degrees of awareness
that members of a professional group bring to a task.
This ‘awareness’ factor influences the process of problem solving
considerably. In terms of level of awareness regarding the nature of the
problems encountered, two types of practitioner are generally recognised.
Among trainees or in the workplace, for instance, there are those whose
training has focused on such issues as the relevance of theoretical state-
ments and the need for abstract models of description. However, there
will also be those whose apprenticeship has all but excluded the benefits
of a training that is theoretically oriented. The two groups will have
different notions of what constitutes a ‘problem’, and this will make
generalisations difficult to sustain.
In applied linguistics, one way of dealing with this disparity has been
to use research techniques such as comparative data obtained from pro-
fessional practitioners or experienced trainees vs novices and beginners
(with one or the other grouping serving as a ‘control group’). Recent work
in the field of translation studies has adopted similar approaches. As a
long-term solution and in order to overcome the difficulties inherent
in dividing practitioners or learners into such neat categories as ‘aware’
and ‘unaware’, it is important to recognise that, prior to embarking on

M01_HATI7636_02_SE_C01.indd 5 6/29/12 1:30 PM

Another Random Scribd Document
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mix to a soft dough. Knead until smooth and elastic, cover and set
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COFFEE CAKE % cake of compressed yeast i egg 14 cup of
lukewarm water About three cups of flour I cup of scalded milk
Cornstarch paste % cup of butter or other short- i dozen blanched
almonds ening 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar 54 cup of sugar i
teaspoonful of cinnamon 54 teaspoonful of salt
 Cooking for Two 303 Melt the shortening in the milk, add
the sugar and salt, and when lukewarm the yeast, mixed with the
lukewarm water and the egg, and stir in the flour. Enough flour
should be added to make a thick batter. The mixture should be
almost stiff enough to knead. Cut through and turn it over and over
with a knife, then cover closely and set aside with the bread dough.
In the morning the mixture should be doubled in bulk. Cut through
and through it, with a knife, and turn it over and over. Spread it
smoothly in a buttered pan (about lo by 5 inches) and when light
(but not quite doubled in bulk) bake about half an hour. Make a
cooked paste with a teaspoonful of cornstarch and half a cup of
boiling water; spread the top of the cake with the paste, putting it
on generously; sprinkle with the almonds, cut in thin slices, and
dredge with the sugar, mixed with the cinnamon, and return to the
oven grate, to melt the sugar and brown the almonds. With care this
may be reheated. RYE MEAL BISCUIT I cup of milk, scalded and i]^
cups of sifted bread flour cooled yi cup (scant measure) of ^ or a
whole cake of com- melted shortening pressed yeast, according as
J4 cup of molasses to time of mixing 5/2 teaspoonful of salt yi cup of
scalded-and-cooled i^ cups of sifted rye meal milk Make a sponge of
the milk, yeast and bread flour. When light add the other ingredients
and beat thor 
 304 Cooking for Two oughly for some minutes. When light,
with buttered fingers, shape into about fifteen balls ; set these close
together in a buttered pan ; when light and fluffy bake about
twenty-five minutes. Glaze with cornstarch paste before removing
from the oven. KAISER SEMMELN For sponge 2 cups of boiled water
I cake of compressed yeast i teaspoonful of salt % cup of lukewarm
water Between 6 and 7 cups of fiour About 54 cup of flour White of i
egg or less Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water, mix thoroughly,
then stir in the flour; knead the little ball of dough until it is smooth
and elastic. Make a deep cut across the dough in both directions
(see illustration page 297 ) . Have the boiled water cooled to a
lukewarm temperature and into this put the ball of dough. It will sink
to the bottom of the dish, but will gradually rise as it becomes light.
In about fifteen minutes it will float upon the water, a light, puffy "
sponge." Into this water and sponge stir the salt and between six
and seven cups of flour. Knead or pound the dough about twenty
minutes. Let rise in a temperature of about 70° F., until the mass is
doubled in bulk. Divide into pieces weighing about three ounces
each (there should be about fourteen pieces). Shape these into
balls. When all are shaped, with a sharp knife cut down into each, to
make five divisions. Set the balls into buttered tins, some distance
apart, brush over the tops generously
 Cooking for Two 305 with melted butter, and set to bake at
once in a hot oven. Bake twenty or twenty-five minutes. When
nearly baked, brush over with the beaten white of an egg, and
return to the oven to finish baking. Bake the biscuit as soon as they
are cut and brushed with butter. Only by this means can the shape
and fine texture of this form of bread be secured. This recipe is said,
by those who have eaten the bread in Vienna, to give a near
approach to this justly famous Vienna bread. The Hungarian wheat
used in Vienna makes a difference in flavor, which cannot be exactly
duplicated in this country. LADY -FINGER ROLLS For Sponge Yolks of
2 eggs J4 cup of scalded-and-cooled Yz teaspoonful of salt milk 2 or
3 tablespoonfuls of melted I cake of compressed yeast butter J4 cup
of scalded-and-cooled i tablespoonful of sugar milk About 2 cups of
bread flour About 15^ cups of bread flour White of I egg for glazing
When sponge is light, add Prepare the sponge in the usual manner,
beating it for some minutes. When light and puffy add the other
ingredients and knead fifteen or twenty minutes. Cover and set aside
to double in bulk. Divide the risen dough into pieces of two ounces
each (about half a cup of dough weighs two ounces). Knead these
into balls and dispose on a board dredged lightly with flour; cover
closely with a board or pan, and leave them to become light. Roll the
balls on the
 306 Cooking for Two board under the fingers, to make long
rolls pointed at the ends. Using more pressure on the dough at the
ends than in the middle will give the desired shape. Set the rolls on
a buttered sheet, some distance apart. When light, with a pair of
scissors make three transverse cuts in the top of each roll. Bake
about twenty minutes. When nearly baked, brush over with white of
egg, and return to the oven to dry the egg. BREAD STICKS I cup of
scalded-and-cooled J^ tablespoonful of sugar milk Yi teaspoonful of
salt J4 to I whole cake of com- i tablespoonful of melted butpressed
yeast ter 54 cup of lukewarm water I white of egg, beaten light
About xy-i cups of bread flour Flour for soft dough Make a " sponge
" with the first four ingredients and when light add the rest of the
materials. Knead until elastic. Cover and let rise until the bulk is
doubled. Pull off small pieces of dough and knead into balls ; cover
on a floured board ; when light roll under the hands, on the board,
into pencil shapes of a length to fit a bread stick pan. Bake when
light. Brush over with slightly beaten white of egg and return to the
oven to set the glaze. TOAST Cut stale bread in slices of uniform
thickness (scant half inch), set on a toaster some distance from the
source of heat, turn occasionally to dry out the mois 
 Cooking for Two 307 ture, then set nearer the heat and
color first on one side and then on the other. If moist toast is
desired, dip the edges of the toast in boiling, salted water, set on a
plate and drop on to it bits of butter. For cream toast, dip the slices
in cream sauce, then set onto a plate. SANDWICHES Cut the bread
in uniform slices, less thick than for toast. Trim off the crusts, if
desired, then spread with butter or with such preparation as is
desired, nearly to the edge of the bread on all sides. Press two
pieces together and serve as soon as convenient. If the sandwiches
are to stand, cover closely with an earthen bowl. OLIVE
SANDWICHES Chop a dozen olives; spread bread prepared for
sandwiches with mayonnaise dressing or butter and then with the
chopped olives. Press together in pairs. If desired a leaf of lettuce or
a branch or two of cress may be set between the two parts of the
sandwich. BACON SANDWICHES If convenient the bacon should be
fresh cooked. Set the slices while hot between the buttered bread,
prepared as usual. Press together and wrap singly in waxed paper.
 308 Cooking for Two NOISETTE SANDWICHES Prepare "
noisette " bread for sandwiches; spread with butter and with orange
marmalade and press together in pairs. CHEESE AND HERRING
SANDWICHES 1 Cream cheese 2 Herring Fillets 2 teaspoonfuls of
Beef Ex- Brown or white bread tract Work the cheese and beef
extract to a smooth paste. Any herring may be used, but those put
up in oil are preferable. Such herring are usually choice and tender.
Cut the fillets into tiny pieces. Spread the bread with the cheese
mixture, sprinkle on the bits of herring and press together in pairs.
 CHAPTER XVIII FLOUR MIXTURES CONTINUED : PASTRY
AND PIES Men, as a rule, are fond of pastry, especially when it takes
the form of a pie. Thus a young housekeeper — at least after a time
— will be desirous of knowing how to make a pie. Pastry is made of
flour, fat, salt and just enough water to hold the ingredients together
in rolling out. Fat makes pastry tender, water toughens it; thus fat
rather than water should predominate in the mixture. Pastry flour,
which takes up but a small quantity of water, should always be used
in this branch of cookery. For pufF-paste the weight in butter equals
that of the flour called for, but for ordinary paste fat equal in weight
to half the weight of the flour will make good pastry. Lard gives a
softer crust than does butter, cottolene or suet ; but butter is
thought to produce the best tasting pastry. Butter, particularly in
winter, is not very pliable, and, in the end, time is saved, if the
butter be washed in cold water before it is added to the flour. Pastry
is lightened by the expansion of the air enclosed during the making.
A little baking powder, one-fourth a teaspoonful to a cup of flour,
insures the lightness that an inexperienced cook sometimes fails to
secure.
 310 Cooking for Two WHY PASTRY IS THOUGHT
UNHEALTHFUL No one of the ingredients in pastry is unwholesome,
and fat is absolutely necessary to perfect nutrition; but fat with other
food-principles in an artificial combination has often proved
unhygienic. To be properly digested, starch must be mixed with the
digestive fluids of the mouth, but these fluids have no effect upon
fat and, unless the mastication be very much prolonged, the starch
surrounded by fat will pass on unchanged to the stomach. Then, if
pastry be made, let it be tender, friable and well cooked ; and let it
be masticated thoroughly. PASTRY FOR ONE PIE 1^4 cups of sifted
pastry flour 14 teaspoonful of baking pow(S ounces) der, if desired
% teaspoonful of salt (gener- Yz cup (2 to 3 ounces) of ous
measure) shortening, and cold water Sift together the flour, salt and
baking powder; with a knife or the tips of the fingers work the
shortening into the flour mixture, then adding cold water, a few
drops at a time, with a knife stir the mixture to a paste. Add no
more water than is needed to form the ingredients into a stiff paste.
This paste is now ready for use. FLAKY PASTRY FOR ONE PIE 1%
cups of sifted pastry flour % teaspoonful of salt (gener(5 ounces)
ous measure)
 Cooking for Two 311 J4 teaspoonful of baking pow- J4 cup
of shortening (lard or der cottolene) Cold water 2 tablespoonfuls of
butter Scald an earthen bowl and a wooden spoon, then chill them
thoroughly; add cold water to the bowl and in it wash the butter,
pressing it with the spoon ; when the butter may be gathered into a
pliable, waxy mass, remove to a cloth, pat a little, to remove the
water, then set aside in a cool place until the paste is ready. Use the
lard with the other ingredients in making the paste as given above.
Turn the paste onto a board lightly dredged with flour ; turn it in the
flour, then pat it lightly with the rolling pin and roll into a square
sheet; with a knife cut off bits of the prepared butter and press them
lightly on the paste until all is used. Set the pieces of butter on the
paste so as to distribute them evenly over the paste. Fold the paste
to make three layers ; pat with the rolling pin gently, then roll into a
sheet; roll up the paste like a jelly roll, and it is ready to use ; or it
may be covered closely (to keep the outside from drying) and set
aside in a cool place until the next day. Often pastry may be handled
more easily after it has been left in a cool place some hours or over
night. APPLE PIE Take a little more than one-half of the pastry, made
by either of the above recipes. If the first be selected, turn it over on
the board dredged with flour, knead slightly to get into a compact
mass, then roll into a
 312 Cooking for Two round to fit the plate; lift the paste to
the plate (agate preferred) and trim so as to leave one-fourth an
inch of paste beyond the plate. Pare five or six tart apples and slice
them into the plate. Use enough apples to round the slices up weU.
Mix one-fourth a teaspoonful of salt with two-thirds a cup of sugar
and sprinkle over the apple; put on one teaspoonful or more of
butter, in little bits, here and there, add a grating of nutmeg, then
roll out the rest of the crust in the same manner as the first and cut
six or eight half-inch slits in the center to form a design; leave the
paste on the board while the edge of the pastry on the plate is
brushed over with cold water, then put about three tablespoonfuls of
cold water over the apple. Lift the pastry from the board and set it
over the apple, letting it lie loosely, as it will shrink in baking. Press
the edge of the upper piece of paste upon the edge of the lower and
trim if needed to make them even. Then brush the two edges
together with cold water and bake about half an hour. The oven
should not be too hot or the pastry will brown before it is cooked.
After the pie has been in the oven six or seven minutes, the paste
should have contracted and risen somewhat. ENGLISH APPLE PIE
Butter a shallow agate dish. Select one that is deeper than a pie
plate. Slice apples into the dish to fill It. Sprinkle on about a cup of
sugar, half a teaspoonful of salt and a grating of nutmeg or lemon
 Cooking for Two 313 rind. Put on two teaspoonfuls of butter
in bits, here and there, add two or three tablespoonfuls cold water,
then roll out half of the quantity of paste indicated In the above
recipes. Cut slits In the paste and spread It over the apple, pressing
It against the dish on the edge. Bake about forty minutes. Serve
with or without cream. APPLE PIE WITH MERINGUE Bake the crust
as for " Cranberry Tart," page 319. Set the cooked pastry in a
suitable plate and fill twothirds full with sifted apple sauce, reduced
by cooking till quite thick. Cover with meringue and let bake eight or
ten minutes In a very moderate oven. Meringue Whites of 2 eggs,
beaten dry sugar 4 tablespoonfuls of granulated yi teaspoonful of
vanilla Beat two tablespoonfuls of the sugar into the whites, beaten
dry, then fold in the rest of the sugar and the vanilla. After the
meringue is spread, sift granulated sugar over It. The oven must be
moderate. The meringue should not color until after eight minutes.
BLUEBERRY PIE Line the plate as for an apple pie; mix one pint of
berries, two tablespoonfuls of flour, half a teaspoonful of salt and
three-fourths a cup of sugar and turn into the plate, put on two
teaspoonfuls of butter
 314 Cooking for Two in little bits, then cover with the
second crust and finish as the apple pie with two crusts. All pies are
less liable to " run out " in the oven, if the paste be put on loosely.
Allow plenty of paste, that the plate may be covered when the paste
shrinks. RHUBARB PIE 2 cups of sliced rhubarb 2 tablespoonfuls of
flour I egg Vz teaspoonful of salt V/i, cups of sugar 2 teaspoonfuls of
butter Beat the egg; beat in the sugar, flour and salt and turn into
the plate lined with pastry; add the butter in bits, here and there,
cover and finish as an ordinary apple pie. Rhubarb canned in cold
water may be used instead of fresh rhubarb. RHUBARB PIE (Red
Lion Inn, Stockbridge) I cup of sliced rhubarb J4 teaspoonful of salt I
egg 2 teaspoonfuls of butter 1 cup of sugar A grating of nutmeg 2
common crackers, rolled fine Beat the egg, add the sugar, salt, rolled
crackers and rhubarb. Turn into the plate lined with crust. Put in the
bits of butter. Cut the pastry rolled for the upper crust into bands
three-fourths an inch wide, and brush over the edge of the under
crust with cold water; lay the bands across the filling parallel, one to
another, then lay bands across the filling at right angles to these,
lattice fashion. Cut all at the edge
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 Cooking for Two 315 of the under paste and press them
upon it. Bake about half an hour. RHUBARB PIE, No. 3 Peel the
rhubarb and cut it in slices; cover with boiling water, set over the fire
and bring quickly to the boiling point. As soon as the rhubarb
changes color and before it loses its shape, drain and press out all of
the liquid. Over the rhubarb sprinkle a cup of sugar, sifted with three
tablespoonfuls of flour and one-fourth a teaspoonful of salt. Add a
tablespoonful of lemon juice or a grating of orange rind; mix and
turn into a plate lined with pastry; finish with bands of pastry. Bake
about half an hour. MOCK MINCE PIE 2 common crackers, rolled fine
Yz cup of raisins, seeded and Yi, cup of sugar chopped J4 cup of
molasses ^ cup of butter J4 cup of liquid from sweet J4 teaspoonful
of salt pickle jar or i egg, well beaten J4 cup of lemon juice Mix all
the ingredients together and turn into a plate lined with pastry;
cover with paste and bake as an apple' pie. Spices as cinnamon,
cloves, nutmeg and mace may be added if desired. A teaspoonful of
mixed spice will suflice.
 316 Cooking for Two LEMON PIE 3 tablespoonfuls of
cornstarch Yz teaspoonful of salt 4 tablespoonfuls of cold water i cup
of boiling water 1 cup of sugar Juice of I lemon 2 tablespoonfuls of
butter Grated rind, if desired Stir the cornstarch and salt with the
cold water; pour on the boiling water and stir and cook until the
mixture boils ; add the sugar, butter and lemon juice, also grated
rind, if it is to be used. Let the mixture stand while a plate is lined
and the upper crust is rolled out and made ready. Turn the mixture
into the lined plate, brush the edge of the paste with cold water, set
the upper paste in place, finish and bake as an apple pie. Lemon
rind when eaten often produces flatulency ; in such case, omit it.
MINCE MEAT FOR ONE PIE J4 cup chopped beef (roast or ^ cup of
syrup from sweet steak) pickle jar I cup of chopped apple y^
teaspoonful salt J4 cup of chopped suet or J^ teaspoonful mace 3
tablespoonfuls of butter Grating of nutmeg % cup of sugar i^
teaspoonful of cloves Vi cup of molasses J4 teaspoonful of cinnamon
Grated rind and juice of i J^ cup of raisins (Sultanas lemon or
preferred) Mix all together, turn into a plate lined with pastry and
cover as an apple pie. Bake nearly an hour. Less spice may be used,
or two or three tablespoonfuls of " left over " jelly may be added.
 Cooking for Two 317 SOUR CREAM PIE I cup of chopped
apple J^ cup of sour milk I cup of stoned raisins J4 teaspoonful,
each, of cinnaI cup of sugar mon, nutmeg and cloves Yi cup of sour
cream yi teaspoonful of salt Peel the apples before chopping and
chop the raisins; add the other ingredients, mix thoroughly and bake
between two layers of pastry. CUSTARD PIE We have not seen plates
of a depth suitable for custard and other similar pies in small size,
thus give the proportions for a pie of ordinary size. Take rather more
than half of the crust required for one pie; roll it into a round sheet
that will come threefourths of an inch beyond the edge of the plate ;
lay it upon the plate evenly, then fold the edge over to meet the
plate all around the plate. Flute this double fold of paste with the
thumb and finger and press each " fluting " down upon the edge of
the plate. In putting the crust upon the plate lift it here and there,
where needed, to let out the air below. This should be done with all
pies, but is particularly necessary with custard pies. Also, with the
thumb and forefinger held together, press the paste upon the
bottom of the plate throughout the whole extent and, also, around
the edge of the plate close to the bottom, that no large bubble of air
may be left to expand and displace the custard while it is baking.
Turn the filling into the prepared crust and let bake in a moderate
 318 Cooking for Two oven nearly an hour. An electric oven
is by far the best oven in which to bake a custard or squash pie. For
the filling beat four eggs ; add half a teaspoonful of salt and three-
fourths a cup of sugar and beat again, then gradually beat In three
cups of milk. When the pie feels firm to the touch at the center,
remove from the oven and grate over it a little nutmeg. Chill before
serving. SQUASH PIE % cup of butter i egg and yolk of another ^
cup of sugar i cup of cooked-and-sifted Yz teaspoonful of salt squash
yi teaspoonful of ground mace i cup of rich milk Cream the butter
and beat in half the sugar ; beat the egg and beat in the other half
of the sugar, then beat the two mixtures together ; add the other
ingredients and mix again. Bake in a plate lined as for a custard pie.
SQUASH PIE, DELAWARE STYLE I cup of cooked-and-sifted i egg,
well beaten squash ^ cup of cream Yz teaspoonful of salt ?4 cup of
breakfast cocoa made Y teaspoonful of cinnamon with milk J4 cup of
sugar Mix the ingredients and bake until firm in the center in a plate
lined with pastry as for a custard pie.
 Cooking for Two 319 OPEN CRANBERRY PIE OR
CRANBERRY TART Spread the round of paste over an inverted pie
plate (agate or tin is preferable) , prick the paste with a fork, here
and there, over the sides as well as the top. Bake to a dark straw
color. Remove the paste from the plate, wash the plate and set the
pastry inside. Turn a cooked filling into the pastry shell and set
figures, cut from pastry and baked, above the filling. COOKED
CRANBERRY FILLING Mix together, thoroughly, two level
tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, half a teaspoonful of salt, scant
measure, and one cup of sugar; pour on one cup of boiling water
and stir until boiling, then add one-fourth a cup of molasses, a
teaspoonful of butter and two cups of cranberries, chopped fine. Mix
together thoroughly, and let simmer ten or fifteen minutes. Apple,
peach or pineapple marmalade make good fillings for an open pie.
Heat the marmalade and turn at once into the shell. CANNED
PINEAPPLE FILLING To a pint can of grated pineapple add half a cup
of sugar and the juice of half a lemon; let simmer until thick, then
use as above. PEACH TARTS Cover inverted individual tins with
pastry (it will take but a small piece for two tins, a little " left over "
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