VOR 🡪 VHF Omnidirectional Range (108-117.

95)MHZ
1-TVOR: Terminal 🡪 within the Airport & within 25 NM, below 12000
AGL
2-LVOR: Low Altitude 🡪 within 40 NM, 1000 -18000 ft
3-HVOR: - 40 NM below 14500
- 100 NM 14500-18000
- 130 NM 18000-FL450

NDB🡪 Non-Directional beacon LF-MF (190-1750)Khz

DME 🡪 Distance Measuring Equipment UHF (962-1213)Mhz

Measures Slant Range

ILS 🡪 Instrument Landing System

-Lateral Guidance 🡪Localizer (LOC) VHF (108.10-111.95)Mhz
-Vertical Guidance 🡪Glide Slope (GS) UHF (329.15-335)Mhz
-Marker Beacon 🡪VHF (75)Mhz
-Outer Marker (OM) 🡪Blue
-Middle Marker (MM) 🡪 Yellow
-Inner Marker (IM) 🡪 White
- Category I – Decision Height (DH) not lower
Than 200 ft and RVR more than 550 meters
- Category II – DH between 100 ft and 200 ft and
RVR more than 300 meters
- Category IIIa – DH lower than 100 ft or no DH
And RVR more than 200 meters
- Category IIIb – DH lower than 50 ft or no DH
And RVR 50-200 meters
- Category IIIc – No DH or RVR

RVR: Runway Visual Range is the maximum distance that a pilot 15 ft

above the runway in the touchdown area can see marker borders by day or
runway lights by night when looking in the direction of take-off or landing.

DH: Decision Height is a specified height in the Precision Approach at

which a Missed Approach must be initiated if the required visual reference
to continue the approach has not been established.
1 meter = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 ft = 12 inch
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 yd = 3 ft
1 km = 3280 ft
1 sm = 5280 ft
1 nm = 1852 m = 6080 ft
Atmosphere: Nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, other gases 1%
Structure of atmosphere:
- Troposphere: where temperature decreases with height, consist of ¾
of total atmosphere in weight, contains almost all weather.
- Tropopause: boundary between troposphere and stratosphere and is
where temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height, the height
of tropopause decreases with increase of latitude while the
temperature increases with increase of latitude.
- Stratosphere: layer where is temperature initially remains constant
with an increase in height up to 20 km, then temperature increases
with an increase in height up to 50 km, ozone layer concentrated in
this layer.
- Mesosphere
- Thermosphere

ISA: is International Standard Atmosphere:

- MSL temperature of 15 C
- MSL pressure 1013.25 mb(HPa) or 29.92 inch mercury
- MSL density 1225 g/cubic meter
- Lapse rate of 2 C/1000 ft up to 36090 ft (11 km)
- Constant temperature of -56.5 up to 65617 ft (20 km)
- Increase of temperature 0.3 C/1000 ft up to 104987 ft (32 km)
- Pressure decreases with a decreasing rate
* Needed for: - the calibration of aircraft pressure instruments
- the design and testing of aircraft
Calculate ISA temperature =15 – (2 * HP/1000)
ISA deviation = Actual Temperature – ISA Temperature
Pressure: is the weight of a column of air, pressure decreases with an
increase of height (1 hg/1000 ft)
0.0295 inch of mercury = 1 mb
Height (ft) ISA Pressure (HPa)
5000 850
10000 700
18000 500
24000 400
30000 300
34000 250
38000 200
● Up to 5000 ft 1 mb = 30 ft
QFE: value of pressure for a particular aerodrome and time corrected to
the official elevation
QFF: value of pressure reduced to MSL in accordance with isothermal
conditions
QNH: value of pressure for a particular aerodrome and time corrected to
the MSL in accordance with ICAO standard
Isobar: line joining places of the same atmospheric pressure
SPS: Standard Pressure Setting 1013.25 HPa

Density: mass per unit volume 🡪 unit: g/cubic meter

Density directly proportional to Pressure and inversely proportional to
temperature and humidity.
Density decreases with an increase of height due to the great reduction in
pressure.
Low density will reduce lift, increase take-off run, and reduce maximum
take-off weight

Altitude: vertical distance above MSL

Height (absolute altitude): vertical distance above ground (QFE)
Flight level: measured pressure level above 29.92 in or 1013 mb datum
Indicated Altitude: Read off the face of altimeter
Pressure Altitude: indicated altitude with 29.92 Hg (1013 mb) set in the
window of altimeter
Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature
Transition altitude (TA): is the altitude at or below which the vertical
position of an aircraft is controlled by reference to altitude (QNH)
Transition Level: is the lowest flight level above the transition altitude.
It is set with reference to Standard Pressure Altitude setting of 1013
Transition Layer: is the airspace between the transition altitude and the
transition level

Higher Pressure or warmer than ISA 🡪 True altitude > indicated altitude
Lower Pressure or colder than ISA 🡪 True altitude < indicated altitude

Buys Ballot’s law: if an observer stands with his back to the wind in the
Northern Hemisphere then the low pressure is on his left
Pressure Systems:
- Low Pressure or Depressions: convergence at surface 🡪 Ascent 🡪
divergence at medium or high altitude. Counterclockwise
 * The deeper the depression the closer the isobars, the stronger the wind
- Troughs: an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure
- High Pressure or Anticyclones: convergence at medium or high
altitude 🡪 Descent 🡪 divergence at surface. Clockwise
- Ridge: an elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure
- Cols: regions of almost level pressure between two highs and two lows

C = 5/9 * (F – 32)
F = 9/5 * C + 32
K = C + 273
Temperature: measure the hotness of a body
Factors that determines the temperature: - latitude – season - time
Heating of atmosphere:
- Solar Radiation
- Terrestrial Radiation (Earth)
- Conduction
- Convection ( Thermals)
- Condensation
Isotherm: Temperature remains constant with height
Inversion: Temperature increases with height
1500 local is the max temperature
Sunrise + 30 minutes is lowest temperature

Saturation: air becomes saturated by adding more water vapor to it or by

cooling it (warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air)
100% humidity 🡪 Saturation
Ice 🡪 Water: Melting, latent heat absorbed
Water 🡪 Water vapor: Evaporation, latent heat absorbed
Water vapor 🡪 Water: Condensation, latent heat released
Water 🡪 Ice: Freezing, latent heat released
Ice 🡪 Water vapor: Sublimation, latent heat absorbed
Water vapor 🡪 Ice: Deposition, latent heat released
Humidity: the weight of water vapor in unit volume of air g/cubic meter
Relative Humidity: the amount of water vapor present in volume of air
divided by the max amount of water vapor which that volume could hold at
that temperature expressed as percentage
Dew point Temperature: is the temperature to which air must cooled at
constant pressure for saturation to occur
* When dew point and temperature are close together then visible moisture
in the form of cloud, fog and dew will appear
Adiabatic Temperature: occurs when air is compressed or expanded and
there is no external transfer of heat
If air is lifted it expands and will cool adiabatically, whilst if its brought
down it compresses and will warm adiabatically
DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ( 3 C/1000 ft)
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (1.8 C/1000 ft)
Weather Stability: if wind causes air to be forced up the side of the mountain
if this lifting force is removed, the air returns to its original position
ELR < SALR absolute stability
ELR > DALR absolute instability
DALR > ELR > SALR conditionally unstable (if DALR 🡪 stable, if
SALR 🡪 unstable)
ELR = DALR or SALR Neutral stability
Stable weather:
- bad visibility
- light turbulence
- stratiform cloud
- continuous precipitation
- movement: downward
Unstable weather:
- Good visibility
- Moderate turbulence
- Cumuliform cloud
- Showery precipitation
- Movement: upward

Turbulence Types:
- Thermal: When surface is sufficiently warm, vertical currents of air
form
- Mechanical: This is caused by interference of surface features on the
horizontal flow of air. Include mountains, Tall buildings, Trees, etc.
- CAT: Clear Air Turbulence occurs around the boundaries of
jetstreams because of the large horizontal and vertical windshears
- Wake turbulence: is turbulence that forms behind an aircraft as it
passes through the air due to wingtip vortices.
Wingtip vortices: created by span-wise airflow over the upper and lower
surfaces of a wing that meet at the wing tips as turbulence and therefore
induced drag, span-wise airflow is created because a wing producing lift has
a lower pressure on the upper surface than on lower surface, therefore air
flowing around the wing tip from high to low pressure.
Wind shear: rate of change of wind velocity per unit distance, expressed as
vertical or horizontal wind shear
Microburst: severe downdrafts normally found under mature cb and
associated with thunderstorms, only 5 km across
Macroburst: larger in area than microburst, affect area between 3 and 5
miles
Jetstream: is a current of fast moving air found in the upper levels of the
atmosphere. This rapid current is typically thousands of miles long, a few
hundred miles wide, and only a few miles thick, generally its westerly
Speed exceeds 60 kts

Wind Velocity: direction and speed, direction is always given from the wind
is blowing
Wind Veer: change in wind direction in a clockwise direction
Wind back: change in wind direction in an anti-clockwise direction
Wind types:
- Geostrophic wind: only two forces which acting opposite from each
other and in balance: a- Pressure Gradient Force (PGF): act from high
to low pressure, closely spaced isobars indicate a large PGF
b- Coriolis Force (CF): caused by rotation of the earth, acting 90deg it
causing the air to turn right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left
in the southern hemisphere, its max at the poles and min at equator
CF causes the wind aloft to flow parallel to the isobars
Condition for the wind to be geostrophic:
1- above friction layer
2- at latitude greater than 15 degrees
3- when pressure situation is not changing rapidly
4- with isobars straight and parallel
* With an increase in height the wind speed should increase due to
decrease in density
- Gradient wind: occurs when the isobars are curved
o PGF
o CF
o Centrifugal force: force acting away from a rotating body
- Surface wind: it flows across the isobars at an angle due to surface
friction

Land breeze: after sunset flow of air from land to sea

Sea breeze: sunny day flow of air from sea to land
Clouds:
Cloud Formation:
- Moisture present in the air
- Lifting action to cause a parcel air to rise:
1- convection
2- turbulence
3- frontal
4- orographic
- Adiabatic cooling of the rising air
Parcel of air lifted🡪cool adiabatically🡪capacity to hold water vapor will
decrease🡪relative humidity increases until it cools to dew point

Possible weather problems indicated by clouds

-Turbulence
-Poor Visibility
-Precipitation
-Icing
Cloud amount
- FEW 1 to 2 OKTAS
- SCT 3 to 4 OKTAS
- BKN 5 to 7 OKTAS
- OVC 8 OKTAS
Cloud Types:
Due to their shape:
- Heaped Clouds: Cumuliform clouds
- Sheet Clouds: Stratiform clouds
Due to their height:
- Low Clouds : 0 – 6500 ft
a- Stratus (St): lowest of all cloud types, grey, drizzle & light snow, 1000 -
1500 thick, BKN to OVC, no turbulence, light icing.
b- Stratocumulus (Sc): grey or whitish and distinct dark parts, 2000 – 3000
thick, FEW to OVC, moderate turbulence, moderate icing.
c- Nimbostratus (Ns): dense dark-grey cloud, continues precipitation,
moderate to severe icing, moderate turbulence.
- Medium Clouds: 6500 – 23000 ft
a- Altostratus (As): grey or bluish layer of cloud, BRK to OVC, light rain,
no turbulence, light to moderate icing.
b- Altocumulus (Ac): white or grey, two types :
1- lenticularis: downwind of mountainous areas, moderate-severe turbulence
2-castellanus: (bubbly) TS, showers, severe turbulence, may develop to CB
- High Clouds: 16500-45000 ft
a- Cirrus (Ci): highest of all cloud types, composed of ice crystals, white,
least hazardous, indication of jet stream
b- Cirrostratus (Cs): made up of ice crystal, as a warning of an approaching
frontal system, BKN-OVC
c- Cirrocumulus (Cc): least often seen in the sky, made up of ice crystal.
(high clouds: consist of ice crystal, no turbulence, no icing, no precipitation,
Least hazardous to Aircraft)
Due to their formation: (vertical development clouds)
-Cumulus (Cu): updrafts 3000 fpm, moderate to severe icing, may develop
to CB.
-Towering Cumulus (TCu): updrafts up to 6000 fpm, moderate to severe
turbulence and icing, TS and showering.
-Cumulonimbus (Cb): dark base and white summit, may reach 60000 ft,
very strong updrafts and downdrafts up to 6000 fpm, severe turbulence and
icing, heavy showers of rain and hail, lightning, most hazardous cloud type.

Cloud base = (T-Td(dew temp)/(2.5 C) or (4.4 F) ) * 1000

Thunderstorm:
- High moisture content in the air (temperature and dew point close)
- Unstable air; Lapse rate greater than SALR for over than 10000 ft
- Trigger (Lifting action)
1- Convection
2- Turbulence
3- Frontal
4- Orographic
TS types:
- Air mass type (more common in summer)
- Frontal type (more common in winter)
TS Stages:
- Initial stage: Several small Cu combine to from large Cu about 5 nm
across, strong up currents of 1000-2000 fpm, 15-20 minutes, moderate
turbulence and icing, top may reach 25000 ft
- Mature stage: precipitation occurs, rain and hail will cause strong
down currents of up 2400 fpm, strong up currents (10000 fpm) and
down currents, severe icing and turbulence, lightning, 20-30 minutes
- Dissipating stage: heavy precipitation, severe turbulence and icing,
lightning, 1 ½ to 2 ½ hours, The cloud begins to collapse
TS avoidance:
Flight level Avoidance range
0-200 5 nm
200-250 10 nm
250-300 15 nm
300 + 20 nm
Squall line: A line of sudden, sometimes violent thunderstorms that develop
on the leading edge of a cold front, which can produce severe weather
conditions, such as hail and rain accompanied by winds

Freezing level = Actual temperature (Celsius) /2 * 1000 ± elevation

Icing:
- Structural: visible moisture and below freezing temperature to occur
1- Clear ice: forms when large drops strike the aircraft and slowly freeze
2- Rime ice: small drops strike the aircraft and freeze rapidly
3- Mixed ice: combination of clear and rime ice
4- Frost: ice crystal formed by sublimation when temperature and dew
point are below freezing
* Clear ice is the most dangerous form because it’s hard to see, hard to
get off, can accumulate before being noticed, increases drag and can
disrupt the airflow on the wing significantly causing a loss of lift.
- Induction
Icing hazardous:
- Adverse aerodynamic performance effects
- Control surface effects: freezing on control surface🡪restricted
movement
- Increase in aircraft weight
- Reduced engine power
- Vent blockage
- Degraded navigation and radio communication
Action recommended if you encounter icing condition is to change course
and/or altitude, usually climb to a higher altitude if possible

Fog: may form by

- cool air to the dew point
- adding moisture to the air
Fog types:
- Radiation fog: ground cools the adjacent air to the dew point on calm,
clear nights
 - Advection fog: results from the transport of warm humid air over a
cold surface, may occur with winds, cloudy skies, day or night
- Upslope fog (Hill Fog): results of moist, stable air being cooled
adiabatically as it moves up sloping terrain, once wind ceases fog
dissipates
- Frontal fog: occurs at a warm front or occlusion, caused by
precipitation lowering the cloud base to the ground
- Ice fog (Steaming fog): occurs over sea in polar regions, caused by
cold air from land mass moving over warm sea, air must be stable

Air mass: large volume of air where the humidity and temperature in the
horizontal are constant.
Identification: by temperature/latitude
- Tropical
- Polar
- Arctic (cold and dry)
By humidity/land-sea source
- Maritime
- Continental
Main air masses:
- Arctic Maritime
- Polar Maritime
- Polar Continental
- Tropical Maritime
- Tropical Continental

Fronts: zone (boundary) between 2 air masses of different temperature.

Main Types of Fronts:
- Cold front: Forms when a cold air mass pushes under a
warm air mass, forcing the warm air to rise, As the front
moves, cool, fair weather is likely to follow
- Warm front: Forms when a moist, warm air mass slides up
and over a cold air mass, A warm front brings gentle rain
or light snow, followed by warmer weather
- Stationary front: Forms when warm and cold air meet and
neither air mass has the force to move the other, Where
the warm and cold air meet, clouds and fog form, and it
may rain or snow, can bring many days of clouds and
precipitation.
 - Occluded front: Forms when a warm air mass gets caught
between two cold air masses. The warm air mass rises as
the cool air masses push and meet in the middle, the
temperature drops as the warm air mass is occluded, or
“cut off,” from the ground and pushed upward. Can bring
strong winds and heavy precipitation
Main Global fronts:
- Arctic Front: Arctic & Polar Air masses
- Polar Front: Polar & Tropical Air masses
- Mediterranean Front: Polar Continental & Tropical Continental
- Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): separation between the air masses
either side of the heat equator.

Errors of airspeed indicator:

- Position error: caused by the static ports sensing erroneous
static pressure, slipstream flow causes disturbance at the
static port preventing actual atmospheric pressure
measurement, it varies with airspeed, altitude,
configuration and maybe plus or minus
- Density error: changes in altitude and temperature are not
compensated for by the instrument
- Compressibility error: caused by the packing of air into
the pitot tube at high airspeed, resulting in higher than
normal indication, usually occurs > 180 kts
Aircraft speeds:
- IAS (Indicated airspeed): read off the instrument
uncorrected for instrument and system errors
- CAS (Calibrated airspeed): IAS corrected for instrument
and position errors
- EAS (Equivalent airspeed): CAS corrected for
compressibility error
- TAS (True airspeed): actual speed of an aircraft through
the air mass in which its flying, or EAS corrected for
density error
Higher density🡪greater resistance to motion🡪lower TAS
- Ground speed: actual speed of an aircraft relative to
ground, or TAS corrected for wind

LSS (local speed of sound) = 38.94 √ absolute temperature

● absolute temperature = temperature in Celsius + 273
Mach number = LSS/ TAS

Dynamic Pressure: is the kinetic energy per unit volume of a fluid particle

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Holding Speed:
Altitude speed
0-6000 ft 200 kts
6000- 14000 235 kts
14000 + 260 kts

Aircraft Approach Category:

A grouping of aircraft based on a speed of VRef, if specified, or if VRef is
not specified 1.3 x VS0 (stalling speed)
- Category A: Speed less than 90 knots.
- Category B: Between 91 and 120 knots.
- Category C: Between 121 and 140 knots.
- Category D: Between 141 knots and 165 knots.
- Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

Aircraft Weight Classification:

- Heavy aircraft have a maximum certificated takeoff
weight (MCTOW) of more than 136,000 kg (300,000 lb)
- Medium aircraft have a MCTOW of more than 7000 kg
(15,750 lb) and less than 136,000 kg
- Light aircraft have a MCTOW of 7000 kg or less

Aircraft Emergency Frequency:

- 121.5 MHz for civilian
- 243.0 MHz for military
- 500 KHZ an international calling and distress frequency
for Morse code maritime communication.

Transponder Codes:
- EMERGENCY - Mode 3A Code 7700
- COMMS FAILURE - Mode 3A Code 7600
- UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE (Hijacking) - Mode 3A
Code 7500
 - 2000 - Default transponder code for an aircraft which has
not received any instructions from air traffic control units
to operate the transponder.

CAVOK:
Ceiling and Visibility are OK
(1) There are no clouds below 5000 feet above aerodrome level (AAL) or
minimum sector altitude (whichever is higher) and no cumulonimbus or
towering cumulus
(2) Visibility is at least 10 kilometers (6 statute miles)
(3) No current or forecast significant weather such as precipitation,
thunderstorms, shallow fog or low drifting snow.

ICAO:
A specialized agency of the United Nations, the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) was created in 1944 to promote the safe and orderly
development of international civil aviation throughout the world. It sets
standards and regulations necessary for aviation safety, security, efficiency
and regularity, as well as for aviation environmental protection. The
Organization serves as the forum for cooperation in all fields of civil
aviation among its 191 Member States.
Its headquarters are located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

IATA:
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is an international
industry trade group of airlines headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
IATA was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April 1945.
IATA’s stated mission is to represent, lead and serve the airline industry. All
the Airline rules and regulations are defined by IATA. The main aim of
IATA is to provide safe and secure transportation to its passengers.

European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is a European Union (EU)

agency with regulatory and executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation
safety. Based in Cologne, Germany, the EASA was created in 2002, The
responsibilities of EASA include to conduct analysis and research of safety,
authorizing foreign operators, giving advice for the drafting of EU
legislation, implementing and monitoring safety rules (including inspections
in the member states), giving type-certification of aircraft and components as
well as the approval of organizations involved in the design, manufacture
and maintenance of aeronautical products.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) located in Washington dc, its roles
include Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation, Regulating air
navigation facilities' geometry and flight inspection standards, etc…

Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA), located in Netherlands, it objectives

include operations, maintenance, licensing and certification/design standards
for all classes of aircraft.

Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), located in London, it objectives include

Enhancing aviation safety performance, Improving choice and value for
aviation consumers, etc …

Fly-by-wire (FBW) is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight

controls of an aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight
controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires (hence the
fly-by-wire term), and flight control computers determine how to move the
actuators at each control surface to provide the ordered response. The fly-by-
wire system also allows automatic signals sent by the aircraft's computers to
perform functions without the pilot's input, as in systems that automatically
help stabilize the aircraft

Great Circle: circle on the surface of the earth whose center and radius are
those of the earth itself; it’s the shortest path between two points along the
surface.

Rhumb line: a curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all
meridians at the same angle, following a rhumb line covers more distance
than following a great circle, but it is easier to navigate.

Equator: the great circle whose plane is at 90 to the axis of rotation of the
earth.

Meridians: semi-Great circles joining the north and south poles, every great
circle passing through the poles forms a meridian and it’s Anti-meridian.
180 meridians + 180 anti meridians = 360

Prime meridian: the meridian passing through Greenwich, it’s the datum
for defining Longitude
Small Circle: circle on the surface of the earth whose center and radius are
not those of the earth

The distance between degrees of longitude is about 60 nautical miles at the

equator. It is less further north or south as the longitude lines converge
towards the poles. Degrees of latitude are always 60 nautical miles apart,
degrees are divided into 60 minutes
The earth spins approximately 360 degrees in twenty four hours (one day).
The earth spins 15 degrees in one hour

The max possible value of variation is 180 and it occurs at both the north
and south poles.

Magnetic north is to the west of true north, magnetic north somewhere over
Canada.

Isogonals: lines on map that joining places of equal magnetic variation

Agonic line: isogonals joining places of zero variation.
Isoclinals: lines on map that’s joining places of equal magnetic dip
Aclinic line: isoclinals joining places of zero dip

V1: the maximum speed at which an aircraft pilot may abort a takeoff
without causing a runway overrun
VR: Rotation speed, the speed at which the aircraft's nose wheel leaves the
ground
V2: Minimum Takeoff Safety Speed- one engine inoperative climb speed for
takeoff configuration
VA: Design maneuvering speed, max speed at which abrupt control
movement can be applied or at which the airplane could be flown in
turbulence without exceeding design load factor limits.
VFE: Maximum flap extended speed
VLE: Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at
which it is safe to fly a retractable gear aircraft with the landing gear
extended
VLO: Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed
at which it is safe to extend or retract the landing gear on a retractable gear
aircraft
VRef: Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed
VS0: Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration
VS1: Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is
still controllable in a specific configuration
VX: Speed that will allow for best angle of climb
VY: Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb
(VAPP): Final approach speed

Lift is the component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative

wind, due to pressure differential; the air that is moving more quickly above
the curved wing starts to put less pressure on the wing while it adjusts to its
new stream. Meanwhile, the air that is moving at a consistent speed below the
wing maintains its rate of pressure
L = ½ d v2 S CL

Drag: is the resistance to motion of an object (aircraft) through the air

D = ½ d v2 S CD
Parasite drag is comprised of:
- Form or pressure drag
- Skin-friction drag
- Interference drag

Bernoulli Theorem: if streamline of air accelerates, its kinetic energy will

increase and its static pressure will decrease, and when air decelerates, the
kinetic energy will decrease and the static pressure will increase.

Aerofoil: body that gives a large lift force compared with its drag when set
at small angle to a moving stream, e.g. horizontal and vertical tail plane,
wing, and propellers.
Load factor: ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight and represents a
global measure of the stress ("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is
subjected

Stall: s a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack

increases beyond a certain point such that the lift begins to decrease. The
angle at which this occurs is called the critical angle of attack. This critical
angle is dependent upon the profile of the wing, its aspect ratio, and other
factors, but is typically in the range of 18 to 20 degrees
- Departure Stalls (can be classified as power-on stalls): during takeoff and
climb
- Arrival Stalls (can be classified as power-off stalls or reduced power stalls)
during approach-to-landing conditions and configuration.
- Accelerated Stalls can occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds due to abrupt
and/or excessive control applications. These stalls may occur in steep turns,
pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in flight path.
Stall Recovery by reducing the angle of attack
Properties affect stall speed:
- Weight
- Altitude
- Wing design
- Configuration

Spin: maneuver in which the airplane descends in helical path while flying at
an angle of attack greater than the critical AOA, Spins result from
aggravated stalls in either slip or skid, if stall doesn’t occur, spin can’t occur.
Primary cause is exceeding the AOA while applying excessive or
insufficient rudder and a lesser extent aileron.
Spin recovery:
- Close the throttle
- Neutralize the ailerons
- Apply full opposite rudder
- Move the elevator control forward to neutral position
- Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops
- Gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to
level flight

Adverse yaw: tendency of an aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a

roll

Ground Effect: is the increased lift and decreased drag that an aircraft's
wings generate when they are close to a fixed surface (at an altitude that is
approximately at or below the same distance as the aircraft's wingspan),
when landing, ground effect can give the pilot the feeling that the aircraft is
"floating". When taking off, ground effect may temporarily reduce the stall
speed.

What produces the max glide range?

A max lift-drag ratio, obtained by the aircraft flown at its optimal AOA and
corresponding min drag speed (Vmd)
What is the effect of weight on the glide range?
Glide range doesn’t vary with weight, the heavier aircraft flying at the
correct AOA and speed it will glide the same distance as lighter aircraft but
it will take less time to glide this distance.

Rate of climb/descent: time it will take to either climb or descend from a

given height, expressed in terms of feet per minute (fpm).

Dihedral: upward inclination of a wing from the root to the tip

Anhedral: downward inclination of a wing from the root to the tip

High aspect ratio: high lift (gliders)

Low aspect ratio: lower lift but capable of higher speeds

High lift devices:

- Trailing edge flaps (fowler flaps) increase lift at lower
angles of deflection
- Leading edge flaps (Krueger flaps) and slats increase lift
by creating a longer wing chord line, chamber, and area
- Slots: prevent/delays the separation of the airflow
boundary layer and therefore produce an increase in the
coefficient of lift maximum

High drag devices:

- Trailing edge flaps (in high-drag/low-lift position)
- Spoilers:
a. In flight, used as speed brake
b. On ground used as lift dumpers
- Landing gear
- Reverse thrust (ground use only)
- Braking parachute
Flaps type:
- Plain flap
- Split flap
- Slotted flap
- Fowler flap

Arm: horizontal distance in inches from datum to CG

Datum: an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurement of
arm are taken, established by manufacturer
Moment = weight * arm

What performance characteristics will be adversely affected when an aircraft

has been overloaded?
- Higher takeoff speed
- Longer takeoff run
- Reduced angle and rate of climb
- Lower maximum altitude
- Shorter range
- Reduced cruising speed
- Reduced maneuverability
- Higher stalling speed
- Higher landing speed
- Longer landing roll
- Excessive weight on the nose wheel

Effects of forward CG:

- Higher stall speed
- Slower cruise speed
- More stable
- Greater back elevator pressure required

Effects of rearward CG:

- Lower stall speed
- Higher cruise speed
- Less stable

Critical Mach number (Mcrit): is the lowest Mach number at which the
airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound

Elevator: Controls the motion around the lateral axis (pitching)

Ailerons: Controls the motion around its longitudinal axis (roll)
Rudder: Controls the motion around vertical axis (yaw)
Stability: quality of an aircraft to correct for conditions that may disturb its
equilibrium and to return to, or continue on its origin flight path
- Static stability: initial reaction of an aircraft after it has
been disturbed from equilibrium about one or more of its
three axes
a. Positive static stability: initial tendency of aircraft to
return to its original attitude of equilibrium
 b. Neutral static stability: initial tendency of aircraft to
remain in its new, disturbed state
c. Negative static stability: initial tendency of aircraft to
continue in divergence

- Dynamic stability: long term of tendency of the aircraft

a. Positive dynamic stability: condition where oscillation
become smaller with time
b. Neutral dynamic stability: causes the aircraft to hunt back
and forth around a condition of equilibrium, with the
corrections neither larger or smaller
c. Negative dynamic stability: condition where aircraft
diverges away from its original attitude with each
oscillation.
Vertical stabilizer (fin) is the primary source of directional stability (yaw)
Directional stability around vertical axis
Horizontal stabilizer (tail plane) is the primary source of longitudinal
stability (pitch)
Longitudinal stability around lateral axis
Wing is the primary source of lateral stability (roll)
Lateral stability around longitudinal axis
CG close to its aft limit, aircraft will be less stable in both pitch and yaw
When CG moves forward, stability increases
Maneuverability: quality of an aircraft that permits it to be maneuvered
easily and to withstand the stresses imposed by those maneuvers
Controllability: capability of an aircraft to respond to the pilot’s control,
especially with regard to flight path and attitude
Too much static lateral stability could result in dynamic instability- Dutch
roll
Too much static directional stability could result in dynamic instability-
spiral instability

Wing types:
- Straight wing
- Swept back wing
- Swept forward wing
- Delta wing

Increase Angle of attack center of pressure will move forward

VHF (Very high frequency) is the radio frequency range from 30 MHz to
300 MHz.
UHF (Ultra high frequency) designates a range of electromagnetic waves
with frequencies between 300 MHz and 3 GHz (3,000 MHz).

Drizzle, which is defined as drops with diameters less than 0.02 inches
falling close together, usually falls from stratus clouds.
Rain, which is composed of widely separated drops with diameters usually
greater than 0.02 inches, generally falls from towering cumulus clouds.

Takeoff Run Available (TORA): The length of runway declared available

and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA): The length of the takeoff run available
plus the length of the clearway, where provided. (Max. clearway length
allowed is 1000 feet.)
Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the takeoff run
available plus the length of the stopway where provided.
• Clearway- A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under
the control of the appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a
suitable area over which an airplane may make a portion of its initial
climb to a specified height. (TODA-TORA)
• Stopway- A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of the
runway in the direction of takeoff prepared as a suitable area in
which an airplane can be stopped in the case of an aborted takeoff
(ASDA-TORA)

SIGMET, or Significant Meteorological Information, is a weather advisory

that contains meteorological information concerning the safety of all aircraft.
There are two types of SIGMETs, convective and non-convective. The
criteria for a non-convective SIGMET to be issued are severe or greater
turbulence over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2) area, or severe or greater
icing over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2) area or IMC conditions over a
3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2) area due to dust, sand, or volcanic ash
This information is usually broadcast on the ATIS at ATC facilities, as well
as over VOLMET stations. A SIGMET is a forecast valid for up to four
hours. They are assigned an alphabetic designator from N (November)
through Y (Yankee), excluding S and T.
A Convective SIGMET is issued for convection over the Continental U.S.
Convective SIGMETs are issued for an area of thunderstorms affecting an
area of 3,000 square miles (7,800 km2) or greater, a line of thunderstorms at
least 60 nm long, and/or severe or embedded thunderstorms affecting any
area that are expected to last 30 minutes or longer. A Convective SIGMET is
valid for 2 hours and they are issued every hour + 55 min.

GPWS: A ground proximity warning system (GPWS) is a system designed

to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground
or an obstacle. The United States Federal Aviation Administration defines
GPWS as a type of terrain awareness warning system (TAWS). More
advanced systems, introduced in 1996, are known as enhanced ground
proximity warning systems (EGPWS), although sometimes confusingly
called terrain awareness warning systems.
The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a
radio altimeter. A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates
trends, and will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the
aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes").

The modes are:

Excessive descent rate ("SINK RATE" "PULL UP")
Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
Altitude loss after take off or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW – TERRAIN" "TOO LOW – GEAR"
"TOO LOW – FLAPS")
Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")

TCAS: A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision

avoidance system (both abbreviated as TCAS) is an aircraft collision
avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air collisions
between aircraft. It monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft
equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic
control, and warns pilots of the presence of other transponder-equipped
aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision (MAC). It is a type of
airborne collision avoidance system mandated by the International Civil
Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off
mass (MTOM) of over 5,700 kg (13,000 lb) or authorized to carry more than
19 passengers.
ACAS / TCAS is based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder
signals, and operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide
advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft.
In modern glass cockpit aircraft, the TCAS display may be integrated in the
Navigation Display (ND) or Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
(EHSI); in older glass cockpit aircraft and those with mechanical
instrumentation, such an integrated TCAS display may replace the
mechanical Vertical Speed Indicator (which indicates the rate with which the
aircraft is descending or climbing).
TCAS operation modes
TCAS II can be currently operated in the following modes:
Stand-by
Power is applied to the TCAS Processor and the mode S transponder, but
TCAS does not issue any interrogations and the transponder will reply to
only discrete interrogations.
Transponder
The mode S transponder is fully operational and will reply to all appropriate
ground and TCAS interrogations. TCAS remains in stand-by.
Traffic advisories only
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally
and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions.
However, TCAS will only issue traffic advisories (TA), and the resolution
advisories (RA) will be inhibited.
Automatic (traffic/resolution advisories)
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally
and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions.
TCAS will issue traffic advisories (TA) and resolution advisories (RA),
when appropriate.
TCAS works in a coordinated manner, so when an RA is issued to
conflicting aircraft, a required action (i.e., Climb. Climb.) has to be
immediately performed by one of the aircraft, while the other one receives a
similar RA in the opposite direction (i.e., Descend. Descend.).
TCAS alerts:
Traffic advisory (TA)
Resolution advisory (RA)
Clear of conflict

INS: An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a

computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors
(gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position,
orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving
object without the need for external references. It is used on vehicles such as
ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used
to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include
inertial guidance system, inertial reference platform, inertial instrument,
inertial measurement unit (IMU) and many other variations.
IRU: An inertial reference unit (IRU) is a type of inertial sensor which uses
gyroscopes (electromechanical, ring laser gyro or MEMS) and
accelerometers (electromechanical or MEMS) to determine a moving
aircraft’s or spacecraft’s change in rotational attitude (angular orientation
relative to some reference frame) and translational position (typically
latitude, longitude and altitude) over a period of time. Another name often
used interchangeably with IRU is Inertial Measurement Unit.
The two basic classes of IRUs/IMUs are "gimballed" and "strapdown". The
older, larger gimballed systems have become less prevalent over the years as
the performance of newer, smaller strapdown systems has improved greatly
via the use of solid-state sensors and advanced real-time computer
algorithms. Gimballed systems are still used in some high-precision
applications where strapdown performance may not be as good.
ADC: An air data computer (ADC) is an essential avionics component found
in modern glass cockpits. This computer, rather than individual instruments,
can determine the calibrated airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude
trend from input data from sensors such as an aircraft's pitot-static system,
gyroscopes, GPS and accelerometers. In some very high speed aircraft such
as the Space Shuttle, equivalent airspeed is calculated instead of calibrated
airspeed.
Air data computers usually also have an input of total air temperature. This
enables computation of static air temperature and true airspeed.
In Airbus aircraft the air data computer is combined with altitude, heading
and navigation sources in a single unit known as the Air Data Inertial
Reference Unit (ADIRU). This has now been replaced by Global Navigation
Air Data Inertial Reference System (GNADIRS).

RVSM: Reduced vertical separation minima or minimum (RVSM) is the

reduction of the standard vertical separation required between aircraft flying
between FL290 (29,000 ft) and FL410 (41,000 ft) inclusive, from 2,000 feet
to 1,000 feet (or between 8,850 and 12,500 m from 600 m to 300 m). This
therefore increases the number of aircraft that can safely fly in a particular
volume of airspace.
Historically, standard vertical separation was 1,000 feet from the surface to
FL290, and 2,000 feet above FL290. This was because the accuracy of the
pressure altimeter (used to determine altitude) decreases with height. Over
time, air data computers (ADCs) combined with altimeters have become
more accurate and autopilots more adept at maintaining a set level, therefore
it became apparent that for many modern aircraft, the 2,000 feet separation
was too cautious. It was therefore proposed by ICAO that this be reduced to
1,000 feet.
RNP: Required navigation performance (RNP) is a type of performance-
based navigation (PBN) that allows an aircraft to fly a specific path between
two 3D-defined points in space. RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally
similar. The key difference between them is the requirement for on-board
performance monitoring and alerting. A navigation specification that
includes a requirement for on-board navigation performance monitoring and
alerting is referred to as an RNP specification. One not having such a
requirement is referred to as an RNAV specification.
RNP also refers to the level of performance required for a specific procedure
or a specific block of airspace. An RNP of 10 means that a navigation
system must be able to calculate its position to within a circle with a radius
of 10 nautical miles. An RNP of 0.3 means the aircraft navigation system
must be able to calculate its position to within a circle with a radius of 3
tenths of a nautical mile
A related term is ANP which stands for "actual navigation performance".
ANP refers to the current performance of a navigation system while "RNP"
refers to the accuracy required for a given block of airspace or a specific
instrument procedure.
Some oceanic airspace has an RNP of 4 or 10. The level of RNP an aircraft
is capable of determines the separation required between aircraft.
RNP approaches with RNP values currently down to 0.1 allow aircraft to
follow precise 3 dimensional curved flight paths through congested airspace,
around noise sensitive areas, or through difficult terrain.

Area navigation (RNAV) is a method of instrument flight rules (IFR)

navigation that allows an aircraft to choose any course within a network of
navigation beacons, rather than navigating directly to and from the beacons.
This can conserve flight distance, reduce congestion, and allow flights into
airports without beacons. Area navigation used to be called "random
navigation", and hence the acronym RNAV.[1]
RNAV: can be defined as a method of navigation that permits aircraft
operation on any desired course within the coverage of station-referenced
navigation signals or within the limits of a self-contained system capability,
or a combination of these.
LMC: Changes after the release of the load sheet are called Last Minute
Change
(LMC). the following changes may be recorded as LMC; other changes
always
Require a new load sheet:
a. Changes of weight or distribution of the Total Traffic Load.
b. Changes of the number of crew members or crew baggage included in
The DOW.
c. Changes of the quantity of potable water included in the DOW.
d. Take-off fuel changes.
Narrow body 300kg
Wide body 500kg
If one of the above limits is exceeded, a new load and trim sheet must be
issued.

CRM: Crew resource management or cockpit resource management (CRM)

is a procedure and training system in systems where human error can have
devastating effects. Used primarily for improving air safety, CRM focuses
on interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in the
cockpit.

Generators vs Motors: Generators are devices that turn mechanical energy

into electrical energy. Electric motors are devices that turn electrical energy
into mechanical energy. Though they perform opposite functions, there are
actually few differences between motors and generators.

Tests and Checks

Aircraft --- annual & 100hours
Pitot/static system ----- 24months
Transponder----- 24months
Altimeter--------24months
VOR-----30days
ELT ------ 12months

The NOTAM is a notice or advisory distributed by means of

telecommunication containing information concerning the establishment,
conditions or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or
hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel and systems
concerned with flight operations.
NOTAM (D): all civil public use airports and navigational facilities.
NOTAM (L): local such as taxiways closures, persons and/or equipment
near or crossing runways … etc
FDC NOTAM: special events, natural disasters or large scale public events
that may generate congestion of air traffic over a site.

METAR: aviation routine weather report, an hourly surface observation of

condition observed at an airport
METAR is a format for reporting weather information. A METAR weather
report is predominantly used by pilots in fulfillment of a part of a pre-flight
weather briefing, and by meteorologists, who use aggregated METAR
information to assist in weather forecasting.
Raw METAR is the most popular format in the world for the transmission of
weather data. It is highly standardized through International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO), which allows it to be understood throughout most of
the world.

TAF is a format for reporting weather forecast information, particularly as it

relates to aviation. "TAF" is an acronym of terminal aerodrome forecast or,
in some countries, terminal area forecast. TAFs apply to approximately five
statute miles (about 4.3 nautical mails or 8km) radius from the center of the
airport runway complex. Generally, TAFs apply to a 24-hour period; and, as
of November 5, 2008, TAFs for many major airports cover 30-hour periods.
The date/time group reflects the new 24- or 30-hour period in Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC), as always.
How to save fuel?
- Direct routing when it possible
- Flying at optimum altitude
- Flying at optimum speed

Royal Jordanian Airlines is the flag carrier of Jordan with its head office in
Amman, Jordan, operating scheduled international services over four
continents from its main base at Queen Alia International Airport at Amman
(AMM) Jordan. Royal Jordanian (RJ) is a member of the Arab Air Carriers
Organization and Oneworld; a global airline alliance.
Alia (the Royal Jordanian Airline) started operations with two Handley Page
Dart Heralds and a Douglas DC-7 aircraft
Founded December 9, 1963 as Alia Airlines – Royal
Jordanian Airlines

Fleet size 33

Destination 59
s

Fleet:
- Airbus A319-100 4
- Airbus A320-200 7
- Airbus A321-200 4
- Airbus A330-200 3
- Airbus A340-200 4
- Embraer 175 3
- Embraer 195 5
- Airbus A310-300F cargo 2
- Airbus A310 1
Future fleet plans
Royal Jordanian intends to have a fleet of 38 aircraft by the year 2017, with
11 Boeing 787s, 4 Airbus A319s, 8 Airbus A320s, 6 Airbus A321s and 9
Embraer E-Jets

Difference between aircraft:

310-320: 310 🡪 semi glass cockpit, conventional, and yoke
320 🡪 glass cockpit, flying by wire, side stick
320-321-319: 321 longer than 320 longer than 319
310-330: 310 🡪 short fat body
330 🡪 longer body and wings
Emb-320: emb 🡪 large winglet
320 🡪 wing tip fence

Destinations:
- Africa: Egypt (Cairo, Alexandria, sharm el shiekh),
Libya (Tripoli, Benghazi, Misrata), Sudan (Khartoum), and
Tunisia (Tunis)
- Europe: Russia (Moscow), Ukraine (Kiev), Romania
(Bucharest), Turkey (Istanbul), Cyprus (Larnaca), Greece
(Athens), Italy (Rome, Milan), Austria (Vienna), Germany
(Munich, Frankfurt, Berlin, Cologne), Switzerland
(Zurich, Geneva), France (Paris), UK (London), Spain
(Madrid, Barcelona)
- Middle East: Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, Madinah, Jeddah,
Damam), Yemen (Sana’a, Aden), UAE (Dubai, Abu
Dhabi), Qatar (Doha), Bahrain (Bahrain), Kuwait
(Kuwait), Iraq (Baghdad, Basra, Erbil, Sulaimaniyah),
Syria (Damascus, Aleppo), Lebanon (Beirut), Tel Aviv,
Aqaba
- North America: USA (New York, Chicago, Detroit),
Canada (Montreal)
- Southeast and Indian subcontinent: India (Delhi,
Mumbai), Sri lanka (Colombo), Thailand (Bangkok),
Hong Kong, Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur)

Oneworld is one of the world's three largest global airline alliances with its
central management team, Oneworld Management Company, based in New
York City, New York, in the United States. Oneworld was founded in 1999
by American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, Cathay Pacific,
and Qantas.
The alliance had the biggest expansion in its history in 2007 when Japan
Airlines, Malév Hungarian Airlines, and Royal Jordanian joined as full
members, while Cathay Pacific's subsidiary Dragonair, five subsidiaries of
Japan Airlines and two subsidiaries of LAN joined as affiliate members.
1- Air Berlin 2012 2- American Airlines 1999 3- British Airways 1999
4- Cathay Pacific 1999 5- Finnair 1999 6- Iberia 1999
7- Japan Airlines 2007 8- LAN Airlines 2000 9- Qantas 1999
10- Royal Jordanian 2007 11- S7 Airlines 2010
Capitals:
Afghanistan 🡪 Kabul, India 🡪 New Delhi, Pakistan 🡪Islamabad
Iran 🡪Tehran, Thailand 🡪 Bangkok, Malaysia 🡪 Kuala Lumpur
Vietnam 🡪 Hanoi, China 🡪 Beijing, North Korea 🡪 Pyongyang
Indonesia 🡪 Jakarta, Sri Lanka 🡪 Colombo, South Korea 🡪 Seoul
Mexico 🡪Mexico City, Australia 🡪 Canberra, Canada 🡪 Ottawa
Ukraine 🡪 Kiev, Romania 🡪 Bucharest, Turkey 🡪 Ankara
Cyprus 🡪 Nicosia, Germany 🡪 Berlin, Austria 🡪 Vienna
Switzerland 🡪 Berne, Czech Republic 🡪 Prague, Slovakia 🡪 Bratislava,
Nepal 🡪 Kathmandu

Oceans:
- Pacific
- Atlantic
- Indian

Seas:
- Adriatic (Italy)
- Mediterranean sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean
surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost
completely enclosed by land: on the north by Europe and
Anatolia, on the south by North Africa
- Black sea (Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria)
- Caspian sea (Iran, Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan)
- Persian gulf (Iran and Arab gulf)
- Arabian sea (Oman, Yemen, part of Indian ocean)
- Red sea (between Africa and asia)

Ancient 7 wonders:
- Pyramids (Egypt)
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon (Iraq)
- Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (Turkey)
- Statue of Zeus at Olympia (Greece)
- Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (Turkey)
- Colossus of Rhodes (Greece)
- Lighthouse of Alexandria (Egypt)
Modern 7 wonders:
- Taj Mahal (India)
- Chichen Itza (Mexico)
- Christ the Redeemer (Brazil)
 - Colosseum (Italy)
- Great Wall of China (China)
- Machu Picchu (Peru)
- Petra (Jordan)

Mount Everest is the Earth's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres
(29,029 ft) above sea level and the 5th tallest mountain measured from the
centre of the Earth.It is located in the Mahalangur section of the Himalayas.
The international border between China and Nepal runs across the precise
summit point.

The Himalayan range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks,

including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred
mountains exceeding 7,200 meters (23,600 ft) in height; The Himalayas
cross five countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, People's Republic of China, and
Pakistan (west Asia)

How many governorates in Jordan?

12 (Amman, Azzarqa, Balqa, Irbid, Ma’an, Tafeleh, Al karak, Jerash,
Ajloun, Aqaba, Madaba, Mafraq)

How you will change the royal Jordanian?

Why rj will employ you?
Why did you choose rj?
Question about loyalty to rj

CRM
If the captain is smoking what you will do?
If captain prevents you from praying?
If a passenger is making troubles on an aircraft?
If you’re on aircraft departing from Athena and you smell alcohol fro the
captain?
If you’re on aircraft and you find out that your mother is crying because one
of the hostesses misbehaved with her, what you will do?
 Aerodynamics

1) What is the angle of attack?

Is the angle between the chord line and relative wind.

2) What is the angle of incidence?

Is the angle between the chord line & longitudinal axis.

3) What is the chord line?

The line between wing leading & trailing edges.

4) ASTALL is caused by excessive ……..?

Angle of attack.

5) If an aeroplane is trimmed, it will return to original pitch

attitude after a pitch deflection, what type of stability dose
this represent?

Longitudinal stability.

6) Parasite drag is a result of?

External parts of the areoplane (Skin).

7) In a modern training aeroplanes, which part of the wing

stalls first?

Wing root.
8) When flaps are extended what happens to the lift & drag?

Both increases.

9) The elevator controls movement about which axis?

Lateral axis.

10) True of false – an airplane can be stalled at any airspeed &

any attitude.

True.

11) Name the forces acting on an aircraft in-flight?

Lift, weight, thrust, drag.

Aerodynamics

12) What term describes the curvature of upper & lower

surfaces of an aerofoil?

Camber.

13) How is lift created?

By the difference between the speed of the air flowing over the top
surface of the wing and the speed of the air flowing under the wing.

The pressure on the top is less than the pressure on the bottom.
14) What is the two ways of increasing lift?

Increasing speed or increasing A.O.A.

15) What creates awing tip vortex?

The higher pressure air beneath the wing tends to roll over the wing tip
into the low pressure area above the upper surface of the wing.

16) Why is wing twist, or wash-out, built into an aircraft wing?

To make the stall begins at the wing root.

17) What is the name of the drag which is created in the

process if developing lift?

Induced drag.

18) What is the approximate speed of sound at sea level in

M.P.H?

760 M.P.H. 661 kts

19) What caused the sonic boom?

The shock wave or pressure wave, created by air molecules which

tends to pile up in front of the aircraft when the airplane meets or
exceeds speed of sound.
20) The total drag is the sum of what?

A) Induced + B) Profile (Parasite)

Aerodynamics

21) What is the center of gravity?

Is the point where the airplane would balance if suspended from that
point.

22) What is the center of pressure?

Is the point at which total lift of an airplane is acting upon.

23) As the angle of attack is increased, which direction the

center of pressure moves?

Forward.

24) When flaps are fully lowered, what happens to the drag?

Increases.

25) What happens to the stalling speed if we raise the flaps

from 15o to up?

Increases stalling speed.

26) What is the effect of leading edge slats on the stalling
angle?

Increase the stalling angle.

27) If I.A.S and rate of climb are kept constant, as altitude

increases the required power increase or decrease?

Increase.

28) Dynamic pressure is equal?

½ Density X speed squared.

29) For aircraft flying at high altitude the air speed indicator
will read 1) True air speed. 2) More than true air speed. 3) Less
than T.A.S?

Less than T.A.S.

30) What is Dutch roll?

A combined rolling & yawing motion.

Aerodynamics

31) When dose the wing stall?

When airflow separates form most of upper surface.

32) At altitude above sea level, the I.A.S stalling speed will be
same, less, greater than at sea level?

Greater.

33) A pilot tube facing into air stream will measure static
pressure. true or false?

False, it measures dynamic press only.

34) How is static pressure on airplane is measured?

A hole in a surface along which the air is flowing.

35) At a constant airspeed, the dynamic pressure will be at sea

level less than high altitude true or false?

False.

36) What is the aspect ratio?

The ratio of wing span to mean chord.

37) What dose mach number equal?

= Aircraft T.A.S

Local speed of sound

38) What is the effect of speed on profile drag?

Increases as speed increases.

39) What is the effect of speed on induced drag?

Decreases as speed increases.

40) At what speed the profile drag is equal to induced drag?

(Vmd minimum drag speed.)

41) An under carriage has a drag of 3 lbs at a speed of 100 kts

I.A.S. What would it’s drag be at speed of 200kts ?

12 lbs (½ 9 V2s).

Basic Math

1) An A/C cursing at 31,000’ , T.A.S = 465kts, the speed of

sound at 31.000’ is 560kts what is the mach No ?

Mach No = TAS = 465 = 0.83

LSS 560

2) If the temp at cruse level is warmer than the standard temp,

then the density altitude is the same, higher or lower than the
press alt?

Higher than the pressure alt.

3) What is true air speed?

The speed of A/C relative to the air mass.

4) An A/C which is cursing at 280kts reduced speed to 266kts,

what is the percentage in reduction?

280 – 266 x 100% = 5%

280

5) If the ratio of two terms is 10:13 and the first term equals
600, what is the second term?

10 600

13 ??

600x13 = 780

10

6) A/C ground speed is 480kts, fuel flow 12000kg/HR then how

many miles the A/C covers per 1000 kg of fuel?

480 x 1000 = 40 N.M / 1000kgs.

12000

7) If an A/C covers 2500 N.M in 5HR :20 min then the A/C speed
is equal to?

2500

5h :20 min = (320 min) = 469N.M

8) Determine the temp deviation from I.S.A if temp at 33000 ft
is equal to – 60oc?

(33x -2) + 15 = I.S.A

- 66 +15 = -51oc

-- Temp deviation from ISA = - 9oc

Basic Math

9) If the temperature is 86oF , what is it in centegrae ?

86 – 32 x 5 = 30oc

10) A speed of 420kts equal how much in K.M?

420 x 1.852 = 778 KM

11) A triangle A.B.C?

If AB = 10 C.M

BC = 6 C.M

Calculate the Area?

½x6=3 3x10= 30CM2

 General Science

1) What is the use of ozone layer and in which part of the

atmosphere it’s concentrated?

The ozone layer concentrated in the stratosphere and it absorbs a

large part of the sun’s ultraviolet rays. which it’s harmful.

2) What is the importance of the ionosphere for aviation?

it’s important in long distance radio comm because of its ability to

reflect radio waves back to the earth’s surface.

3) What is Newton’s first law of motion ?

A body remains at rest, or in a state of motion in a straight line,

unless acted upon by an external force.

4) What’s Newton’s second law of motion?

A force acting on a body causes it to accelerate in the direction of

the force, the acceleration is directly proportional to the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body being accelerated.

5) What’s Newton’s third law of motion?

For every action there is an equal and opposite be action.

6) What is the main difference between the sun and earth?

Sun is a star, earth is a planet.

7) What’s the speed of light in KM?

300,000 KM/SEC.

8) How many planets are in the solar system?

9) What is the name of our galaxy?

The Milky Way.

10) Which is faster, a sound traveling through air or through

water, why?

Through water, more dense.

General Aviation

12) What is the great circle?

Is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose center and radious are

that of the sphere, it’s the shortest distance between 2 places on
earth.

13) What is rhumb line?

Is a regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all
meridians at the same angle.
14) What is variation?

The angle between true & magnetic north.

15) What is deviation?

The angle measured between the direction of the compass needle &
the direction of magnetic north.

16) If TRUE HDG is ( 095o)

MAG HDG is ( 088o)

COMP HDG is ( 090o)

What is the variation & deviation?

VAR 7oE DEV 2oW

17) What is agonic line?

Line joining places of zero variation.

18) What dose RADAR stands for?

Radio Detection And Range.

20) What is the distance along the equator from 10o East to
10o West ?

20x60 = 1200 NM
21) What are the isogonics ?

Line of equal variation on a chart.

General Aviation

22) How many feet in one nautili mile?

6080’

23) If TAS is 480 NM IAS 320 NM ground speed is 520 NM,

what is the wind component?

520 – 480 = 40 kts tail wind.

24) What is the transponder code to be set in case of

emergency?

A 7700.

25) N.D.B signals are subject to line of sight to be received

true or false?

False.

26) While tracking toward a VORTAC, the DME distance

decreases 3 miles every 60 sec, what is the ground speed?
 3x60 = 180kts

General Aviation

1) When you select QNH on your altimeter, what do you read?

Altitude above mean sea level.

2) When you select QFE on your altimeter, what do you read?

Height above aerodrome level.

3) What is the transition level ?

Is the level above which altimeters should be set to STD 1013 mb.

5) On what frequency band the following equipment operate?

VOR : VHF

NDB : LF + MF

DME : UHF

LOCALIZER : VHF

GLIDE SLOPE : UHF

Q 1) What is dry operating weight?

A 1) Is the total weight of aircraft ready for operation excluding all

usable fuel & traffic loads.

Q2) What are the maximum cargo compartments load?

750 kg per square meter

11) In which year Royal Jordanian was established?

1963
75. whats the first a/c flown by royal Jordanian?
Dc7 and dart herald `1963

76. when was the independence of Jordan? And name the kings that
came thereafter?
25 May 1946

78. where is Czechoslovakia? Capital city, and capital cities?

Czechoslovakia (Československo; from 1990 in Slovak: Česko-Slovensko) was a
sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its
independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945 the
state did not have a de facto existence, due to its forced division and partial incorporation
into Nazi Germany, but the Czech government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist
during this time period. On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the
Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

One world rj 2 amircan airline 3 british airways 4 caty pacific 5 iberiai 6 japan airlines
7 finnair 8 lan 9 malev 10 qantas 11 mexicana

79-H1N1 H5H5?
Swain virus and bird's virus

1. If you are flying a managed descent and you are below 10,000 ft and below profile, how
does the aircraft vertical speed behave?
2. If you are walking with your crew in the terminal proceeding to your aircraft and you
noticed one of the cabin crew misbehaving in an unacceptable manner in front of all
passengers. You asked him to behave professionally and he started yelling and swearing
at you. What is your action?
3. Your flight from AMM to FRA, you were given sector fuel. During enroute you didn’t get
the flight level and the wind was much stronger head wind than forecasted. Over
Belgrade you calculate your fuel and find out that you will arrive at Frankfurt with
minimum fuel, and Frankfurt weather is gusty winds. What is your action?
4. You are coming back from RJ 613 to Amman, sector fuel again, you were given
Damascus as an alternate, wind around Amman area is 060/10. Released from Jeddah
you contact Amman to find out that there is a VVIP movement in QAIA and there will be
delay. What is your action?
5. You are on a night trip from AMM to Sanaa, 50 miles before TOD in Sanaa you get ECAM
ADR1+ADR3 failure what do you do?
6. You are flying with a new F/O who happens to be PF on that flight; during cruise you get
an engine failure. Would you let the F/O to continue flying?
7. During a very hot day, departing runway 26R with a full load. Just after passing the
100knots takeoff speed you see high EGT on engine # 1, what do you do?
As capt Abort the takeoff because its before v1
As FO I will announce for him

787 features
Winglet, fence

MEA (Min Enroute Altitude): Is the lowest published altitude

between radio navigation fixes that assures acceptable navigational
signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements between
those fixes.

The Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) is the lowest altitude which may
be used which will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000 ft)
above all objects located in the area contained within a sector of a
circle of 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on a radio aid to navigation

Advantages of FBW:
Weight savings, lower maintenance costs and greater precision in
flying

Mist: is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended

in air. It can occur as part of natural weather or volcanic activity, and
is common in cold air above warmer water.

Fog: is a collection of liquid water droplets or ice crystals suspended

in the air at or near the Earth's surface.

Fog reduces visibility to less than 1 km, whereas mist reduces

visibility to no less than 1 km

Vapor lock is a problem that mostly affects gasoline-fueled internal

combustion engines.
It occurs when the liquid fuel changes state from liquid to gas while
still in the fuel delivery system. This disrupts the operation of the fuel
pump, causing loss of feed pressure to the carburetor or fuel
injection system, resulting in transient loss of power or complete
stalling. Restarting the engine from this state may be difficult.

A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid that

provides guidance information to help a pilot acquire and maintain
the correct approach (in the vertical plane) to an aerodrome or an
airport. It is generally located beside the runway approximately 300
meters beyond the landing threshold of the runway.

The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights on the

side of an airport runway threshold that provides visual descent
guidance information during approach. These lights may be visible
from up to 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) during the day and up to 32
kilometres (20 mi) or more at night.

FAF: The fix from which the IFR final approach to an airport is
executed, and which identifies the beginning of the final approach
segment.
IAF: is the point where the initial approach segment of an instrument
approach begins

Magnetic dip: is the angle made with the horizontal by the compass
needle of a vertically held compass
Max dip is 90

A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of

the runway surface area within the required length and width being
used, is covered by –
- Surface water more than 1/8th inch (3mm) deep, or;
- Slush or loose snow equivalent to more than 1/8th inch (3mm) of
water or;
- Compacted snow or wet ice.

Hydroplaning: a phenomenon in which aircraft tires run at a high

speed over shallow standing water and ride up out of contact with
the runway, rendering the brakes practically ineffective.