Course Code: BIO 024

Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Lesson title: LIPIDS

Lesson Objectives: by the end of
this home experiment, you should Materials:
be able to … See materials in each experiment References:
1. Describe the solubility ▪ Bathan, G. I., Crisostomo, A. C., Daya, M. L., De Guia, R. M., Farrow,
property of animal oil and F. L., Gabona, M. G., . . . Ysrael, M. C. (2017). Laboratory Manual in
plant oil in different
General Biochemistry. (2nd, Ed.) Quezon: C & E Publishing.
solvents and solutions.
2. Understand ▪ Bruce A. Watkins, P., Watkins, C. T., Rogers, M.S, L., Maicher, K., Yong,
saponification as the Ph.D, L., & Friend, B. (2000). IFT Experiments in Food Science
process of making soap. Series: Food Chemistry Experiments . 221 N. LaSalle St., Suite 300,
3. Know theoretical results of Chicago, IL 60601 , USA: Purdue Research Foundation.
different qualitative
test for lipids both ▪ Josue, P. B., & Ocenar, PhD, M. M. (2014). Biochemistry Laboratory
saponofiable and Manual and workbook for Health Sciences . Quezon : C & E Publishing
nonsaponifiable lipids. Inc.

LABORATORY CONCEPT I

Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, other sterols, and most steroids. In the body, fat serves as a source of energy, a
thermal insulator and cushion around organs, and an important cellular component. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E,
and K. You are probably most familiar with the nutritional aspects of dietary fats and oils. Since fats have 2.25 times the
energy content of carbohydrates and proteins, most people try to limit their intake of dietary fat to avoid becoming
overweight. The food industry has a big market for low-fat and non-fat foods. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

Lipids are classified as organic compounds that are soluble (dissolvable) in organic
solvents, but only sparingly soluble in water. Lipids are biologically important for
making barriers (membranes of animal cells), which control the flow of water and other
materials into a cell. The effect of oil om hard water is a consequence of a large
reduction in the water’s surface tension as emulsion forms but some lipids can
aggregate to form micelles, bilayer, and liposome structure (forms of lipids). (Josue &
Ocenar, PhD, 2014)

Fats and oils make up 95% of food lipids and phospholipids, and sterols make up the
other 5%. Traditionally, fats were solid at room temperature, and oils were liquid.
However, this designation is often used to distinguish between fats and oils from
animals and plants, respectively. Animal fats are found in meats (beef, chicken, lamb,
pork, and veal), milk products, eggs, and seafood (fish oil). Plant (vegetable) oils come
from nuts (peanuts), olives, and seeds (soybean, canola, safflower, and corn). We use
lipids for flavor (butter and olive oil), to cook foods (oils and shortening), to

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

increase the palatability of foods by improving the texture or “mouthfeel” (cakes, creamy ice cream), and in food processing
(emulsifiers). (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

Fatty acids are generally long, straight chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached (hydrocarbons) with a
carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one end and a methyl group (CH3) at the other end. These long, straight chains combine
with the glycerol molecule (see Figure 1A) to form lipids (glycer ol lipids). (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

Most naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms. The 18-carbon fatty acids are the most
abundant in our food supply; examples are linoleic acid (an omega- 6 fatty acid) found in corn oil and linolenic acid (an
omega-3 fatty acid) found in flaxseed oil. Linoleic and linolenic acids are considered essential fatty acids because they are
needed for normal physiological functions and our body cannot make them. We need to get these fatty acids from food
sources. These fatty acids are found in the vegetable oils used in several different food products. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al.,
2000)

Structure of Lipids

Most of the carbon−carbon bonds in fats are single bonds, which allow the carbons to freely rotate, making the attached
groups chemically identical. However, the number of unsaturated bonds (double bonds) may vary from one to many in the
hydrocarbon part of the fatty acid. Since double bonds do not allow free rotation between the attached carbons, any attached
chemical groups are fixed in their respective positions. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

There are two possible orientations for groups attached to the carbons in a double bond. If they are on the same side of the
double bond (close together), they are in the cis conformation. The opposite of the cis conformation is the trans
conformation, where the residues at ends of the double bond are farther apart. Double bonds in natural vegetable oils and
in animal fats are mostly in the cis conformation (see Figures 1B and 1C); however, a few exceptions are known where the
trans conformation is present. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

The presence of the double bonds is responsible for the liquid properties of native vegetable oil. Because the cis
double bonds are “kinked”, they disrupt the physical interactions between fatty acid molecules, preventing them from
packing together tightly to form crystals
(see Figure 1D, structure of linoleic acid). This
disruption keeps the fatty acid molecules
from associating with each other,
removed, allowing
resulting in a liquid structure. If the double
bonds are removed by adding hydrogen
(hydrogenation), the kinks are the fatty
acid molecules to associate
with each other more easily (see Figure 1E,
structure of stearic acid). The result is
crystallization (solid fat) at room temperature.

Depending on how the various fatty acid chains

associate, the crystalline structure of the solid fat
can have different appearances, such as a
smooth, shiny solid or a rough, puffy solid.
These crystalline forms also have different light-
reflection characteristics and physical hardness.
This difference in physical properties is used
when making shortening, which is crystallized
into a very white, soft crystalline form at the
factory. However, upon melting and re-
solidification, it becomes more translucent and
grayer, due to the formation of a different crystal
structure. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

A. Glycerol molecule is the backbone of a glycerol

lipid. The triacylglycerol contains three fatty acids attached at the oxygen atoms of glycerol. B. Configuration of a
cis double bond.
C. Configuration of a trans double bond.
D. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid containing two double bonds. It is needed for growth and health.
E. Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in foods from animal and plant sources.
F. Milk fat triacylglycerol molecule illustrating the ester bonds between fatty acids and glycerol.
Nomenclature for Fats

If all the bonds are single, the fatty acid molecule is saturated, because the maximum number of hydrogen atoms is
associated with the carbon atoms. Some examples are tallow (beef fat), lard (pork fat), and butter (milk fat). If there is a
double bond among the carbon atoms, the fatty acid molecule is unsaturated. Examples of unsaturated fats are canola oil,
corn oil, cottonseed oil, and soybean oil. If there are multiple double bonds (two or more), it is called polyunsaturated.
You may recall seeing the saturated, unsaturated, and polyunsaturated terms with respect to nutritional aspects of oils.
Corn and soybean oils are some of the most important food sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids in our food supply.
Shown below are the shorthand notation used to describe some important food sources of 18-carbon (C18) fatty acids.
(Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

• C18:0 is a fully saturated 18-carbon fatty acid called stearic acid.

• C18:1 has one double bond, between carbons 9-10, (18:1n9) counting from the COOH end, and is called oleic acid.
• C18:2 has two double bonds, between carbons 9-10 and 12-13, counting from the COOH end, and is called linoleic acid (9
,12-octadecadienoic acid or 18:2n6).

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

• C18:3 has three double bonds at carbons 9-10, 12-13, and 15-16, counting from the COOH end, and is called linolenic acid
(9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid or 18:3n3).

The number of fatty acids joined to the glycerol molecule also plays a part in how the molecule is named. If only one fatty
acid is connected, the general name for the molecule is a monoacylglycerol. If two are joined, the molecule is called a
diacylglycerol, and if three are joined, a triacylglycerol. The bond between the fatty acid and the glycerol also has a special
name. It is called an ester bond (see Figure 1F). The carboxyl end (COOH) of the fatty acid molecule attaches to one of the -
OH groups of the glycerol molecule. Because of this combination, an -OH group and -H are left, which combine to form a
water molecule. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

Since triacylglycerols have three fatty acids, you can get mixed-fatty -acid triacylglycerols, in which there are different fatty
acids on each of the glycerol bonds. Naturally occurring soybean oil is a mixed triacylglycerol, containing saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Soybean oil contains more monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids than saturated fatty acids. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

Surfactant is a short term for surface-active agent. Polar lipids, like lecithin in soybean oil, serve as specialized surfactants
known as emulsifiers. By interacting with water on one end of the molecule and repelling water on the other end, emulsifiers
keep fat globules dispersed in water or water droplets dispersed in fat. Lipid surfactants are important to our own cellular
functions, as well as useful in stabilizing specific food products. Lecithin is a phospholipid, which functions as a surfactant.
Lecithin and other phospholipid emulsifiers are found in food from animal and plant sources. The food sources of lecithin
are eggs, milk, cheese, and soybean oil. These chemical properties of lecithin are used in the food industry to prevent fats
from separating out of chocolate, mayonnaise, peanut butter, and salad dressings. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al., 2000)

The fats that you see in raw beef, chicken, and pork are known as visible fats. These fats are in plain view and are solid at
room temperature. Vegetable oils are also visible fats. The fats that are in snack foods, cookies, desserts, and candy are
known as invisible fats. Although you cannot see them, they can add extra calories to your diet. (Bruce A. Watkins, et al.,
2000)

In this experiment, we will be testing solubilities of different sources of oils and animal fat in different solvents.

Again, take note that the experiments can be assigned to any members of the group to reduce time, manage expenditures,
and to foster collaboration and sharing of ideas.

EXPERIMENT ON SOLUBILITY PROPERTY OF ANIMAL OIL and PLANT OIL in DIFFERENT SOLVENTS and
SOLUTIONS. (Josue & Ocenar, PhD, 2014)

Objective:
1. Describe the solubility property of animal oil and plant oil in different solvents and solutions.

Materials required:
▪ Distilled water
▪ Animal oil/fat (ex. From pork fat, or lard)
▪ Plant oil (cooking oil, but please take note if the label states more of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids) ▪
Acetone
▪ Ethanol or alcohol (70%)
▪ Diluted HCl or muriatic acid (0.1mL HCl + 4mL water)

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

▪ Medicine dropper (clean with water every after using)

▪ Six (8) small clear glasses or small empty bottle or vials (sort of like your test tubes)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare Six (8) small clear glasses or small empty bottle or vials. Label each as: Test tube #1: distilled water +
animal oil
Test tube #2: distilled water + plant oil Test
tube #3: acetone + animal oil
Test tube #4: acetone + plant oil Test
tube #5: ethanol + animal oil
Test tube #6: ethanol + plant oil
Test tube #7: diluted HCl + animal oil
Test tube #8: diluted HCl + plant oil
2. Get 2mL of each of the solvent and place it into the labeled glasses.
3. Add two (2) drops of animal oil and plant oil into each solvent. Mix thoroughly.
4. Observe the solubility in each solvent.

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS and RESULTS

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS OF SOLUBILITY

Test tube with solvent Solubility (Are they Miscible or Immiscible?)
Test tube #1: distilled water + animal oil Immiscible— oil completely separates from the polar solution

Test tube #2: distilled water + plant oil Immiscible — oil completely separates from the polar solution

Test tube #3: acetone + animal oil Miscible — oil completely mixes with the solution

Test tube #4: acetone + plant oil Miscible — oil completely mixes with the solution

Test tube #5: ethanol + animal oil Partially Miscible — due to the dilution of the solution, oil forms
dispersed globules within the solution.
Test tube #6: ethanol + plant oil Partially Miscible — due to the dilution of the solution, oil forms
dispersed globules within the solution
Test tube #7: diluted HCl + animal oil Immiscible — oil completely separates from the polar solution

Test tube #8: diluted HCl + plant oil

Immiscible — oil completely separates from the polar solution

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Note: When observing the result, use the terms MISCIBLE or IMMISCIBLE. We use these 2 terms since the 2 materials that are
mixed in the test tube or any glass container during the experiment are all in liquid form. MISCIBLE is understood also as
soluble and IMMISCIBLE as insoluble respectively.

TERMS OF APPROXIMATE SOLUBILITY: Based on Martins Physical pharmacy and pharmaceutical science

TERMS Parts of solvent required for one part of

solute
Very soluble Less than 1 part
Freely soluble 1 to 10 parts
Soluble 10 to 30 parts
Sparingly soluble 30 to 100 parts
Slightly soluble 100 to 1000 parts
Very slightly soluble 1000 parts to 10,000 parts
Practically insoluble or insoluble More than 10, 000 parts

POST LABORATORY QUESTIONS:

1. What is animal oil/fat used for?

Animal fat is used as a source of energy, for cooking,in making soap (saponifica=on), as a flavoring agent and in
the produc=on of processed foods. It also serves as a thermal insulator and cushion around
organs in the body.

2. Why are animal fats not used in cooking (as much

as plant oils)?
Animal fats are high in saturated fats, which can raise bad cholesterol levels and increase the risk of heart
disease. They are also solid at room
temperature, making them less convenient for many cooking methods. Plant oile are generally healthier and
more versa=le in the kitchen.

3. What is the difference between fats and oils?

Fats are usually solid at room temperature and come
from animal sources, while oils are liquid at room
temperature and mostly come from plant sources. This difference is due to their satura=on: fats are more
saturated, and oils are more unsaturated.

4. What are essential fatty acids? Give examples.

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fats that the body cannot produce on its own and must be obtained through
diet. The two main EFAs are linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) (NIH, 2023).
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

5. What is the implication of inadequate essential fatty acids in a person's diet?

Inadequate intake of essential fatty acids can lead to dry skin, poor wound healing, impaired growth in
children, and weakened immunity.

6. Explain the health risks and benefits of saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans
fat.

Saturated fats can raise LDL cholesterol, increasing heart disease risk, while monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats can improve heart health by lowering bad cholesterol. Trans fats are harmful,
significantly increasing the risk of heart disease and inflammation.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

SKILL BUILDING ACTIVITIES:

Freaky Fats

INSTRUCTIONS: Fill in the blank spaces with the appropriate terms to complete the sentences. Solve the hidden message
by entering the boxed letters in the spaces at the bottom of the page.

PHINMA EDUCATION
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

FATTY ACIDS

OILS

LECITHIN

ESTER BONDS

S H O R T E N I NG

EMULSIFIERS

POLYUNSATURATED

GLYCEROL

ANIMAL

VEGETABLE

HIDDEN MESSAGE:

In the United States, this once popular oil is no longer used by the food industry as an ingredient because it was reported
to increase blood cholesterol level. It was used primarily in cookies, cakes, and snack foods.

__C_ _O__ _C__ _O__ __N__ _U__ _T__ __O_ _I__ __L_
LABORATORY CONCEPT II

SOAP and SAPONIFICATION

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

A few centuries ago, soap was made by boiling beef and lye tallow. After boiling, the
tallow cools and its top layer solidifies. This layer is cut into cubes as soap. This soap may be harsh to the skin, but it has
good cleaning action. In the Philippines, one of the major export products is coconut oil which is used to make soaps. Today,
making soap has greatly improved with modern technology, but the progress applies the same basic principles.

Saponification is the hydrolysis of esters which are the primary component of both animal and vegetable oils. An ester is
composed of fatty acids bonded to glycerol which is popularly known as triglyceride or triacylglycerol (TAG). The
triacylglycerols, commonly called fats and oils, are esters of glycerol (an alcohol) and fatty acids (long chain carboxylic
acids). They are generally formed by a dehydration reaction. Hydrolysis of TAGs in base (e.g.NaOH or KOH), as medium
of soap solution is basic in nature, yields glycerol and salts of fatty acids. The salt is composed of carboxylate anions and a
univalent cation. Saponification reaction is an exothermic reaction as heat is released during the reaction.

In low concentrations, soap is insoluble in water because of its ionic property, but in high concentrations, it forms insoluble
aggregates called micelles. Potassium soaps are used to make liquid soap and shaving cream. Pure coconut oil yields soap
that is very soluble in water because it predominantly contains lauric acids (12-carbon fatty acids). Olive oil, which is
composed of unsaturated long chain fatty acids, forms a soft soap which may be costly because olive oil is expensive.

Commercially available soaps are mostly made from highly saturated fats such as tallow, lard, or shortening. Soaps from
these sources contain more 16-18 carbon fatty acids and are generally harder and easier to form into shapes to soften hard
soaps, coconut oil is often included in the saponification reaction. (Josue & Ocenar, PhD, 2014)

Objective:
1. Understand saponification as the process of making soap.
Task for students:
1 .Make a schematic diagram about the process of making soap.
2.Answer the research questions that follow.

Procedure in making soap: DO NOT PERFORM

1. Take about 25 ml vegetable oil in a 250 ml beaker.

2. Prepare 50 ml 20% solution of NaOH by weighing 10 g of NaOH and dissolving it in 50 ml of distilled water.
3. Add 30 ml of 20% solution of NaOH to the vegetable oil.
4. Successively dip the red and blue litmus paper strips into the reaction mixture and note down any change
observed in the colour of litmus paper.
5. Touch the beaker containing the reaction mixture from outside and note whether it is hot or cold.
6. Now, add approximately 10 g of common salt to the reaction mixture and stir using a glass rod till the soap
begins to set.
7. Leave the mixture undisturbed for one day. This will allow the soap to set and solidify.
8. Remove the soap cake, use a knife to cut it into various shapes and sizes.

PHINMA EDUCATION
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

This document is the property of

Research questions:

1. What is soap?

Soap is a substance made from fats or oils that are reacted with a strong base like sodium
hydroxide. This reaction forms the salt of fatty acids, which is what we call soap. It’s mainly used
for cleaning because it helps remove dirt and oil from surfaces. I learned that it used to be made
from animal fat, but now we also use plant oils like coconut oil.

2. Explain saponification in your own understanding.

From what I understand, saponification is the process of making soap. It happens when fats or
oils react with a strong base like NaOH. The reaction breaks down the fats into glycerol and soap.
I also found out that the reaction gives off heat, so it’s exothermic. Basically, it’s how we turn oils
into something that can clean.

3. By real observation, red litmus paper will turn blue and blue litmus paper stays blue - what do
you think it implies?

Based on this, I think the mixture is basic. When red litmus paper turns blue, it usually means the
substance is a base. Since the blue paper didn’t change, it just confirms that the solution is indeed
basic. This makes sense because soap is made using a strong base like NaOH.

4. Why add common salt in soap preparation? What is salting out?

Common salt (NaCl) is added during soap preparation to facilitate the separation of soap from
the reaction mixture through a process called "salting out."
Salting out is a precipitation technique where adding salt increases the ionic strength of the
solution, reducing the solubility of the soap in water. The salt competes with soap molecules for
water molecules, causing the soap to precipitate out as a solid that can be easily separated. This
process helps purify the soap by removing excess water, unreacted materials, and glycerol,
resulting in a more concentrated and pure soap product.

5. By-product of saponification besides soap

The main by-product of saponification, aside from soap, is glycerol.
During saponification, triglycerides react with sodium hydroxide to produce sodium salts of fatty
acids (or soap) and glycerol.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

6. What is the acrolein test?

The acrolein test is a chemical test used to detect the presence of glycerol or fats containing
glycerol. In this test, the sample is heated with potassium hydrogen sulfate or concentrated
sulfuric acid. If glycerol is present, it undergoes dehydration to form acrolein, which has a
characteristic pungent, irritating odor similar to burnt fat. The formation of this distinctive smell
indicates a positive test for glycerol or glycerol-containing compounds like fats and oils.

7. High iodine value and degree of unsaturation

A high iodine value indicates a high degree of unsaturation in the lipid. The iodine value
measures the number of double bonds in a fat or oil by determining how much iodine can be
absorbed. Each double bond can react with one molecule of iodine. Thus, high iodine value has
many double bonds and is highly unsaturated. While saturated lipids have low iodine value due
to its few double bonds.

LABORATORY CONCEPT III:

QUALITATIVE TEST FOR BRAIN LIPIDS

Lipids are heterogenous groups of compounds

synthesized by living cells and generally
soluble in non-polar organic solvents and
insoluble in water. Differences in the solubility
of the organic solvents are essential in the
separation of lipids from other biomolecules
such as carbohydrates and proteins. (Bathan, et
al., 2017)

Membrane lipids like in the fish brain can be

isolated with the use of organic solvents
through different processes. The isolated lipids
can then be separated into two classes:
nonsaponifiable and saponifiable. The two
classes of lipids solution can be characterized
using di fferent color reaction tests.

PHINMA EDUCATION
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Classification of lipids based on

saponifiability:

1. Saponifiable lipids - is a lipid that

undergoes hydrolysis in basic solution
to yield two or more smaller product
molecules. (Like those used in making
soap)

2. Nonsaponifiable lipids - does not

undergo hydrolysis in basic solution.
Such lipids cannot be broken up into
smaller component parts
using
hydrolysis.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Objectives:
1. Know theoretical results of different qualitative test for both saponofiable and nonsaponifiable lipids.

Task for students:

Considering that you have isolated a brain lipid from an animal source like fish or calf, with the following test (that you
will be conducting in the laboratory next semester), what positive test results will be expected and what principle when
characterizing extracted lipids is involved? Tabulate your answer and be ready for a short assessment. (Example is provided)

TESTS PRINCIPLE and RESULTS

1. SALKOWSKI ’S TEST This test is used to detect the presence of cholesterol and other sterols. A
red or violet color in the chloroform layer and a yellow-green
fluorescence in the sulfuric acid layer indicate a positive result for sterols.
2. LIBERMANN -
This test is used to identify sterols. A color change from violet to
BURCHARD TEST blue to dark green confirms the presence of sterols.

3. MOLISCH TEST This test is used to detect the presence of carbohydrates. A purple
or violet ring at the interface of the acid and sample layers indicates
a positive result for carbohydrates.
4. KRAUT’S TEST
This test is used to detect the presence of alkaloids (especially choline).
An orange-red solution and brick-red precipitate forms if alkaloids are
present in the sample.
5. NINHYDRIN TEST
This test is used to identify amino acids or proteins with free α-amino groups. A
deep purple or blue color (yellow-orange for proline/hydroxyproline) indicates a
positive result.
6. ACROLEIN TEST This test is used to detect the presence of glycerol or fat. A pun
gent odor or the presence

of acrolein's smell during this test will be a positive result for the presence of glycerol in

the sample.
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Documentations

Distilled Water- Plant Oil and Animal Oil

Diluted HCl – Plant Oil and Animal Oil

Acetone- Animal oil and Plant oil

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

Ethanol- Animal Oil and Plan oil

SAPONIFICATION. RESULTS:
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

GROUP 6

Nine, Geneliza Klaire D.

Nuñez, Jazzle Faith
Ociones, Andrew C.
Panganiban, Ruby Jeanne
Pelismino, Louise
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

References:

Azam, M., & Rahman, M. (2024). Saponification process and soap chemistry. ResearchGate.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383539877_Saponification_Process_and_Soap_

Chemistry

BYJU'S. (n.d.). Tests of oils and fats. https://byjus.com/chemistry/tests-of-oils-and-fats/

Calder, P. C. (2015). Functional Roles of Fatty Acids and Their Effects on Human Health. JPEN.

Carascal, M. (n.d.). Isolation and Characterization of Complex Lipids from Egg Yolk. Academia.

https://www.academia.edu/9182449/Isolation_and_Characterization_of_Complex_Lipids_f

rom_Egg_Yolk

Ignou. (n.d.). Qualitative Test for Lipids. Egyankosh.

https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/68529/1/Experiment-7.pdf

National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2023). Omega-3 Fatty Acids Fact Sheet. https://ods.od.nih.gov

Sapkota, A. (2022). Ninhydrin Test - Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses. MicrobeNotes.

https://microbenotes.com/ninhydrin-test/

Stevens, J. F., & Maier, C. S. (2008). Acrolein: Sources, metabolism, and biomolecular interactions

relevant to human health and disease. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 52(1), 7-25.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2423340/

Tran, C. D., Prosser, R. A., & Franko, J. (2015). Green soap: An extraction and saponification of

avocado oil. Journal of Chemical Education, 92(8), 1338-1342.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00188

World Health Organization (WHO). (2023). Healthy diet. https://www.who.int

 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS
 Course Code: BIO 024
Students’ Guide Module #LIPIDS

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION io