CLASS 12 IT\ITES NOTES

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
……
Communication
Communication is a two-way process through which information or message is exchanged between individuals
using language, symbols, signs or behaviour.
Active listening;-
a communication technique where the listener focuses fully on the speaker, both verbally and nonverbally, to
understand their message, comprehend the information, and respond thoughtfully
The various factors that affect active listening are as follows.
(1)EYE CONTACT;-It is a form of body language. Maintaining an eye contact with the person you are talking
to sends a signal to the speaker that you are interested in communication.
(2)Gestures: These indicate to the speaker if you are listening or not.
(3)Avoiding distractions: You need to identify the things that distract you. You must physically remove
the distractions in order to listen attentively.
(4)Giving feedback: Feedback can be positive or negative. But in both the cases, one needs to be polite so
that the person to whom the feedback is being given is not hurt or offended
Stages of active listeninG
. The five stages of active listening are as follows.
1.Receiving: It involves listening attentively.
2.Understanding: It is an informed agreement about something or someone.
3.Remembering: It refers to the retrieval or recall of some information from the past.
4.Evaluating: It is about judging the value, quantity, importance and amount of something or
someone.
5.Responding: It is about saying or doing something as a response to something that has been said
or done
SELF MANAGEMENT SKILLS
CHAPTER 2
SELF MANGEMENT:-It is also referred to as ‘self-control’, is the ability to control one’s emotions, thoughts
and behaviour effectively in different situations. This includes motivating oneself, and working towards
achieving personal and academic goals.. To manage oneself well, a person needs to develop the following.
 Positive thinking: to think that one can get things done and be happy.
 Result orientation: to dream big and achieve the desired or set results.
 Self-awareness: to be aware of one’s personality traits and make the best out of one’s strengths.
Define Positive attitude
A positive attitude is a mental and emotional state characterized by optimism, hope, and a focus on the good
aspects of life and situations.
Ways to maintain positive attitude?
•Start the day with a morning routine. Say positive affirmations, smile often and think about the tasks to be
accomplished during for the day.
•Feed the mind with positivity, read motivating books etc.
•Move towards your goals and dreams. Be cheerful and work
hard to achieve the dreams
WHAT IS STRESS
Stress is a state of feeling upset, annoyed and hopeless
HOW TO MANAGE STRESS:
•Maintain an accomplishment sheet and enter even small achievements.
•Keep your thoughts in present.
•Talk to friends and family for comfort.
•Practise meditation and yoga.
Q. Define Motivation?
Motivation is derived from the word ‘motive’. Thus, directing behaviour towards certain motive or goal is the
essence of motivation. An individual’s motivation may come from within (intrinsic motivation) or be inspired by
others or events (extrinsic motivation).

Intrinsic motivation
It includes activities for which there is no apparent reward but one derives enjoyment and satisfaction in doing
them. It occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it brings them pleasure. They
think it is important or feel what they are learning is significant. Incentives related to the motive or goal can
satisfy one’s needs.

Extrinsic motivation
It arises because of incentives or external rewards. Lack of motivation or incentives may lead to frustration, for
example, employees who are kept on contractual basis for a long time may get frustrated and leave an
organisation.

Q. What is Personality?
The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn by
performers to play roles or disguise their identities.
Q. What are Personality disorders?
Personality disorders involve long-term patterns of thoughts and behaviour that are unhealthy and rigid. A
personality disorder is a way of thinking, feeling and behaving that deviates from worldly expectations and
causes distress, which lasts over time.
Q. Steps to overcome personality disorders
Be Active in Your Treatment
 As with other mental health conditions, it is vital to take an active role in your treatment. Even if you
don’t feel that you don’t want to go to therapy, it’s important to take part in it so that you can achieve
your treatment goals.
Take Your Medication
 One of the most obvious ways to control your personality disorder is to take your medications regularly.
Even if you think you’re fine, please don’t miss a dose, as doing so may cause your symptoms to return.
Avoid Drugs and Alcohol
 Some substances can have a negative effect on personality disorders. In addition, some substances can
interfere with the medications that help to control your personality disorder. As a result, if you have
this condition, it’s vital to avoid using harmful substances.
Practice Good Self-Care
 Your physical and mental health are integrally connected. When you don’t eat a healthy diet, drink water,
get enough sleep, and exercise regularly, your mental health suffer

BASIC ICT, ENTREPRENEURSHIP & GREEN SKILLS UNIT-II MARKS-05

Introduction to Spreadsheet

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A spreadsheet is an electronic document, which has rows and columns. It is used to store data in a systematic
way and do calculations.
For example, a grocery shop has many items.

Types of spreadsheet
There are many types of spreadsheet available that have been created by different companies. Some of the
most popular ones are given in Figure 3.1.

Steps to start LibreOffice Calc/ Microsoft Excel

There are different ways to start a software in computer.
1. The first thing you need to ensure is that LibreOffice must be installed on your computer.
2. Type LibreOffice Calc / Microsoft Excel in the search bar of Windows.
3. Select LibreOffice Calc/ Microsoft Excel from the search results LibreOffice Calc/ Microsoft Excel will
open a blank sheet.
4. You can start typing and entering data as soon as you open the spreadsheet. However, to start using
the spreadsheet, first you need to understand the components of a spreadsheet. Or
Click on Start  All Programs  Microsoft Office  Microsoft Office Calc/Excel

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Components of a spreadsheet

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Q. is Presentation
Presentation software is a tool used to create visual presentations. These presentations are usually
What Software?
a slide show format, and can be created with a variety of programs. The programs make it possible to
delivered in
combine
text and graphic elements to convey important information to a group of people all at once. Common uses for
this type of software include teaching a new or complex concept to a group of students, announcing the launch
a new product or service campaign to employees, training employees on key concepts or new policies, or
presenting a proposal to a group.
Q. Steps to save a Presentation?

1. Locate and select the Save command on the Quick Access Toolbar.

4. The Save As dialog box will appear. Select the location where you want to save the presentation.

5. Enter a file name for the presentation, then click Save.

2. If you're saving the file for the first time, the

Save Aspane will appear inBackstageview.
3. You'll then need to choosewhere to savethe file and give it afile name. ClickBrowse to select
a location on your computer.ou
Y can also clickOneDriveto save the file to your OneDrive.

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 6. The presentation will be
saved.You can click the
Savecommand again to save your changes as
you modify the presentation.

You can also access the

Savecommand by pressing
Ctrl+Son your keyboard.

Q. Steps to Open a Presentation?

1. Select theFile tab to go toBackstage view
, then clickOpen.

2. Click Browse. Alternatively, you can choose OneDrive to open files stored on your OneDrive.

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 3. The Open dialog box will appear. Locate and select your presentation, then click Open.

4. Click on Open the file will open.

Q. Steps to Close a presentation?

1. Click the white "X" in the upper right corner.

2. From the FILE menu, select Close

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Printing the spreadsheet
To print a spreadsheet, you can click File, and then, select Print
-down
fromor
the
press
drop
Ctrl+Pon the
keyboard as shown in Figure 3.12. A Print dialog box appears. Select the printer, range of pages and number of
copies to be printed, and click OK as shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.12: Printing the spreadsheet Figure 3.13: Print dialog box

ENTREPRENEUR AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Q: Define Entrepreneur.
 An entrepreneur is a person who tries to meet needs of a customer through new ideas or ways of doing
business and makes profit in return. New ideas with which an entrepreneur adds value to a business

can be of many kinds, including new products — like adding varieties, new services like home delivery or
credit services, new marketing ideas, new cost reduction ideas and many more.

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  Economists define an entrepreneur as someone, who brings in resources, labour, material and other
assets into profit making combinations.
 Psychologists define an entrepreneur as a person, who is, typically, driven by a psychological force,
which creates a desire to obtain or attain something.
 Sociologists define an entrepreneur as a person, whose actions would determine social status and
contribute to societal development.

Q: Define the term ―Entrepreneurship.

 Entrepreneurship is a process of developing a business plan, launching and running a business using
innovation to meet customer needs and to make a profit. Entrepreneurship is considered to be both an
art and a science. For a subject to be considered as science, it needs to have a stepwise progression
substantiated by valid proof like chemistry or physics.
 There are steps that need to be followed to attain a specific result. On the other hand, some subjects
are categorised as art, where no specific way to attain a result is required and the skill of using the
subject matter is of prime importance. An example of art is music. A musician can play music notes in
any combination to create soothing and soulful music.

Q. What are the Qualities of a successful entrepreneur?

The following qualities are considered important.
(a) Initiative: In the world of business, opportunities come and go. An entrepreneur must be able to
initiate action and take advantage of an opportunity. Once a person misses out on an opportunity, it may not
come again. Therefore, taking initiative on the part of the entrepreneur is a must.
(b) Willingness to take risks: In any business, there is an element of risk involved. It implies that it is not
necessary that every business shall earn a profit. This deters individuals to take up risks and start a business.
However, an entrepreneur always volunteers to take risks to run a business and be successful.
(c) Ability to learn from experience: An entrepreneur may make mistakes. However, once an error is
committed, it must be tried that it is not repeated as it may lead to heavy losses. Therefore, the person must
have the ability to learn from experience.
(d) Motivation: It is necessary for success in every walk of life. Once you get motivated to do something,
you will not rest until you complete it. For example, sometimes, you become so intrested in reading a story or
magazine that you do not sleep until you complete it. This kind of interest in work comes through motivation. It
is an essential quality to become a successful entrepreneur.
(e) Self-confidence: For achieving success in life, a person needs to have confidence in oneself. Someone,
who lacks confidence, may not be able to achieve much in life or inspire others to work. Self-confidence is
reflected in courage, enthusiasm and ability to lead. Therefore, a successful entrepreneur must have self-
confidence. (f) Hard work: There is no substitute for hard work in life. While running a business, one problem
or the other may arise every day. The entrepreneur has to be vigilant so as to identify the problems and solve
them as early as possible. This requires hard work on the part of the entrepreneur.
(g) Decision making ability: In running an enterprise, an entrepreneur has to take a number of decisions.
Therefore, the person must be capable of making suitable and timely decisions.

Q. Write the Type of entrepreneurs?

There are many type of entrepreneurs, which include the following.

Service entrepreneurs
 These entrepreneurs either create a new market for their services or provide a service in an existing
market. They spot an idea and convert it into a service, which is unprecedented or not available in the
market. It is irrespective of the nature and size of operations but is essentially a service.

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Business entrepreneurs
 These are entrepreneurs, who undertake business and trading activities and are not concerned with the
manufacturing work. A business entrepreneur identifies the potential of a product in a market. From
that point onwards, the business and trading entrepreneur is responsible for stimulating demand for
the product.

Industrial entrepreneurs
 An industrial entrepreneur is, essentially, a manufacturer, who identifies the needs of customers and
creates products or services to serve them. Such an entrepreneur is product oriented, who starts
through an industrial unit to create a product like electronic industry, textile unit, machine tools,
manufacturing unit, etc.

Agricultural entrepreneurs
 Agriculture has always been considered as a low yielding entrepreneurship. Agriculturists have now
introduced new and innovative technology to maximise the yield, giving birth to agriculture
entrepreneurship.

Technical entrepreneurs
 The Industrial Revolution gave birth to technical entrepreneurs, who use their technical expertise to
create and offer machines, tools and methods. They constantly innovate to make industrial processes
seamless and efficient. Technical entrepreneurs use their technical knowledge and skills to innovate.

Non-technical entrepreneurs
 These entrepreneurs use their expertise in providing services to create a market for technical
entrepreneurs. Their expertise is in non-technical aspects of a product or service, i.e., they are not
concerned with the manufacturing process but have more to do with before and after the
manufacturing process.

Professional entrepreneurs
 Such an entrepreneur starts a business, nurtures it and makes it reach a point of self-sustenance. Once
the project reaches that point, the entrepreneur sells the business and starts a new one, and then,
follows the same cycle.

IT entrepreneurs
 People who take up entrepreneurship in the field of Information Technology (IT) are called IT
entrepreneurs.

Women entrepreneurs
 As the name suggests, when women take up entrepreneurship, they are called women entrepreneurs. A
number of women entrepreneurs are taking initiatives in starting entrepreneurial activities and many of
them have even made it to the top.

Social entrepreneurs
 Individuals, who focus on developing solutions that benefit the society, are called social entrepreneurs.
The term ‘social innovator’ is used interchangeably with social entrepreneurs.

Q. Explain different Barriers to Entrepreneurship?

A business venture is a lot like hurdle race. It, usually, involves risks. A risk is any situation, which involves
danger. So, while running the race as an entrepreneur, many hurdles, such as financial constraints may come in
way. These things can stop the person from achieving success. These are called ‘barriers’. Whether it is lack of

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knowledge or lack of funding, there are various barriers that can prevent one from pursuing one’s passion for
entrepreneurship.

Here are some of the most common barriers.

Environmental barriers
One of the biggest barriers that entrepreneurs face is environmental factors. Environmental factors can be
many. But the most common ones include the following.
 Lack of adequate resources or raw material
 Non availability of skilled labour
 Lack of requisite machinery and other infrastructure
 Unavailability of monetary resources on time

Personal barriers
How long will the business last? How much profit will it make? Will my customers like my product? Will I have
enough money to support my family? These are the questions that might go through an entrepreneur’s mind
before the person actually starts a business venture. Establishing any new venture is a risk because there is
always a fear of what may go wrong. Secondly, finding a suitable team is also a tedious job. A team of careless
and non-suitable workers may cause damage to a business.
(a). Self-doubt
 It is easy to get discouraged when something goes wrong in a business. One starts doubting oneself and
may even feel like giving up. Self-doubt comes when we do not have confidence in ourselves and our
abilities.
(b). Forming a team and teamwork
 Finding suitable people and training them to put in their best for the business is a tedious and difficult
exercise. As an entrepreneur, one must find people, who think and feel like the rest of the team. When
new people fit into the culture of the team, work can happen better and faster.

Q. Introduction to Green Jobs?

 A green job is defined as one that helps bring about and maintain transition to environmentally
sustainable forms of production and consumption. It cuts across all sectors — energy, material,
water conservation, waste management and pollution control. According to the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP), green jobs or green collar jobs are works in agricultural,
administrative, research and development, manufacturing and service activities that contribute
substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality.
 Green collar workers include professionals, such as green building architects, environmental
consultants, waste management or recycling managers, environmental or biological systems
engineers, landscape architects, solar and wind energy engineers and installers, green vehicle
engineers, organic farmers, environmental lawyers and business personnel dealing with green
services or products. Therefore, green jobs can also be distinguished by their contribution to more
environment friendly processes. For example, green jobs can reduce water consumption or
improve recycling systems.
 India’s first modern metropolitan rail transport system, Delhi Metro, not only has helped
commuters in Delhi save on commuting time per day but has also become the first rail based
methodology to garner 90,000 voluntary carbon credits for improving energy efficiency.
 It has not only created jobs for engineers, drivers, station attendants, signal staff, ticketing,
construction and maintenance workers but also resulted in greening existing occupations and
creating new occupations.

Importance/Benefits of green jobs

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The greening of economy presents a major opportunity to start new businesses, develop new markets and
lower energy costs. Green jobs that contribute to protecting the environment and reducing carbon footprint
are becoming a key economic driver of the twenty-first century.
Green jobs help:
 increase the efficiency of energy and raw material.
 reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 control waste and pollution.
 protect and restore ecosystems.

 support adaptation to the effects of climate change.

Q. What are Green Jobs in different Sectors?

Green jobs in agriculture
 Organic gardening and farming is the process by which we can grow plants and crops in an environment
friendly way. It prevents toxic runoff as no synthetic pesticides are used. It prevents water pollution and
soil contamination as no chemical is added to the soil. By using organic methods of gardening, one can
prevent death of insects, birds, critters and other beneficial soil organisms.

 Organic fruits and vegetables are free from chemical residues of synthetic fertilisers, and hence, are
good for our health. Farmers’ cooperatives are one of the most effective means of reducing the risk in
agriculture and strengthening the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers.
 Some green jobs in the agriculture sector are in organic farming, integrated pest management, farm
mechanisation and agriculture tourism. The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) set up by the government, can
be utilised to provide support activities like technology dissemination, training awareness to the local
youth and farmers for collection, storage and reuse of agro waste.

Green jobs in transportation

 Biofuels produced directly or indirectly from organic material, including BioCNG, Bio methanol, etc., can
generate green jobs. The Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL), under the Ministry of Power, has
launched an ‘electric vehicle programme’ which aims towards offering a comprehensive solution to
facilitate the adoption of disruptive technology in India.

 The EESL seeks to create market for electric vehicle, a technology poised to boost e mobility in the
country. The emergence of electric drives as an alternate to internal combustion engines has opened
opportunities for new entrants in the automotive market.

Green jobs in water conservation

 There are green jobs in water harvesting and conservation. Rooftop rainwater harvesting refers to the
process where rainwater is collected in tanks to be used later. It can be installed in all houses and
buildings. It can also help increase the water table. Cycle run water pumps are being used instead of
electricity run pumps.

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  These do not consume electricity and provide a way for people to exercise. Using bamboo channels for
drip irrigation is an eco-friendly way to irrigate the land. It uses water efficiently without any wastage. It
is cheaper to build, and after 2–3 years when the bamboo rots, it can be added to the soil as manure.

Green jobs in solar and wind energy

 A Solar Photovoltaic Installer installs and maintains solar panels in homes, businesses or land. A solar
lighting technician assembles, tests and repairs different types of solar photovoltaic home lighting
system and streetlights.

 Some common jobs in this sector are roofer, solar panel installation technician and field technician.

Green jobs in eco-tourism

 Eco-tourism is intended to provide an experience to visitors to understand the importance of
conserving resources, reducing waste, enhancing the natural environment and reducing pollution.
 Green jobs in eco- tourism include eco-tour guides and eco-tourism operators.

Green jobs in building and construction

 Green building design provides an integrated approach to utilisation of renewable and non-renewable
resources. Skill development has a strategic role to play in promoting the development of green
buildings. It is essential that there are enough workers equipped with appropriate skills so as to ensure
that green buildings are developed on a large scale.
 Areas for green jobs in this sector include construction, landscape, gardening, maintenance of green
components, water management, etc.

Green jobs in solid waste management

 Solid waste is defined as any discarded solid fraction, generated from domestic units, trade centres,
commercial establishments, industries, agriculture, institutions, public services and mining activities.
 The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, has classified solid waste in 14 categories
based on the source of origin and type of waste, i.e., domestic, municipal, commercial, industrial,
institutional, garbage, ash, street sweepings, dead animals, construction and demolition waste, bulky,
hazardous and sewage waste. Green jobs related to waste management are in areas like e-waste
recycling, solid waste management, waste reduction, waste auditing, waste control, etc.

Green jobs in appropriate technology

 Appropriate technology is small-scale technology that is environment friendly and suited to local needs.
Examples of appropriate technology are bike-powered or hand-powered water pumps, solar lamps in
streetlights, solar buildings, etc.
 The green jobs in appropriate technology may include areas, such as biogas production, water
treatment filtration, farm mechanisation, rainwater harvesting, sanitation, lighting, food production,
refrigeration, etc.

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 VOCATIONAL SKILLS 40-MARKS
IT/ITES Job Role: Junior Software Developer SUBJECT CODE:- 050 EXAMINATION CODE:- ITE

Unit 3: Relational Database Management System-My SQL (12 Marks)

Introduction to File System

 A file can be understood as a STORAGE UNIT to store data in a computer.
 Files can be stored on the storage device of a computer system. Contents of a
file can be texts, computer program code, comma separated values (CSV), etc.
Likewise, pictures, audios/videos, web pages are also files.
 Files stored on a computer can be accessed directly and searched for desired
data. But to access data of a file through software, for example, to display
monthly attendance report on school website, one has to write computer
programs to access data from files.

Q. Explain different Limitations of a File System?

File system becomes difficult to handle when number of files increases and volume of
data also grows. Following are some of the limitations of file system:
(i) Difficulty in Access:-
 Files themselves do not provide any mechanism to retrieve data.
 Data maintained in a file system are accessed through application programs.
 Sometimes it is difficult to access data in the required format and one has to
write application program to access data.

(ii) Data Redundancy:-

 Redundancy means same data are duplicated in different places (files).

(iii)Data Inconsistency:-
 Data inconsistency occurs when same data maintained in different places do
not match.

(iv)Data Isolation:-
 Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different
formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is
difficult.

(v) Data Dependence

 Data are stored in a specific format or structure in a file.
 If the structure or format itself is changed, all the existing application programs
accessing that file also need to be changed. Otherwise, the programs may not
work correctly. This is data dependency.
 Hence, updating the structure of a data file requires modification in all the
application programs accessing that file.

Introduction to DBMS
 A database system is basically a computer record keeping system. Limitations
faced in file system can be overcome by storing the data in a database where
data are logically related. We can organise related data in a database so that it
can be managed in an efficient and easy way.

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  A database management system (DBMS) or database system in short, is a
software that can be used to create and manage databases. DBMS lets users to
create a database, store, manage, update/modify and retrieve data from that
database by users or application programs.

 A database may be defined as a collection of interrelated data stored together

to serve multiple applications.
 Some examples of open source and commercial DBMS include MySQL, Oracle,
PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Microsoft Access, MongoDB.
 A database system hides certain details about how data are actually stored and
maintained. Thus, it provides users with an abstract view of the data.
 A database system has a set of programs through which users or other
programs can access, modify and retrieve the stored data.
 The DBMS serves as an interface between the database and end users or
application programs. Retrieving data from a database through special type of
commands is called querying the database. In addition, users can modify the
structure of the database itself through a DBMS.

Q. What are the Advantages of DBMS?

1.Better Data Transferring: Database management creates a place where users
have an advantage of more and better managed data. Thus making it possible for
end-users to have a quick look and to respond fast to any changes made in their
environment.

3.Better data integration:

Due to Database Management System we have an access to well managed and
synchronized form of data thus it makes data handling very easy and gives integrated
view of how a particular organization is working and also helps to keep a track on how
one segment of the company affects other segment.

4.Minimized Data Inconsistency: Data inconsistency occurs between files when

different versions of the same data appear in different places.

5.Faster data Access: The Data base management system (DBMS) helps to produce
quick answers to database queries thus making data accessing faster and more
accurate.

6.Better decision making: Due to DBMS now we have Better managed data and
Improved data accessing because of which we can generate better quality
information hence on this basis better decisions can be made. Better Data quality
improves accuracy, validity and time it takes to read data. DBMS does not guarantee
data quality, it provides a framework to make it is easy to improve data quality.

7.Simple: Data base management system (DBMS) gives simple and clear logical view
of data. Many operations like insertion, deletion or creation of file or data are easy to
implement.

Q. What is Relational Data Model?

 Different types of DBMS are available and their classification is done based on
the underlying data model.

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  A data model describes the structure of the database, including how data are
defined and represented, relationships among data, and the constraints.
 The most commonly used data model is Relational Data Model. Other types of
data models include object-oriented data model, entity-relationship data model,
document model and hierarchical data model.
 In relational data model, data is organized into tables (i.e rows and
columns) .These tables are called relations. Each table can have multiple
columns where each column name should be unique. A row in a table represents a relationship
among a set of values.

 For example, each row in the table represents a related set of values. Each row
of Table 1 represents a particular guardian and has related values viz.
guardian‘s ID with guardian name, address and phone number. Thus, a table
consists of a collection of relationships.

Table 1:-Snapshot of GUARDIAN table

 It is important to note here that relations in a database are not independent
tables, but are associated with each other.
For example, relation ATTENDANCE has attribute RollNumber which links it with
corresponding student record in relation STUDENT.

 Similarly, attribute GUID is placed with STUDENT table for extracting guardian
details of a particular student. If linking attributes are not there in appropriate
relations, it will not be possible to keep the database in correct state and
retrieve valid information from the database.
 Figure 1 shows the relational database Student Attendance along with the three
relations (tables) STUDENT, ATTENDANCE and GUARDIAN.

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the columns of a relation are the attributes which are also referred as fields. For
GUID, GName, GPhone and GAddress are
example, relation
attributes
of GUARDIAN.
ii. Tuple
Each row of data in a relation (table) is.called
(Row): In a table
a with n columns, a tuple
is a relationship between the n related
tuple
values.
iii.Domain:
It is a set of values from which an attribute can take a value in each row. Usually, a
data type is used to specify domain for an attribute. For example, in STUDENT
relation, the attribute RollNumber takes integer values and hence its domain is a set
of integer values. Similarly, the set of character strings constitutes the domain of the
attribute SName.

iv. Degree:
The number of attributes in a relation is called the Degree of the relation. For
example, relation GUARDIAN with four attributes is a relation of degree 4.

v. Cardinality:
The number of tuples in a relation is called the Cardinality of the relation. For
example, the cardinality of relation GUARDIAN is 5 as there are 5 tuples in the table.

Q. Explain Key Concepts?

 An attribute or a collection of attributes whose value(s) uniquely identify an
entity in the entity set.
 The tuples within a relation must be distinct. It means no two tuples in a table
should have same value for all attributes. That is, there should be at least one
attribute in which data are distinct (unique) and not NULL. That way, we can
uniquely distinguish each tuple of a relation.
 So, relational data model imposes some restrictions or constraints on the
values of the attributes and how the contents of one relation be referred
through another relation. These restrictions are specified at the time of defining
the database through different types of keys.

1.Candidate Key:-
 A relation can have one or more attributes that takes distinct values. Any of
these attributes can be used to uniquely identify the tuples in the relation. Such
attributes are called candidate keys as each of them are candidates for the
primary key.
 As shown in Figure, the relation GUARDIAN has four attributes out of which
GUID and GPhone always take unique values. No two guardians will have same
phone number or same GUID. Hence, these two attributes are the candidate
keys as they both are candidates for primary key.

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2.Primary :-
 A primary key is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify tuples
Key
within the
 relation.
Out of one or more candidate keys, the attribute chosen by the database
to uniquely identify the tuples in a relation is called theyprimary
designer of that ke
relation.
 The remaining attributes in the list of candidate keys are called the alternate
keys.
 A candidate key that is not the primary key is called as Alternate Key.
 In the relation GUARDIAN, suppose GUID is chosen as primary key, then GPhone
will be called the alternate key.

3.Composite Key:-
 If no single attribute in a relation is able to uniquely distinguish the tuples, then
more than one attribute are taken together as primary key. Such primary key
consisting of more than one attribute is called Composite Primary key.

 In relation ATTENDANCE, Roll Number cannot be used as primary key as roll

number of same student will appear in another row for a different date.
 Similarly, in relation Attendance, AttendanceDate cannot be used as primary
key because same date is repeated for each roll number.

4.Foreign Key:-
 A non-key field(attribute) of a table that refers to the primary key of another
table(relation).
 A foreign key is used to represent the relationship between two relations. A
foreign key is an attribute whose value is derived from the primary key of
another relation.

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  This
co tents
meansfrom
that
another
any attribute
(referenced)
of a relation
relation,(referencing),
becomes foreign
which
key
isifused
it refers
to refer
to
n the

primary key of referenced relation.

 The referencing relation is called Foreign Relation. In some cases, foreign key
can take NULL value if it is not the part of primary key of the foreign table. The
relation in which the referenced primary key is defined is called primary
relation or master relation.
 In Figure 5, two foreign keys in Student Attendance database are shown using
schema diagram where the foreign key is displayed as a directed arc (arrow)
originating from it and ending at the corresponding attribute of the primary key
of the referenced table. The underlined attributes make the primary key of that
table.

Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)

 There are many RDBMS such as MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL,
Oracle, etc. that allow us to create a database consisting of relations.
 These RDBMS also allow us to store, retrieve and manipulate data on that
database through queries. We will learn how to create, populate and query
databases using MySQL.
 The chief inventor of MySQL was Michael Widenius(a.k.a Monty).MySQL has
been named after Monty‟s daughter My. The Logo of MySQL , the dolphin, is
named as “sakila”.
 One has to write application programs to access data in case of a file system.
 However, for database management systems there are special kinds of
languages called query language that can be used to access and manipulate
data from the database.
 The Structured Query Language (SQL) is the most popular query language used
by major relational database management systems such as MySQL, ORACLE,
SQL Server, etc.
 SQL is easy to learn as the statements comprise of descriptive English words
and
are not case sensitive.

 We can create and interact with a database using SQL easily.

 Benefit of using SQL is that we do not have to specify how to get the data from
the database. Rather, we simply specify what is to be retrieved, and SQL does
the rest.

Data Definition Language & Data Manipulation Language

 In order to be able to store data we need to first define the relation schema.

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9
  Defining a schema includes creating a relation and giving name to a relation,
identifying the attributes in a relation, deciding upon the datatype for each
attribute and also specify the constraints as per the requirements.
 Sometimes, we may require to make changes to the relation schema also. SQL
allows us to write statements for defining, modifying and deleting relation
schemas. These are part of Data Definition Language (DDL).
 We have already learned that the data are stored in relations or tables in a
database. Hence, we can say that a database is a collection of tables.
 The Create statement is used to create a database and its tables (relations).
Before creating a database, we should be clear about the number of tables the
database will have, the columns (attributes) in each table along with the data
type of each column, and its constraint, if any.

Classification of SQL statements:-

1.Data Definition Language(DDL) : DDL is used to define database structure or
schema. Commands that allow you to perform tasks related to data
definition(creating, altering & dropping) are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME,
TRUNCATE and COMMENT.
2.Data Manipulation Language(DML) Commands: DML is used to manipulate
data itself. Commands that allow you to perform tasks related to data manipulation
(retrieval, insertion, deletion, deletion and modification) are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, MERGE.

Data Types
 We know that a database consists of one or more relations and each relation
(table) is made up of attributes (column). Each attribute has a data type. We
can also specify constraints for each attribute of a relation.
 Data type of an attribute indicates the type of data value that an attribute can
have or in other words the type of data that a variable can hold. It also decides
the operations that can be performed on the data of that attribute.
 For example, arithmetic operations can be performed on numeric data but not
on character data. Commonly used data types in MySQL are numeric types,
date and time types, and string types .

Commonly used data types in MySQL

Constraints
 Constraints are the certain types of restrictions on the data values that an
attribute can have. Table lists some of the commonly used constraints in SQL.
They are used to ensure correctness of data. However, it is not mandatory to
define constraints for each attribute of a table.

Table : Commonly used SQL Constraints

CREATE Database/Table

To create a database, we use the CREATE DATABASE statement as shown in the

following syntax:

CREATE DATABASE databasename;

 To create a database called StudentAttendance, we will type following
command at mysql prompt.

mysql> CREATE DATABASE StudentAttendance;

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 Query OK, 1 row affected (0.02 sec)

 After creating a database StudentAttendance, we need to define relations in

this database and specify attributes for each relation along with data type and
constraint (if any) for each attribute. This is done using the CREATE TABLE
statement.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE tablename ( attributename1 datatype constraint, attributename2
datatype constraint, attributenameN datatype constraint);
 Create table STUDENT.

mysql> CREATE TABLE STUDENT(

-> RollNumber INT,
-> SName VARCHAR(20),
-> SDateofBirth DATE,
-> GUID CHAR (12),
-> PRIMARY KEY (RollNumber));
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.91 sec)

ALTER Table
 After creating a table, we may realise that we need to add/remove an attribute
or to modify the datatype of an existing attribute or to add constraint in
attribute. In all such cases, we need to change or alter the structure (schema)
of the table by using the alter statement.

1.Add Primary Key To A Relation:-

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY(attribute _name)
Example:
ALTER TABLE Attendance ADD PRIMARY KEY(GUID);
ALTER TABLE Attendance ADD PRIMARY KEY (Attendancedate, RollNumber);
(In second example Primary Key is made up of two attributes Attendancedate and
RollNumber)
2.Add Foreign Key To A Relation:-
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY(attribute_name)
REFERENCES referenced_table_name (attribute_name) Example:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD FOREIGN KEY(GUID) REFERENCES Guardian (GUID);

3.Modify Datatype Of An Attribute:-

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY attribute_name DATATYPE
Example:
ALTER TABLE Guardian MODIFY GAddress varchar(40);

4.Remove An Attribute:-
Syntax:

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1
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP attribute_name
Example:
ALTER TABLE Guardian DROP Income;

5.Remove Primary Key from the

Table:- Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP Primary_Key
Example:
ALTER TABLE Guardian DROP GUID;

DROP Database Syntax:

DROP DATABASE Database_name Example:
DROP DATABASE GGHSSMagam;

DROP Table
Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name
Example:
DROP TABLE Guardian;

INSERTION of Records
i.Insertion of records (For all attributes/Fields)
Syntax:
INSERT into Table_Name Values(Value1, Value2,…..)
Example:
INSERT into Guardian Values(4444, ‟Gowhar‟, 7006123456, „Surasyar
Budgam‟); ii.Insertion of records (For Some attributes/Fields) Syntax:
INSERT into Table_Name (Column1, Column4) Values(Value1, Value4)
Example:
INSERT into Guardian (GUID, GAddress) Values(5555, „Magam‟)

SELECT Statement
The SQL Statement SELECT is used to retrieve data from the tables in a database
and the output is also displayed in tabular form.

Syntax:
SELECT Attribute1,Attribute2 FROM Table_Name WHERE condition
Example:
SELECT Sname, SDOB FROM student WHERE RollNumber =1;
To select all the data available in a table

Syntax:
SELECT * from Table_Name

Example:
SELECT * from student:

DATA Updation
Syntax:

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2
UPDATE Table_Name set attributes1=value1, attribute2= value2,………..where
condition Example:
UPDATE student Set GUID=1010 where RollNumber=3;

DATA Delection
Syntax:
DELETE from table_name WHERE condition;
Example:
Delete from student where RollNumber=2;

Aggregate Functions i.Max (Maximum)

SELECT Max(Marks) from student; ii.Min (Minimum)
SELECT Min(Marks) from student;
iii.Average
SELECT Average(Height) from student;
iv.Sum
SELECT Sum(Fee) from student;
v.Count(*)
SELECT Count(*) from student;

Join on Two Tables

Example 1:
SELECT * from student NATURAL JOIN attendance;
Example 2:
SELECT * from Student s, Attendance a
WHERE s.RollNumber = a.RollNumber;
* from Student, Example 3:
Attendance.RollNumber; SELECT Attendance WHERE
Student.RollNumber =

UNIT-4 SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING MARKS-12

What is Software Engineering?

The term software engineering is the product of two words, software and engineering. The software is a
collection of integrated programs.
Engineering is the application of scientific and practical knowledge to invent, design, build, maintain, and
improve frameworks, processes, etc.
“Software Engineering is an engineering branch related to the evolution of software product using well-defined
scientific principles, techniques, and procedures. The result of software Engineering is an effective and reliable
software product.”

Why is Software Engineering required?

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3
Software Engineering is required due to the following reasons:
 To manage Large software
 For more Scalability
 Cost Management
 To manage the dynamic nature of software
 For better quality Management

Need of Software Engineering

The necessity of software engineering appears because of a higher rate of progress in user requirements and
the environment on which the program is working.
 Huge Programming: It is simpler to manufacture a wall than to a house or building, similarly, as the
measure of programming become extensive engineering has to step to give it a scientific process.
 Adaptability: If the software procedure were not based on scientific and engineering ideas, it would be
simpler to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.
 Cost: As the hardware industry has demonstrated its skills and huge manufacturing has let down the
cost of computer and electronic hardware. But the cost of programming remains high if the proper
process is not adapted.
 Dynamic Nature: The continually growing and adapting nature of programming hugely depends upon
the environment in which the client works. If the quality of the software is continually changing, new
upgrades need to be done in the existing one.
 Quality Management: Better procedure of software development provides a better and quality
software product.

SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle): What is it and its Phases .

What is SDLC?
Each software or product goes through a certain step of stages and procedures for it to become high-quality
and match the business standards.
The Software Development Life Cycle is the methodology for building effective and efficient software.
SDLC stands for Software Development Life Cycle and is also referred to as the Application Development
lifeCycle. SDLC is a systematic process for building software that ensures the quality and correctness of the
software built. SDLC process aims to produce high-quality software that meets customer expectations. The
system development should be complete in the pre-defined time frame and cost.

SDLC Phases
 Phase 1: Requirement collection/Planning and analysis
 Phase 2: Feasibility study
 Phase 3: System Design
 Phase 4: System Implementation/Coding
 Phase 5: System Testing
 Phase 6: System Installation/Deployment
 Phase 7: System Maintenance

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4
Phase 1: Requirement collection/Planning
and analysis
The requirement is the first stage in the SDLC process. Planning for the quality assurance requirements and
recognization of the risks involved is also done at this stage. Requirements Gathering stage need teams to get
detailed and precise requirements. This helps companies to finalize the necessary timeline to finish the work of
that system.

Phase 3: Feasibility Study

Once the requirement analysis phase is completed the next SDLC step is to define and document software
needs. This process conducted with the help of ‘Software Requirement Specification’ document also known as
‘SRS’ document. It includes everything which should be designed and developed during the project life cycle.

Phase 2: Design
 In this phase, the system and software design documents are prepared as per the requirement
specification document. This helps define overall system architecture. This design phase serves as input
for the next phase of the model. There are two kinds of design documents developed in this phase:
Before you put out the actual software, it is important to know how it will work, perform various
functions and what will be the algorithms used for solving the problems.
 The software is then reviewed and alterations can be made based on the feedback of the team and the
partners in the Software Development process.
 All of this is covered in the design phase of the Software Development Life Cycle.

Phase 4: Coding/Implementation
 Well, it is now time to start with actually building and developing our software. This is the part where
programmers and developers play their role. The design for our software which was previously finalized
and the prototypes which were made before, now take form of the actual software.
 In this phase, developers start build the entire system by writing code using the chosen programming
language. In the coding phase, tasks are divided into units or modules and assigned to the various
developers. It is the longest phase of the Software Development Life Cycle process.
 In this phase, Developer needs to follow certain predefined coding guidelines. They also need to use
programming tools like compiler, interpreters, debugger to generate and implement the code.

Phase 5: Testing
 Now, it is time that we answer the question of ‘Did we succeed in developing what we wanted our
software to be?” To answer this question, we have the testing phase.
 Once the software is complete, and it is deployed in the testing environment. The testing team starts
testing the functionality of the entire system. This is done to verify that the entire application works
according to the customer requirement. During this phase, testing team may find some bugs/defects

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5
 which they communicate to developers. The development team fixes the bug and send back to theteam
for a re-test. This process continues until the software is bug-free, stable, and working according to the
business needs of that system.

Phase 6: Installation/Deployment
Once the software testing phase is over and no bugs or errors left in the system then the final deployment
process starts. So, after going through the above phases of the Software Development Life Cycle, we now are
ready to install this software and start using it.

Phase 7: Maintenance
Once the system is deployed, and customers start using the developed system, following 3 activities occur
 Bug fixing – bugs are reported because of some scenarios which are not tested at all  Upgrade –
Upgrading the application to the newer versions of the Software.
 Enhancement – Adding some new features into the existing software.The main focus of this SDLC phase is
to ensure that needs continue to be met and that the system continues to perform as per the
specification mentioned in the first phase.

Q. Explain What is Software Testing?

 Software testing is a process of identifying the correctness of software by considering its all attributes
(Reliability, Scalability, Portability, Re-usability, Usability) and evaluating the execution of software
components to find the software bugs or errors or defects. The main intent of testing is to detect
failures of the application so that failures can be discovered and corrected.
 Software testing provides an independent view and objective of the software and gives surety of fitness
of the software. It involves testing of all components under the required services to confirm that
whether it is satisfying the specified requirements or not. Testing includes an examination of code and
also the execution of code in various environments, conditions as well as all the examining aspects of
the code.
 In the current scenario of software development, a testing team may be separate from the
development team so that Information derived from testing can be used to correct the process of
software development.

Types of Software testing

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6
We have various types of testing available in the market, which are used to test the application or the software.
Software Testing can be broadly classified into two types:

Q. What are the different types of Software Testing Techniques?

Software testing techniques can be majorly classified into two categories:

Unit Testing
 It is a software testing technique by means of which individual units of software i.e. group of computer
program modules, usage procedures, and operating procedures are tested to determine whether they
are suitable for use or not. It is a testing method using which every independent module is tested to
determine if there is an issue by the developer himself. It is correlated with the functional correctness
of the independent modules.
 Unit Testing is defined as a type of software testing where individual components of a software are
tested. Unit Testing of the software product is carried out during the development of an application. An
individual component may be either an individual function or a procedure. Unit Testing is typically
performed by the developer.
 In SDLC Unit testing is the first level of testing done before integration testing. Unit testing is such a
type of testing technique that is usually performed by developers. Although due to the reluctance of
developers to test, quality assurance engineers also do unit testing.

Objective of Unit Testing:

1. To isolate a section of code.
2. To verify the correctness of the code.
3. To test every function and procedure.
4. To fix bugs early in the development cycle and to save costs.
5. To help the developers to understand the code base and enable them to make changes quickly.
6. To help with code reuse.

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Black Box Testing:
The technique of testing in which the tester doesn’t have access to the source code of the software and is
conducted at the software interface without any concern with the internal logical structure of the software is
known as black-box testing.

Advantages of Black Box Testing:

 The tester does not need to have more functional knowledge or programming skills to implement
the Black Box Testing.
 It is efficient for implementing the tests in the larger system.
 Tests are executed from the user’s or client’s point of view.
 Test cases are easily reproducible.
 It is used in finding the ambiguity and contradictions in the functional specifications.

White-Box Testing:
The technique of testing in which the tester is aware of the internal workings of the product, has access to its
source code, and is conducted by making sure that all internal operations are performed according to the
specifications is known as white box testing.

Advantages:
1. White box testing is very thorough as the entire code and structures are tested.
2. It results in the optimization of code removing error and helps in removing extra lines of code. 3. It
can start at an earlier stage as it doesn’t require any interface as in case of black box testing.
4. Easy to automate.
5. White box testing can be easily started in Software Development Life Cycle.
6. Easy Code Optimization.

Q. Explain different Software Versions?

Concept of Beta Version:-
 Beta versions are early releases of software that are made available to a limited group of users for
testing purposes.
 A beta version is usually the last stage of testing before a product is released to the general public. It
also allows users to provide feedback that can help improve the final product.
 A beta version is a software development stage in which some new functions have already been
implemented, but the development of a release has not yet been completed. The software is generally
considered "complete" by the developer but still not ready for general use due to a lack of testing "in
the wild." Websites, operating systems, and programs alike are often said to be in beta at some point
during development.
 Beta software is either released to everyone (called an open beta) or a controlled group (called a closed
beta) for testing.
The characteristics of a beta version are,
 the lack of functions,
 the incomplete implementation of individual functions,
 the possible presence of auxiliary means such as stubs(temporary placeholder) or mock objects,  the
outstanding tests of individual functions or of the totality of functions.

Concept of Final Version

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  The Release Candidate also known as Gamma Delta describes the almost final version of a software.
This Release Candidate can also be made available to selected customers with appropriate
communication. Manufacturers often assume that the testers will at best find smaller errors in the
Release Candidate and ideally no errors at all. Gamma Delta can also run through several cycles. At the
end of the phase, the documentation of the new functions should also be completed.
 The Release as a final version of a development or as a status that is offered or made available to all
customers. This is also referred to as Golden Master. The entirety of the functions to be implemented is
defined in release management.

Unit-5 Python Programming-II MARKS-04

Introduction to Python Programming:

Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990.
Python is open source language i.e its code is also available under the GNU General
Public License (GPL).

In python one can work in two different ways:-

i. Interactive Mode:-In interactive mode,Instructions are given in front of
Python prompt(e.g.,>> or In[ ]: prompts) in Python Shell.Python carries out the given
instructions and shows the result there itself.
ii. Script Mode:-In Script mode, Python instructions are stored in a file generally
with .py extension and are executed together in one go as a unit.The saved
instructions are known as python script or python program.

 Python provides powerful programming features and is widely used.Companies

that use Python include Youtube,Google,Yahoo and NASA(for cryptography &
intelligence analysis).Python is used for web development(server-side),
software development, mathematics, and system scripting.Python is used in
the process of data analysis.Machine learning is another application of python.

 Python uses an interpreter to convert its instructions into machine language, so

that it can be understood by the computer. An interpreter processes the

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 program statements one by one, first translating and then executing. This
process is continued until an error is encountered or the whole program is
executed successfully. In both the cases, program execution will stop.

Introduction of Iterations:-
A basic building block of all programs is to be able to repeat some code over and over
again. Whether it is updating the bank balances of millions of customers each night,
or sending email messages to thousands of people programming involves instructing
the computer to do many repetitive actions. In computing, we refer to this repetitive
execution as iteration. In this section, we will explore some mechanisms for basic
iteration.
 Python programming language provides the following types of loops to handle
looping requirements. Python provides three ways for executing the loops.
While all the ways provide similar basic functionality, they differ in their syntax
and condition-checking time.

While Loop in Python

In python, a while loop is used to execute a block of statements repeatedly until a
given condition is satisfied. And when the condition becomes false, the line
immediately after the loop in the program is executed.

Syntax:
while expression:
statement(s)

Example of Python While Loop

Let’s see a simple example of while loop in Python.

# Python program to illustrate while

loop count = 0 while (count < 3):
count = count + 1
print("Hello Geek")

Output
Hello Geek
Hello Geek
Hello Geek

For Loop in Python

For loops are used for sequential traversal. For example: traversing a list or string or
array etc. In Python, there is “for in” loop which is similar to for each loop in other
languages. Let us learn how to use for in loop for sequential traversals.
Syntax:
for iterator_var in sequence:
statements(s)
It can be used to iterate over a range and iterators.

3
0
 # Python program to
# Iterating over range
illustrate -1 0 to
n
n=
for i in range(0,
4
n):print(i
)

Output
0
1
2
3
Q. Explain
Loop Control ?
Loop control statements changefrom their normal sequence. When
Statements
leaves a scope, all automatic objects
execution that were created in that scope are destroyed.
execution
Python supports the following control
statements.
Continue
Th continue
Statement t in Python returns the control to the beginning of the
e statemen loop.

# Prints all letters except 'e' and

's' for letter in 'geeksforgeeks':
if letter == 'e' or letter == 's':
continue print('Current
Letter :', letter) Output
Current Letter : g
Current Letter : k
Current Letter : f
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : r
Current Letter : g
Current Letter : k

Break Statement
The break statement in Python brings control out of the loop.

3
1
 for letter in 'geeksforgeeks':

# break the loop as soon it sees 'e'

# or 's' if letter == 'e'
or letter == 's':
break

print('Current Letter :', letter)

Output
Current Letter : e

Using else statement with While Loop in Python

The else clause is only executed when your while condition becomes false. If you
break out of the loop, or if an exception is raised, it won’t be executed.

Syntax of While Loop with else statement:

while condition:
# execute these statements

# execute these statements

Examples of While Loop with else statement

Here is an example of while loop with else statement in Python:

# Python programto illustrate

# combining else with while
count = 0
while (count < 3):
count = count + 1
print("Hello Geek")
else:
print("In Else Block")

Output
Hello Geek

else:

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Hello Geek
Hello Geek
In Else Block

Q. What are Nested Loops?

Python programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following
section shows few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax:
for iterator_var in sequence:
for iterator_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in the Python programming language is
as follows: while expression: while expression: statement(s)
statement(s)

A final note on loop nesting is that we can put any type of loop inside of any
other type of loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice
versa.

# Python program to illustrate #

nested for loops in Python from
__future__ import print_function for i
in range(1, 5): for j in range(i):
print(i, end=' ') print()

Output
1
22
333
4444

Q. Explain String Manipulation in Python trings are fundamental and essential

data structures that every Python programmer works with. In Python, a string is a
sequence of characters enclosed within either single quotes ('...') or doubles quotes
("..."). It is an immutable built-in data structure, meaning once a string is created, it
cannot be modified. However, we can create new strings by concatenating or slicing
existing strings.

Python Program:
Using for loop to iterate over a string in
Python string_to_iterate = "Data Science" for
char in string_to_iterate:
print(char)

The result of the above coding snippet is as follows

D
a
t
a

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3
Sc
i
e
n
c
e

Python, String operators represent the different types of operations that can be
employed on the program’s string type of variables. Python allows several string
operators that can be applied on the python string are as below: Assignment
operator: “=.”
Concatenate operator: “+.”
String repetition operator: “*.”
String slicing operator: “[]”
String comparison operator: “==” & “!=”
Membership operator: “in” & “not in”
Escape sequence operator: “\.”
String formatting operator: “%” & “{}”

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an

object:

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<= Less than or equal to x <= y Try it »

Q. Explain Python Strings?

Python string is a sequence of Unicode characters that is enclosed in quotation marks.
In this article, we will discuss the in-built function i.e. the functions provided by
Python to operate on strings.

Case Changing of Strings

The below functions are used to change the case of the strings.
lower(): Converts all uppercase characters in a string into lowercase
upper(): Converts all lowercase characters in a string into uppercase
title(): Convert string to title case

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5
swapcase() : Swap the cases of all characters in a string
capitalize(): Convert the first character of a string to uppercase

# Python3 program to show the

# working of upper() function
text = 'geeKs For geEkS'

# upper() function to convert

# string toupper case
print("\ nConverted String:")
print(text.upper())

# lower() function to convert

# string to lower case
print("\ nConverted String:")
print(text.lower())

# converts the first character to

# upper case and rest to lower case
print("\ nConvertedString:")
print(text.title())

#swaps the case of all characters in the string

# upper case character to lowercase and viceversa
print("\ nConverted String:")
print(text.swapcase())

# convert the first character of a string to uppercase

print("\ nConverted String:")
print(text.capitalize())

# original string never changes

print("\ nOriginal String")
print(text)

Output
Converted String:
GEEKS FOR GEEKS

Converted String:
geeks for geeks

Converted String:
Geeks For Geeks

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Converted String:
GEEkS fOR GEeKs

Original String
geeKs For geEkS

Some more examples of python programs

#Program-1: Program to generate prime series using python programming.
min = int(input("Enter the min : "))
max = int(input("Enter the max : "))
for n in range(min,max + 1): if n >
1: for i in range(2,n): if (n % i) ==
0:
break
else:
print(n)

#Program-2: Python Program to Display the Multiplication Table of any number

number = int(input ("Enter the number for which you want to print the multiplication table: "))
print ("The Multiplication Table of: ", number) for count in range(1, 11):
print (number, 'x', count, '=', number * count)

#Program-3 Python Program to Print Natural Numbers from 1 to 100 i

=1
print("The List of Natural Numbers from 1 to 100 are")
while ( i <= 100): print (i, end = ' ')
i=i+1

#Program-4 Python Program to calculate sum of digits of a number n=int(input("Enter

a number:"))
sum=0 while(n>0):
dig=n%10
sum=sum+dig
n=n//10

Unit-6 Emerging Trends & Social Impact MARKS-12

Introduction to Emerging Trends

Computers have been around for quite some time now. New technologies and initiatives emerge with each
passing day. In order to understand the existing technologies and have a better view of the developments
around us, we must keep an eye on the emerging trends. Many new technologies are introduced almost every
day. Some of these do not succeed and fade away over time. Some of these new technologies prosper and
persist over time, gaining attention from users. Emerging trends are the state-of-the-art technologies, which
gain popularity and set a new trend among users.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Artificial Intelligence AI is the ability of a machine or computer system to copy human intelligence
process, learn experiences and adapt to new information, perform human-like activities. Using these
technologies, computers can be trained to accomplish specific tasks by processing large amounts of
data and recognizing patterns in the data.
 Have you ever wondered how maps in your smartphone are able to guide you to take the fastest route
to your
 destination by analysing real time data, such as traffic congestion? On uploading a photo on a social
networking site, has it ever happened that your friends in the photograph were recognised and tagged
automatically?
 These are some of the examples of application of Artificial Intelligence.
 The intelligent digital personal assistants like Siri, Google Now, Cortana, Alexa are all powered by AI. An
intelligent machine is supposed to imitate some of the cognitive functions of humans like learning,
decision-making and problem solving. In order to make machines perform tasks with minimum human
intervention, they are programmed to create a knowledge base and make decisions based on it. AI
system can also learn from past experiences or outcomes to make new decisions.

Machine Learning
 Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the ability to
automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. Machine
learning focuses on the development of computer programs that can access data and use it learn for
themselves.
 These algorithms, called models, are first trained and tested using a training data and testing data,
respectively. After successive trainings, once these models are able to give results to an acceptable level
of accuracy, they are used to make predictions about new and unknown data.

Natural Language Processing (NLP)

 Natural Language Processing is the technology used to aid computers to understand the human’s
natural language. It’s not an easy task teaching machines to understand how we communicate.Now you
can say,“Alexa, play this song,” and a device start playing that music.
 It deals with the interaction between human and A knowledge base is a store of information consisting
of facts, assumptions and rules which an AI system can use for decision making.

Q. What is Big Data?

With technology making an in road into almost every sphere of our lives, data is being produced at a colossal
rate. Today, there are over a billion Internet users, and a majority of the world’s web traffic is coming from
smartphones.

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  Figure shows that at the current pace, around 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are created each day, and
the pace is increasing with the continuous evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT).This results in the
generation of data sets of enormous volume and complexity called Big Data. Such data cannot be
processed and analysed using traditional data processing tools as the data is not only voluminous, but
also unstructured like our posts, instant messages and chats, photographs that we share through
various sites, our tweets, blog articles, news items, opinion polls and their comments, audio/video
chats, etc.
 Big data not only represents voluminous data, it also involves various challenges like integration,
storage, analysis, searching, processing, transfer, querying and visualisation of such data. Big data
sometimes hold rich information and knowledge which is of high business value, and therefore there is
a keen effort in developing software and methods to process and analyse big data.

Q. Explain Internet of Things ( IoT )?

The term computer network that we commonly use is the network of computers. Such a network consists of a
laptop, desktop, server, or a portable device like tablet, smartphone, smartwatch, etc., connected through wire
or wireless. We can communicate between these devices using Internet or LAN.
The ‘Internet of Things’ is a network of devices that have an embedded hardware and software to
communicate (connect and exchange data) with other devices on the same network as shown in Figure.

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At present, in a typical household, many devices have advanced hardware (microcontrollers) and
software. These devices are used in isolation from each other, with maximum human intervention
needed for operational directions and input data.
 IoT tends to bring together these devices to work in collaboration and assist each other in creating an
intelligent network of things. For example, if a microwave oven, an air conditioner, door lock, CCTV
camera or other such devices are enabled to connect to the Internet, we can access and remotely
control them on-the-go using our smartphone.

Q. What is Cloud Computing?

 Cloud computing is an emerging trend in the field of information technology, where computer-based
services are delivered over the Internet or the cloud, for the case of their accessibility form any where
using any smart device. The services comprise software, hardware (servers), databases, storage, etc.
These resources are provided by companies called cloud service providers and usually charge on pay
per use basis, like the way we pay for electricity usage.
 We already use cloud services while storing our pictures and files as backup on Internet, or host a
website on the Internet. Through cloud computing, a user can run a bigger application or process a
large amount of data without having the required storage or processing power on their personal
computer as long as they are connected to the Internet.

Q. Explain Cloud Services?

There are three standard models to categorise different computing services delivered through cloud as shown
in Figure. These are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service
(SaaS).

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
(A) Infrastructure as a Service
) (IaaS
The IaaS providers
ancoffer different kinds of computing infrastructure, such as servers, virtual
machines (VM), storage and backup facility, network components, operating systems or any other
hardware or software. Using IaaS from the cloud, a user can useastructure
the hardware
located
infr at
a remote location to configure, deploy and execute any software application on that cloud
infrastructure.
They can outsource the hardware and software on demand basis and pay as per the usage, thereby
they can save the cost ofre,
softwa
hardware and other infrastructures as well as the cost of setting up,
maintenance and security. Figure 2.12: Cloud Computing Services


(B) Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 Through this service, a user can install and execute an application without worrying about the
underlying infrastructure and their setup. That is, PaaS provides a platform or environment to develop,
test, and deliver software applications. Suppose we have developed a web application using MySQL and
Python. To run this application online, we can avail a pre-configured Apache server from cloud having
MySQL and Python pre-installed.
 Thus, we are not required to install MySQL and Python on the cloud, nor do we need to configure the
web server (Apache, nginx). In PaaS, the user has complete control over the deployed application and

its configuration. It provides a deployment environment for developers at a much reduced cost
lessening the complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software.

(C) Software as a Service (SaaS)

 SaaS provides on-demand access to application software, usually requiring a licensing or subscription by
the user. While using Google doc, Microsoft Office 365, Drop Box, etc., to edit a document online, we
use SaaS from cloud. A user is not concerned about installation or configuration of the software
application as long as the required software is accessible.
 Like PaaS, a user is provided access to the required configuration settings of the application software,
that they are using at present. In all of the above standard service models, a user can use on-demand
infrastructure or platform or software and is usually charged as per the usage, thereby eliminating the
need of a huge investment upfront for a new or evolving organisation.
 In order to utilise and harness the benefits of cloud computing, Government of India has embarked
upon an ambitious initiative — ‘GI Cloud’ which has been named as ‘MeghRaj’ (https://cloud.gov.in).

Q. Introduction to Cybercrime.
Cybercrime or a computer-oriented crime is a crime that includes a computer and a network. The computer
may have been used in the execution of a crime or it may be the target. Cybercrime is the use of a computer as
a weapon for committing crimes such as committing fraud, identity theft, or breaching privacy. Cybercrime,
especially through the Internet, has grown in importance as the computer has become central to every field
like commerce, entertainment, and government. Cybercrime may endanger a person or a nation’s security and
financial health.
Cybercrime can generally be divided into two categories:

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1. Crimes that aim at computer networks or devices. These types of crimes involve different threats (like virus,
bugs etc.) and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
2. Crimes that use computer networks to commit other criminal activities. These types of crimes include cyber
stalking, financial fraud or identity theft.

Q. What are different types of Cybercrime?

Cyber crime takes many different forms. Criminals who infiltrate computers and networks have developed a
variety of malicious software and social engineering techniques used individually or in combination when use in
committing different types of cyber crime. A few of the most common cyber crimes are described below.

Hacking
Criminal hacking is the act of gaining unauthorized access to data in a computer or network. Exploiting
weaknesses in these systems, hackers steal data ranging from personal information and corporate secrets to
government intelligence. Hackers also infiltrate networks to disrupt operations of companies and governments.

Malware
Malware, or malicious software, refers to any code designed to interfere with a computer's normal functioning
or commit a cyber crime. Common types of malware include viruses, worms, trojans, and various hybrid
programs as well as adware, spyware, and ransomware.

Identity Theft
 According to the FBI, identity theft occurs when someone “unlawfully obtains another individual's
personal information and uses it to commit theft or fraud”. Not all identity thefts are a result of cyber
attacks, but malware such as trojans and spyware are often used to steal personal information.
 A common method for perpetrating identity theft, phishing refers to a method used by cyber criminals
to obtain confidential information using emails or texts. Scammers pose as a trusted source (often a

bank or well-known company) and trick recipients into providing personal information, such as account
passwords and social security numbers.

Social Engineering
Social engineering is the psychological manipulation of people into performing actions or divulging confidential
information. Cyber criminals use social engineering to commit fraud online. Platforms such as online dating
sites provide opportunities to initiate conversations with potential victims. Once the criminal establishes a
relationship with the target and gains their trust, the criminal asks for money or information.

Q. Combatting & Preventing Cybercrime

Anyone using the internet should exercise some basic precautions. Here are some tips you can use to help
protect yourself against the range of cybercrimes out there.
1. Use a full-service internet security suite
It’s a good idea to consider trusted security software like Norton 360 with LifeLock Select, which provides all-
inone protection for your devices, online privacy, and identity, and helps protect your private and financial
information when you go online.

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2. Use strong passwords

Don’t repeat your passwords on different sites, and change your passwords regularly. Make them complex.
That means using a combination of at least 10 letters, numbers, and symbols.

3. Keep your software updated

This is especially important with your operating systems and internet security software. Cybercriminals
frequently use known exploits, or flaws, in your software to gain access to your system

4. Manage your social media settings

Keep your personal and private information locked down. Social engineering cybercriminals can often get your
personal information with just a few data points, so the less you share publicly, the better.

5. Strengthen your home network

It’s a good idea to start with a strong encryption password as well as a virtual private network. A VPN will
encrypt all traffic leaving your devices until it arrives at its destination. If cybercriminals do manage to hack
your communication line, they won’t intercept anything but encrypted data. It’s a good idea to use a VPN
whenever you a public Wi-Fi network, whether it’s in a library, café, hotel, or airport.

6. Talk to your children about the internet

You can teach your kids about acceptable use of the internet without shutting down communication channels.
Make sure they know that they can come to you if they’re experiencing any kind of online harassment, stalking,
or bullying.

7. Keep up to date on major security breaches

If you do business with a merchant or have an account on a website that’s been impacted by a security breach,
find out what information the hackers accessed and change your password immediately.

8. Take measures to help protect yourself against identity theft

Identity theft occurs when someone wrongfully obtains your personal data in a way that involves fraud or
deception, typically for economic gain. How? You might be tricked into giving personal information over the
internet, for instance, or a thief might steal your mail to access account information. That’s why it’s important
to guard your personal data.

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9. Know that identity theft can happen anywhere

It’s smart to know how to protect your identity even when traveling. There are a lot of things you can do to
help keep criminals from getting your private information on the road. These include keeping your travel plans
off social media and being using a VPN when accessing the internet over your hotel’s Wi-Fi network.

10. Know what to do if you become a victim

If you believe that you’ve become a victim of a cybercrime, you need to alert the local police and, in some
cases, the Federal Trade Commission. This is important even if the crime seems minor. Your report may assist
authorities in their investigations or may help to thwart criminals from taking advantage of other people in the
future. If you think cybercriminals have stolen your identity. These are among the steps you should consider.
 Contact the companies and banks where you know fraud occurred.
 Place fraud alerts and get your credit reports.
 Report identity theft to the FTC.

Q. Explain The IT Act, 2000?

The Information Technology Act, 2000 also Known as an IT Act is an act proposed by the Indian Parliament
reported on 17th October 2000. It is the most important law in India dealing with Cybercrime and E-Commerce.
The main objective of this act is to carry lawful and trustworthy electronic, digital and online transactions and
alleviate or reduce cybercrimes. The IT Act has 13 chapters and 90 sections. The last four sections that starts
from ‘section 91 – section 94’, deals with the revisions to the Indian Penal Code 1860.

Q. Explain The IT Act, 2000 has two schedules:

 First Schedule –Deals with documents to which the Act shall not apply.
 Second Schedule –Deals with electronic signature or electronic authentication method.

The offences and the punishments in IT Act 2000 :

The offences and the punishments that falls under the IT Act, 2000 are as 1.
Tampering with the computer source documents.
2. Directions of Controller to a subscriber to extend facilities to decrypt information.
3. Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form.
4. Penalty for breach of confidentiality and privacy.
5. Hacking for malicious purposes.
6. Penalty for publishing Digital Signature Certificate false in certain particulars.
7. Penalty for misrepresentation.
8. Confiscation.
9. Power to investigate offences.
10. Protected System.
11. Penalties for confiscation not to interfere with other punishments.
12. Act to apply for offence or contravention committed outside India.
13. Publication for fraud purposes.
14. Power of Controller to give directions.

Q. Explain Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)?

 The term “Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)” is used to refer to the bundle of rights conferred by law on
a creator/owner of intellectual property.
 These are the rights that a person has over the creations of his mind. They seek to protect the interests
of the creators by rewarding their mental labour and allowing them to retain property rights over their

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creations. The creators and inventors are thus allowed to benefit from their creations. IP rights are the
legal rights governing the use of intellectual property.
Q. Define Copyright?
The term ‘copyright’ concerns the rights of the creators/authors of literary and artistic works. A copyright is also
called a ‘literary right’ or ‘author’s right’. Copyright gives an author exclusive rights to his creation and prevents
the copying and unauthorised publishing of his work. Copyright protection begins at the very moment a work is
created and expressed in some tangible form. Copyright protection is granted to a work that is an original
creation.
Copyright protects the following two rights of the author:
1. Economic rights i.e., the right of the owner to derive financial benefit from the use of their works by
others. For instance, the right to prohibit or authorise reproduction of the work in various forms,
the right to prohibit unauthorised translation of the work, etc.
2. Moral rights i.e., protection of non-economic interests of the author. For instance, the right to
oppose changes to work and the right to claim authorship, etc.

Q. Define Patents?
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention or innovation, which might be a product, a method or a
process, that introduces a novel way of doing something or offers a new technical solution to a problem. In
other words, it is a right of monopoly granted to a person who has invented:
1. a new and useful article, or
2. improvement of an existing article, or
3. a new process of making an article.
A patent is granted for inventions having industrial and commercial value. It is the exclusive right to
manufacture the new article/manufacture the article with the invented process for a limited period of time
(usually 20 years from the filing date of the application) in exchange for disclosure of the invention. A patent
owner can sell his patent or grant licence to others to exploit the same.

Q. What are Trademarks and Service marks?

A trademark is a symbol that is used to distinguish the goods of one enterprise from its competitors. A
trademark may consist of a single letter, logo, symbol, design, or numerals and three-dimensional features
such as shape and packaging, etc. Section 2(zb) of the Trademarks Act, 1999 defines “trademark” as a mark
capable of graphical representation and which can be used to distinguish the goods or services of one person
from those of others. A trademark may include the shape of goods, their packaging, and a combination of
colours. Hence, distinctiveness is the hallmark of a trademark.
Trademarks used in connection with services such as tourism, banking, etc., are called Service Marks.
The owner has the exclusive right to the use of a registered trademark. There are 45 classes of trademarks,
consisting of 34 classes of products and 11 classes for services.

Q. Explain The negative effects of technology on health

Digital eye strain
When we gaze at a screen for long periods of time, we often forget to blink. In fact, research has shown that
digital eye strain reduces our blink rate by half, which means the tears that protect our eyes evaporate without
being replaced. Additionally, reading the smaller fonts on a smartphone or other portable device can intensify
the strain. As a result, nearly 60 percent of US adults report symptoms of digital eye strain, which include dry
eyes, headaches, blurred vision, burning, itching, difficulty focusing and pain in the neck or shoulders.

Sleep disorders
 We love our devices so much that many of us even sleep with them. One study found that 71 percent of
smartphone owners keep their phone next to their bed at night to ensure they don’t miss a thing.

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Another study found that over 40 percent of bedside smartphone users wakeup from noises or lighting
from notifications coming from their device.
 National Sleep Foundation and Swedish researchers discovered a link between heavy cell phone use
and increased sleep disorders in both men and women.

Physical inactivity
 When we’re using technology like computers, video games or TVs, we generally aren’t exercising. That’s
why there’s an increasing body of research linking the overuse of digital devices to decreasing exercise
and fitness levels.
 Logically, spending more time on the couch and watching TV or playing video games reduces the time
you spend staying active. However, the link between obesity and gaming is marginally associated to
weight gain in adults

Mental Health
 More than three billion people interact with each other over social media every day. While many of our
exchanges are generally harmless, overusing these services can impact our well-being. Social media
addiction is linked to a rise in mental health disorders like depression suicidal ideation, particularly in
teenagers.
 Researchers made that correlation by highlighting how platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter
place higher social pressures on young people and adults that can lead to instances of cyberbullying,
increased need for approval, and general feelings of discontent.

Q. Explain The Positive Impact of Technology on Health?

Decreasing the risk of injury
One of the main advantages of technology is that it can help us stay healthy and safe. For example, technology
can help us work longer hours without risking injury. There are now many devices and apps that can help us
stay healthy and safe, such as fitness trackers, safety alarms, and health monitors. Technology can also help us
save time on our errands, such as grocery shopping and banking.

Increased social connection with online support groups

With technology, it’s easier than ever to connect with others who share our interests and concerns. There are
now many online support groups available for people of all ages and backgrounds. These groups can provide
emotional support, information, and friendship. And because they are online, they are available 24/7, which is
great for people who have busy schedules or live in remote areas.

Virtual coaching such as fitness tutorials

There are now many virtual coaching options available for people who want to get in shape. These options
include fitness tutorials, nutrition advice, and emotional support. Virtual coaching can be accessed from any
device, such as a computer, tablet, or phone, and is perfect for people who have busy lives or live in remote
areas. It is also a great option for people who have a hard time making it to the gym or going outdoors.

Personal fitness trackers and alarms

 Another advantage of technology is that it helps us monitor our health and wellness, such as weight,
sleep patterns, and physical activity. In fact, there are now several wearable devices designed to help
track certain aspects of our health, including fitness trackers and safety alarms.
 This data can be recorded on the devices themselves or downloaded to a computer or phone,
depending on what it is being collected for.

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Technological innovations improve medical procedures

 One of the most profound ways that technology has improved health is through medical procedures.
Thanks to technological advances, we are now able to perform surgeries and other medical procedures
with greater accuracy and precision.
 3D printing has even been used in dentistry, as it can create dental implants, braces and other dental
appliances with incredible accuracy. In addition, medical technologies such as MRIs and CT scans have
helped us to better understand and diagnose diseases.

Wireless technology can help improve communication in hospitals

 Wireless technology can help improve communication in hospitals by allowing doctors, nurses, and
other healthcare professionals to access information from any location. In addition, wireless technology
can help speed up the process of sharing information between different departments.
 This is especially important in hospitals where there is a high volume of patients and staff. And finally,
wireless technology can help reduce the amount of paperwork that needs to be filed.

Technology makes it easier for people to find healthcare professionals

 There are now many online directories of healthcare professionals, such as doctors, dentists, and
therapists. In addition, many hospitals and clinics have their own websites where people can learn
about the services they offer.
 And finally, many healthcare providers are using social media to connect with patients. This allows
patients to ask questions and learn more about their health from the comfort of their homes.

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